•  Jt  UECBOliE 


A  Dictionary 
of  the  Bible 

By  JOHN    D.   DAVIS,  Ph.D.,  D.D.,  LL.D. 

Profciior  of  Oi  ieittal  and  Old  Testament  Liieratut  e 
in    the    Theological   Seminary  at  Ptinceton,  N.  J. 


MANY     NEW     AND     OKKHNAL 

MAPS    AND     PLANS 


AMPLY    ILLUSTR  ATKB 


Second    Edition    Revised 


i'   h    i   i,  a   i)   e   i.   p   h    i  a 
'I'hk   Wkstminstkr    I'rks.s 

I  9  o  >! 


Copyright,   1898,   1903,  by  The  Tnistoos  of 

The   Presbyterian  Board  of  Publication  and  Saljballi- 

School  Work. 

Eiffhth    Thousand. 


Second  Edition,  Published  yanuary,  rgoj. 


PREFACE. 


This  Dictionary  covers  the  canonical  books  of  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ments, in  both  the  Authorized  and  Revised  Versions,  together  with  the  First 
Book  of  the  Maccabees  in  the  Revised  Version.  The  Cambridge  edition  of 
1857,  minion  24mo,  has  been  the  standard  of  reference  for  the  canonical 
])Ooks  of  the  Authorized  Version.  The  inclusion  of  one  book  of  the  Apoc- 
rypha, and  only  one,  was  determined  by  its  unifjue  intrinsic  worth,  the  First 
Book  of  the  Maccabees  being  conspicuous  among  the  apocryphal  writings  for 
its  value  to  the  historian  and  the  biblical  student  as  throwing  much  light  upon 
an  important  period  of  Jewish  history  between  the  death  of  Kzra  and  Nehe- 
miah  at  the  close  of  the  Old  'iestament  dispensation  and  the  birth  of  Christ, 
which  inaugurated  a  new  order  of  things.  The  other  books  of  the  Apocrypha 
have  by  no  means  been  neglected  :  they  have  been  laid  under  constant  con- 
tribution, and  their  available  material  has  been  employed  ;  but  it  was  not 
deemed  desirable  to  devote  an  article  to  every  proper  name,  or  to  register 
every  divergent  spelling,  which  occurs  in  these  writings.  To  have  done  so 
would  have  encumbered  the  pages  with  material  of  slight  value  at  most,  ami 
of  no  use  to  the  student  of  the  Bible. 

The  book  aims  to  be  a  dictionary  of  the  Bible,  not  of  speculation  about 
the  Bible.  It  seeks  to  furnish  a  thorough  ac(]uaintance  with  things  biblical. 
To  this  end  it  has  been  made  a  compendium  of  the  facts  stated  in  the  Scrip- 
tures, and  of  explanatory  and  supplementary  material  drawn  from  the  records 
of  the  ancient  peoples  contemporary  with  Israel  ;  it  has  been  adequately  fur- 
nished with  authoritative  illustrations,  not  pictures  drawn  from  the  imagina- 
tion, but  actual  delineations  of  the  very  things  themselves;  and  it  has  been 
fully  e(|uipped  with  accurate  niajjs.  all  recent,  and  most  of  them  drawn  spe- 
cially for  this  work  from  the  latest  authorities.  The  interpretation  of  Scrip- 
ture which  is  frefpiently  involved  in  the  statement  of  the  facts  will,  it  is 
believed,   be   found  to  be  sober,   fair,   ami  just. 

i'lie  variations  in  the  orthography  of  Scripture  |)ro|M?r  names  have  In-en 
noted   in   the   respective   articles.      Neither   the  Authorized   Version    M't   '»>•• 


iv  PREFACE. 

Revised  Version  is  thoroughly  consistent.  \\  hen  several  methods  of  spelling 
the  same  name  exist,  the  ( hoic;e  will  depend  upon  individual  taste.  The 
writer  may  perchance  prefer  one  orthography,  the  reader  another.  There 
may  also  be  circumstances  which  make  a  rare  spelling  preferable  in  particular 
cases,  'i'he  reader  may  rest  a.ssured  that  no  form  has  been  admitted  to  the 
pages  of  the  Dictionary  which  is  not  suj)ported  by  authority.  What  that 
authority   is  may   be  seen   by   turning   to   the   proper  article. 

The  pronunciation  of  anglicized  Scrijjture  proper  names  is  still  in  a 
chaotic  state.  In  the  majority  of  names  the  syllabification  and  accentuation 
have  never  been  settled.  Even  the  systems  of  pronunciation  most  in  vogue 
are  unnecessarily  inconsistent.  A  chief  reason  for  this  is  that  the  pronuncia- 
tion has  been  so  largely  based  on  the  forms  which  the  Greek  and  Latin  trans- 
lators gave  to  the  Hebrew  names.  These  translators  did  not  transliterate  the 
names  in  accordance  with  any  fixed  rule  ;  and,  as  a  result,  names  of  similar 
formation  and  pronunciation  in  Hebrew  appear  in  different  forms  in  the 
Greek  and  Latin  ;  and  often,  when  quite  similar  in  appearance  in  English, 
retain  the  divergent  Greek  or  Latin  pronunciation.  In  many  cases  this  is 
intolerable.  The  present  work  follows  in  the  main  the  system  of  Webster  in 
the  division  into  syllables  and  the  position  of  the  accent.  The  departures  are 
confined  almost  exclusively  to  certain  classes  of  words.  The  pronunciation 
adopted  is  always  supported  by  good  authority,  and  is  in  the  interest  of  con- 
sistency. When  once  the  syllables  and  the  accent  of  the  anglicized  biblical 
name  have  been  determined,  its  correct  pronunciation  in  the  mouth  of  every 
person  of  true  English  instinct  follows  as  a  matter  of  course.  The  letters  are 
sounded  as  they  would  be  under  similar  circumstances  in  an  ordinary  English 
word.  The  exceptions  are  that  the  g  is  soft  in  only  one  name,  Bethphage 
(pronounced  Ikth'pha-je),  and  ch  is  always  hard  and  sounded  like  k,  except  in 
Rachel  and  cherub.  The  latter  word  is  scarcely  an  exception,  for  it  is  not  a 
proper  name.  The  proper  name  Cherub,  a  place  in  Babylonia,  is  pronounced 
according  to  rule  (Ke'rub). 

The  meaning  of  proper  names  has  been  given  whenever  it  is  known.  The 
cases  are  many  where  it  has  been  necessarily  omitted  or  stated  cautiously. 
Even  where  there  is  no  note  of  caution,  the  reader  must  be  on  his  guard  ;  for 
although  the  general  signification  of  the  name  may  be  perfectly  clear,  the 
shade  of  meaning  which  lent  the  name  flavor  among  those  who  bestowed  it 
may  elude  discovery.  Judah  means  an  object  of  praise;  but  it  might  be  an 
expression  either  of  thankfulness  on  the  part  of  the  parents  to  God,  or  satis- 


PREFACE.  V 

faction  in  the  child  ;  either  God  or  the  child  might  be  thought  of  as  praise- 
worthy. Jehovah-jireh  means  Jehovah  doth  see  ;  but  the  special  sense  may 
be,  Jehovah  doth  provide. 

In  regard  to  the  modern  names  of  places  in  Palestine,  the  orthography  of 
the  Palestine  Exploration  Fund  has  been  adopted,  e.\cei)t  that  the  elevated 
comma  is  emj)loyed  to  represent  the  Arabic  consonant  alif,  and  the  inverted 
comma  to  represent  the  guttural  ain  ;  compare  Ai.j'HAUKr.  This  is  the  rule  ; 
but  occasionally,  for  special  reasons,  the  etymology  is  more  fully  indicated  by 
the  diacritical  points  conventionally  used  by  Semitists.  These  points  will 
cause  no  inconvenience  to  the  uninitiated,  and  will  utter  their  own  voice 
to  the  philologist. 

Persons  are  genealogically  described  as  far  as  possible  according  to  the 
method  of  registration  which  was  employed  by  the  Hebrews,  namely,  by  the 
tribe,  family,  and  father's  house.  This  is  a  minor  feature,  but  it  is  a  novel 
one,  and  it  adds  materially  to  the  proper  identification  of  personages  and  to  a 
correct  understanding  of  the  genealogies. 

In  the  preparation  of  the  Dictionary  the  author  has  had  the  cooperation  of 

his  colleagues  the  Reverend  Professors  Benjamin  Breckinridge  WarfieUl,  I).  I)., 

LL.  D.,  and  George  Tybout  Purves,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.,  who  have  furnished  the 

articles   pertaining  to  New  Testament    introduction   and  .several    others   on 

important  related  subjects.     To  each  of  these  articles  the  initials  of  its  author 

are  appended. 

J.  I).  1). 

Au'iusT  17,  1898. 


PREFACE   TO   THE   SECOND   REVISED    I:DITI()X. 


On    the   occasion    of    passinij     the    Dictionary    a    second    time    over    the 

press,  advantage  has  been  taken  of  the  opportunity  to  issue  a  new  edition 

of  the  work,  improved  in  tyi^graphy  and  chronicling  arch;vologiral  advance. 

The  mai)s  have  been  inc  reased  in  number,  and  those   in  colors   have  been 

gathered  together  at  the  end  of  the  volume. 

J.    D.    D. 

January  11,  1903. 


MAPS. 


The  Babylonian  and  Assyrian  Powers 

'^  Lands  of  the  Sojourn  and  ^^'A^DERING 

Palestine,  as  Divided  Among  the  Twelve  Tribes 

*  The  Dominions  of  David  and  Solomon 

*  The  Kin(;d()ms  of  Judah  and  Israel 

Palestine  in  the  Time  of  Christ 

Hn.L  Country  of  Eastern  Jud.ea  and  Benjamin 

Lower  Galilee  and   the  Plain  of  Esdraelon 

The   Shephelah    or    Low   Country,   Pihlistia,  and    ihe   Plain 

OF  Sharon    

Palestine  and  Adjacent  Countries,  L.lustratino  Maccar.ean 

AND  Early  Apostolic  History 

The  \\'()Rld  as  Known  in  the  Apostolic  Acje 

*  Paul's  First  and  Second  Missionary  Journey.-- 

*  Paul's  Third  Missionary  Journey  and  Journey  Tt)  Rome    . 

Nineveh,    the  Great  City 

Arabia 

Mount  Sinai 

P>.YPT  AND  Peninsula  of  Sinai 

The  South  Country,  Edom  and  Mom: 

Jerusalem      

Sea  of  Galilee 

Region  of  the  Decapolis 

^  Tliese  arc  new  maps. 


Appendix 


pay 


44 
690 

S 


A  DICTIONARY 


THE  BIBLE. 


Aa'ron  [etymology  doubtful.  The  name 
]iiis>ilily  iiu'ims  brifiht.  s]iiiiiiij;]. 

The  brollicr  of  Mosi's  and  liis  senior  by 
tliiue  years  (E.k.  vii.  7).  He  was  a  descend- 
ant of  Levi  tlironjjh  Kohatli  and  Amram 
(Ex.  vi.  14-27).  As  wo  do  not  read  of  perils 
attcndinj;  bis  infancy,  it  may  lu-  inferred  tliat 
be  was  txirn  before  the  i)r(jmuljiation  of  the 
nefarious  Ejj;y])tiau  edicts  dooming  the  He- 
brew male  cliildren  to  death.  He  was 
>-ouni;er  than  bis  sister  Miriam  (q.  v.).  He 
mari'ied  Elisbeba,  dauulitcr  of  Amniinadab 
and  sister  of  NabsUon,  of  the  tril)e  of  Jiidab, 
who  bore  him  four  sons,  Nadab,  Abihu,  Elea- 
zar,  and  Itbaniar  ( Ex.  vi.  23;  Num.  iii.  2). 
When  Moses  at  Hr)reb  was  called  to  stand 
forth  as  the  deliveriT  of  his  oiqiressed  coun- 
trymen, and,  wishing  to  escajie  the  mission, 
complained  that  he  was  "slow  of  speech,  and 
of  a  slow  tonjrue,"  God  rejielled  the  objec- 
tion, and  .said,  "Is  not  Aaron  the  Levite  thy 
l)rother?  I  know  tiiat  he  can  sjx'ak  well." 
Aaron  was  forthwith  instructed  to  go  out 
and  meet  Moses  in  the  wilderness.  He  did 
so.  The  brothers  met  and  embraced  each 
other  (E.x.  iv.  lO-KJ,  27).  Returniufi  to  Egyj)!, 
they  gathered  together  the  elders  of  Israel 
and  intimated  to  them  tlie  aiijiroacliing  de- 
liverance (2f(-l51 ).  The  wonder-working  rod 
of  Moses  was,  ai)parently  with  the  divine 
sanction,  transferred  to  Aaron,  and  is  lienec- 
forth  usually  known  as  Aaron's  rod  (Ex.  iv, 
17  :  vii.  It,  19 1.  Acts  of  smiting  with  this  rod 
lircHight  on  in  succession  the  ten  Egyi)lian 
I)lagues  (vii.  17,  19,  20;  viii.  ."i.  etc.).  At  the 
Ked  Sea,  Moses  was  directed  to  lift  up  the  rod 
(this  time  called  his)  and  the  waters  would 
lie  divided  (xiv.  l(i).  Aaron  and  Hiir  sup- 
jiorted  .Mdses'  arms  during  the  battle  with 
Amaiek  i  xvii.  12).  Aaron  and  two  of  bis 
sons,  Nadab  and  Abihu,  and  seventy  of  the 
ciders  were  jiermitted  to  accomimny  Moses 
into  the  mount  before  be  received  the  tables 
of  the  law,  and  to  behold  theiJod  of  Israel 
(Ex.  xxiv.  1.  9,  10).  During  the  prolonged 
stay  of  Mo.sesin  the  nn)unt,  the  people  beiame 
im])aticnt  at  the  abseme  of  their  leailer  an<l 
tinned  to  .\aroii  with  the  demand  that  In- 
make  tliem  gods  to  go  lii-fori'  them.  Aanm 
weakly  yielded  and  made  the  goblen  calf 
(Ex.  xxxii.).   According  to  instructions  which 


Mo.ses  received,  Aaron  and  his  sons  were  to 
till  the  othce  of  juiest.  Accordingly,  after 
the  tabernacle  had  been  comjileted,  and  was 
ready  for  actual  services  to  begin,  Aaron  and 
his  four  sons  were  solemnly  consecrated  to 
the  j)riesthood  by  being  anointed  with  oil  and 
clothed  in  siilendid  tyi>ical  ollicial  vestments 
(Ex,  x.xviii.;  xl.  lo-Hi;  Lev.  viii.  i.  Aaron 
was  thus  the  tii-st  high  i)riest,  an  otiiee  which 
he  filled  for  nearly  forty  years.  Shortly  after 
leaving  Sinai,  he  ,joine<l  with  Miriam  in  tiud- 
ing  fault  with  Moses  for  having  married  a 
C'ushite  woman  (Num.  xii.  l-ltJ).  The  re- 
bellion of  Korjih  was  directeil  as  much 
against  the  exclusive  jiriesthood  of  Aaron 
and  his  sons  as  against  the  civil  autimrity 
of  Moses.  The  divine  aiijiointment  of  Mo.ses 
and  Aaron  to  tlieir  respective  othces  was  at- 
tested by  the  destruction  of  the  reljcls;  and 
Aaron's  right  to  the  prii'sthood  was  further 
and  s])ecially  vindicated  by  the  buddingof  his 
rod  (Num.  xvi.  and  xvii.).  Toward  the  close 
of  the  Journey  in  the  wilderness,  when  tiie 
j)eople  were  encamjied  for  the  seconil  time  at 
Kadesh,  Aaron  anil  .Moses  dishonored  (iod 
by  their  conduct  when  they  smote  the  rock. 
For  this  sin  they  were  denied  the  (irivilege 
of  entering  the  ])romised  land.  .*^oon  aller- 
wards  by  divine  direction  Aaron  was  led  by 
Moses  up  mount  llm-  and  strippc-d  of  his 
siered  vestments,  which  were  tntnsferred  to 
liis  son  Eleazsir.  There  he  dietl.  at  the  age 
of  one  hiMwlred  and  twenty-three  yiars.  The 
natiou  jiublicly  mourned  for  him  tliirty  days 
(Num.  XX.,  xxxiii.  ,i7-:{9,  an<l  see  I'kiksti. 

Aa'ron-ites,  in  the  Heltrew  t«'Xt  simply 
Aaron.  liie  name  being  u.-^ed  collectively. 

Tlu'i)riestly  descendants  of  Aaron  (1  (hron. 
xii,  27:  xxvii.  17.  A.  V... 

A-bad'don  fdestrmtion,  ruin]. 

1.  I>e>iruetion,  ruin  i,b>l>  xxxi,  121;  the 
jilace  of  the  dead,  synonymous  with  the 
grave  (I's.  Ixxxviii.  11).  Sheol  (.lob.  xxvi.  H; 
Prov.  XV.  11.  li.  v.),  and  death  (.lob  xxviii. 
22). 

2.  A  name  of  tin-  angel  of  (ho  nhys-s.  who 
is  called  in  tJreek  .\pollyon  ( Kov,  ix.  11). 

A-bag'tha  [Persian  name]. 
(  ine  of  the  sevi'u  chamberlains  <if  the  Per- 
>\:iu  king  .Vhasuerus  lEsth.  i.  10  . 

1 


Abanah 


Abel-beth-maacah 


At)'a-na±i,  R.  V.,  in  A.  V.  Abana;  in  mar- 
gin of  R.  Y.  Anumali  (q.  v.),  <>f  A.  V.  Aniana 
[Tlie  name  prohalily  moans  stony]. 

One  of  tlic  two  riviTS  of  Damascus;  iire- 
sumal)ly  tlie  more  imixirtant,  for  Xaanian, 
of  that  city,  mentions  it  tirst  (2  Kin.  v.  I'J). 
It  is  jirohably  tlic  Harada.  tlic  C'lirysorrhoas 
of  cla.ssical  writers,  wliicli  rises  in  a  larfie  l)luo. 
pool  of  iinfatliomalile  {l(]itii  on  the  liij;li  jihiin 
south  of  Zcliedaiiy  on  Anli-i A'l)anon,  twenty- 
tiiri'e  miles  from  Uamascns,  ruslu'sin  a  soutli- 
easterly  course  (h)wn  the  mountain,  and  tlien, 
turning  eastward,  runs  alonj;  the  north  wall 
of  tlie  city,  to  he  lost  finally  in  an  inland 
lake,  the  middle  one  of  three  existing-  It 
flows  sluggishly  through  the  plain,  but  on 
its  pas.sage  through  Damascus  it  has  a  rapid 
course.  Not  less  than  nine  or  ten  branches 
are  taken  from  it,  yet  to  the  end  it  continues 
both  det'p  and  broad.  It  is  the  chief  cause  of 
the  beauty  and  fertility  of  the  plain  of  Da- 
mascus. One  of  its  tributaries,  Nabr  Abanias, 
still  preserves  the  memory  of  its  old  name. 

Ab'a-rim  [those  beyond]. 

A  mountain  range  on  the  east  side  of  Jor- 
dan, slojnng  abruptly  from  the  plateau  of 
Moah  to  the  Dead  Sea  and  the  Jordan  valley. 
On  it  was  a  station  of  the  Israelites  just  be- 
fore they  reached  the  low  plains  of  Moab, 
opposite  Jericho  (Num.  xxxiii.  47,  48).  It 
was  from  mount  A1)arim  and  the  peak  of  it 
called  Nebo  that  Moses  was  directed  to  look 
across  at  the  i)roniised  laud  (Num.  xxvii.  12; 
Dent,  xxxii.  49  ;  xxxiv.  1).  In  the  R.  V.  Aba- 
rim  is  mentioned  in  Jer.  xxii.  20,  with  Leba- 
non and  Bashan  ;  in  the  A.  V.  it  is  rendered 
"pas.sages." 

Ab'ba  [Aramaic,  father]. 

A  term  borrowed  from  childhood's  language 
to  express  filial  address  to  (Tod  (]\Iark  xiv.  '.id  ; 
Eora.  viii.  15  ;  Gal.  iv.  6).  The  corresponding 
Hebrew  word  is  Ab ;  it  is  common  in  com- 
pound i)roper  names  in  the  forms  Ab  and 
Abi,  as  Abimelech,  Abner  or  Abiner,  Eliab. 

Ab'da  [Aramaic,  servant,  probably  mean- 
•  ing  servant  of  God]. 

1.  The  fVither  of  Adimiram  (1  Kin.  iv.  6). 

2.  A  Levite,  the  son  of  Shammua  (Neh. 
xi.  17). 

Ab'de-el  [.servant  of  God]. 
The  father  of  Shelemiah  (Jer.  xxxvi.  26). 
Ab'di  [servant  of,  a  contraction  of  servant 
of  God]. 

1.  A  Levite  of  the  family  of  Merari.  He 
was  the  son  of  Malluch,  and  father  of  Kishi 
(1  Chron.  vi.  44).  The  Abdi  of  2  Chron.  xxix. 
12  seems  to  be  the  same  man. 

2.  Son  of  a  certain  Elam  (Ezra  x.  2(5). 
Ab'dl-el  [servant  of  God]. 

A  Gadite,  resident  in  Gilead  (1  Chron.  v.  1.5). 

Ab'don  [servile]. 

1.  The  son  of  Hillel,  a  native  of  Pirathon, 
in  the  tribe  of  Ephraim.  He  judged  Israel, 
or  a  portion  of  it,  eight  years,  and  is  the  elev- 
enth judge  in  the  order  of  enumeration.    He 


had  forty  scms  and  thirty  sons' sons,  who  rode 
on  as  many  ass-colt.s — a  sign  of  rank  in  days 
when  the  Hebrews  did  not  yet  liavc  hor.ses. 
He  was  buried  in  his  native  place  (Judg.  xii. 
13-1.-)). 

2.  Head  of  a  father's  house  of  Benjamin,  a 
son  of  Shashak,  dwelling  in  Jerusalem  (1 
Cliron.  viii.  2.'{,  2fi,  2.SI. 

■i.  A  Beiijamite,  the  firstborn  of  Jehicl  of 
(libeon  and  an  ancestor  (tf  king  Saul  (1  Chron. 
viii.  30  ;  ix.  35,  3tj).    See  KisH  2. 

4.  An  official  of  king  Josiah  (2  Chron. 
xxxiv.  20);  see  Aciibor. 

5.  A  town  in  the  territory  of  Asher,  given, 
with  its  suburbs,  to  the  Levites  of  the  Ger- 
shon  family  (Josh.  xxi.  ;{();  1  Chmn.  vi.  74). 
Al)don  is  jierhaiis  identical  with  thi'  ruins  of 
'Abdeh.  ten  miles  north  of  Acre. 

A-bed'ne-go  [servant  of  Nego,  probably 
the  same  as  Nebo]. 

The  name  given  l)y  the  ]irince  of  the  eu- 
nuchs at  Babylon  to  Azarijih,  one  of  the  three 
fiiithful  Jews,  afterwards  miraculously  saved 
from  the  fiery  furnace  (Dan.  i.  7;  iii.  12-30; 
1  Mac.  ii.  .59). 

A'bel,  I.  [breath,  vapor ;  apjilied  to  Abel 
apjiarently  from  the  shortness  of  his  life;  or 
perhaps  the  name  means  son]. 

A  younger  son  of  Adam,  and  by  calling  a 
shepherd.  Abel  was  a  righteous  man  (Mat. 
xxiii.  35;  1  John  iii.  12) ;  one  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament worthies  whose  conduct  was  con- 
trolled by  faith  (Heb.  xi.  4).  He  otfered  to 
God  a  lamb  from  his  flock,  which  was  ac- 
cepted. It  was  not  the  kind  of  otlering,  but 
the  character  of  the  offerer  that  God  re- 
spected. As  brought  by  Abel,  the  offering 
showed  the  surrender  of  the  heart  to  (4od. 
The  offering  of  the  best  further  revealed  the 
.sense  of  obligation  and  gratitude  to  God  as 
the  sole  bestower  of  the  good,  to  whom  all 
thanks  were  due.  It  expressed  the  conscious- 
ness in  the  offerer  of  entire  dependence  u])on 
God  for  daily  blessing  and  the  desire  for 
the  continuance  of  ({od's  favor.  In  one  in 
whom  the  sense  of  sin  was  deep,  it  set  forth 
the  entire  dependence  of  the  sinner  upon 
God's  nnnicrited  mercy.  Cain's  cliaracter  M'as 
dillerent  from  Abel's;  and  being  rejected  he 
at  the  ]ironi])tings  of  envy  slew  Abel  (Gen.  iv). 
The  ultimate  ground  of  Abel's  acceptance  by 
God  was  the  atoning  blood  of  Christ. 

A'bel,  II.  [a  grassy  i)lace,  a  meadow]. 

1.  The  same  as  Abel-beth-maachah  (2  Sam. 
XX.  14,  15,  lis). 

2.  In  1  Sam.  vi.  18  it  is  apparently  an  er- 
roneous reading  for  'Ebcn,  stone ;  see  E.  V. 

A'bel-beth-ma'a-cali  and  Abel  of  Beth- 
maacah,  in  A.  V.  writt<>n  Maachah  [Abel. 
/.  c.  Meadow   near   Both-maacah]. 

A  fortified  town  in  the  tribe  of  Naj)htali 
(1  Kin.  XV.  20;  2  Kin.  xv.  29).  It  was  re- 
m)wned  for  wisdom  (2  Sam.  xx.  18).  During 
Sheba's  revolt  Joab  was  about  to  a.ssault  it, 
but  "a  wise  woman "  flung  the  rebel's  head 
over  the  wall,  and  saved  tlie  town  (14-22). 


Abel-cheramim 


Abiel 


It  was  one  of  the  i)l;ic'Os  (•iii>tnrcd  by  Ben-ha- 
(laii  at  the  instance  of  Asa  (1  Kin.  xv.  20). 
Ti•,'iatll-l)iie^;e^  II.  took  it  witli  oilier  Najili- 
talite  towns,  earrving  the  inhabitants  cajjtive 
to  Assyria  (2  Kin.  xv.  29).  Its  site  was 
]inibal>ly  at  Abil  el-Kanih,  a  small  Christian 
villa;;e  on  a  risinji  •.Motind  west  of  the.lor- 
dan,  about  twelve  miles  north  of  lake  llnleii 
and  almost  directly  oi)iiosito  Dan.  The  Der- 
dara  Hows  swiftly  aloiij;  at  the  bottom  of  the 
■western  side  of  the  mound  on  which  the  vil- 
hlfje  stands,  and  the  country  on  every  side  is 
well  watered  and  very  fertile.  In  riChron. 
xvi.  4,  it  is  called  Al)el-niaim,  Abel  by  the 
water. 

A'bel-cher'a-mlm  [meadow  of  vineyards]. 

A  jilace  east  of  tlie  .Jordan  to  which  .Fe])!!- 
tliah  pursued  the  Ammonites  (Judg.  xi.  33, 
K.  v.). 

A'bel-ma'im.     See  Arel-kktii-ma.vcaii. 

A'bel-me-ho'lah  (meadow  of  dancing;]. 

A  town,  aiiparently  in  tlie  Jordan  valley, 
where  Elisha  was  born  (.ludfj.  vii.  22;  1  Kin. 
iv.  12:  xix.  Ifi).  It  was  fixed  by  Jerome  ten 
Roman  miles  south  of  Scytho])olis,  the  Scrip- 
ture liethshean.  Couder  places  it  at  'Aiu 
H.lweh. 

A'bel-miz-ra'im.    See  Atao. 

A'bel-sMt'tim  [meadow  of  acacias].     See 

SlIITlI.M. 

A'bez,  in  II.  V.  Ebez  |  whiteness,  tin]. 
.\   town  of  Issachar   (Josh.  xix.  20).     Not 
identified. 
A'bi.     See  Abi.iah  6. 
A-bi'a.     See  Abijah. 

A-bi 'ah  I  Jehovah  is  a  father].  The  Hebrew 
name  is  usually  renilered  Abijah  in  the  Kng- 
lisii  version. 

The  wife  of  Ile/.ron.  a  man  of  the  tribe  of 
.ludah  (1  (hron.  ii.  24).  For  others  whose 
name  ajijiears  in  A.  V.  as  Abiah,  see  Abijah. 

A-bi-al'bon  [father  of  strength]. 

One  of  David's  mighty  men  (2  Sam.  xxiii. 
31).  Thi'Se])tuagint  supportsthe  reading .\l)iel 
in  this  i)assage,  which  is  the  name  he  l)ears  in 
1  (hron.  xi.  32. 

A-bl'a-saph,  or  Eblasapb  [father  of  gath- 
ering,', periiaps  in  the  sense  of  removing  re- 
proach]. 

A  descendant  of  Levi  through  Korah  (Ex. 
vi.  H;,  IH,  21,  24  ;  1  Chroii.  vi.  23  ;  ix.  19). 

A-bi'a-thar  [father  of  abundance]. 

A  priest,  the  son  of  .Miinudech,  of  liie  line 
of  Eli.  On  the  slaughter  l)y  Doeg  at  the  in- 
stance of  king  Saul  of  the  ]M-iests  at  \ob, 
Abiathar  escaped,  carrying  the  epliod  with 
him  :  and,  as  was  natural,  cast  in  his  lot  with 
D.ivid  (1  Sam.  xxii.  20-23).  When  David  at 
length  ascended  the  throne.  Zadok  an<l  .\bia- 
thar  apparently  shared  tlie  liigh-priest  iiooil 
between  tliem  (cp.  1  C'hron.  .\v.  11,  12:  2  .'^am. 
XV.  24  sei|. ;  xv.  3."),  etc.).  The  mention  of 
Ahimolech,  son  of  Abiathar,  as  j)riest  with 


Zadok  in  2  Sam.  viii.  17,  is  regardi-d  by  some 
as  a  copyist's  error,  whereby  the  names  of 
father  and  son  were  transposed.  Hut  the 
numlier  of  allusions  to  Ahimelecli,  the  son  of 
Abiathar,  as  ]iriest,  is  so  great  that  an  error  is 
improbable  (1  ('hron.  xviii.  1(>,  Sejitua^int  ; 
xxiv.  3,  fi,  31).  A  sim|)ler  ex]ilanation  is 
that,  since  Abiathar  was  becoming  (piite  old 
(he  was  about  seventy  yeiirs  of  age  at  the 
time  of  Absalom's  revolt),  his  son  and  legal 
successor  assume<l  the  burdensome  priestly 
functions  and  was  called  priest,  as  I'hinehas 
served  during  the  lifetimi'  of  Kli  an<l  was 
called  ])riest  (1  Sam.  i.  3;  ii.  11).  The  aged 
Abiatliar  remained  faithful  to  the  king  (lur- 
ing .Xbsalom's  rebellion,  and  rendereil  the 
fugitive  monarch  great  service  (2  Sam.  xv. 
24,  29,  3'),  3(i;  xvii.  1.");  xix.  11)  ;  but  when 
later  Adonijah  sought  to  wrest  the  succession 
to  the  throne  from  Solomon,  Abiathar  cjist 
his  i)riestly  influence  with  th(>  military  in- 
fluence of  .loab,  another  old  man.  in  favor  of 
the  attractive  asi)irant  (1  Kin.  i.  7).  Though 
this  attempt  failed,  he  again  favored  Adoni- 
jah after  David's  death  (1  Kin.  ii.  12-22). 
For  tliis  he  was  dejiosed  from  the  high-priest- 
hood, and  Zadok,  a  priest  of  aiiju-oveil  loyalty, 
but  of  the  other  branch  of  tlie  Aaroiiic  fam- 
ily, was  jiut  into  his  jilace  (1  Kin.  ii.  20,  .35). 
His  de])osition  involved  that  of  his  sons, 
Ahimelecli  and  .lonathan  ;  and  thus  the  rule 
of  the  house  of  Kli  came  t<i  an  end,  according 
to  projjhecy  1 1  Sam.  ii.  31-3.'>).  The  pas.sage  in 
1  Kin.  iv.  4  jirobably  refers  to  the  time  im- 
mediately jirior  to  his  deposition.  Abiathar 
is  alluded  to  by  our  Lord  in  the  Xew  Testa- 
ment (.Mark  ii.'2(i). 

A'bib  [an  ear  of  corn]. 

The  month  which  the  Hebrews  wore  di- 
rected to  make  the  lii-st  of  the  year  in  com- 
memoration of  their  departure  from  Egypt 
(Ex.  xii.  1,  2;  xiii.  4).  Ilarvest  began  in  it. 
Tlu^  feast  of  unleavened  bread  or  the  jia.ss- 
over  fell  during  the  month  (Ex.  xii.  1  seq.  ; 
xxiii.  1."):  Deut.xvi.  1).  The  .lewish  months 
following  the  moon,  and  oni-s  being  fixed,  tlio 
two  cannot  be  made  exactly  to  correspond. 
.\bil)  most  nearly  ap]iroaches  our  month  of 
March,  though  in  some  years  its  eiitl  moves 
sonii'  distance  into  our  .Vjiril.  .\fter  the  cap- 
tivity the  name  .Vbib  gave  jilace  to  Nisau 
(Nell.  ii.  1  ;   Ivsth.  iii.  7).     See  Ykau. 

A-bl'da,  in  A.  V.  once  Abidah  ((Jen.  xxv. 
4)  ail  inconsistency  from  which  the  original 
edition  of  \.  V .  is  free  [father  of  knowledge]. 

A  descendant  of  Abraham  through  Midiau 
itieii.  xxv.  4  :   1  ('hron.  i.  33). 

A-bi'dan  [father  of  a  iiidge,  or  the  fiither 

ju.l-eth]. 

The  representative  i)rince  of  the  tril)e  of 
lienjamin  in  the  wilderness.  His  fatlier's 
name  was  (Jideoni  iNum.  i.  11;  ii.  22;  vii. 
(io.  (i.'>  :   X.  24). 

A-bi'el  [father  of  strength,  or  (!od  is  a 
father]. 

1.  A  lienjamite,   the  father  of    Kish  and 


Abiezer 


Abilene 


of  Xer,  and  tlie  j;;r:iii(lfa(lior  of  Saul  anil  of 
AbiiiT  (1  Sam.  ix.  1  ;  xiv.  .M).     Si-c  Kisii  2. 

2.  An  Arbatliito,  one  of  David's  ini;;lity 
men  (1  Cliron.  xi.  32),  lallod  in  2  Sam.  xxiii. 
31  Al.i-all>on  (q.  v.). 

A-bi-e'zer  [father  of  help]. 

1.  A  descendant  of  Manasseh  through 
Maehir.  and  founder  of  a  family  (.Tosh.  xvii. 
2;  1  Clnon.  vii.  IS);  abbreviated  in  Num. 
xxvi.  30  to  lezer  (A.  V.  .leezer).  The  judge 
Gideon  ))elonged  to  this  family  (Judg.  vi.  11). 

2.  Collectivelv.  the  family  of  Abiezer 
(Judg.  vi.  31:  viii.  2). 

3.  One  of  David's  heroes  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  27; 
1  Chron.  xi.  28;  xxvii.  12). 

A-bi-ez'rite. 

One  ])eiongiiig  to  the  family  of  Abiezer 
(Judg.  vi.  11,  24;  viii.  .32).  In  Num.  xxvi. 
30  abbreviated,  and  11.  V.  has  lezerite.  A.  Y. 
Jeezerite  ;  Init  the  sjjelliug  should  rather  be 
lezrite  to  aeeord  with  the  Hebrew  and  be  con- 
sistent with  Abiezrite. 

Ab'i-gail  [iierhai)s,  father  of  exultation]. 

1.  The  wife  of  Nabal.  She  was  a  woman 
of  good  understanding,  and  of  a  beautiful 
countenance,  and  on  the  death  of  her  first 
husband  became  one  of  David's  wives  (1  Sam. 
XXV.  3,  14-44;  xxvii.  3;  2  Sam.  ii.  2).  When 
the  Amalekites  captured  Ziklag  they  took 
her  cajitive,  but  she  was  rescued  by  her  hus- 
band after  he  had  defeated  the  enemy  (1  Sam. 
XXX.  5,  18).  She  bore  to  him  a  son  called 
Chileab  (2  Sam.  iii.  3)  or  Daniel  (1  C'hron. 
iii.  1). 

2.  A  .sister  of  David  (1  Chron.  ii.  16)  ;  not, 
however,  a  daughter  of  Jesse,  but  of  Nahash 
(2  Sam.  xvii.  2r>).  She  was  the  mother  of 
Amasa. 

Ab-i-ha'il  [father  of  strength].  In  the 
Hebrew  text  the  h  is  a  dilferent  letter  in  the 
name  of  the  men  and  in  that  of  the  v.-omen. 
The  difference  is  coniinonly  attributed  to  an 
early  inisreading  of  the  text. 

1.  A  Levite  of  the  family  of  Merari  (Num. 
iii.  35). 

2.  Wife  of  Ahishur  (1  C'hron.  ii.  29). 

3.  A  Gadite  (1  Chroir.  v.  14). 

4.  \\'\i\'  of  king  Kehoboam  and  a  descend- 
ant of  Hliab,  David's  brother  (2  Chron.  xi.  18). 

5.  Father  of  queen  Esther  (Esth.  ii.  15). 
A-bi'liu  [He,  i.  e.  God,  is  father]. 

A  son  of  Aaron.  He  shared  in  the  privi- 
leges, in  the  sin.  and  in  the  fate  of  Nadah 
the  eldest  son,  and  like  him  died  childless 
(Ex.  vi.  23;  xxiv.  1 ;  xxviii.  1 ;  Lev.  x.  1-7; 
Num.  iii.  2). 

A-bi'bud  [probably,  fatlier  of  jtraiseworthi- 
ness] . 

A  descendant  of  Benjamin  through  the 
family  of  I'>ela  (1  Chron.  viii.  3). 

A-bi'jah,  in  A.  V.  of  O.  T.  thrice  Abiah 
(1  Sam.  viii.  2;  1  Chron.  vi.  2H  ;  vii.  8),  in 
A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Abia  [Jehovah  is  a  father]. 

1.  A  descendant  of  Aaron.  His  fanuly  had 
grown  to  a  father's  house  in  the  time  of  David, 


and  was  made  the  eighth  of  the  twenty-four 
courses  into  which  David  divided  the  priests 
(1  Chron.  xxiv.  1,  (J,  10).     See  7  below. 

2.  A  descendant  of  Benjamin  through  Be- 
cher  (1  Chron.  vii.  8). 

3.  The  younger  son  of  Samuel,  appointed 
by  his  father  a  judge  in  Beerslieba.  but  who 
proved  corrupt  (1  Sam.  viii.  2 ;  1  Chron.  vi. 
28). 

4.  A  son  of  Jeroboam.  While  yet  a  child 
he  fell  dangerously  sick.  Jcrolmani  sent  his 
(|Ueen  in  disguise  to  the  ]no]iliel  Aliijah,  who 
had  iiredicted  that  he  should  obtain  tlie  king- 
dom, to  inquire  what  the  issue  of  the  sick- 
ness would  be.  The  jn-ojihet  recognized  the 
queen,  luttwithstanding  her  disguise,  de- 
nounced judgment  against  Jeroboam  for  his 
apostasy  from  Jehovah,  and  added  that  the 
child  would  die  at  once,  and  that  alone  of 
all  that  household  lie  would  obtain  honor- 
able burial,  because  in  him  was  found  some 
good  thing  toward  the  Lord  God.  All  came 
to  ]mss  as  the  seer  had  foretold  (1  Kin.  xiv. 
1-18). 

5.  The  name  given  in  Chronicles  to  the  son 
and  successor  of  Eehoboam,  called  in  Kings 
Abijam  (2  Chron.  xii.  16  ;  xiii.  1-xiv.  1) ;  see 
Abij.\m. 

6.  The  mother  of  Hezekiah  (2  Chron.  xxix. 
1).  In  2  Kin.  xviii.  2  she  is  called  with 
great  brevity  Abi. 

7.  A  chief  of  the  priests  who  returned  with 
Zerubbabel  from  Babylon  (Neh.  xii.  4,  7). 
Possibly  he  was  a  representative  of  the  old 
course  of  Abijah,  but  the  connection  cannot 
be  established,  and  in  view  of  Ezra  ii.  36  seq. 
is  not  probable.  In  the  next  generation,  a 
father's  house  among  the  »prie.sts  bore  this 
name  (Neh.  xii.  17).  The  father  of  John  the 
Baptist  belonged  to  this  family  (Luke  i.  5). 

8.  A  priest  who,  doubtless  in  behalf  of  a 
father's  house,  signed  the  covenant  in  the 
days  of  Nehemiah  (Neh.  x.  7). 

A-bi'jam  [possibly,  father  of  the  sea]. 

The  son  and  successor  of  Eehoboam  on  the 
throne  of  Judah.  His  mother's  name  was 
Maacah,  a  descendant  of  Alisalom  (1  Kin. 
XV.  2  ;  2  Chron.  xiii.  2).  He  sinned  after  the 
manner  of  his  father,  and  had  not  a  heart 
true  to  Jehovah.  The  kings  of  Judah  had 
not  yet  become  reconciled  to  the  revolt  of  the 
ten  tribes,  and  Abijam  continued  the  war 
with  Jeroboam  which  his  fiither  had  waged 
(1  Kin.  XV.  6.  7).  According  to  2  Chron.  xiii. 
3,  com])ared  with  2  Sam.  xxiv.  i),  the  whole 
po])ulation  "able  to  go  forth  to  war"  was 
under  arms.  In  the  slaughter  which  accom- 
panied the  warfare,  half  a  million  men  of 
Israel  were  slain  (2  Chron.  xiii.  16-201.  Abi- 
jam had  fourtei'U  wives,  twenty-two  sons, 
and  sixteen  daughters  (2  Chron.  xiii.  21). 
He  reigned  three  years,  and  died,  leaving 
his  son  Asa  to  succeed  him  in  the  kingdom 
(1  Kin.  XV.  1-8;  2  Chron.  xiv.  1).  Abijam  is 
called  in  Chronicles  Abijah. 

Ab-i-le'ne  [Greek  'Abilene,  so  called  from 


Abimael 


Abishai 


Abihi.  its  capital,  and  that  again  probably 
from  the  Si-niitic  'nbcl.  a  nieadow]. 

A  tftiaichy  ni-ar  Anti-Lil)an()n.  Its  cap- 
ital Ahila  lay  iipnn  llio  Baiaila.  IH  or  20 
niik's  X.  W.  troiii  Daniasiiis,  in  part  upon 
the  site  of  the  modern  villajje  of  es-Suk. 
There  is  a  romantic  {jorfie,  with  a  Koman 
road  cut  in  the  clitf,  a  cemetery,  a  number 
of  tall  pillars,  a  stream  below  and  the  so- 
called  "tomb  of  Abel''  above.  The  local 
tradition  that  Abel  was  buried  iiere  doubtless 
orijjinated  in  the  similarity  ot' sound  between 
Abel  and  Abila.  Of  tiie"  formation  of  the 
tetrarchy  Josephus  makes  no  mention.  In 
Luke  iii.  1  it  is  ri'ferred  to  as  sei)arate  from 
the  tetrarchy  of  I'liili]),  and  as  f^overned  by 
Lysjinias  in  the  fifteenth  year  of  Tiberius. 
Some  tt'U  years  later  the  two  tetrarchies  are 
still  distinct;  for  ("aligula,  TSK)  A.  i'.  c,,  be- 
stowed the  "  tetrarchy  of  Philip,"  now  dead, 
and  the  "  tetrarchy  of  Lysanias  "  upon  Herod 
Agrijipa.  the  Herod  of  the  book  of  Acts 
(.\nti(i.  xviii.  (i,  Ut).  and  Claudius  conlirmed 
to  him  "Abila  of  Lysanias"  (xix.  f),  1). 

There  was  an  Abila  in  Perrea.  cast  of  Gad- 
ara.  I>ut  it  is  not  mentioned  in  Scripture. 

A-bim'a-el  [composition  of  the  name  still 
unknown]. 

A  name  in  the  genealogy  of  Joktan.  It 
may  denote  a  person,  a  tribe,  or  a  locality, 
and  is  to  be  sought  in  Arabia  (Gen.  x.  28 ;  1 
Chron.  i.  22). 

A-bim'e-lech  [father  of  the  king]. 

1.  The  personal  name  or  official  title  of  a 
king  of  (terar,  at  whose  court  Abraham  at- 
tempted to  i)ass  Sarah  off  as  his  sister  ((ien. 
XX.  1-1.'^).  The  king  and  the  patriarch  at  a 
later  period  entered  into  a  covenant  with  each 
other  (xxi.  22-34). 

2.  A  king  of  the  Philistines  at  Gerar.  at 
whose  court  Isaac  attemjjted  to  j)ass  oft' Ke- 
bckah  as  his  sisti'r.  and  with  whom  he  also, 
like  his  father,  at  last  formed  a  covenant 
(Gen.  xxvi.  l-:{:5). 

;j.  The  son  of  the  .judge  Gideon  by  a  con- 
cnliine.  This  woman  was  a  native  of  She- 
chem,  where  her  family  had  influence.  One 
natural  iienalty  of  iiolyjiamy  is  that  the  sons 
by  one  mother  tend  fiercely  to  quarrel  with 
those  by  another;  and  Abimeleeh,  obtaining 
assistance  from  his  mother's  relatives,  killed 
seventy  sons  of  his  father  on  one  stone  at 
Ophrali.  the  native  city  of  the  family,  (^ne 
son  only.  Jotliam,  escaped  from  the  massiicre. 
Tlien  Abinulech  was  elected  king  of  Shechem. 
Before  he  hatl  ruled  three  years  he  and  his 
subjects  were  at  variance,  an<l  his  throne, 
founded  in  blood,  had  begun  to  totter.  A 
Jtlot  against  him  was  formed  by  (iaal.  It 
came  to  the  ears  of  Zebul,  Abinu'Iech's  sec- 
ond in  connnaud.  Gaal  was  defeated  and 
driven  out  of  Shechem,  the  city  l)eing  after- 
wards destroyed  and  sowed  with  Nalt.  A 
thousand  men  and  women  who  bad  taken 
refuge  in  its  tower  were  burnt  to  death. 
When  Abimeleeh  shortlv  afterwards  was  l)e- 


sieging  Thebez,  he  was  mortally  wounded  by 
a  millstone  drojiped  on  his  bead  from  the 
city  wall  by  a  woman,  liegarding  it  as  dis- 
honorable to  be  killed  by  a  female,  be  or- 
dered his  armor-bearer  lo  draw  his  sword 
and  slay  him.  which  he  did  tJudg.  ix.  157;. 

4.  See  .\cllisii. 

5.  A  |>riest,asonof  Abiathar  (1  ("hron.  xviii. 
Ki).  The  spelling  isdoubtlessa  copyist's  error 
for  Abimeleeh.  The  Septuagint  reads  .\liime- 
lecb  ;  see  also  1  Chroii.  xxiv.  (i.  eti-. 

A-bin'a-dab  [father  of  liberality]. 

1.  A  man  of  Kiijath-jearim.  who  when  the 
ark  was  sent  back  by  the  Philistines  gave  it 
accommodation  in  his  house  for  twenty  years, 
his  son  Elea/.ar  being  set  apart  as  a  priest  to 
act  as  its  custodian  (I  Siim.  vii.  1,2;  2  8am. 
vi.  3;  1  Chron.  xiii.  7). 

2.  The  second  .son  of  Jesse  and  an  older 
brother  of  David  (I  Sam.  xvi.  H;  xvii.  \'.i). 

3.  A  .sou  of  Saul,  killed  with  his  father  in 
the  battle  of  (iilboa  (1  Sam.  xxxi.  2). 

4.  Father  of  a  .son-in-law  (d'  Solomon  and 
tax-gatherer  for  the  region  of  Dor  (1  Kin. 
iv.  11). 

A-bin'o-am  [father  of  sweetness  or  grace]. 
The  father  of  P.arak  (Judg.  iv.  G;  v.  12). 
A-bi'ram    [legitimate   variant    of   Abram. 
For  meaning  see  .\  I'.it.viiAM]. 

1.  A  Keubeniti-,  a  brother  of  Dathan  an<l 
fellow  conspirator  with  Korah  (Num.  xvi.). 

2.  The  firstborn  son  of  Iliel,  who  rebuilt 
Jericho  (1  Kin.  xvi.  34).  His  death,  when 
its  foundations  were  laid,  in  jiart  fultille(l  a 
curse  ]>ronouiiced  by  Joshua  (.losh.  vi.  2t;). 

A-bish'ag  [perhajis,  father  of  waiulering]. 

A  beautiful  girl  from  Shunem,  employed  to 
attend  upon  king  David  when  he  was  old 
and  declining  in  vitality  (1  Kin.  i.  1-4). 
Adonijah  wished  to  marry  her  after  David's 
death,  and  inade  ajiiilicalion  for  the  needed 
l)ermission  to  Solomon,  who  not  merely  re- 
fused his  request,  but  interpreted  it  to  mean 
an  insidious  claim  for  the  crown,  and  put  him 
to  death  (1  Kin.  ii.  i:?  2.".). 

A-bish'a-i  and  Abshai  (1  Chron.  xviii.  12 
margin)  []iossessor  of  all  that  is  disiniblel. 

A  ^on  of  David's  sister  Zeruiab. and  brotln-r 
of  Joab  and  .Vsihel  (2  Sam.  ii.  is;  1  Chron. 
ii.  l."),  1(1).  When  David  found  Saul  anrl  his 
followers  a.slei|),  Abishai  asked  ]H-rmission  to 
kill  the  king;  but  David  would  not  smction 
his  (hiing  harm  to  "the  Lord's  anointed" 
(1  Sam.  xxvi.  5-!t).  He  served  undi'r  .loali 
in  David's  army  (2  Sam.  ii.  IM;  x.  Kh.  When 
Abner,  lleeing  from  the  battle  at  (Jibeon.  was 
compelled  to  kill  .\s;ihel,  .Foab  and  .\bishai. 
his  two  brothers,  jiursued  the  iiomicidr, 
but  without  eti'ect  i2  Sain.  ii.  1'*  21).  Hi- 
was  loyal  to  David  during  the  revolts  of 
Absiilom  and  Sheba  (2  Sam.  xvi.  and  xx.). 
He  rlesired  to  slay  Sbimei  for  cursing  Daviil, 
even  when  Sbimei  asked  t'orgivenrss  •_'  Sam. 
xvi.  !>;  xix.  21l.  Il«'  was  our  of  David's 
mighty  men  who  had  lifted  up  his  spear 
against    time    hundred    and    slaiu    them    (2 


Abishalom 


Abraham 


S;iiii.  xxiii.  18;  1  Clin.n.  xi.  20).  }fe  dcfciiti'd 
till'  I'](liiiiiitt's  also  ill  the  valW-y  of  Salt,  slay- 
iiifi  iMiilitoi'ii  thousand  of  tlii'iii  and  jjarrison- 
infj  tlu'ir  country  (1  C'liron.  xviii.  12,  13). 
Ho  succiircd  David  in  tlu-  light  with  Ishbi- 
beuol)  (2  Sam.  xxi.  1(J,  IT). 

A-bisb'a-lom.    See  Absalom. 

A-bish'u-a  [father  of  salivation]. 

1.  A  Hmjaniite  of  the  family  of  Bola  (1 
C'hron.  viii.  4). 

2.  The  son  of  Phinehas  the  priest  (1  Chron. 
vi.  4,  5,  50;  Ezra  vii.  5). 

A-bi'shur  [lather  of  a  wall]. 
A  man  of  .liidah.  family  of  Ilezron,  house 
of  Jcrahmci-1  (1  Chron.  ii."  2S,  29). 

A-bi'tal  [ai)i)arently,  fatlierof  dew,  jierhaps 
iu  the  sense  of  refreshment]. 

One  of  David's  wives.  Her  son  was  Sheph- 
atiah  (2  Sam.  iii.  4;  1  Chron.  iii.  3). 

A-bi'tub  [father  of  goodness]. 

A  Bi'njaniite,  son  of  Shaharaim  by  his  wife 
Hushim  (1  Chron.  viii.  8-11). 

A-bi'ud  [the  Greek  form,  probably,  of  He- 
brew A  hi  hud]. 

A  member  of  the  royal  line  of  Judah  (Mat. 
i.  13).    The  name  is  omitted  in  1  Chron.  iii.  19. 

Ab'ner  [father  of  light].  A  legitimate  va- 
riant form,  Abiner,  is  used  in  the  Hebrew 
text  of  1  Sam.  xiv.  50,  and  in  the  margin  of 
some  editions  of  the  English  version. 

The  son  of  Ner,  king  Saul's  uncle.  During 
the  reign  of  that  monarch  Abner  was  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  army  (1  Ham.  xiv.  51). 
He  first  became  acquainted  with  David  when 
that  youth  oti'ered  to  meet  Goliath  in  combat 
(1  Sam.  xvii.  55-58).  On  the  death  of  Saul, 
Abner  availed  himself  of  the  tribal  feeling 
adverse  to  Judah,  and  turned  it  to  the  ad- 
vantage of  the  house  to  which  he  was  related 
by  blood,  and  to  which  he  had  owned  allegi- 
ance. He  jiroclaimed  Saul's  .son  Ish-bosheth 
king  at  MahaTiaim  (2  Sam.  ii.  8).  During 
the  war  between  the  house  of  Saul  and  David 
which  followed,  in  an  interview  which  he 
held  at  Gibeon  with  Joab,  David's  com- 
mander-in-chief, Abner  proposed  what  lie 
seems  to  have  intended  for  a  tournament 
between  twelve  young  men  picked  from  Ish- 
bosheth's  supporters  and  as  many  taken  from 
the  followers  of  David,  but  mutual  animos- 
ities converted  the  mimic  combat  into  a  I'cal 
battle  ;  and  the  two  armies  being  drawn  into 
the  struggle,  that  which  Abner  led  was  de- 
feated with  great  .slaughter  (12-32).  During 
the  retreat  from  this  battle  Abner  was  perti- 
naciously followed  with  hostile  intent  by 
Asahel,  one  of  .loab's  brotlicis,  and  after  re- 
peatedly warning  liim  otf,  had  at  last  to  strike 
him  dead  in  self-defence  (18-24).  Soon  after- 
wards Abner  had  a  serious  charge  brought 
against  him  by  Isli-bosheth.  which  so  irritated 
him  that  he  intimated  his  intention  of  trans- 
ferring his  allegiance  to  David,  and  was  as 
good  as  his  word.  Eirst  he  sent  messengers 
to  David,  and  then  sought  an  interview  with 


him,  and  was  grac'iously  received.  But  Joab, 
believing  or  pretending  to  believe  that  Ab- 
ner had  come  simply  as  a  spy,  went  after 
him,  invited  him  to  a  friendly  eonversiition, 
and  stabbi'd  him  dead.  The  o.stensible  rea- 
son for  this  assassination  was  revenge  for  the 
death  of  Asahel,  who.  however,  hacl  tlied  in 
fair  light.  An  unavowed  motive  jirobably 
was  fear  that  Abner  might  one  day  disjilae'e 
Jiini  from  the  command  of  David's  army. 
The  king  was  justly  incensed  against  the 
murderer,  and  cons|)icuously  showed  the  ])eo- 
l)le  that  he  had  no  complicity  in  the  crime. 
He  attended  the  funeral,  lamented  the  un- 
worthy fate  of  the  jtrince  and  great  man  who 
had  fallen  in  Israel,  and  tinally  left  it  iu 
charge  to  his  successctr  to  call  Joab  to  ac- 
count for  the  crime  (iii.  G  39  :  1  Kin.  ii.  5). 
Abner  had  at  least  one  son,  Jaasiel  (1  Chrou. 
xxvii.  21),  and  seems  to  have  had  a  regard  for 
the  house  of  God,  for  he  dedicated  to  it  some 
of  the  spoils  which  he  had  taken  iu  battle 
(xxvi.  28). 

A-bom-i-na'tion  of  Des-o-la'tion. 

Idolatry  with  its  blighting  effect  upon  man, 
its  degradation  of  the  divine  ideal,  and  its 
violent  outward,  as  well  as  its  less  visible  in- 
sidious, opposition  to  the  kingdom  of  God. 
To  Daniel  was  revealed:  "  Eor  the  half  of 
the  week,  he  shall  cause  the  sacrifice  and  the 
oblation  to  cease  ;  and  upon  the  wing  of  abom- 
inations shall  come  one  that  maketh  desolate  " 
(ix.  27,  E.  V.)  :  "and  they  shall  profane  the 
sanctuary,  even  the  fortress,  and  shall  take 
away  the  continual  burnt  offering,  and  they 
sliall  set  uj)  the  abomination  that  maketh  deso- 
late" (xi.  31,  E.  V.)  :  and  "  from  the  time  that 
the  continual  burnt  oti'ering  shall  be  taken 
away,  and  the  abomination  that  maketh  des- 
olateset  up,  there  shall  be  a  thousand  twoliun- 
dred  and  ninety  days  "  (xii.  11,E.V.).  These 
prophecies  depict  outstanding  features  of  the 
development  of  the  kingdom  of  God.  which 
are  tyi)ical  for  all  time.  A  notable  fulfillment 
of  xi.  31,  which  the  .Tews  were  quick  to  dis- 
cern, was  the  stojiiiage  of  the  daily  sacrifice 
by  Antiochus  Epiphanes  in  June,  ltj8  B.  c, 
and  the  erection  on  the  brazen  altar  of  an 
idolatrous  one,  on  which  sacrifices  were  of- 
fered to  Jupiter  Olympius  (1  Mac.  i.  .'J4  ;  vi. 
7;  2  Mac.  vi.  2:  Anti(|.  xii.  5,  4;  7,  (i).  But 
the  jirophecy  of  the  abomination  of  desola- 
tion was  not  exhausted  by  this  fulfillment. 
The  pro])hecy  belongs  to  Messianic  times  (Dan. 
ix.  27),  and  yet  more  generally  to  the  conflict 
of  the  kingdom  of  God  until  its  final  triumjih- 
ant  establishment  (xii.  7,  11  with  vii.  25-27: 
cji.  xii.  2).  Christ  reiterated  the  itrojihecy, 
enjoining  those  to  flee  to  the  mountains  who 
should  see  the  abomination  of  desolation, 
s])oken  of  by  Daniel  the  jiroidiet,  standing 
in  the  holy  i)lace  (Mat.  xxi  v.  15,  etc.). 

A'bra-ham,  at  first  Abram  [iu  Hebrew, 
Abram  denotes  exalted  father:  the  cliauge 
to  Abraham  appears  to  consist  merely  in 
strengthening  the  root  of  the  second  sylla- 


Abraham 


Abraham 


ble,  ill  order  to  jilacc  iiuToased  eiupluisis  ou 
the  idea  of  fxaltatioii]. 

Soil  of  Tcrali.  in'ofrcuitor  of  the  Hebrews, 
father  of  tlie  faitliful,  and  the  friend  of  (iod 
(Gen.  xi.  2<i ;  (ial.  iii.  7  !) ;  Jas.  ii.  :2:5). 

I.  CliroiiiiltKii/. — 1.  His  lift'  livforf  his  inrirtd 
in  ('iiiiiiini,  ~'t  years.  In  liis  early  iil'e  Al)ra- 
liani  ihvelt  with  his  fallier  aM<l  his  brethren 
in  Tr  of  the  L'hahlees.  He  married  Sarai, 
his  half-sister.  After  tlie  death  of  his  lirotiier 
Ilaran.  lie.  his  ^vife,  and  Lot  his  nephew  nii- 
jiraled,  under  the  heailslii])  of  Terah,  from 
Ur  to  iiti  to  the  laud  of  Canaan  ((ieii.  xi.  27- 
31).  The  motive  which  led  the  family  to 
change  its  habitation  is  not  stated  in  (Jen.  xi. 


and  N'eh.ix.7;  althou>,'h  these  iias.sii;;esmi«ht 
refer  to  (Jod's  ]irovidenci'.  .\ll  the  various 
causes  su;,'f;t'ste(l  may  have  cooiierattMl  ;  and 
the  natural  motives  may  have  been  tlie 
means  j)rovi(lentially  enii)loyed  by  (tod  to 
jiersuade  the  Jiarty  to  obey  the  heavenly 
vision.  The  family  departed  from  I'r  ami, 
takiiifi  the  customary  mute,  followed  the 
lOuphrates  toward  the  northwest.  On  reacli- 
in>;  Maraii.  the  party  temporarily  abamloned 
the  jiurpose  of  Jouriieyin;^  to  Canaan  and 
took  up  residence  where  they  were.  When 
Abraham  was  T'l  years  old,  he  tleparted  from 
Ilaran  to  go  to  Can.iaii.  This  move  may  have 
been  d  ue  to  tJod's  will  as  revealed  by  him  iu  Ur, 


•—  •■o-'iv; 


Traditional  Oak  of  Abraham  at  Mamre. 


Joscphus  iiil'errcd  from  the  narrative  that 
Terah  was  actuated  by  a  desire  to  escnjie  from 
associations  which  reminded  him  of  the  son 
who  had  died  (.Viiti(|.  i.  (>,  r>|.  It  has  also  been 
suggested  that  the  migration  of  the  family 
may  have  been  jirompted  by  the  wish  to  bi'tlcr 
their  condition  in  a  new  and  freer  country, 
or  have  been  incit<-d  liy  political  disturbances 
in  Chalilea,  such  as  an  invasion  of  the  Islam- 
ites. Stei)hen  understood  Ceii.  .\ii.  1  to  refer 
back  to  this  time,  and  to  be  the  initial  com- 
mand, given  while  the  family  was  yet  in  I'r, 
for  he  says:  "(!od  apjieared  unto  Altrabain, 
when  he  was  in  Mcso))otamia,  bel'oi-e  he  dwelt 
in  Ilaran  "  I  .\cts  vii.  :i.  K.  W).  Ste|dien's  in- 
terpretation   is  countenanced   by  (Jen.  xv.  7 


or  to  a  command  now  first  received.  Stephen, 
as  already  said,  ailopis  the  former  interpreta- 
tion anil  the  wording  of  the  details  in  (ieii.  xii.l 
well  suits,  with  oiiri>rcsent  meager  knowlcilge 
of  the  community  at  Ilaran,  this  exi>laiiation. 
The  dei>arlure  is  relatetl  aft<T  the  reconl  of 
Tcrah's  death.  It  docs  not  follow,  however, 
from  this  that  .\braham  tarried  at  Ilaran 
until  his  father  ilied.  The  narnitor  as  usual 
concludes  what  he  has  to  s:iy  of  Terah  before 
taking  up  the  delaili-d  history  of  .\braham. 
Still  it  is  a  iilausible  con.jecture  that  .Mira- 
liam  did  tarry  so  long:  for  the  s;ime  parly 
that  left  I'r  now,  with  the  oxcejition  of 
Terah,  leaves  Ilaran:  and  this  also  is  the 
interpretation  of  Stephen,     Hut  if  so,  Abra- 


Abraham 


Abraham 


ham  was  born  when  Terah  was  at  least  130 
years  old,  and  not  70,  as  is  often  unneces- 
sarily inferred  from  Gen.  xi.26.  In  this  pas- 
sage Abraham  is  mentioned  first,  either  be- 
cause he  was  the  firstborn  and  born  in  Terah's 
7()th  year,  or  else,  if  he  was  a  younger  son 
and  born  after  Terah's  70th  year,  because  he 
was  the  progenitor  of  the  chosen  iieojile  (cp. 
Gen.  V.  :3'2  with  ix.  22,  24).  From  Haran 
Abraham  went  to  Cauaau.  AVhat  route  did  he 
take?  Probatily  tlie  road  by  way  of  Damas- 
cus, for  a  great  highway  led  from  ^Mesopd- 
tamia  past  that  city  to  Canaan:  and  later 
mention  is  made  of  Abraham's  steward,  Eli- 
ezer  of  Damascus.  Abraham  did  not  sto]> 
long  at  any  place  along  the  way,  but  proji- 
erly  speaking  journeyed  continuously  ;  for 
he  was  7.">  years  nld  wlien  he  left  Ilarau.  and 
he  s])ent  ti'n  years  in  Cauaau  before  he  took 
Hagar  to  wife  (Gen.  xvi.  3),  and  he  was  ^!(> 
years  old  when  Hagar  bore  Ishmael  (16)  ;  so 
that  not  more  than  a  year  elai)sed  between 
the  departure  from  Haran  and  the  arrival  in 
Canaan. 

I.  2.  T'^iiKeitled  life  in  Canaan,  at  most  10 
years.  He  encamped  at  Shechem  ((4en.  xii.  fi), 
at  Beth-el  (8),  journeyed  to  tlu'  south  country 
(9),  and  was  driven  l)y  famine  into  Egyjit. 
In  Egy]it,  tlirougli  fear  for  his  life,  lie  rejjre- 
sentcd  Sarah  merely  as  his  sister  (10-20). 
He  returned  t*)  the  south  country  fxiii.  1), 
was  again  at  Beth-el  (3).  He  and  T>ot  now 
sei)arated  on  account  of  their  increasing  p<is- 
ses.sions.     Lot  chose  tlie  plain  of  tlu;  .Jordan 


(5-12).     Abraliam  afterwards  moved  his  tent 
to  the  oaks  of  ]\Famre  at  Hebron  (18). 

I.  3.  Iies>(1i-)ire  at  the  oaks  of  ^famre,  at  least 
15,  perhaps  23  or  24  years.  Abraham  is  in 
treaty  with  the  Amorite  chieftains  of  the 
vicinitv  ((4en.  xiv.  13),  ]iursnes  Cbedorlaomer 
(l-l(>).'isl)lessedbyMelchizcdek  (17-24).  Tlie 
ju-omise  of  an  heir  is  given  hiiii  and  is  be- 
lieved ;  and  tli^  ])romi.>*e  of  Canaan  as  an  in- 
heritance is  confirmed  by  covenant  (xv.). 
Birth  of  Ishmael  (xvi.).  After  an  interval 
of  13  years  (](!;  xvii.  1),  tlie  i)r(iiiiise  is  un- 
folded.    Plan's  attempt  to  fulfill  tJod's  jirom- 


Abraham 


Abraham 


ise  doi's  nut  alter  (Ind's  iiitcntinii  ;  not  llie 
boiul\vi>iiiaii"s  cliilil,  liut  tlic  IVci-  wniiiaii's ; 
not  the  cliilil  of  till'  llcsli,  hut  tin-  cliihl  of 
promise.  On  tliis  oeeasion  tlu'  covenant  sifjn 
of  circumcision  is  aiijiointed,  and  the  name 
Ahram  is  chanjieil  to  Al)raliam  ((ien.  xvii.). 
Sodom  is  destroyed  (xviii.  and  xix). 

I.  1.  licsidfiice  ill  llir  south  roiDiIri/,  some  ITi 
years  during;  the  chiUliiood  of  Is;iac.  Sarah 
taken  to  the  court  of  Al)imeleeh  ((Jen.  xx.). 
When  Ahraiiam  is  1(10  years  old,  Isaac  is  born, 
and  a  little  later  Ishmael  is  expelled  (xxi.  1- 
•Jl).  At  a  well  owned  hy  Abraham,  Aliimelech 
and  he  concludi'  a  treaty,  and  Abraham  names 
the  well  Heer-sheba  ('^-J-.'il).  When  Isiac 
was  somewhat  grown  (xxii.  6  ;  Josei)lius  con- 
jectures 25  veal's,  Anti<i.  i.  13,  2),  Abraham's 
faitli  was  ])ut  to  an  ojien  test  by  the  command 
to  siicrifice  his  only  son.  In  obedience  to  tiiis 
commaiid,  he  and  Isaac  repaired  to  the  moun- 
tains of  Moriah,  when  a  ram  was  graciously 
substituted  for  Isaac.  They  returned  to  Boer- 
sheba  (xxii.  1-19). 

I.  .").  Aijdiii  lit  Hrhron,  after  an  uneventful 
interval  of  20  years.  Here  Sarah  died,  aged 
127  yeai-s  ((ien.  xxiii). 

I.  6.  Pnibnbhi  ill  the  south  coHutrii  with  Isnuc, 
about  ."is  years.  After  the  death  of  Sarah, 
when  Abraham  was  1-10  years  old  (xxiv.  (i? ; 
XXV.  20),  he  sends  to  Mesopotamia  to  obtain 
a  wife  from  his  own  people  for  Isiiac.  Ke- 
bekah  is  brought  back  and  meets  Isaac  at 
Reer-labai-roi,  perhajis '.\in  Muweileh  (xxiv). 
That  Aliraham  took  Keturah  to  wife  is  next 
recorded.  Abraham  died,  aged  17.")  years, 
and  was  buried  in  the  cave  of  Macbpclali 
(XXV.  1-9). 

II.  The  si~e  of  the  vonnniiiiitii  under  Ahrnhnm. 
Abraham  de))arted  from  Ilaran  with  his  wifi', 
his  nephew,  and  the  souls  that  they  had  ac- 
((uired  (Gen.  xii.  .">),  and  in  ( 'auaan  be  obtained 
additional  servants  by  imrchase,  by  gift  and 
doubtless  by  birth  (xvi.  1 ;  .xvii.  2."5,  27 ;  xviii. 
7  ;  XX.  14).  He  was  rich  in  Hocks  and  herds 
and  their  necessary  accomi)aniinent,  men- 
servants  and  maidservants  (xii.  Ki :  .xiii.  2, 
7;  xxiv.  :J2,  :$."..  .".9;  xxvi.  15).  He  led  :J1S 
trained  men.  born  in  his  liouse,  to  the  rescue 
of  Lot  (xiv.  14).  He  was  recognized  by  the 
neighboring  chieftains  as  a  mighty  prince 
(xxiii.  ()1,  with  whom  they  do  well  to  make 
allianci-s  and  conclude  treaties  (xiv.  K?;  xxi. 
22  scq.).  Yet  when  deprived  of  the  aid  of 
Ills  allies,  as  when  he  went  to  sojourn  in 
Egypt,  his  .sense  of  insecurity  triuni|)li(<l 
over  liis  l>i'(t«'r  self,  and  he  reimsscd  part  of 
the  truth  in  regard  to  Sarah.  He  desired 
jieace  and  was  a  man  of  peace  (xiii.  b),  yet 
like  many  other  liardy  settlers  would  in  time 
of  lu'cd  lirave  lianlshi|)  and  danger  and  do 
battle  for  relatives  and  (Viends  I  xiv). 

III.  I'hv  rrliiiioiis  liiliif  of  Ahvntiiun.  His 
nearer  ancestoi-s  .served  other  gods  (.Josh. 
xxiv.  2).  Their  worship  was  at  least  cor- 
rupteil  by  the  )irevaleiit  animism  of  I5aby- 
lonia,  which  assigned  a  spirit  to  every  object 
in  nature,  and  which    led   to  the  conception 


of  eleven  great  gods  besides  innumenihlo 
minor  deities.  The  great  gods  were  tlie 
deities  of  the  majestic  and  imjircssive  objects 
in  nature:  of  the  sky.  of  earth's  surface,  of 
the  ocean  and  all  subterranean  watei-s :  of 
the  moon,  the  sun.  and  the  storm;  and  of 
the  live  jdanets  visible  to  tlie  naked  eye. 
The  gods  were  ]towerful.  were  active  in  na- 
ture, bestowed  special  care  on  favorite  indi- 
viduals and  communities,  heard  and  an- 
swered prayer.  Abraham's  faith  was  distin- 
guished from  the  belief  of  the  great  majority 
of  his  contemporaries  of  whom  we  liave  any 
knowledge,  in  that  .\liraham  believed  in  (bid 
the  almighty  ((ien.  xvii.  I),  tlie  everlasting 
(xxi. :«),  the  most  high  ( xiv.  22),  the  posses.sor 
or  maker  of  heaven  and  earth,  i.  e.  the  actual 
and  lawful  Lord  of  all  (ibid.,  xxiv.  .'J),  the 
righteous  .liidge.  i.  e.  the  moral  governor  of 
all  the  earth  (xviii.  25);  and  in  accordance 
witli  the  faith  of  his  contemjioraries,  Abra- 
liam  believed  in  this  (iod  as  the  dis])oser  of 
events,  who  seeth  and  taketh  knowledge  of 
what  occurs  on  earth,  and  who  giveth  and 
withholdeth  as  he  will.  In  this  faith  Abra- 
ham obeyed,  worshiped,  and  guarded  the 
honor  of  God.  How  came  Abraham  by  this 
faith'?  1.  Kcason  lent  its  aid,  as  it  still  helps 
the  intelligent  Christian.  I'olytheists  have 
often  arrived  at  heuotheism  ;  and  there  are 
traces  of  heuotheism  among  Abraham's  coun- 
trymen in  Babylonia.  A  clear,  logical  mind, 
such  as  Abraham  exhit)its,  would  tend  to  pa,s.s 
from  heuotheism  to  monotheism.  Melchize- 
dek  had  come  to  worship  the  most  high  (Jod, 
possessor  of  lieaven  and  i-arth  ;  and  his  re- 
ligious conceptions  and  practices  called  forth 
jirofound  recognition  from  Abraham.  Moiiu- 
nn'Utal  evidence  seems  to  show  that  occasion- 
ally an  individual  among  the  Assyrians  and 
Mabylonians  arrived  at  a  sjieculative  belief 
in  the  unity  of  (bid,  but  without  inrluencing 
the  iieople  at  large.  It  is  no  more  iinitiue  for 
Abraham  to  believe  in  one  (bxl.  Lord  over 
all,  than  for  llosea  or  Amos  to  do  so.  2.  The 
religious  inheritanci',  which  he  re<eived  from 
ids  forefathers,  aitled  Abraham.  In  supjiort 
of  this  source  of  religious  information  may  be 
urged,  (a)  the  reasons  for  believing  in  a  jirind- 
tive  revelation:  (h)  the  i-xisteiice  of  the  line 
which  began  with  .\dam  and  incliideil  such 
true  Worshipers  of  (bid  as  .Seth  (see  (Jen.  iv. 
2(>),  EniKdi,  and  Noah:  and  (c)  the  historii-al 
fact  of  the  transmission  to  the  Hebrews  of 
traditions  like  that  of  the  creation  and  the 
tlocid.  :!.  Sjiecial  revelation  was  granted  to 
.\braham  by  <lreams,  visions,  and  theophanies 
(xii.  7;  XV.  1,  12,  17;  xvii.  1  ;  xviii.  1,  2:  xxii. 
1,  2).  Theophanies  are  as  concj-ivable  in 
Abraham's  lime  as  is  the  manifestation  of 
Christ  at  a  lati  r  age. 

I\'.  Iliiiiiioiiii  between  the  Ilebreir  reeorit  and 
eanleinponnii  histori/.  1.  The  lanijniKje  of 
('iinaan.  Before  the  con(|ne.st  of  (he  country 
by  the  Israelites  under. loshua  not  a  I'ew  jiK-ices 
and  persons  Imre  Semitic  names.  .Miimelech 
and  I'rushalim.  i.  < .  .brus:ileiii.  ucre  in  viiguc. 


Abram 


10 


Absalom 


IV.  2.  The  iiiiniitiif  of  Aliiiih(tiiitit.s  iiitu  Etjt/p- 
iitiii  hislori/.  Hihliciil  cliroiKilotiiciil  diita  jilai't' 
the  arrival  ul'  Ahraliaiii  in  (aiiaaa  al)i)iit  <)4r> 
years  l)i.'rt)rt.'  thi"  Exoiiiis.  This  date  explains 
at  om-e  Ahraliaiii's  willingness  to  go  to  Egypt 
when  famine  prevailed  in  Canaan  and  his 
kindly  reception  by  Pliaraoli.  for  the  date  of 
his  Journey  falls  within  the  period  when 
Asiatics,  the  sn-ealled  shepherd  kings,  held 
the  throne  of  Egyi)t.  The  biblical  data  place 
not  only  Abraham's  visit  to  the  Nile  country, 
but  also  the  descent  of  .lacoli  and  his  sons  to 
Egypt,  within  the  period  of  tlu'  shei)herd 
rule :  a  strong  confirmation  both  of  the 
chronological  data  and  of  the  authenticity 
of  the  narrative. 

IV.  .3.  The  iiiin-ative.fits  into  Babylonian  his- 
tory. (1.)  About  the  time  assigned  by  the  He- 
brew record  to  Abraham  and  the  invasion  of 
the  west,  the  populous  plain  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Tigris  was  ruled  by  an  Elamite  dynasty. 
(2.)  Under  the  Elamite  sovereign  vassal  kings 
■exercised  sway,  as  described  in  Genesis.  (3.) 
The  Babylonian  kings  of  this  period  made  ex- 
peditions into  the  far  west  and  held  Canaan 
in  subjection  (cp.  Kudurmabug  and  Ammisa- 
tana).  (4.)  Chedorlaomer,  the  name  assigned 
to  the  king  of  Elam,  is  a  genuine  Elamite 
name.  Cliedor,  i.  e.  Kudur,  is  constantly 
u.sed  in  the  composition  of  Elamite  royal 
names,  and  Laomer,  i.  e.  Lagamar,  is  the 
name  of  an  Elamite  god.  Thus  the  Hebrew 
record  gives  an  accurate  and  somewhat  de- 
tailed picture  of  the  jtolitical  condition  of 
Babylonia  as  well  as  of  Canaan.  It  may  be 
added  that  Chedorlaomer's  own  name  and 
those  of  his  allies  have  been  recently  re- 
ported as  discovei'ed  in  the  Babylonian  in- 
scrii)tions. 

A'bram  (Gen.  xi.  26-xvii.  5).  See  Abra- 
ham. 

A-bro'nah,  in  A.  V.  Ebronali  [a  passage,  or 
opposite]. 

A  station  of  the  Israelites  in  the  wilder- 
ness. a])i)arently  north  of  Ezion-geber  (Num. 
xxxiii.  :54,  :!.■)). 

Ab'sa-lom  and  Abishalom  (1  Kin.  xv.  2, 
10)  [father  of  ])eace]. 

1.  The  third  son  of  David,  king  of  Israel. 
He  was  born  in  Hebron,  and  liad  for  his 
motlier  Maacah,  the  daughter  of  Talmai. 
king  of  Geshur,  in  Aram  (2  Sam.  iii.  .'!).  He 
was  of  faultless  form,  and  had  long,  tine  hair, 
of  which  he  was  inordinately  vain.  His 
beauty  was  shared  by  his  sister  Tamar,  who 
so  fascinated  her  half-brother  Amnon  that 
he  criminally  dislionored  her,  for  which  two 
years  afterwards  he  was  ti'eacherousiy  assas- 
sinati'd  at  the  instance  of  Al)salom,  whose 
guest  he  was  at  the  time.  Though  Absalom 
was  liis  father's  favorite,  his  crime  was  too 
gross  to  be-  overlooked  even  by  bis  indulgent 
parent.  He  had  to  go  into  exile,  and  re- 
mained three  years  with  his  maternal  con- 
nections in  Geshur,  and  two  more  at  Jerusa- 
lem, before  he  was  allowed  to  return  to  the 


court  or  see  his  royal  father.  He  soon  after- 
wards delil)erately  set  himself  to  win  the 
hearts  of  the  peoi)le  away  from  the  king  his 
father,  and  when  the  plot  was  rii>e,  repaired, 
under  false  ])retences,  to  Hebron.  an<l  rai.-^ed 
the  standard  of  rebellion.  The  jiei'fection 
of  his  ))odily  frame  marked  him  out  for  rule 
of  the  highest  kind.  I'robably  he  had  heard 
that  Solomon  was  to  succeed  David,  and  con- 
sidered the  arrangement  unfair  to  himself, 
as  he  was  the  elder  of  the  two  brothers,  and, 
unlike  Solomon,  was  l)y  the  mother's  as  well 
as  the  father's  side  of  royal  Ijlood.  \N'hether 
or  in)t  he  was  aware  that  it  was  by  the  divine 
choice,  as  recorded  in  1  Chron.  xxii.  7-10, 
that  Solomon  was  designated  to  the  sove- 
reignty, is  less  certain  ;  if  he  did  know  it, 
then  in  a  theocracy  like  the  .Jewish,  the 
enormity  of  his  rebellion  was  further  height- 
ened. It  is  noticeable,  in  connection  with 
this  point,  that  the  ])riests  and  Levites  sided 
with  David,  and  Virought  him  much  moral 
as  well  as  material  supj)ort :  but  the  mass  of 
the  i)eople  seem  to  liave  gone  against  him, 
and  he  had  to  escape  with  a  few  faithful  fol- 


Absalom  s  lonib 

lowers  from  Jerusalem  to  save  his  life.  Of 
David's  two  chief  counselors,  the  abler  one, 
Ahithophel,  had  gone  over  to  .\bsalom  :  the 
other,  Hushai.  was  faithful  to  David,  and 
went  after  the  fugitive  king.  David  sent 
him  back  to  Jerusalem  to  pirtend  adherence 
to  Absalom,  and  thw;irt  the  counsel  of  Ahith- 
ojdiel.  ^Vhen  the  time  arrived  for  offer- 
ing advice  to  Absalom,  .Uiithoiihel  astutely 
recommended  that  he  should  be  allowed  to 
take  12,000  men  that  very  night  and  follow 
David  before  David  recovere<l  from  hisdepn^s- 
sion.  He  would  kill  only  the  king,  and  the 
people  would  then  come  over  to  Absalom. 
Before  the  scheme  was  carried  out.  Hushai 


Abshai 


11 


Accho 


was  asked  if  he  adliered  to  it,  and  of  course 
ho  raiseil  ()l)jectiims,  aiul  j)roi)()sed  a  rival 
scheiiK'  of  his  own,  so  imjiosterous  that  it 
d(»cs  iKit  say  iiiiuh  lor  At)s;il()nrs  penetration 
tliat  lie  (lid  not  see  it  was  meant  to  etl'fct  liis 
ruin,  llushai  counseled  long  di'lay,  a  course 
which  would  really  tend  to  make  Ahsiloni 
weaker  and  David  stron<;er.  Jle  flattered 
Absalom's  self-conceit  by  iirojiosinj;  that  he 
should  be  <'oniniander,  which  won  hi  give  the 
army  a  jmor  leadi'r.  Wlien  victory  was 
aciiievetl.  wliich  he  assunu'd  to  be  a  certainty, 
he  i)rovidi'd  that  there  should  be  extensive 
and  unneci'ssiiry  bloodshed,  a  serious  politi- 
cal blunder  as  well  as  a  fjreat  crime.  Hushai's 
nbsurd  scheme,  however.  recommeiHli'd  itself 
to  Al)sal(im  and  the  iieii|ilc.  and  .Miitlioiihel, 
seeiuf,'  that  it  was  all  over  with  the  rebellion, 
went  home  ami  connnitted  suicide.  Hu.sliai, 
understanding;  that  the  danger  was  not  yet 
over,  sent  David  counsel  innnediately  to  cross 
the  .Jordan,  wliich  he  did.  Absalom  and  the 
rebel  army  were  beginning  to  revert  to  the 
policy  of  Ahithophel  ;  and  ultimately  a  com- 
promise was  made  betwet'n  his  jilan  aiul  that 
of  llushai.  /'.('.  hostilities  should  be  immediate, 
but  Alisalom  should  be  the  eoiiimander-in- 
<'liief.  The  battle  took  place  in  the  wood  of 
Ephraim.  apjiareutly  near  Mahanaim,  where 
David  was  then  residing.  The  rebel  host, 
undiscijilined  and  badly  led,  went  down  at 
once  liet'ore  David's  veterans,  handled  liy 
three  skillful  comnianders.  When  the  rout 
took  place,  Absalom,  riding  furiously  on  a 
mule,  got  his  head  entangled  among  the 
s]irea<ling  branches  of  an  oak,  great  (lisser- 
vice  being  done  him  by  the  long  hair  of 
wliich  he  was  so  vain.  The  animal  ran 
away,  leaving  him  hanging  helplessly,  but 
alive.  Joab,  one  of  the  three  commanders, 
thrust  three  darts  through  the  heart  of  the 
uniiajniy  ]iriiiee.  and  ten  of  .Toab's  immediate 
foUoweis  surrounding  him  completed  the 
slaughter.  Daviil  had  given  I'Xjiress  direc- 
tions that  Absiilom  should  not  be  injui'i'd.  and 
on  hearing  of  his  death  he  gave  himself  uj)  to 
■excessive  grief  (2  Sam.  xiii.  1-xix.  H).  Ab- 
salom was  buried  near  the  ]>lace  where  he 
<lied,  in  a  i)it  under  a  great  cairn  of  stones. 
He  had  reared  for  himself  a  pillar  at  .lerusa- 
lem  to  keeii  his  name  in  remembrance  (xviii. 
17,  18).  What  is  !iow  called  Absalom's  tomb 
is  in  the  valley  of  the  Kidrou.  The  decora- 
tions date  from  the  tireco-JJoman  jieriod.  but 
the  chamber  itself  may  be  older.  According 
to  the  title.  Vs.  iii.  was  comiio.sed  by  I)avi<l 
during  Absalom's  rebellion  ;  jierhaps  also  Ps. 
vii. 

2.  Father  of  Mattathias  and  probably  of 
Jonathan,  caiitains  of  the  .Jewish  army  under 
the  Maccabees  Jonathan  and  Sinn)n  (1  Mae. 
x\.  70;  xiii.  11;  Antiq.  xiii.  rt,  7;  (J,  4). 

Ab'shal.     See  Ahishai. 

A-ca'ci-a.     See  Siiittau. 

Ac'cad. 

.\n  ancient  citv  in  the  land  of  Shiiiar  and 


one  of  four  towns  wliich  constituted  the  orig- 
inal kingdom  of  Ninirod  (Cen.  x.  lOi.  It  is 
also  mentioned  by  Nebuchadnezzar  called  the 
First,  who  reigned  at  Habylon  about  ll.")0  i;.  c. 
(\'K  ."iii,  ")()).  The  name  was  extended  to  denote 
a  district  called  the  land  of  Accad.  This  dis- 
trict, at  one  jieriod  at  least,  embraced  northern 
I'.abylonia,  adjacent  to  Assyria,  and  included 
within  its  bounds  the  cities  of  Babylon  and 
Cutha. 

Ac'cbO  [hot  sand]. 

A  city  on  a  .small  jtroniontory  of  the  coast 
of  Palestine,  about  25  miles  south  of  Tyre. 
The  town  looks  across  the  bay  of  its  own 
name  to  mount  Carmel,  about  s  miles  to  the 
south.  It  was  assigned  to  the  triln'  of 
Aslier,  but  was  not  occui)ied  by  the  Hebrews 
(Jtidg.  i.  ;jl).  In  the  time  of  Ho.slua  it 
submitted  to  Shalmaneser,  king  of  A.ssyria 
(Anti(j.  ix.  14.  2)  ;  and  it  sull'ered  from  the 
same  nation  in  the  reign  of  Asliurbanipal. 
A  century  or  so  befori'  Christ  its  name  was 
changed  to  Ptolemais,  in  honor  of  one  of  the 
early  Ptolendes.  It  ac(iuired  imiiortance  jtolit- 
ically  as  the  key  of  (Talilee  and  as  a  seajiort  at 
the  end  of  commercial  routes  to  Deeajiolis  and 
Arabia  (1  Mac.  v.  1.5,  21,  'j'j  ;  x.  1  :  Antii].  xiii. 
12,  2  seq.).  Jonathan  Maccaba-us  was  treach- 
erously slain  there  (1  Mac.  xii.  48:  Anti(j. 
xiii.  (j,  2).  A  largi'  number  of  .Jews  found  a 
home  within  its  walls  (War.  ii.  18,  .">).  and 
a  t'hristian  connnunity  early  grew  uj)  here. 
On  his  last  journey  to  .lerusiilem,  Paul  sjient 
a  day  here  with  the  brethren  (Acts  xxi. 
7).  Later  tlu-  town  became  the  seat  of  a 
Christian  bislioj).  The  Arabs  restored  the 
old  name,  which  the  Franks  eorrui)ted  into 
Acre.  It  was  taken  in  a.  D.  IIDI  by  Philip 
Augustus,  king  of  France,  and  Hichard  I., 
king  of  England.  From  A.  i).  122!'  it  was 
lu'ld  by  the  Knights  of  St.  Joliii,  and  was 
ofti'ii  calleil  in  consequence  .St.  .Jean  d'Acre. 
Prior  to  17!t!t  it  was  strongly  fortifieil  by 
Jezzar  Pasha,  who  ruled  witli  energy,  but 
with  such  cruelty  that  he  was  nickuHUied 
"the  liutcher."  In  that  year  it  was  attacked 
by  Na])oleoii,  who  was  ballled,  an<l  at  once 
began  his  retri'at  from  Syria.  .Jezzar's  vic- 
tory was  largely  diu-  to  luiglish  sjiilors.  who 
had  been  landed  to  give  him  aid.  In  ^f^'^^2  it 
was  wrested  from  the  Turkish  sultan  by  one 
of  his  subjects.  Ibrahim  Pasha,  son  of  Mo- 
hammed .\li,  the  ruler  of  l"gy|it.  On  No- 
vember .'{,  I-^IO,  it  was  boniliarded  by  the 
British  and  Austrian  tleets.  until  the  day  was 
decided  by  the  explosion  of  the  ]iowder  niap- 
aziue.  which  caused  the  death  of  from  17<K( 
to  21 II Ml  I-;gyptiau  soldiers.  'J'lie  place  wasKiven 
back  to  till'  sultan,  under  whose  rule  it  still 
remains.  It  is  now  a  walled  town,  with  a 
single  land  gate  at  the  southeast  angle  and  a 
.sea  gate  leading  to  tlu'  shipjiing  in  the  har- 
bor. Its  ramparts,  injured  by  the  bombard- 
ment of  1'>|(I.  Ii.-ive  not  been  reiiaiied  :  its 
bazaars  look  deserted,  the  chief  su]iporl  of 
its  .VHX)  to  sfMH)  inhabitants  being  the  money 


Accursed 


12 


Achsah 


spent  by  the  },'arrisoii  or  obtained  l»y  tlie  ex- 
portation of  grain  and  cotton. 

Ac-cur'sed. 

Anything  on  which  a  curse  haf5  been  pro- 
nounced, devotins  it  to  destruction  (Josh.  vi. 
18;  vii.  1, 11.  i:!,  l.'>:  .\-xii.20).  See  Ax.\tiiem.\. 

A-cel'da-ma,  K.  V.  Akeldama  [field  of 
blood]. 

A  field  called  originally  the  Potter's  Field. 
Judas  hanged  liinisell'.  a]>]iarently  in  it,  and 
Ids  body,  for  some  cause,  fell  and  burst 
asunder.  The  chief  priests  ])nrchased  tjie 
field  with  tlu>  thirty  pieces  of  silver  which 
Judas  had  cast  down  in  the  temple,  and  de- 
signed it  to  ])e  a  l)urial  ]>lace  for  strangers 
(^lat.  xxvii.  7.  8).  Peter  alludes  to  .Tudas  as 
actjuiring  tlie  field  (Acts  i.  18, 19).  Probably 
he  does  not  mean  that  it  was  i)urchased  by 
Judas  in  jierson,  but  by  the  priests  with 
Judas"  ill-gotten  money.  The  traditional 
site,  dating  from  the  time  of  Jerome  in  the 
fourth  century,  is  on  the  southern  side  C)f  the 
valley  of  Hinnom.  This  identification  is  not 
improbable,  for  the  locality  is  one  which  can 
furnish  potter's  clay,  and  has  long  been  sur- 
rendered to  burial  purposes.  Many  crusaders 
were  subse(iucntly  buried  there.  Its  modern 
name  is  Hakk  ed-Dumm. 

A-cha'ia. 

Originally  a  state  of  Greece  situated  in  the 
northern  part  of  the  Peloponnesus  (now  the 
Morea),  and  comprehending  Corinth  and  its 
isthmus.  After  (4reece  had  been  conquered 
by  the  Romans,  the  emperor  Augustus  C»sar 
divided  that  country  with  the  adjacent  re- 
gions into  two  provinces,  Macedonia  and 
Achaia.  The  latter  com]trehended  the  whole 
of  the  Peloi)onnesns.  witli  continental  Greece 
S.  of  Illyricum,  Epirus,  and  Thessaly.  Corinth 
was  the  cajiital.  ;ind  was  the  residence  of  the 
proconsul  by  whom  the  province  was  ruled. 
It  is  in  the  second  or  comprehensive  sense 
that  the  word  Achaia  is  used  in  the  New 
Testament  (Acts  xviii.  12,  27;  xix.  21 ;  Eom. 
XV.  2() ;  2  Cor.  i.  1 ;  ix.  2;  1  Thess.  i.  7,  8). 

A-cha'i-cus  [belonging  to  Achaia]. 

A  Christian  who  came  with  two  others  from 
Corinth  to  Paul  (1  Cor.  xvi.  17). 

A'chan  and  Achar  [trouble  ;  or,  he  has 
trou1)lcd]. 

A  son  of  Carmi,  of  the  house  of  Ziniri.  fam- 
ily of  Zerah.  tril)e  of  Judah.  At  the  capture 
of  Jericho  he  apiiroiiriated  to  his  own  use  and 
hid  in  his  tent  a  Babylonish  garment  and  a 
wedge  of  gold.  ]>arl  of  the  spoil  of  .Jericho, 
which  had  been  devoted  to  utter  destruction. 
He  thereby  troubled  Israel.  His  transgres- 
sion led  to  the  defeat  of  the  Israelites  before 
Ai.  Lots  were  then  cast  to  discover  the  cul- 
prit who  had  brought  on  the  catastrojihe,  and 
Achan  was  ]iointed  out  as  the  individual. 
He  made  confession  of  his  guilt,  but  this  did 
not  avert  his  fate.  He  was  stoned  to  death 
in  the  vallev  of  Achor  (Josh.  vii.  1-2G ;  xxii. 
20  ;  1  Chroii.  ii.  7). 


A'char.     See  Achan. 
A'chaz.     Sec  Ah.\z. 
Ach'bor  [a  mouse]. 

1.  The  father  of  IJaal-hanan,  king  of  Edom 
(Gen.  xxxvi.  ;i8 ;  1  Chron.  i.  49). 

2.  The  son  of  Michaiah  and  father  of 
Eluathan.  He  was  a  trusted  officer  at  the 
court  of  Josiah  (2  Kin.  xxii.  12, 14  ;  Jer.  xxvi. 
22  :  xxxvi.  12).  Called  Abdon  in  2  Chron. 
xxxiv.  20. 

A'chim  [Greek,  from  Hebrew  .Jachin  or 
Jakim,  Jehovah  will  establish]. 

An  ancestor  of  Jesus  in  the  line  of  Joseph, 
who  lived  after  the  exile  (Mat.  i.  14). 

A'chisli  [Philistine  name,  meaning  is  un- 
known]. 

The  son  of  Maoch  and  the  king  of  (4ath, 
to  whom  David  twice  fied  during  the  time 
that  he  was  persecuted  bv  Saul  (1  Sain.  xxi. 
10-1.5;  xxvii.  1-12;  xxvii'i.  1,  2;  xxix.  1-11). 
He  is  probably  the  Achish  who  was  king  of 
Gath  at  the  beginning  of  Solomon's  reign  r 
for  the  latter  was  tlie  son  of  Maachah.  a 
name  which  is  radically  identical  with  Maoch 
the  father  of  the  Achish  already  known.  The 
reign  of  about  fifty  years  required  by  this 
assumjttion  is  not  extraordinary  (c]).  among 
many  othei's  the  reigns  of  Uzziah  and  Ma- 
na.sseh).  Achish  survived  his  contemporary, 
David,  at  least  three  years  (1  Kin.  ii.  39).  In 
the  title  of  Ps.  xxxiv.  he  is  called  Abimelech, 
which  appears  to  have  been  an  official  desig- 
nation of  the  Philistine  kings  as  Pharaoh  was 
a  title  of  the  Egy]itian  monarclis. 

Acli'me-tha  [;\li'dian  Ilinifimafdiin]. 

A  citj'  in  the  jn-ovince  of  the  Jledes.  When 
the  Jews  asserted  that  Cyrus  had  issued  a  de- 
cree permitting  them  to  build  the  temple, 
their  adversaries  sent  to  Babylon  to  inquire 
if  the  dociinunt  were  in  existence.  Darius 
ordered  an  investigation.  The  house  of  the 
archives  where  the  treasures  were  laid  up  in 
Babylon  was  first  searched,  but  in  vain.  The 
quest  was  continued  in  Achmetha  in  the 
province  of  the  Medes.  and  the  decree  was 
found  in  the  palace  (Ezra  v.  6-vi.  2).  There 
is  no  reason  to  doubt  that  Achmetha  was 
Ecbatana,  the  capital  of  Media,  the  summer 
residence  of  the  Persian  kings,  and  a  treasure 
city.     It  is  the  modtrn  Ilamadan. 

A'chor  [trouble]. 

The  valley  near  Jericho  where  the  unhappy 
Achan  was  stoned  to  death  (Josh.  vii.  24-2(); 
Is.  Ixv.  10;  Hos.  ii.  15).  It  lay  south  of 
Jericho,  for  it  formed  part  of  the  northern 
boundary  of  Judah  (Josh.  xv.  7),  whereas 
.Icricho  was  a  city  of  Benjamin. 

Ach'sah,  in  A.  V.  once  Achsa  (1  Chron.  ii. 
49).  an  inconsistency  fi'om  which  the  original 
edition  of  A.  V.  was  free  [a  leg-band,  an 
anklet]. 

A  daughter  of  Caleb,  son  of  Jephunneh, 
who  in-oniised  her  in  marriage  to  anyone  who 
should  cajiture  Kirjath-sepher.  Othniel,  his 
vounger   brother   or   half-brother,   took    the 


Achshaph 


13 


Acts  of  the  Apostles 


town,  and  received  the  maiden.  At  her  re- 
<lUfst  her  father  nave  her  the  upper  and 
ni'tht-r  spriii;,'s  (Josh.  xv.  Ui-19 ;  Judg.  i.  12- 
l.">;   1  Cliron.  ii.  IK). 

Ach'sbaph  [tasiiiiatiuu]. 

A  border  town  of  Asher.  orifiiually  Ca- 
naanite,  with  a  kiiij;,  foncniered  by  Josluia 
(Jo.sh.  xi.  1;  xii.  'J(l).  To  jiidj;e  from  Jo.sh. 
xix.  25  it  hiy  not  far  from  Acelio. 

Acll'zll)  or  Che'zib,  as  it  was  with  equal 
correctness  pronounced  by  the  Hebrews  [de- 
ceitful]. 

1.  A  town  of  southern  Palestine  eventually 
included  in  Judah  ((ten.  xxxviii.  r>;  Josh. 
XV.  4t  ;  Mic.  i.  14).  Probably  the  same  jilace 
as  Chozeba  (1  Chron.  iv.  22).  It  is  commonly 
identified  with  ruins  at  the  spring  'Ain  Kez- 
beh,  which  is  apparently  a  corruption  of  the 
old  name. 

2.  A  town  on  the  seacoast  of  A.sber  (Josh. 
xix.  29),  hut  from  which  the  people  of  that 
tril)e  did  not  drive  out  the  Canaanite  inhabi- 
tants (Judg.  i.  .SI).  It  was  known  as  Ekdip- 
]Ki  to  the  (Jreeks  and  Romans  (War.  i.  i:j,  4)  ; 
and  lias  been  identified  as  Zib,  eight  and  a 
half  niihs  north  of  Acre. 

Acts  of  tbe  A-pos'tles,  The. 
The  lifth  book  of  the  X.  T.  The  common 
title,  wliich  is  as  old  as  the  second  ceuturj-, 
does  not  mean  that  the  book  relates  all  the 
acts  of  the  apostles.  Its  imrjiose  was  to  show 
the  establishment  l)y  tlie  Spirit  through  the 
apostles  of  gentile  Christianity.  At  first 
Peter  and  afterwards  Paul  are  most  promi- 
nent ;  hut  fre(iuently  the  apostles  as  a  body 
are  represented  as  taking  action  (Acts  i.  23- 
2(5;  ii.  42  ;  iv.  33  ;  v.  12.  29 ;  vi.  2  ;  viii.  1,  14; 
XV.  G,  23).  The  book  is  addressed  to  a  cer- 
tain Theo])hilus,  probably  a  gentile  Chris- 
tian of  distinction.  The  author  refers  (i.  1) 
to  a  previous  treatise  by  him  concerning 
the  life  and  leachings  of  Christ,  which  was 
clearly  our  Third  (Josjiel,  because  (1)  it  was 
addressed  to  Theophiltis;  (2)  it  consists  of  a 
narrative  of  Christ's  life  and  teaching  until 
his  ascension  (Luke  xxiv.  ol)  ;  (3)  it  ]>resents 
the  ministry  of  Christ  with  sjiecial  reference 
to  its  universal  mission,  which  would  nat- 
urally l)e  the  ]ioint  of  view  adojjteil  by  the  au- 
tliorof  'i^lu-  .\cts;  (4)  the  vocal)ulary  aii<l  style 
of  the  two  books  are  notably  alike.  Further, 
while  the  author  does  not  name  liimself  in 
eithc'r  l)ook,  he  uses  the  first  ]>erson  plural 
in  certain  i)ortions  of  the  narrative  of  Paul's 
journeys  (.\cts  xvi.  10-1,^ ;  xx.  o-xxi.  l-^ : 
xxvii.  1-xxviii.  Ki),  and  by  this  intimates  that 
he  was  a  comi)anioii  of  the  a]>ostle  :  that  he 
Joiiieil  him  on  liis  second  journey  at  Troas 
and  accoinpanie(l  bini  to  Pbili]i]ii,  again  re- 
joined him  at  Philipjii  in  the  third  journey 
and  went  with  bim  to  .lerusalem.  and  trav- 
eled with  him  from  ( 'a'sarea  to  Konie.  The 
earliest  tradition  of  the  ]iost-aiu)stolic  age 
assigns  both  the  Third  (iospel  and  The  Acts  to 
Luke,  and  tlie  allusions  to  I^uke  in  Paul's 
epistles  accord  with  the  above  references  to 


his  movements  in  The  Acts,  while  no  other  of 
Paul's  known  comi)anions  will  fit  into  them. 
From  Col.  iv.  14.  Pliilem.  24,  we  learn  that 
Luke  was  with  Paul  in  Home,  and  no  men- 
tion of  liiin  occurs  in  e|)istles  written  when, 
according  to  The  Acts,  its  author  was  not  with 
the  apostle.  Moreover,  the  use  of  med- 
ical terms  (see  Ilobart,  The  Medical  Liniijiiarie 
of  SI.  Luke)  and  the  classical  elements  in  his 
style,  as  well  as  his  evident  ac(|iiaiiilaiice  with 
the  Roman  world,  indicate  that  the  author 
was  an  educated  man  such  as  a  physician 
Would  be  likely  to  be.  There  shr)uld  be  no 
doubt,  therefore,  tliat  Luke  wr<jte  both  the 
third  (Tospel  and  The  Acts.  'i"he  ])Uri)ose  of 
Tlu'  Acts  has  been  already  stated.  ( 'ha)),  i.  re- 
counts Christ's  last  interviews  with  the  apos- 
tles through  forty  days,  his  promise  of  the 
Spirit  and  his  command  to  jireach  to  all  the 
World  (ver.  W),  followed  by  his  ascension  and 
the  actions  of  the  disci]iles  until  Pentecost. 
Then  follows  an  account  of  the  church  in 
Jerusalem  after  Pentecost  (ii.  1-viii.  3),  in 
which  certain  representative  facts  are  de- 
scribed (the  first  conversions,  the  first  ojipo- 
sition,  the  first  discijiline,  the  first  persecu- 
tion, till'  first  organization,  the  first  martyr- 
dom), and,  after  each,  a  lirief  notice  of  its 
effect  ujion  the  Church  (see  ii.  41-47;  iv.  23- 
37:  V.  11-1«.  41,  42;  vi.  7;  viii.  1-3).  Here 
Peter  is  most  iirominent,  though  the  first 
martyr  and  the  man  who  iireiKircd  for  the  fol- 
lowing jieriod  wasSteplii'ii.  Next  we  have  an 
account  of  the  transition  of  tlie  Church  to  a 
missionary  religion,  offering  salvation  by 
faith  alone  to  all  men  (viii.  4-xii.  2.''>i.  Here 
five  signilicant  events  are  described:  (1) 
Pliilil)'s  work  in  Samaria  and  the  Ethiopian 
steward's  conversion  (viii.  4-4(») ;  (2i  Saul's 
conversion  and  earliest  preaching  (ix.  1-.'{(I)  ; 
(3i  Peti'r's  missionary  work  in  ."^yria.  li'iKlinii 
to  the  conversion  of  Cornelius  and  tlir  rnu- 
viction  of  the  Church  that  the  gosjiel  wa>  for 
gentiles  (ix.  31-xi.  18);  (4)  the  founding  of 
the  gentile  church  of  Antioch,  a  new  ciiiter 
for  further  gentile  work  (xi.  19-30)  :  (.')!  the 
lli'rodiau  iKTseciition  wlu'rcby  the  Jewish 
state  finally  repndiati'd  Christianity  (xii.). 
Then  follows  the  establishment  of 'Christi- 
anity, chietly  through  Paul,  in  the  i)rinci]>al 
centers  of  the  empire  (xiii.  to  the  end).  This 
was  done  in  three  great  journeys:  the  first, 
to  Cyprus  and  the  interior  of  Asia  Minor 
(xiii.;  xiv.),  led  to  the  Council  of  Jeru- 
.sileni  (xv.  l-3.'i),  when  tlie  standing  in  the 
Church  of  uncircumcised  gentiles  was  for- 
mally recognized  ;  th<'  second,  to  Macedonia 
and  (Greece  ( x v.  3<i-xviii.  22i;  the  third,  to 
Ephesus  as  well  as  (ireece  (xviii.  23-xx.  3), 
followed  by  Paul's  last  visit  to  Jernsjileni 
(XX.  4-xxi.  2l)),  where  ho  was  arresteil.  and, 
after  defending  liimself  before  the  Jews, 
Felix,  Festus,  and  .\gripi»a,  and  after  two 
yea  in'  imprisonment  inCiesjirea  (xxi.27-xxvi. 
32)  was  S4'nt.  on  his  a])peal  to  the  emperor,  to 
Kome  (xxvii.  1-xxviii.  i(i).  where  he  preached 
for  two  years  (x xviii.  17-31).     Many  think 


Adadah 


14 


Adbeel 


that  The  Acts  was  written  just  at  the  close  of 
these  "two  years"  (;.  e.  A.  I).  (i:5).  Otliers 
tliiiik  Luke  ended  there  Ijecause  his  object 
was  attained  in  l)rin'i;ing  Paul,  as  an  ai)os- 
tolie  ])reaclier,  to  Konie,  or  because  he  in- 
tended to  write  a  tliird  1 k  descriptive  of 

later  events,  and  tliat  The  Acts  sliould  be 
datt'd  a  tew  years  later  tlian  03.  The  re- 
markable liistorical  accuracy  of  The  Acts  has 
been  i)roved  by  modern  research  (see  e.  <j. 
Eanisay's  Cliiinh  in  the  Haiiuoi  E)iij)irr).  Its 
]iarnu)ny  with  I'aul's  e]iistles  lias  been  nuich 
debated  and  successfully  defended.  It  is 
written  with  much  artistic  jiower,  and  sup- 
l)lies  the  information  necessary  to  explain 
the  rise  of  Christianity  as  a  universal  religion 
during  the  thirty-thri'e  years  from  the  death 
of  Christ  covered  by  its  narrative.    G.  t.  p. 

Ad'a-dah  [holiday,  festival]. 

A  town  on  the  extreme  south  of  the  tribe 
of  Judah  (Josh.  xv.  22).  It  has  not  been 
identified,  unless  Adada  is  a  misreading  of 
'Ar'ara  (cp.  Septuagiut).     See  Aroer  3. 

A'dah  [as  a  Hebrew  word,  means  adorn- 
ment, beauty]. 

1.  ( >ne  of  Ijaniech's  wives,  and  mother  of 
Jabal  and  .Tubal  (Gen.  iv.  19-21,  23). 

2.  <)ne  of  Esau's  wives,  daughter  of  Elon, 
the  Hittite  (Gen.  xxxvi.  2,  4)  ;  in  Gen.  xxvi.  34 
called  Bashennith.  Doulile  names  are  frequent 
among  men  ;  and  it  is  stated  that  women  in 
the  East  more  frequently  adopt  new  names 
than  do  men.  and  are  apt  to  alter  their  name 
if  they  re-marry  or  change  their  religion. 

A-da'iah  [Jehovah  has  adorned]. 

1.  A  man  of  Bozkath.  father  of  Josiah's 
mother  (2  Kin.  xxii.  1,  R.  V.). 

2.  A  Ijcvite  descended  from  Gershom  (1 
Chron.  vi.  41,  42). 

3.  A  priest,  descended  through  Jeroham 
from  Malchijah  (1  Chron.  ix.  12:  Neh.  xi.  12). 

4.  A  Benjamite,  son  of  Shimhi  (1  Chron. 
viii.  21). 

5.  A  son  of  Bani,  induced  by  Ezra  to  put 
away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  29). 

6.  The  son  of  another  Bani.  He  was  sim- 
ilarly jiersuaded  (Ezra  x.  39). 

7.  A  son  of  .Toiarib  (Neh.  xi.  5). 

8.  Father  of  Maaseiah  (2  Chron.  xxiii.  1). 

A-da'li-a  [Persian  name]. 

One  of  Haman's  ten  sons  (Esth.  ix.  8). 

Ad'am  [human  being,  meaning  etymologi- 
cally  either  ruddy  or  formed]. 

1.  The  first  human  being.  Mankind  was 
made,  as  were  all  other  created  things,  ))y  God 
(Gen.  i.  26)  :  and  was  made  male  and  female 
(27 ;  Mat.  six.  4-6),  the  man  being  first 
formed,  then  the  woman  ((ien.  ii.  7.  20-23;  1 
Tim.  ii.  13).  Like  other  animals  and  later  men, 
his  body  was  formed  ()f  the  ordinary  ma- 
terials of  the  universe  and  life  was  granted 
by  (lod  ((tOU.  ii.  7  ;  <•]>.  19  ;  vi.  17  ;  vii.  22  ;  Job 
x.8-12;  xxvii.3;  xxsiii.  4).  He  was  niiide  in 
the  image  of  God  (Gen.  i.  26,  27).  Paul  de- 
scribes the  similarity  as  consisting  in  knowl- 


edge, or,  more  completely,  in  knowledge, 
righteousness,  and  true  holiness  (  Eph.  iv.  22- 
25;  Col.  iii.  9,  10).  Mankind  was  invested 
with  dominion  over  the  inferior  animals  (Gen. 
i.  26-28)  ;  was  exhorted  to  be  fruitful  and  to 
multiply,  and  rejilenish  the  earth,  and  sub- 
due it  (28)  ;  and  shared  in  the  ajiproval  when 
(lod  pronounced  that  everything  which  he 
had  made  was  very  good  (31). 

Adam,  the  first  of  mankind,  was  placed 
with  Eve  in  the  garden  of  Eden  to  dress  it 
and  kee])  it  in  order.  A  conimand  was  laid 
upon  him,  in  the  nature  of  a  covenant  of  life 
and  death  (Gen.  ii.  16,  17).  On  his  transgres- 
sion, sentence  of  death  was  passed  upon  him, 
toil  and  undesired  results  were  annexed  to 
labor,  and  he  was  expelled  from  the  garden 
(iii.  1-24 ;  2  Esdr.  iii.  4-7,  21,  22).  Afterwards 
he  had  children,  Cain.  Abel,  and.  when  he  was 
130  years  old,  Seth.  He  lived  800  years  more, 
at  last  dying  at  the  age  of  930.  See  Chronol- 
ogy. Paul  draws  a  dt)uble  parallel  between 
Adam  and  Christ,  calling  our  Lord  the  last 
Adam  (Rom.  v.  12  21 ;  1  Cor.  xv.  22,  4.5). 

2.  A  city  in  the  Jordan  valley  beside  Zare- 
than  (Josh.  iii.  16).  Its  identification  with 
ed-Damieh  on  the  western  bank  of  the  river, 
less  than  a  mile  below  the  mouth  of  the 
Jabbok  and  eighteen  miles  above  Jericho, 
must  be  received  with  caution. 

Ad'a-mah  [soil]. 

A  fenced  city  of  Naphtali  (Josh.  xix.  36). 
The  Palestine  explorers  place  it  at  ed-Damieh, 
five  miles  southwest  of  Tiberias. 

Ad'a-mant  [in  Greek,  unconquerable]. 

An  extremely  hard  metal  or  mineral,  espe- 
cially the  diamond.  It  is  the  traditional  ren- 
dering of  the  Hebrew  Shrnnir,  a  hard  sub- 
stance compared  with  flint  and  the  stony 
heart  (Ezck.  iii.  9;  Zech.  vii.  12).  and  used 
to  point  graving  tools  (Jer.  xvii.  1,  where  it 
is  rendered  "diamond''). 

Ad'a-mi  [human],  in  R.  V.  Adami-nekeb 
[perhaps,  Adami  of  the  pass]. 

A  frontier  town  of  Naphtali  (Josh.  xix.  33). 
Conder  identifies  Adami  with  the  ruined  vil- 
lage of  Admah  on  the  table-land  southwest 
from  the  sea  of  Galilee.     See  Nekeb. 

A'dar,  I.  [perhaps,  amplitude]. 

A  town  of  Judah,  better  written  Addar 
(q.  v.). 

A'dar,  II.  [Assyro-babyloniau  adaru  and 
addant.  jirobably  dark,  cloudy]. 

The  lati-r  name  of  the  twelfth  month  of 
the  Jewish  year,  borrowed  by  the  Jews  from 
the  Babvlonian  calendar  during  the  exile 
(Ezra  vi'.  15;  Esth.  iii.  7,  13;  ix.  15).  It  ex- 
tended from  the  new  moon  in  February  to 
that  in  ^March.     Sec  Year. 

Ad'a-sa. 

A  town  near  Beth-horon  (1  Mac.  vii.  40,  45, 
cp.  39;  Antiq.  xii.  10,  5),  at  the  junction  of 
the  two  main  lines  of  advance  on  Jerusalem, 
from  the  north. 

Ad'be-el  [iierhaps,  a  miracle  of  God]. 


Addan 


15 


Adonijah 


A  sou  of  Ishmael  (Gen.  xxv.  13 ;  1  Chron. 

i.  2!ti. 

Ad'dan  or  Addon ;  the  iiroiumciatioii  with 
ii,  which  Hiipciirs  to  l)e  Aramaic  or  Hal).v- 
loniaii,  bi'iii;^  exchaiif^ed  for  its  re^uhir  lle- 
hri'W  iiiiMlilicatiini  [Ilahyloniaii,  native  form 
and  nicaiiiiii;  unkuDwn]. 

A  iilaci'  in  l)al>ylonia  from  whicli  i)cople 
wlio  could  not  i)rove  their  Israelitish  descent 
went  to  I'ak'stine  after  the  captivity  (Ezraii. 
r.!t;  Nch.  vii.  ()1). 

Ad'dar  [jurhaiis,  largeness]. 

1.  A  town  of  . I iidah,  on  tlie  southern  bound- 
ary line  of  Palestine  (.losh.  xv.  '.i,  in  A.  V. 
written  Adar;  and  Num.  xxxiv.  4).  In  the 
latt<'r  i)assii;,'e  it  is  called  Hazar-addar,  i.  e. 
village  of  Addar. 

•J.  A  Henjamite.     See  Ard. 

Ad'der. 

'^lu^  renderinjj  of  four  IIe))rew  words,  re- 
fcrrinj;  iir<ihahly  to  four  distinct  species  of 
venomous  snake. 

1.  Slt'jjhifhon,  the  creeper.  Probably  the 
Viprnt  crnisti'x,  tlu'  Horm-d  Sand-snake  of 
Aral)ia  and  Kjiyjit.  .\t  Tliehcs  it  was  re- 
garded as  sacred  (cp.  Henjd.  ii.  74).  It  is  a 
ven(»mous  viper,  three  to  six  feet  long,  of  a 
gray  color,  and  with  a  horn  above  each  eye. 
It  hides  in  the  sand,  and  may  well  be  the 
seri)ent  which  l)ite.s  the  horses'  heels  so  that 
the  rider  falls  backward  ((ien.  xlix.  17). 

2.  I'i'thcn.  a  species  of  .seri)ent  incapable  of 
being  alfected  by  the  voice  of  the  snake- 
charmer,  and  therefore  called  the  deaf  adder 
(Ps.  Iviii.  4,  .")).  It  is  very  venomous  (xci. 
l.'i).  It  is  the  asp  of  Deut.  xsxii.  :5.i;  Job 
XX.  14,  1(J ;  and  Isaiah  xi.  8.  Probably  the 
Na}a  haje  of  Egj'pt ;    see  Asp. 

3.  'Aktihiib  (Ps.  cxl.  3).  In  the  Septuagint 
and  in  the  ([notation  in  Kom.  iii.  l.'J  it  is 
translated  "asii."  Bochart  considers  it  the 
Common  .Vdder  (Pflins  hcnts),  and  Colonel 
Hamilton  Smith  the  PntF  .\dder  of  the  Cape 
Colonists,  Vipcra  (trietaiis,  but  there  is  as  yet 
no  certainty  as  to  the  identification. 

4.  Si/ili'oni  (Prov.  xxiii.  '.i'2),  translated  in 
Is.  xi.  s;  xiv.  S!*:  lix.  5,  cockatrice  or  basi- 
lisk ;  see  these  words. 

Ad'di  [(Jreek.  from  a  Hebrew  name  not  oc- 
curring in  the  (>.  T.]. 

An  ancestor  of  Christ  who  lived  several 
generations  l)efore  Zerubbal)el  (Luke  iii.  28). 

Ad'don.     Sec  .\i)D.\n'. 

A'der.     See  Ei)p:r. 

Ad'l-da.     See  .\i)ITH\im  and  Hadid. 

A'di-el  [ornament  of  (iod]. 

1.    A  Simeonite  ll  Chron.  iv.  .3f)). 

■J.  .\  jiriest.  son  of  .lahzerah  (1  Chron.  ix. 
1-2). 

3.  Father  of  the  supervisor  of  David's 
treasuries  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  2.")). 

A'din  [soft,  delicate]. 

Founder  of  a  family,  members  of  which 
returned    from     Babvhm    with    Zerubbabel 


(Ezra  ii.  15)  and  Ezra  (viii.  6).  Its  chief 
signed  the  covenant  made  by  Nehemiah  to 
serve  Jehovah  (N'eh.  x.  IG). 

Ad'i-na  [delicate]. 

\  Keubcnite,  one  of  David's  military  olli- 
cers  (1  Chron.  xi.  42). 

Ad'i-no. 

One  of  David's  mighty  men,  an  Eznite ; 
the  siime  as  Joshel)-basshebeth  (2  Sam.  xxiii. 
8  A.  v.,  and  A.  V.  margin  and  R.  V.).  The 
verse  as  it  stands  is  defective.  Luther  and 
most  modern  interi)ri'ters  change  the  text, 
altering  the  words  "Adino  the  Eznite"  to 
accord  with  1  Chron.  xi.  11. 

Ad-i-tha'im  [i)erhaps,  double  booty-town], 

A  town  in  the  lowland  of  Judah  (Josh.  xv. 
3fi).  Sometimes  identified  with  Adida,  but 
Adida  is  rather  Hadid. 

Ad'lai  [justice,  or  possibly  justice  of  Je- 
hovah]. 

Father  of  a  herdsman  of  David  (1  Chron. 
xxvii.  29). 

Ad'mah  [i)erhai>s,  redness]. 

One  of  the  cities  of  the  i)lain  (Gen.  x.  19; 
xiv.  2, 8)  which  was  destroyed  with  Sodom  and 
Gomorrah  (Gen.  xix.  25,  28,  2fi ;  Deut.  xxix. 
23;   IIos.  xi.  K). 

Ad'ma-tha  [Persian  name  of  doubtful 
meaning]. 

One  of  the  seven  princes  of  Persia  and 
Media  under  Ahasuerus  (Esth.  i.  14). 

Ad'na  [Aramaic,  pleasure]. 

1.  \  i)riest,  head  of  the  father's  house 
Ilarim  in  the  second  generation  after  the 
exile  (Neh.  xii.  15). 

2.  -V  son  of  Pahath-moab.  induced  by  Ezra 
to  divorce  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  30). 

Ad'nah  [i)leasure]. 

1.  A  ^Iana.ssite  who  joined  David  atZiklag 
(1  Chron.  xii.  20). 

2.  .\  man  of  Jiulah,  of  high  military  rank 
under  .lelioshapliat  (2  Chron.  xvii.  141. 

A-do'ni-he'zek  [lord  of  Hezek]. 

A  king  of  Hezek,  conquered  by  the  war- 
riors of  the  tribe  of  .Judab.  who  inllicted  on 
him  a  cruel  mutilation.  This  he  regarded  as 
a  divine  rcciuital  for  similar  cruelties  peri)e- 
trated  i)V  him  on  seventv  kings  (Judg.  i. 
4-7). 

Ad-0-ni'jali  [Jehovah  is  lord]. 

1.  A  son  of  David  by  Haggith,  one  of  his 
wives.  He  was  the  fourth  son  born  to  the 
king  at  Hebron  (2  Sam.  iii.  2.  I).  He  was  a 
goodly,  jirobalily  meaning  a  hand.some,  young 
man.  and  apparently  his  father's  next  favor- 
ite after  .\l)s;ilom.  Blinded  by  this  foolish 
fondnes,s.  David  never  displea.sed  him  at  any 
time  in  Siiying,  Why  hast  thou  done  so"? 
Wlu'ii  Davitl  was  stricken  in  years  .\donijali 
attemi)ted  to  seize  the  throne.  He  won  to 
his  cause  Joab,  wlio,  he  hoj)ed,  would  bring 
with  him  the  army  ;  and  .\biathar,  the  priest, 
who.  he  expect«'d,  would  bring  witli  him  the 
priests  and   the   Levites.      But   Zadok    the 


Adonikam 


16 


Adullam 


priest,  Bcnaiah,  commander  of  the  royal 
bodvfjuard,  and  Nathan  the  iiroplict  he  was 
unabk'  to  seduce  fruni  tlieir  aliegiancc.  He 
invited  iiis  iiartisaiis  to  a  f^reat  (ijien-air  feast 
at  the  stone  of  Zdliek'tli  l\v  the  fountain  of 
Eogel,  and  had  liiniself  jjniclainied  kinj^. 
But  Solomon  had  been  divinely  elioseu  to  be 
the  successor  to  David  ;  and  Hath-sheba,  Sol- 
omon's mother,  supported  by  Nathan  the 
projiliet,  waited  on  the  asj^ed  king  to  report 
the  proceedings  of  Adonijali  and  ask  instruc- 
tions. Promptly,  by  David's  order,  Solomon 
was  proclaimed  king  ;  the  open-air  feast  came 
to  an  abru])t  terniination,  the  guests  took  to 
flight,  and  Adonijah  sought  asylum  at  the 
ajtiir  (1  Kin.  i.  5-,')i)).  Solomon  pardoned  him 
for  the  time,  but  finding  him  acting  in  such 
a  way  as  to  create  the  suspicion  that  he  was 
again  aiming  at  the  kingdom,  put  him  to 
death  (vs.  5l-r>3  ;  ii.  V.i-2r>). 

2.  One  of  the  Levites  whom  Jehoshaphat 
sent  to  instruct  the  people  of  Judah  (2  Chron. 
xvii.  8). 

3.  For  Neh.  x.  Ifi,  see  Adoxikam. 
Ad-0-ni'kam  [the  Lord  arises]. 
Founder  of  a  family,  members  of  which 

returned  from  Babylou  both  with  Zerubbabel 
and  with  Ezra  (Ezra  ii.  13  :  viii.  13 ;  Neh.  vii. 
18).  The  head  of  this  family,  apparently, 
sealed  the  covenant  in  Nehemiah's  time  (Neh. 
X.  16),  but  is  called  Adonijah. 

Ad-o-ni'ram  [the  Lord  is  exalted] . 

An  olhcer  who  was  over  the  tribute  during 
the  reigns  of  David  and  Solomon.  He  was 
the  son  of  Abda,  and  was  called  also  Adorara 
(2  Sam.  XX.  24)  and  Hadoram  (2  Chron.  x. 
18).  When  the  ten  tribes  revolted,  Eehoboam 
sent  him  to  treat  with  the  rebels,  who,  how- 
ever, instead  of  listening  to  him,  stoned  him 
to  death  (2  Sam.  xx.  24  ;  1  Kin.  iv.  6  ;  xii.  18  ; 
2  ('hron.  x.  18). 

A-do*ni-ze'dek,  in  A.  V.  Adonizedec  [lord 
of  righteousness]. 

A  king  of  Jerusalem  who,  on  learning  that 
Ai  had  been  captured  by  the  Israelites,  and 
that  the  Gibeonites  had  made  peace  with 
Joshua,  formed  a  confederacy  with  four  other 
Amorite  kings  to  puni.sh  Gibeon.  He  and 
his  confederates  were  defeated,  taken,  and 
slain  (Josh.  x.  1-27).  In  the  Septuagint  called 
Adonibezek. 

A-dop'tion. 

The  act  of  t.aking  a  stranger  to  be  one's 
own  child,  as  in  the  case  of  Moses  and  Esther 
(Ex.  ii.  10;  Esth.  ii.  7). 

In  the  N.  T.  the  word  is  used  to  denote: 

1.  The  choice  by  Jehovah  of  the  Jewish 
nation  to  be  his  special  peojde  (Rom.  ix.  4). 

2.  The  recejition  of  all  true  Christians  to 
be  in  a  special  sense  the  sons  of  God  (Gal.  iv. 
5;  Ei)h.i.4).  The  spirit  of  adoiitiou  enalihs  us 
to  feel  to  God  as  children  to  a  loving  father. 
It  is  distinguished  from  the  si)irit  of  bondage, 
which  compels  one  to  feel  to  him  as  a  slave 
to  a  master  (Rom.  viii.  14-21). 

3.  The  redemption  of  the  body  ;  its  deliv- 


erance from  sin,  pain,  and  death  in  the  glori- 
fied state  (Rom.  viii.  23). 

A-do'ra.     See  Adok.^im. 

Ad-o-ra'im  [perhaps,  two  mounds]. 

A  city  of  ,Iu(lah  fortified  by  Rehoboam  (2 
Chron.  xi.  9).  It  is  i)robably' identical  with 
Adora.  shortened  into  Dora,  a  town  of  the  in- 
terior, near  Idunuea,  and  after  the  exile  reck- 
oned as  belonging  to  the  latter  country  (.\n- 
tic).,  xiii.  9,  1  :  1.5.  4;  xiv.  5,  3;  War,  i.  2,  5; 
1  Mac.  xiii.  20).  Since  Robinson's  researches, 
it  is  identified  with  Dura,  a  village  on  a  hill- 
side five  miles  west  of  Hel)ron. 

A-do'ram.    See  Adonikam. 

A-dram'me-lecli  [god  Adar  is  king]. 

1.  A  deity  to  whom  tii<'  colonists  of  Sa- 
maria, who  had  been  brought  from  Sephar- 
vaim,  burnt  their  children  in  the  fire  (2  Kin. 
xvii.  31).  The  god  Adar  was  the  sun  wor- 
shiped under  a  particular  attribute. 

2.  A  son  of  Sennacheril).  With  another 
brother  he  murdered  his  father,  and  after- 
wards escaped  to  Armenia  (2  Kin.  xix.  37 ;  Is. 
xxxvii.  38). 

Ad-ra-mjrt'ti-um. 

A  maritime  city  in  .Eolia.  Under  the  Ro- 
mans it  belonged  to  the  province  of  Asia. 
The  vessel  in  which  Paul  embarked  at  Ca'sa- 
rea  for  Rome  was  a  ship  of  Adramyttium. 
about  to  sail  to  the  places  on  the  coast  of 
Asia  (Acts  xxvii.  2). 

A'dri-a. 

A  i)art  of  the  Mediterranean  (Acts  xxvii. 
27).  The  name  was  derived  from  the  com- 
mercial town  of  Adria  on  the  lower  Po.  and 
in  the  narrowest  sense  it  denoted  only  the 
neighboring  part  of  the  sea.  But  the  name 
was  extended  to  include  the  expanse  of  sea 
as  far  as  the  extreme  southern  points  of 
Greece  and  Italy  (Ptolemy  iii. ;  Pausauias, 
Eliac.  V.  ;  Procopius,  Bell.  Vand.  i.  14). 

A'dri-el  [flock  of  God]. 

A  Meholathite,  to  whom  Saul  gave  his 
daughter  ilerab  in  marriage,  though  he  had 
prcviou.sly  promised  her  conditionally  to 
David  (1  Sam.  xviii.  19). 

A-dul'lam  [enclosure]. 

A  town  in  the  .'-ihephelah,  in  the  territory 
of  Judah,  nu'utioned  between  Jarmuth  and 
Socoh  (Josh.  XV.  3.")).  It  was  in  existence,  in- 
habited by  Canaanites.  as  early  as  the  time 
of  Jacob  (Gen.  xxxviii.  1.  2).  A  petty  king 
ruled  over  it  at  the  tinu'  of  the  conquest 
(Josh.  xii.  ].">).  It  was  fortified  by  Rehoboam 
(2  Chron.  xi.  7),  continiud  to  fiourish  in 
the  time  of  Micah  the  proiihet  (Mic.  i.  15), 
and  was  inhabited  after  the  exile  (Neh.  xi. 
30;  2  Mac.  xii.  .38).  In  its  vicinity  was  the 
cave  whic-h  Daviil  at  one  ]ieriod  of  his  wan- 
derings made  liis  lic;ul(iuarters.  and  whither 
his  father  and  his  lirethren  and  many  other 
adherents  went  down  to  join  him  (1  Sam. 
xxii. ;  2  Sam.  xxiii.  13;  Antiq.  vi.  12,  3).  M. 
Clermont-Ganueau  is  possibly  right  in  hear- 
ing au  echo  of  the  name  still  lingering  iu 


Adultery 


Agar 


Aid  el-Miyeh.  This  iiaino  belongs  to  a  hill 
which  is  tTo\vm-(l  with  a  fortress  ami  has 
caves  ill  its  sides.  The  hill  stands  on  the 
Hoiitli  side  of  a  ravini-  at  its  junction  with 
the  southern  extension  of  the  vaUey  of  Eiaii 
(es-Sunt).  and  is  ahout  two  miles  from  the 
jilace  wliere  tlie  li^lil  took  place  between 
David  and  Goliath. 
A-dul'ter-y. 

1.  In  a  special  sense,  se.Kual  intercourse  of 
a  married  man  witli  a  feniah'  not  his  wife,  or 
tliat  of  a  married  woman  with  a  man  not  her 
husband.  I'olyjiamy,  with  inferior  wives  and 
concubines,  is  not  adultery.  Under  the  Mo- 
saic law  adultery  was  punished  with  death 
(Lev.  XX.  lOl. 

•J.  In  a  geuenil  sense,  all  sexual  impurity 
in  thiiujiiit,  word,  or  deed,  or  whatever  tends 
thereto.  This  is  the  sense  iu  the  seventh 
commandment,  interpreted  on  the  principles 
of  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount  (Ex.  xx.  14; 
Deut.  V.  IS;  Mat.  v.  -27.  •2-<). 

'.i.  Fifiuratively,  the  worship  of  false  gods 
or  otlier  infidelity  to  the  covenant  with  Jeho- 
vah (.ler.  iii.  S,  !»;  Ezek.  xxiii.  'i7.  4li:  Hos. 
ii.  2-i:{i,  (rod  claiming  our  undivided  atTec- 
tions,  as  a  husl)and  dues  the  undivided  re- 
gard of  the  woman  wlio  has  sworn  him 
fidelity. 
A-diun'mlm  [red  objects], 
Tlie  ascent  of  Adiimmini  is  a  pass  leading 
u])  from  the  Jordan  valley  to  the  hill  country. 
The  lioundary  between  .Tudah  and  Benjamin 
]i:issed  near  it  (.Josh.  xv.  7:  xviii.  17),  and 
the  siiortest  and  most  traveled  road  from 
Jeru.salem  to  .Jericho  ran  through  it.  Ac- 
cording to  Jerome,  the  name  belonged  to  a 
hamlet,  which  in  his  day  was  lying  in  ruins, 
and  which  was  still  called  Maledomim.  aj)- 
parently  the  full  Hebrew  phrase  Ascent  of 
Adummim.  Jerome  ascribes  the  origin  of  the 
name  to  the  blood  frequently  spilled  there  by 
robbers  (cp.  Luke  x.  30) ;  but  it  more  prob- 
ably aro.se  from  the  red  marl  of  the  iieigh- 
borlxiod.  An  echo  of  the  name  is  still  heard 
in  Tala'at  ed-I)umm,  Ascent  of  Blood,  the 
name  given  to  a  hill  and  fortre:«  half  way 
between  ,Ierusalem  and  .Jericho,  and  to  the 
wady  which  the  road  folhjws  downward. 

JE'ne-AS  [Latin  from  N.  T.  Greek  Aiiicd.i, 
classic  (ireek  Aineias;  the  name  of  a  Trojan 
hern]. 

A  man  at  I^ydda  bedrid<len  eight  years  with 
palsy.  His  restoration  by  the  power  of  the 
ri-;en  ,Iesus  resulted  in  large  increase  of  the 
(  Inucli  iu  that  region  (.\cts  ix.  '.i^-'d'i). 

.£'non  [(Jreek.  i)robably  from  Aramaic 
'cnnvdii.  fiiuntains], 

\  village,  (ir  nu'rely  a  locality  of  perennial 
springs,  near  Salim,  where  .John  at  one  time 
at  least  bai)tized  because  there  was  there 
much  water  (or,  as  in  (ireek,  many  waters) 
(John  iii.  •2'.\).  The  site  has  not  been  iden- 
tified. But  according  to  Jerome.  .Enon  and 
.Salim  were  situated  in  the  .Inrilan  valley, 
eight  Roman  miles  .south  of  .Scytlmpolis.  The 


narae.s  have  cea.sed  to  be  heard.  Measure- 
ment indicates  either  the  jilace  now  called 
ed-Deir,  iu  the  neighborhood  of  which  are 
seven  si)rings  and  extensive  ruins,  or  Umm 
el-'Amdan,  hard  by  on  the  east,  or  the  ruins 
and  spring  at  the  base  of  Tell  Ridghah, 
which,  however,  is  only  seven  Roman  miles 
from  .S'ythoiMilis. 

The  modern  map  can,  indeed,  show  villages 
bearing  the  names  of  'Ainun  and  Salim.  A 
town  calle<l  .'>alim  is  situat<'d  four  miles  ea.st 
of  Sliecliem,  on  an  extensive  plateau  south 
of  the  wady  Ear'ah.  'Ainun  is  a  ruin  on  the 
eastern  sloiie  of  the  wady  Tubas,  aijout  ten 
miles  northeast  of  Shechem  and  four  miles 
north  of  the  Ear'ah  valley.  The  olyection  to 
identifying  'Ainun  with  .Jmiou  mentioned  by 
John  is  that  'Ainun  is  not  near  ."^alim.  The 
villages  are  distant  from  each  other  about 
eight  miles,  and  the  great  wady  Ear'ah  lies 
between.  "Ainun  is  but  little  farther  from 
the  inijuirtant  city  of  Shechem  than  from 
Salim,  and  is  more  closely  ciiunected  with 
Shechem  by  road.  Rejecting  'Ainun,  one 
thinks  of  the  identiful  waters  of  the  Ear'ah 
valley  but  three  miles  distant  from  Salim.  or 
even  the  two  living  s[)rings  which  sui)]ily 
.Salim  with  water;  but  a  place  of  fountains 
near  this  .Salim  would  be  in  .Samaria,  and  it  is 
scarcely  probable  that  John  tlie  Bai>tist  was 
laboring  among  the  .Samaritans  ^cp.  Mat.  iii. 
.5  ;  X.  .") ;  Luke  iii.  3). 

The  only  other  site  i)roposed,  which  oflers 
any  attractions,  is  Shilhim,  in  the  Septuagiut 
Seleeim,  in  the  wilderness  iu  the  extreme 
south  of  Judah,  near  which  was  a  place  called 
Ain  (.losh.  XV.  '.V2)  ;  but  .\in  is  constantly  con- 
nected with  Rimmon  an<l  not  with  Shilhim. 

Ag'a-bus  [meaning  is  uncertain]. 

A  Christian  proi)het  of  Ji-rusalem.  He 
went  to  Antioch  and  itredicteda  great  famine 
which  took  idacc  in  the  days  of  the  em])eror 
Claudius  (Acts  xi.  "is ;  see  Anti<|.  xx.  2,  <> ;  '■>, 
2).  When  Paul  i)asse<l  through  Ca-siirea  on 
his  last  journey  to  .lerusiUem.  .Vgabus.  who 
was  there,  bouiul  his  own  hands  and  feet  with 
Paul's  girdle,  and  announced  that  thiswould 
be  done  also  to  the  owner  of  the  girdle  when 
he  reached  the  cajiital  I.Vcts  xxi.  10,  111. 

A'gag  [jierhaps,  flaming]. 

Whether  .\gag  was  a  title  of  the  kings  of 
Amalek.  as  riiaraoh  was  for  those  of  Eg.vjit, 
or  was  a  recurring  name  in  the  royal  Hue,  is 
unknown.     ,Specially 

1.  .\  king  of  ,\nialek  whose  greatness  was 
alluded  to  by  Balaam  (Num.  xxiv.  7i. 

•J.  The  king  tif  .\malek  slain  by  Samuel, 
after  he  had  bi'cn  spared  l>y  Saul  (1  ,Sani.  xv. 
0-:i:{). 

A'gag-ite. 

An  ai)pellation  given  to  Haman,  the  great 
enemy  of  the  Jews  lE^th,  iii.  1,  10;  viii.  :{-.">l. 
Its  reference  to  his  .\malekite  descent  (.\n- 
ti<i.  xi.  <i,  ">,  and  see  A(J.\ii)  is  extremely 
doubtful. 

A'gar.      See   II  \{,\\\. 


Agate 


18 


Ahab 


Agate  [iiaimd  fnuii  :i  river  in  Sicily  near 
which  ihf  a>;;ilc  alidiiiKicd]. 

A  inttioiis . stone  cuiiiiKised  of  various  kinds 
of  cohired  (iiiartz,  especially  of  amethyst, 
ehaleedony,  and  jasi)er.  Two  Hebrew  words 
are  so  rendered  : 

1.  h'udkod,  which  means  sparkling  (Is.  liv. 
12:  K/.ok.  xxvii.  KJ,  in  A.  V.).  This  charac- 
teristic ill  acc(n-ds  with  the  agate,  which  in 
its  natural  state  is  wanting  in  lustre;  hence 
tlie  K.  V.  translates  it  liuby,  and  the  margin 
of  the  A.  V.  Chrysojirase. 

2.  Sh'bo ;  jiorhaps  from  shnbah  to  lead  cap- 
tive, or  less  probably  from  Sheba,  from  which 
it  may  have  been  brought.  It  was  the  middle 
stone  in  the  third  row  of  gems  on  the  high 
priest's  breastplate  (Ex.  xxviii.  19 ;  xxxix.  1'2). 

Age. 

1 .  The  time  counted  by  years,  or  more  pre- 
cisely by  years,  mouths,  and  days,  that  one 
has  lived  in  the  world.  Extraordinary  age 
is  ascribed  to  men  in  the  registers  of  Gen.  v. 
and  xi.,  dwindling  as  the  genealogy  becomes 
more  particular  as  it  ai)proaches  Abraham  ; 
see  C'liRoxoLOtiY.  Abraham  died  at  the  age 
of  17.")  (Gen.  xxv.  7),  and  his  wife  Sarah  at 
127  (xxiii.  1),  Isaac  at  180  (xxxv.  28),  Jacob 
at  147  (xlvii.  28),  Joseph  at  110  (1.  26),  Moses  at 
120  (Dent,  xxxiv.  7),  and  Joshua  at  110  (Josh. 
xxiv.  29).  The  ordinary  length  of  human 
life  is  reckoned  at  70  years,  or,  by  reason  of 
strength,  80  years,  in  the  prayer  of  Moses  (Ps. 
xc.  10).  David  died  an  old  man  at  70  (2 
Sam.  V.  4;  1  Kin.  ii.  11).  Veneration  for  old 
age  is  inculcated  in  the  Bible  (Lev.  xix.  32  ; 
Prov.  XX.  29),  and  old  age  itself  is  considered 
a  blessing  (Ex.  xx.  12;  Dent.  v.  10). 

2.  A  frequent  rendering  in  the  X.  T.  of  the 
Greek  Aion,  the  later  Latin  ^Eon : 

(a)  A  certain  specified  period  of  the  world's 
history,  past  or  to  come  (1  Cor.  x.  11,  in  A.  V. 
world;  Eph.  ii.  7;  iii.  9  ;  Col.  i.  26  ;  Heb.  vi. 
5— all  R.  v.).  More  frequently  it  signifies  an 
indefinitely  long  pei'iod  of  time,  eternity  past 
or  to  come  ;  "  unto  the  ages"  being  ecjuivalent 
to  "  forever  "  (cp.  text  and  margin  of  R.  V.  of 
Luke  i.  33;  Rom.  i.  25;  ix.  5;  xi.  36;  Heb. 
xiii.  8),  or  "for  evermore"  (2  Cor.  xi.  31). 
"  The  age  of  the  ages  "  is  "  for  ever  and  ever  " 
(Eph.  iii.  21).  "  Unto  the  ages  of  ages  "  is  also 
"for  ever  and  ever"  (Gal.  i.  5;  Phil.  iv.  20; 
Rev.  i.  18). 

(6)  The  world  literally  (Heb.  i.  2,  R.  V. 
margin;  ;  or  figuratively  (Mat.  xiii.  22;  Luke 
xvi.  8;  XX.  34;  Rom.  xii.  2;  1  Cor.  i.  20;  ii. 
6,  7,  8  ;  2  Cor.  iv.  4  ;  (ial.  i.  4  :  2  Tim.  iv.  10 ; 
Titus  ii.  12— all  R.  V.,  margin).  The  con- 
necting link  between  n  and  h  is  when  the 
world  means  the  duration  of  this  world  (Mat. 
xii.  32;  xiii.  40;  xxiv.  3i,  and  of  tliat  to  come 
(Mark  x.  30;  Ltike  xviii.  30;  Heb.  ii.  ,">). 

(<•)  Tlie  course  of  the  world  (Eph.  ii.  2, 
R.  v.,  text  and  margin). 

Ag'e-e  [iierhaps,  a  fugitive]. 
A   Hararite,  the  fatlier  of  one  of  David's 
mighty  men  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  11). 


Ag'ri-cul-ture. 

The  cultivation  of  the  soil.  The  word  does 
not  occur  in  Scripture,  but  the  idea  does;  and 
the  analogous  term  husbandry  is  found  both 
in  the  O.  T.  and  N.  T. ,  while  husbandman  is 
common.  Adam  was  exi)ected  to  dress  the 
garden  of  Eden  ((ieii.  ii.  15)  ;  Cain  cultivated 
the  soil  (iv.  2) ;  Noah  planted  a  vineyard  (ix. 
20) ;  and  Isaac  sowed  (x.\vi.  12).  Agricul- 
ture was  in  an  advanced  stage  among  the 
ruling  race  in  the  delta  of  tlii'  Nile  at  the 
time  of  the  sojourn  of  the  Israelites  in  Egypt. 
Cereals  of  various  kinds  were  cultivated  and 
exported  (Gen.  xii.  49,  57;  xliii.  2).  Wheat, 
rye,  or  rather  spelt,  and  barley,  are  men- 
tioned, besides  which  there  were  crops  of  fiax 
(Ex.  ix.  31,  32).  The  crops  cultivated  l)y  the 
Israelites  were  sometimes  summed  up  as 
corn  and  witie  (Gen.  xxvii.  37;  Ps.  iv.  7). 
If  a  third  agricultui-al  product  was  named  it 
was  generally  olives  (Dent.  vi.  11).  When 
the  enumeration  was  more  ample,  the  list 
was  increased  to  "wheat,  barley,  vines,  fig- 
trees,  pomegranates,  and  olives"  (viii.  8),  not 
to  speak  of  honey,  which  was  from  wild  bees 
(cp.  also  xi.  14  ;  xii.  17).  To  this  list  Isaiah 
adds  fitches  (Is.  xxviii.  25,  27).  and  Ezekiel 
beans,  lentils,  and  millet  (Ezck.  iv.  9).  The 
Israelites  had  ploughs  drawn  by  oxen  (1  Kin. 
xix.  19;  Is.  ii.  4),  and  ])runing-hooks,  sickles, 
etc.  (ibid.  ;  Deut.  xvi.  9 ;  Joel  iii.  13,  etc.). 
The  purpose  now  efl'ected  by  rotation  of  crops 
was  carried  out  by  letting  the  land  lie  fallow 
during  the  seventh  year  (Ex.  xxiii.  10,  11). 
As  a  rule,  good  crops  were  reaped,  and  they 
would  have  been  so  to  a  larger  extent  had 
proper  attention  been  paid  to  the  storing  of 
water  in  reservoirs,  so  that  absence  of  rain 
should  not  result,  as  it  generally  did,  in  fam- 
ine. Agriculture  and  the  keeping  of  flocks 
and  herds  continued,  through  all  the  period 
of  scriptural  history,  the  stai)l(!  industries 
of  Palestine,  which  was  not  to  any  consider- 
able extent  a  commercial  land. 

A-grip'pa.     See  Hekod. 

A'gur  [garnered,  hired,  or  collector]. 

Son  of  Jakeh,  and  author  of  the  maxims 
contained  in  Proverbs  xxx.  (see  ver.  1). 

A'hab  [a  father's  brother]. 

1.  A  king  of  Israel,  and  sou  and  successor 
of  Omri.  He  began  to  reign  about  874  B.  C, 
in  the  thirty -eighth  year  of  Asa,  king  of 
Judah  (1  Kill.  xvi.  29).  He  married  an  idol- 
atress of  masculine  temperament.  Jezebel,  the 
daughter  of  Etliliaal,  king  of  Sidon.  She 
worshiped  Baal,  and  her  husband  being  weak 
and  irresolute,  she  ruled  over  him.  and  made 
him  also  a  Haal-worshiiier  (.'5(1-33).  Tliiswas 
a  revolution  in  tlie  national  religion  of  Israel. 
When  Jerol)oam  set  up  the  two  golden  calves, 
he  still  desired  to  worshi])  Jeliovah  nominal- 
ly, using  tlieiii  as  hv\\)s  for  the  puriiose.  But 
Ahah,  uiiiler  .lez(l)ers  inlhu'iici.  wholly  gave 
up  the  adoration  of  Jeliovah,  Baal  being  a 
rival  god.  The  intolerant  Jezebel  did  not 
stop  with  Ahab's  perversion,  but  attempted 


Ahab 


19 


Ahava 


to  force  tlif  wliok-  jn'opk-  lo  iidojit  lur  faith. 
The  ])n)i)hcts  of  .Icliovah  wire  soiit;ht  out 
and  shiiii.  Only  a  remnant  escaped,  being 
hid(hn  in  a  cave  hy  a  high  functionary, 
()l)adiah.  Now,  liowever,  a]>|ieared  the  most 
fcirmidal)h'  jiropliet  IcTiowii  in  the  liistory  of 
Israel.  Klijali  ihe  'rislil>ile.  Jle  was  sent  to 
Aliali  to  predict  years  of  droUKlit  and  famine 
as  the  punisiiinent  of  Ahal)"s  sin.  Toward 
tlie  do.se  of  the  droU}ilit.  which  histed  three 
years  and  six  months  (1  Kin.  xviii.  1;  Luke 
iv.  'J.")-,  .las.  V.  17).  Hlijali,  hy  the  divine  com- 
mand.again  confronted  .Vhah,  and  demanded 
that  the  i)rophets  of  Baal  and  he  should  meet 
on  the  to]!  of  mount  Carmel  and  submit  the 
(pU'stion  between  them  to  a  decisive  test. 
The  meetiiifr  took  ]place  ;  .Fehovah  vindicated 
himself  by  sending  lire  from  hi'aven  to  con- 
sume Elijah's  sacrifice,  and  the  prophet  took 
till'  l.")0  prophets  of  Baal  and  100  ludjihets  of 
the  Asherah  down  to  the  brook  Kishon,  and 
sU-\vthem.  Then  he  jirayed  that  the  drought 
might  cease,  and  rain  was  imme(liately  sent, 
.le/ebel,  on  learning  wliat  ha<l  been  done, 
utleri'd  imprecations  against  herself  if  Klijah 
were  alive  by  the  morrow.  The  [irophet, 
fearing  for  his  life,  Hed  to  mount  Horeb,  from 
which  he  was  divinely  brought  back  again  to 
anoint  as  king  of  Israel  .leliu,  designed  to  be 
the  relentless  avenger  on  the  house  of  Ahab 
of  all  the  sins  which  it  had  committed.  Ex- 
ecution of  the  sentence  was,  however,  de- 
layed, for  the  cup  of  initiuity  of  Aliab  and 
,Ie/.i'bel  was  not  yet  full.  ."soon,  howt'ver,  it 
was  made  full  to  overtiowiiig  by  the  atlhir  of 
Naboth"s  vineyard.  About  this  time  Ahab 
had  won  a  victory  over  Ben-hadad  of  Damas- 
cus, king  of  .'Syria,  and  iiad  permitted  that 
potentate,  who  had  been  captured,  to  escape 
with  a  treaty.  The  approach  of  Shalmaneser, 
king  of  Assyria.  led  to  an  alliance  between 
Ben-liadad  of  Damascus,  .\liab  of  Israel,  and 
other  neighboring  kings,  to  resist  the  in- 
vader. Ahali  furnished  2000  chariots  and 
10.00(1  infantry.  The  allies  were  defeated  at 
Karkar,  in  the  district  of  Ilamath.  in  S54 
H.  «•.  Thewarwitii  Damascus  was  soon  after- 
wards renewed,  and  .Vhab,  taking  ad  vantage 
of  a  visit  from  .hhoshaiihat,  king  of  .ludah, 
jiroposed  a  joint  exi)edition  for  the  recovery 
of  Ii;imoth-gilead,  beyond  Jordan.  The 
liro]diets  of  Baal  spoke  well  of  the  enteri>riso. 
.Micaiah,  the  only  |)roiihet  of  .lehovah  ob- 
tainable, foreboded  the  death  of  Ahab.  The 
man  of  doom  resolved  to  g<»  into  the  battle 
disguised,  while  proposing  that  the  king  of 
.ludah  should  ])Ut  on  his  royal  robes,  tluis 
becoming  a  mark  for  every  mis.sile.  But 
a  certain  man  drew  a  bow  at  a  venture 
and  smote  .Miab  between  the  joints  where 
the  j)lates  of  bis  armor  met.  .\hab  died 
that  evening,  and  the  siege  of  Ramoth-gilead 
was  raiseil.  .Miab"s  chariot  and  armor  were 
washed  in  the  i>ool  of  Samaria,  the  dog.s, 
as  Klijah  had  predicted,  licking  his  lilood. 
.\hab  <lied  after  a  reign  of  twenty-two 
years,  and   was  succeeded    by  his  son  Alia- 


ziah  (1  Kin.  xvi,  29-xxii.  40;  2  Cbrou.  xviii. 
1-34). 

2.  A  lying  and  immoral  proj)het,  a  son  of 
Kolaiah.  Jeremiah  predicted  that  Nebu- 
chadnezzar, king  of  Babylon,  would  roast 
him  in   the  tire   (.ler.  xxix.  21-2:i). 

A-har'ah. 

A  son  of  Benjamin,  probably  tlie  f<(iriider 
of  a  family  (1  Chron.  viii.  1),  who  is  called 
Ehi  ((len.  xlvi.  21)  and  Ahiram  (Num.  xxvi. 
3,s). 

A-har'hel  [jjossihly,  strength  hath  tarried]. 

A  .sou  of  llarum,  founder  of  a  family  wiiich 
was  enrolled  in  the  tribe  of  Judah  (1  Chron. 
iv.  H). 

A'has-ai.     Sec  Ahz.\i. 

A-has'bai  [pi'rhai)s  a  foreign  name]. 

A  Maacathite,  the  father  of  i:iiphelet,  one 
of  David's  heroes  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  '.iij. 

A-has-u-e'rus  [from  Persian  Khshnya, 
king]. 

1.  The  father  of  Darius  the  Mede  (Dan. 
ix.  1).     See  D.\RH-,s. 

2.  A  Persian  king,  the  hti.sband  of  Esther 
(Esth.  i.  2,  19;  ii.  IG,  17).  Ahasuerus  is 
Khshayarsha,  whom  the  Greeks  called 
Xerxes.  The  book  of  Esther  tells  of  his 
sensuality,  his  fickleness,  his  lack  of  fore- 
thought, his  despotism,  and  his  cruelty. 
Greek  history  presents  essentially  the  .sjiine 
picture  of  Xerxes  (Herod,  vii.  :{.">.  :i7  ;  ix.  107). 
He  was  the  son  of  Darius  Hystaspis,  whom 
he  succeeded  on  the  Persian  thntne.  4H()  B.  C. 
His  mother  \V!i.s  Atossa,  the  daughter  of 
Cyrus.  In  the  second  year  of  his  reign  lie 
subdued  the  Egyi)tians.  who  ha<l  revolted 
against  his  father  Darius.  After  about  four 
years'  ])reparation,  he  led  an  immense  host 
to  invaile  Greece;  but  lied  back  to  IVrsia  on 
seeing  his  great  fleet  defeated  (  l-iO  H.  c. )  by  a 
much  smaller  number  of  (Jreek  shi]>s  at 
Salamis.  The  next  year  (47!)  n.  c.)  his  gen- 
eral. Mardonius,  whom  he  had  left  behiiul 
with  an  army,  allowe<l  Ids  camp  at  Plata-a  to 
be  forced  by  the  ( i reeks.  wlu'U  such  a  slaugh- 
ter ensued  as  renderi'd  the  Pi-rsian  invasion 
hojieless.  In  4t)(),  alter  a  reign  of  twenty 
years,  Xerxes  was  murdered  by  two  of  his 
courtiers,  and  was  succeeded  on  the  throne 
by  his  son,  Artaxerxes  Longimanus.  Xerxes 
is  probably  again  mi'utioned  as  .\liastierus  in 
Ezra  iv.  *>.  where  the  author  completes  the 
history  of  Samaritan  machinations  at  the 
Persian  court  against  the  .lew.s.  resuming  in 
ver.  24  the  narrati\c  which  he  ititerruiited  at 
ver.  ").  The  older  interpreters  thought  that 
Ahasuerus  in  this  pa.ss.ige  referred  to  C«m- 
))yses.  son  of  Cyrus;  but  there  is  not-vidence 
that  Cambyses  was  ever  called  .\hasuerus. 

A-ha'va. 

.\  locality  in  Babylonia,  doubtless  to  the 
north  of  Babylon  d^/.ra  viii.  \'^).  It  st-rves 
to  indicate  the  riv«  r  or  canal  in  its  vicinity 
on  which  Kzra  assendded  the  people  wlio  pro- 
posed  to  go  to  Jerusalem  witli   him   (vii.  28 


Ahaz 


20 


Ahijah 


witli  viii.  31).  It  ai)i)ears  to  have  been  dis- 
tant alxmt  uiiio  days  IVoni  Haliylon  (vii.  9 ; 
viii.  1"),  :51).  On  nnistcrin<;;  the  Jews  who 
were  presi'nt  ami  lintliiij;  no  Li'vites,  exeept 
priests,  anionj;  them,  lOzra  sent  I'or  and  .se- 
cured a  ninnber  of  these  ministers  for  tlie 
house  of  God.  Here  al.so  a  fast  was  kept,  and 
tlie  protection  of  (lod  sii])pli<'uted  for  the 
Journi'v. 

A'haz,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Achaz  [he  lias 
sustained]. 

A  kinj;  of  Judah  wlio  was  jtrolialily  pro- 
chiimed  kinj;  about  741  B.  c.,  when  20  years 
okl,  and  wlio  succeeded  his  father  Jotham 
about  734  ]?.  c.  He  was  an  idohxter,  cau.siug 
his  son  to  i>ass  through  the  tin-,  and  sacri- 
ficing an<l  burning  incense  on  Jiigh  places 
and  under  green  trees  (2  Kin.  xvi.  3,  4).  He 
was  unsuccessfully  besieged  in  Jerusalem  by 
Eezin,  king  of  Syria,  and  Pekah,  king  of 
Israel  (5;  Is.  vii.  1).  In  connection  with  this 
crisis  Isaiah  was  sent  to  exhort  him  to  rely 
upon  Jehovah  and  not  call  in  foreign  aid. 
He  did  not  believe,  and  refused  to  ask  a  sign. 
Thereuixm  the  i>roi)het  uttered  the  celelirated 
prophecy  relative  to  the  birth  of  Immanuel 
(Is.  vii.  l-l(ii  ;  see  Immaxiel.  Ahaz  turned 
to  Tiglath-pileser,  king  of  Assyria,  and  pur- 
chased his  aid  with  the  treasures  of  the  tem- 
ple and  the  palace.  Tiglath-pileser  marched 
to  his  assistance.  The  ajjproach  of  the  Assyr- 
ians seems  to  liave  led  Kezin  and  Pekah  to 
raise  the  siege  of  Jerusalem.  Tiglath-pileser 
attacked  Philistia,  overran  Samaria,  took 
Damascus  and  slew  Eezin.  and  connived  at 
the  murder  of  Pekah  and  enthronement  of 
Hoshea  as  king  of  Isiael.  With  other  vas- 
sals of  Assyria,  Ahaz  went  to  Damascus  to  do 
homage  to  Tiglath-pileser  (2  Kin.  xvi. ;  2 
Chron.  xxviii.  ;  Assyrian  inscriptions).  While 
there  he  admired  a  heathen  altar,  and  had  a 
facsimile  of  it  made  at  Jerusalem.  Ahaz 
died  about  the  year  726  B.  v.,  after  reigning 
16  years,  and  left  his  son  Hezekiah  to  ascend 
the  throne.  Hosea,  Micali,  and  Isaiah  proph- 
esied dui'ing  the  whole  of  Ahaz's  reign,  zeal- 
ouslv  witnessing  for  Jehovah  (Is.  i.  1 ;  vii. 
l-l(j';  Hos.  i.  1). 

Ahaz  is  mentioned  on  the  Assyrian  monu- 
ments by  the  name  YaKhisi,  corresponding 
to  the  Hebrew  Jehoahaz,  the  full  form  of 
Ahaz.  Ahaz  means  "He  has  sustained," 
while  Jehoahaz  signifies  "  Jehovah  has  sus- 
tained." 

A-ha-zi'ah  [Jehovah  hath  sustained]. 

1.  A  king  of  Israel  who  was  aiiiiarently 
placed  on  the  throne  when  his  father  Ahab 
marched  with  the  allies  against  Shalmaneser 
in  8'A  B.  C.  He  succeeded  his  father  on  the 
latter's  death.  His  entire  reign  lasted  only 
two  years  (1  Kin.  xxii.  40,  51).  He  joined 
with  Jehoshai)liat  in  fitting  out  sbiiis  of  Tar- 
shish  to  go  to  Opliir  for  gold  ;  but  the  vessels 
were  wrecked  at  I'zion-gi'bcr.  Ahaziah  i)ro- 
poscd  a  seci)nd  attcmjit:  but  ■l('hoshai)liat, 
warned  by  a  proi)lu't,  declined  (1  Kin.  xxii. 


48,  49  ;  2  Chron.  xx.  35-37).  After  the  death 
of  Ahab,  Mt)ab  rebelled;  but  Aluiziah  look 
no  steps  to  reduce  it  to  subjection  (2  Kin.  i. 
1 ;  iii.  5).  Ahaziah  fell  through  a  lattice  in 
his  palace,  and  was  seriously  injured.  He 
.sent  to  consult  Baal-zebub.  the  god  of  Ekron. 
as  to  the  result.  Elijah  intercejited  the  mes- 
sengers, and  .sent  them  back  with  the  mes- 
sage that  the  injury  would  jirove  fatal  (2  Kin. 
i.  2-17).  Ahaziah  left  lui  son  to  succeed  him. 
so  the  throne  passed  over  to  his  brother  Je- 
horam  (17). 

2.  A  king  of  Judah,  who  began  to  rule  the 
king<loni  in  .si3  n.  c.  (2  Kin.  ix.  29),  apjiarently 
during  his  father's  sickness  (2  Chron.  xxi. 
18,  19),  and  succeeded  his  father  Joram  or 
Jehoram  the  next  year  (2  Kin.  viii.  25). 
He  was  then  twenty-two  years  old,  and 
reigned  only  a  year.  His  mother,  Athaliah, 
was  his  evil  genius  (2  Chron.  xxii.  3).  He 
went  with  Joram,  king  of  Israel,  to  fight  with 
the  Syrians  at  Ramoth-gilead.  Joram  re- 
turned to  Jezreel  wounded,  Ahaziah  paid 
him  a  visit,  was  with  him  during  the  ri'volt 
of  Jehu,  and  was  killed  with  liim  by  that 
ruthless  soldier  (2  Kin.  viii.  25-29  ;  ix.  16-29  ; 
2  Chron.  xxii.  1-10).  By  a  reversal  of  the 
constituent  parts  of  his  name,  he  is  called 
Jehoahaz  in  2  Chron.  xxi.  17.  "  Azariah  "  in 
2  Chron.  xxii.  6  has  probably  arisen  from 
Ahaziah  through  corruption  of  the  text. 

Ah'ban. 

A  nuxn  of  Judah,  family  of  Hezron,  house 
of  Jerahmeel  (1  Chron.  ii.  29). 

A'lier  [another]. 

A  r.enjamite  (1  Chron.  vii.  12).  E.  V.  mar- 
gin identifiis  him  with  Ahiram.  See  Ahakah. 

A'lii  [brother  of,  or  a  brother  is  (Jehovah)]. 

1.  Chief  of  the  Gadites  in  Gilead  in  Bashan 
(1  Chron.  v.  15). 

2.  An  Asherite,  son  of  Shamer,  of  the  fam- 
ily of  Beriah  (1  Chron.  vii.  34). 

A-hi'ah.    See  Ahijah. 

A-hi'am. 

One  of  David's  miglitv  men  (2  Sam.  xxiii. 
33). 

A-M'an  [perhaps,  brotherly]. 

A  Manassite  of  the  familj-  of  Shemida  (1 
Chron.  vii.  l!l). 

A-M-e'zer  [brother  of  helji]. 

1.  Son  of  Annnishaddai,  and  head  of  the 
tribe  of  Dan  in  the  wilderness  (Num.  i.  12  ; 
ii.  25;  vii.  (Hi). 

2.  A  man  of  Gibcah  who  joined  David  at 
Ziklag  (1  Chron.  xii.  3). 

A-hi'hud  [probably,  brother  of  prai.se- 
worthiness,  or  a  brother  is  the  praiseworthy 
one]. 

1.  The  prince  representing  the  tribe  of 
Asher  on  the  commission  to  divide  the  land 
(Num.  xxxiv.  27). 

2.  Head  of  a  father's  house  in  Geba  of 
Benjamin  (1  Chron.  viii.  7  . 

A-hi'jah,  in  A.  V.  sometimes  Ahiah  (viz 
1,  3,  6)  [brother  of,  or  a  brother  is  Jehovah] 


Ahikam 


21 


AMshahar 


1.  A  Beiijiunito  aiiparently,  who  assisted 
Gera  iu  carrying  off  iuliabitanls  of  (it-ha  (1 
Cliron.  viii.  7). 

•J.  A  man  of  Jiidali  dosceiidi'd  through 
Jerahniocl  (1  Chruii.  ii.  •S>). 

'.i.  A  soil  nf  Ahitiib.  and  groat-grandson  of 
Eli.  He  at  one  time  in  the  reign  of  Saul  por- 
fonned  the  functions  of  high  ]iriest  at  ({iheali 
(1  Sam.  xiv.  :{.  IS).  He  was  chler  brotherof 
Ahinulech.  or  pussiljly  that  jtriest  him.self 
under  another  name. 

4.  A  l\'h)nite,  one  of  David's  mighty  men 
(1  t'hron.  xi.  :Hi). 

0.  A  Levite  wlio  in  David's  ri'ign  was  over 
the  treasures  of  the  tabeniack-  and  the  dedi- 
cated ort'erings  (1  t'hron.  xxvi.  'JO:  but  see 
K.  V.  margin;. 

(!.  A  scril)(!  in  Soh)mon's  reign  (1  Kin.iv.  3). 

7.  .\  ])roiiliet  beh)nging  toSliih>li,wh().  meet- 
ing .lenibDam.  rent  liisown  garment  in  twelve 
l)icies.  and  directed  .Jeroboam  to  take  ten,  as 
an  indication  that  he  should  be  king  over  ti'n 
tribes  (1  Kin.  xi.2!»-."{!l).  After  Jeroboam  hail 
become  king,  he  .sent  his  (|neen  disguised  to 
the  now  aged  and  half-blind  prophet  to  in- 
quire whether  their  child  who  was  sick  would 
recover.  Aliijah  recognized  iier  under  her 
disguise,  and  predicted  that  the  child  would 
die  (xiv.  1-lS).  He  committed  his  pro])hccics 
to  writing  (2  t-liron.  ix.  29). 

5.  Tlie  father  of  Baaslia,  king  of  Israel  (1 
Kin.  XV.  27,  '.V.i). 

A-hi'kam  [brother  of  iiiui  who  riseth,  or  a 
brother  hath  aii|ieared]. 

Son  of  Siiaiiiian  and  a  jn-ince  of  Jndah  (2 
Kin.  xxii.  12).  He  jn-otected  Jeremiah  when 
jiriests  and  false  iirojihets  demanded  Jere- 
miah's dealli  iJer.  xxvi.  24).  He  was  the 
father  of  (iedaliah  (2  Kin.  xxv.  22). 

A-hi'lud  [i)crhaps,  brother  of  one  born,  or 
brother  of  the  son]. 

Father  of  the  recorder  Jehoshaphat  (2  Sam. 
viii.  ](! ;  xx.  24;  1  Kin.  iv.  3). 

A-him'a-az  [brother  of  irascibility]. 

1.  Father  of  Ahinoam,  Saul's  wife  (1  Sam. 
xiv.  50). 

2.  A  .son  of  Zadok,  high  priest  in  David's 
time.  He  and  Jonathan,  Abialhar's  son, 
maintained  communication  between  David 
and  the  loyal  jiarty  in  .Jerusalem  during  Ab- 
salom's rebellion  (2  Sam.  xv.  27,  3(> :  xvii.  20). 
He  was  the  first  to  bring  David  iiitelligc^nce 
of  the  victory  over  Absalom  (xviii.  V.i  :]()).  It 
may  have  been  he  who  was  afterwards  Sol- 
omon's jiiirveyor  in  N'ai)htali  (1  Kin.  iv.  If)). 

A-hi'man  [brother  of  a  gift]. 

1.  A  son  of  .\iiak.  and  i)robal>ly  founder  of 
a  family  of  Aiiakim  (Num.  xiii.  22)  driven 
from  Hebron  by  t'alei>  (Josli.  xv.  14;  Judg. 
i.  10). 

2.  A  Levite  wlio  acted  as  porter  of  the 
house  of  (iod  (1  Cliron.  ix.  17). 

A-him'e-lech  [brother  of  a  king]. 
1.  A    .son   of  .\liitnb,    and    chii-f  priest  at 
Nob.    D-avid,  tieeing  from  Saul,  but  i>retend- 


ing  to  be  on  the  king's  busine.ss,  being  in 
great  want  of  food,  received  from  him  tlie 
show-bread,  wliich.  by  the  law,  was  a  jier- 
(inisite  of  the  jiriests.  Hi' also  oi)tained  the 
swoni  which  liatl  formerly  belonged  totioliath 
(1  Sam.  xxi.  l-!l ;  in  .Mark  ii.  2ti  the  event  is 
dated  in  the  time  of  .Vbiathar,  Ahimelech's 
son).  Doeg  the  I'doinite  rejiorted  the  occur- 
rence to  Saul,  who,  interpreting  it  as  a  ju-oof 
that  .\iiimelech  and  the  other  priests  were 
treacherous,  gave  orders  that  they  should  l)e 
slain.  One  inhabitant  of  Noti — Abiatliar,  a 
son  of  Ahimelech — escaped  from  the  ma.s.sii- 
cre  (1  Sam.  xxi.  7  ;  xxii.  7-23  ;  title  of  I*s.  Hi. ). 

2.  The  son  of  the  Abiatliar  who  escaped 
from  the  slaughter  at  Nob,  and  the  gnindson 
of  Ahimelech,  son  of  Ahitub.  He  was  one 
of  two  high  Jiriests  during  David's  reign  (2 
Sam.  viii.  17;  1  Cliron.  xxiv.  3,  (i,  31).  Abim- 
elech  in  1  Cliron.  xviii.  1<>  is  probably  a  copy- 
ist's error  for  Ahimelech. 

3.  A  Hittite,  and  follower  of  David  (1  Sam. 
xxvi.  (i). 

A-hi'moth  [brother  of  death]. 

A   Levite,  a  son  of  Elkanah  (1  Chron.  vi. 

2.-,). 

A-Mn'a-dab  [l)rotlier  of  liberality], 
Solomon's  purvevor  in  Mahanaim  (1  Kin. 
i\.  14). 

A-hin'o-am  [brother  of  grace]. 

1.  Saul's  wife,  a  daughter  of  Abimaaz  (1 
Sam.  xiv.  .'jO). 

2.  A  woman  of  Jezrecl,  one  of  David's 
wives  (1  Sam.  xxv.  43;  xxvii.  3),  taken  cap- 
tive at  Ziklag  by  the  Amalekites  (xxx.  .")). 
She  was  the  mother  of  Amnon  (2  Sam.  iii.  2). 

A-hi'o  [fraternal]. 

1.  A  son  of  .Vbinadab  and  brotlier  of  I'zzah. 
The  two  drove  the  cart  on  which  David  was 
taking  the  ark  to  Jerusilem  (2  Sam.  vi.  3,  4). 

2.  A  Benjamite,  .son  of  Elpaal  (1  Chrou. 
viii.  14). 

3.  A  Benjamite.  son  of  Jehiel  bv  his  wife 
Maachah  (1  Chron.  viii.  2!l,  31  ;  ix.'.3r>,  37). 

A-M'ra  [bnither  of  evil]. 

A  son  of  Knan.  and  head  of  the  tribe  of 
Najilitali  during  the  early  joiiriu'yings  in  the 
wilderness  (Num.  i.  1.');  ii.  29;  vii.  7S;  x.  27). 

A-M'ram  [i-xalted  brother,  or  limther  of 
the  high  one]. 

A  IJenjamite,  founder  of  a  family  (Xnm. 
xxvi.  3S).  Aharah  (1  Chron.  viii.  1)  doubt- 
less reiire.sents  the  .siime  name  :  and  Ehi  ((Jen. 
xlvi.  21)  is  either  an  abbreviation  or  more 
jirobably  a  corru|>tion,  as  the  last  syllable  of 
Ahiram  was  easily  overlooked  by  a  cojiyist 
b>-  reason  of  the  recurrence  of  similar  Hebrew 
letters  in  the  two  following  names. 

A-bis'a-macli  [brotherof  siipjiort]. 
.\    Danite.    the    father    of    tlie    craftsman 
Aholiab  (Ex.  xxxi.  (II. 

A-hish'a-hax  [brotherof  the  dawn]. 
\  man  descended  from   Benjamin  through 
Jediael  and  Bilhan  (1  Cliron.  vii.  10). 


Ahishar 


22 


Ajjalou 


A-hi'shar  [brother  of  a  singer]. 

All  oll'uial  who  was  over  Solomon's  house- 
hold (1  Kill.  iv.  fi). 

A-Wth'o-phel  [hiotlur  of  folly]. 

A  iisidciil  of  (iiloli  ill  soiitliwestorn  Jiidah, 
one  of  David's  couiisi'loi-s  CJ  Saiii.  .\v.  12), 
father  of  one  of  David's  mighty  men  (xxiii. 
34),  and  perliajis  the  j^randfather  of  Bath- 
slieha  (xi.  'd  witli  xxiii.  ;54).  So  unerring  was 
his  sagacity  that  his  advice  was  "as  if  a  man 
had  iniiiiired  at  the  oracle  of  Ood  "  (2  Sam. 
xvi.  '2'-i),  but  he  was  morally  uutnistworthy. 
Ah.silom  found  him  ready  to  hetray  David, 
and  to  i)oint  out  how  he  might  he  destroyed. 
When  Absalom  preferred  the  absurd  counsel 
of  Hushai.  who  was  secretly  in  David's  in- 
terest, Ahithoi>hel,  foreboding  that  it  was 
tlierefore  all  over  with  the  rebellion,  com- 
mitted suicide  (2  Sam.  xv.  12,  31-34;  xvi.  15; 
xvii.  23),  ottering  thus  a  strange  O.  T.  type 
of  Judas,  both  in  his  treachery  and  his  fate. 

A-hi'tub  [lirother  of  benevolence]. 

1.  A  son  of  Phiuehas,  and  grandson  of  Eli 
(1  Sam.  xiv.  3),  and  father  of  Ahimelech,  the 
l>riest  (xxii.  9). 

2.  A  son  of  Amariah,  and  father  of  Zadok, 
the  priest  (2  Sam.  viii.  17;  1  Chron.  vi.  7,  8). 

3.  A  later  priest  in  the  same  family,  son  of 
another  Amariah,  and  grandfather  of  another 
Zadok.  also  a  priest  (1  Chron.  vi.  11,  12;  Neh. 
si.  11). 

Ah'lab  [a  fat,  fertile  place]. 

A  town  within  the  territory  of  Asher,  but 
from  which  that  tribe  did  not  drive  out  the 
Canaanite  inhabitants  (Judg.  i.  31).  Not 
ideiititied.  (tUsIi  Halab  of  the  Talmud,  the 
Giscala  of  Josephus,  five  miles  northwest  of 
Safed  on  the  road  to  Tyre,  lies  too  far  east- 
ward to  have  been  within  the  territory  of 
Asher. 

Ah'lai  [Othat!]. 

1.  A  descendant,  namely  a  daughter  of 
Sheshan  (1  Chron.  ii.  31,  34). 

2.  The  father  of  Zabad  (1  Chron.  xi.  41). 
A-ho'ah  [heat]. 

A  Beiijaniite  of  the  family  of  Bela  (1  Chron. 
viii.  4)  ;  i)erhaps  Ahijah  (7).     See  Ahohite. 

A-ho'Mte. 

A  descendant  of  Ahoah  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  9, 
28  ;  1  Chron.  xi.  12,  29). 

A-ho'lah.     See  Oholah. 

A-ho'li-ab.    See  Oholiab. 

A-hori-bab.     See  Oholibah. 

A-bol-i-ba'mab.    See  Oholibamah. 

A-hu'mai  [ipcrliaps,  brother  of  water]. 

A  man  of  .liidah.  faniilv  of  llezron.  house 
of  Cahi)  (1  Chron.  iv.  2  w'ith  ii.  18,  19,  50). 

A-buz'zam,  in  A.  Y.  Abuzam  [])ossession]. 

A   man   of  Judah.    son   of  Assliur,   of  the 

family  ol'  llezron  (1  Chron.  iv.  5.  (J  with  ii.  24) 

A-buz'zath  [possession]. 
A  friend  of  Ahimelech.  king  of  Gerar,  in 
Isaac's  time  (Gen.  xxvi.  26). 


Ab'zal,  in  A.  V.  Abasai  [possession,  or 
jierhaps  clear-sighted]. 

A  prii'st  desceiKled  from  Ininier  thnnigh 
Meshillemoth  iNeli.  xi.  13);  probably  not  the 
in'isuii  calh-d  .lahzerah  in  1  Chron.  ix.  12,  but 
a  dilt'erent  link  in  the  genealogy. 

A'i,  in  A.  V.  in  (Jenesis  Hai,  with  retention 
of  the  Hebrew  article  [ruins].  Aija  and  Aiath 
(Neh.  xi.  31 :  Is.  x.  28)  are  feminine  forms  of 
the  word. 

1.  A  town  e;i.st  of  Bethel  and  near  Beth- 
aven,  with  a  valley  on  its  luuth  ((ien.  xii.  8; 
Josh.  vii.  2;  viii.  11).  It  lay  north  of  Mich- 
mash,  if  Aiath  is  the  same  as  Ai,  as  is  in 
every  way  probable  (Is.  x.  2H) ;  a  location 
which  excludes  such  sites  as  el-IIai,  half  a 
mile  soutliea.st  of  Michniash,  and  a  name, 
moreover,  radically  ditl'erent  from  .Ai.  Its  site 
was  apjiarently  near  the  modern  1  )eir  1  )iwan, 
on  the  ancient  road  between  Michniash  and 
Bethel,  about  midway  between  the  two  places. 
Three-quarters  of  a  mile  northwest  of  Deir 
Diwan  is  the  ruin  et-Tell.  the  heap  (cp.  Josh, 
viii.  28) ;  and  one-third  of  a  mile  south,  and 
less  definitely  in  the  gardens  extending  one- 
half  mile  southwestwardly  to  el-Kadeirah, 
is  the  ruin  el-Haiyan.  Each  of  these  three 
sites  has  its  advocates.  The  name  Haiyan,  it 
may  be  noted,  is  an  entirely  different  word 
from  Ai,  and  Josephus'  name  for  Ai  scarcely 
forms  the  connecting  link,  for  the  Greek 
texts  of  the  historian  do  not  show  the  nomi- 
native case  Aina.  At  first  Ai  was  unsuccess- 
fully attacked  by  Joshua  (Josh.  vii.  2-5). 
When  it  was  found  that  the  defeat  was  caused 
by  the  sin  of  Achan.  and  when  he  had  suH'ered 
for  it,  Ai  was  again  attacked,  and  this  time 
was  taken  by  stratagem.  Its  inhabitants,  num- 
bering about   12, (>()(»,   were    slaughtered,    its 

'  king  was  hanged  on  a  tree,  and  the  city  was 
bui-ned  (vii. -viii.).  It  lay  in  ruins  until  .some 
time  after  the  account  in  Joshua  was  writ- 
ten (viii.  28),  but  ultimately  was  rebuilt  (Is. 
X.  28  ;  Ezra  ii.  28). 

2.  A  city  of  the  Ammonites,  apparently  not 
far  from  Heshbou  (Jer.  xlix.  3i. 

A-i'ab,  in  A.  V.  once  Ajab  [bird  of  prey]. 

1.  A  Horite,  sou  of  Zibeon  and  brother  of 
Anah  (Gen.  xxxvi.  24  ;  1  Chron.  i.  40). 

2.  The  father  of  Eizpah,  Saul's  concubine 
(2  Sam.  iii.  7  ;  xxi.  8,  10,  11). 

A-i'atb.    See  Ai. 

A-i'ja.     See  Ai. 

Ai'ja-lon,   in    A.    V.   occasionally  Ajalon 

[place  of  harts]. 

1.  A  village  of  the  Shephelah,  near  a  val- 
ley (Josh.  X.  12;  2  Chron.  xxviii.  18).  It 
corresponds  to  Yalo,  a  village  thirteen  miles 
northwest  of  .Teru.silem,  on  a  low  spur,  look- 
ing iKU'thwanl  over  a  beautiful  jilaiii.  It  was 
assigned  to  the  tribe  of  Dan,  but  they  did 
not  expel  the  Amorite  inhabitants  (Judg.  i. 
.34,  35).  Aijalon  was  designated  to  be  a  Levit- 
ical  city  fdr  the  Kohathites  (Josh.  xxi.  20,  24  ; 
1  Chron.  vi.  09).     After  the  secession  of  the 


Aijeleth 


23 


Aleph 


ten  tribes,  it  was  included  in  Benjamin,  and 
was  fortified  l)y  Hi'liDboain  (1  Cliron.  viii.  13  ; 
2  Chron.  xi.  ui) ;  Imt  in  the  time  of  Ahaz  it 
was  capUii-cd  l)y  the  I'liilistiiii's  (xxviii.  IS). 

2.  A  place  ill  tilt'  trilie  <>f  Zrlmliiii,  wliei'e 
the  jii<l;;e  l^^lon  was  hiiried  (.Iiiil;;.  xii.  I'i). 
Exact  site  iinkiiowii.  The  niiii  .lalliin,  nine 
and  a  half  miles  east  of  Acre  and  one  and  a 
half  miles  soiith\V(\sl  of  .Mijd  el-Kermii.  seems 
too  far  north  for  Zehiilmi,  and  like  'Ailnl, 
another  proposed  site  two  and  a  half  miles  by 
road  nortliwest  of  Nazaretli,  is  a  radically 
different  word. 

Ai'je-leth  hash-Sha'har,  in  A.  \'..  with 
omis.'^ion  of  th.>  Ihlirew  article,  Aijeleth 
Shaliar  [hind  of  the  dawn]. 

I'rohahly  a  tnne,  to  which  the  chief  musi- 
cian was  diri'cted  to  set  the  twenty-second 
r>alm  (I's.  xxii.  K.  V.,  title). 

A'in  [an  eye,  and  a  natural  spring]. 

1.  'I'he  sixteenth  letter  of  the  Hebrew  al- 
jthalK't,  ori^iinally  in  outline  an  eye.  KiiKHsh 
O  comes  from  the  .same  source,  but  is  used  as 
a  vowel,  whereas  ain  is  a  consonant  of  pecu- 
liar tjuttural  sound.  In  anglicizing  Hebrew 
names  which  contain  ain,  the  letter  is  .some- 
times not  represented  at  all,  at  other  times  it 
a[)pears  as  ;/,  rarel.v  through  the  (ireek  as  /(. 
In  the  original,  ain  stands  at  tin-  beginning 
of  the  words  Anialek,  Eli,  Gomorrah,  and  per- 
haps Ileli.  It  heads  the  sixteenth  section  of 
I's.  exix.,  in  which  section  each  verse  of  the 
Hebrew  begins  with  this  letter. 

2.  A  ])lace  on  the  northern  bonndary-line 
of  Palestine  west  of  Kiblah  (Num.  xxxiv.  11). 

•i.  A  town  in  tlu'  territory  of  .Tmlali,  toward 
Edom  and  near  Riinmon  (.losh.  xv.  32 ;  1 
t'hron.  iv.  32),  and  as  it  were  forming  one 
town  with  it  (Nell.  xi.  291.  It  was  transferred 
with  Riinmon  to  Simeon,  and  assigned  to  the 
I)riest«  who  resided  with  that  tribe  (.Josh.  xix. 
7;  xxi.  l(j;  but  see  Asii.VN).  It  is  identified 
with  extensive  ruins  at  I'ir  Klunveilfeh,  a 
large  well  of  ])eri'nnial  water  about  tliree- 
(piarters  (d"  a  mile  north  of  the  prol)able  site 
of  Himinou. 

A'Jah.     See  Ai.\h. 

Aj'a-lon.     See  Ai.jalon. 

A'kan.     .See  .Iaak.vn. 

Ak'kub  [cunning,  artful]. 

1.  A  descendant  of  Shecaniah  through 
Elioeiiai  (1  Chron.  iii.  21,  21). 

2.  -V  Eevite  who  founded  a  family  of  tem- 
I>le  ]iorters  known  by  his  name  (1  Chron.  ix. 
17;  Ezra  ii.  42  ;   Xeh.  viii.  7  ;  xi.  19;  xii.  25). 

3.  One  of  the  N'ethiniin  (  Ezra  ii.  45). 
Ak-ra-bat-ti'ne. 

A  place  in  Idunnea  (1  Mac.  v.  3),  jn-obably 
Akraliliiin. 

A-krab'bim,  in  .\.  V.  once  Acrabbim  (.losh. 
XV.  .'{j  [scorjiioiis]. 

An  ascent  on  the  southeast  frontier  of 
Jiidah  near  the  southern  point  of  the  Dead 
.Sea,  and  iu)t  far  from  the  desert  of  Zin  (Num. 
xxxiv.   4;   Josh.    xv.  3;   Judg.  i.   3G).     Ap- 


parently, the  boundary  between  Canaan  and 
Edtmi  on  leaving  tlie  Dead  Sea  followed  wady 
el  Fikreh. 

Al'a-bas-ter  [without  a  handle  (labasi  ;  or 
else  deri\(il  from  a  place  called  Alabastrum]. 

The  material  of  which  the  cruse  was  made 
from  which  Jesus  was  anointed  at  iJethany 
(.Mat.  xxvi.  7;  Mark  xiv.  3;  Luke  vii.  37). 
Alabaster  commonly  denotes  massive  gyiisum 
of  a  tiiK'-graiiied  variety,  white  in  color,  and 
delicately  shadi'd.  Jieing  more  easily  worked 
than  marble,  it  can  be  made  into  columns  or 
turneil  on  the  lathe  into  cups,  boxes,  basins, 
or  vases.  Anciently,  alabaster  denoted  any 
stone  suitable  for  working  into  such  utensils. 
Most  of  the  extant  ancient  ointment  liasks 
are  made  of  a  light  gray,  translucent  lime- 
stone. 

A-la'meth.    .See  Ai.kmkth. 

A-lam'me-lech  [perhaiis,  king's  oak]. 

A  frontier  village  of  Asher  (Josh.  xix.  26) ; 
site  unknown. 

Ara-moth  [maidens]. 

A  musical  term  (1  (lircjii.  xv.  20;  Ps.  xlvi. 
titk).  It  probably  refers  to  maiden  or  treble 
voi<-es. 

Al'ci-mus. 

A  high  priest  appointed  by  Antiochus  Eu- 
jnitor  (2  Mac.  xiv.  3,  7  ;  Antiij.  xii.  9,  7),  c(m- 
firnietl  by  Demetrius  I.  in  1(!2  n.  c.  (1  Mac. 
vii.  ■")!•),  and  installed  by  Hacchides  at  the 
head  of  an  army  (10-20).  He  was  entirely 
Greek  in  sympathy,  and  was  abhorred  by  the 
Jews.  He  was  driven  out  of  Palestine  by 
Judas  Maccabu'us  (21-25)  ;  but  was  brought 
back  by  Hacchides  (ix.  1),  and  destroyed  the 
inner  wall  of  the  temple.  Kid  B.  c.  (.54).  His 
sudden  death  soon  afterwards  was  regarded 
by  the  Jews  as  a  punishment  for  the  impious 
act  f.5.5,  56). 

Al'e-ma. 

A  town  in  Gilead  (1  Mac.  v.  26),  conjectured 

to  be   lleer-elim  (Is.  XV.  ti). 

Are-meth,  in  A.  V.  once  Alameth,  the 
Hebrew  pronunciation,  in  this  instance,  due 
meridy  to  the  ]iosition  occupied  by  the  name 
in  the  seiitenci'  (1  Chron.  vii.  8)  [covering]. 

1.  .\  Beii.jamite.  descended  through  IJecher 
(1  Chron.  vii.  8). 

2.  A  descendant  of  king  Saul  (1  Chron.  viii. 
36  ;  ix.  42). 

3.  A  town  (1  Chron.  vi.  <iO).     See  Ai.Mon. 
Al'eph. 

The  first  letter  of  the  Hebrew  alphabet. 
The  laiglish  letter  .1  has  the  sime  origin  ; 
but  till'  Hebrew  litter  is  a  consonant,  hav- 
ing no  reiiresentative  in  the  speech  of  the 
English  jieople.  In  the  si>elliiig  of  Hebrew 
names  in  the  Engli>li  versions  it  doe^  iu)t 
ajija'ar.  It  is  ihe  initial  letter,  for  example,  in 
the  original  of  the  words  Edom,  <  )pliir,  and  Ur. 

Alei)li  stands  at  the  head  of  the  first  sec- 
tion of  Ps.  cxix.  in  many  versions,  since  iu 
the  original  each  verse  of  the  .section  begins 
with  this  letter. 


Alexander 


24 


Alexandria 


Al-ex-an'der  [dofendinj;  ineii], 
1.  Alcxaiuk'r  tin.'  (J  rent,  kiii^i  nl' Macedonia, 
wlio  li.llowcd  liis  tatlRT  l'liilii>  (I  Mac.  i.  1). 
He  bcjjaii  t<i  vvlan  ^3(i  B.  c.  After  quelliiif; 
some  disturbauces  at  bt)iuc,  he  crossed  tlic 
Hellesiiont  to  attack  tbe  IVrsians.  wboin  he 
met  aud  defeated  at  (fraiiiciis,  and  a.uain  at 
Issns  on  tlie  nortlii'astern  corner  of  tht-  Medi- 
terranean Si'a.  After  the  battle  of  Issus,  Ak'x- 
ander  took  Damascus,  which  contained  {jreat 
treasure,  and  .Sidoii,  and  laid  siege  to  Tyre. 
From  tliere  he  stnt  to  the  .lewisli  high  jiriest 
.hidd\ia,  demanding  his  allegiance  aud  sup- 
jilies  for  his  army.  Jaddua  refused  on  the 
ground  of  being  subject  to  the  Persian  king. 
Angry  at  this  answer.  Alexander  set  out  in 
]iersou  for  Jerusalem  as  soon  as  he  had  re- 
duced Tyre.  According  to  Josephus,  the 
Jews  were  in  terror  at  his  ai)pi-oach.  Init  Jad- 
dua threw  open   the  gates  and  weut  iu  full 


Head  of  Alcxamler  the  (ireat. 

priestly  robes  to  meet  the  conqueror,  who  fell 
at  his  fi-et  in  worship  of  the  God  whom  Jad- 
dua represented.  He  explained  that  before  he 
left  Macedonia  he  had  seen  in  a  dream  the 
Deity  in  the  garb  of  this  high  priest,  aud  had 
been  jiromised  victory  over  Persia.  He 
granted  the  Jews  many  special  privileges 
(Antiq.  xi.  S,  5).  From  Palestine  he  went 
on  to  Egypt,  where  he  founded  Alexandria ; 
he  then  returned  through  Palestini'  to  I'ersia, 
where  he  overthrew  the  Persian  king  Darius. 
After  further  coniiuests  he  died  in  Babylon  in 
:{'2.'J  B.  C,  aged  :K.  After  his  death,  his  gen- 
erals made  some  show  of  liolding  the  empire 
for  his  infant  son,  his  widow  and  brother 
being  set  U])  as  regents.  But  dissensions  soon 
arose  among  the  generals.  All  the  members 
of  .Alexander's  family  were  made  away  with, 
and  the  ruling  generals  wt're  reduced  from 
seven  to  four  ;  these  four  then  assumed  the 
title  of  king,  and  founded  four  royal  bouses — 
Ptolemy  in  Egyi)t.  St'ltucusin  Syria,  Antii)ater 
iu  Macedonia,  and  PhiletaTUs  in  Asia  Minor. 
In  the  lirst  division  of  Alexander's  empire, 


before  tlie  final  reduction  to  four  kingdoms. 
Syria  and  Palestine  formed  an  indei)endent 
sjitrapy  under  Laomedon.  but  they  were  .soon 
annexed  to  Egypt  by  Ptolemy  Lagus.  This 
rich  province  was  coveted  also  by  others,  and 
was  twice  taken  by  Antigonus,  another  of 
Alexander's  generals,  who  was  then  master 
of  the  greater  i)art  of  Asia  Minor,  l)Ut  in  the 
tinal  jiarlition  into  four  kingdoms  after  the 
battle  of  I])sus  it  passed  into  Egyptian  hands, 
and  remained  so  fnmi  tliat  time,  320  B.  c., 
until  2();i  K.  c,  when  it  bt'came  ]>art  of  the 
Syrian  kingdom  of  Antiochus  the  Great. 

2.  Alexander  15ala.s,  a  pretender,  who  claim- 
ed to  be  the  son  of  Antiochus  Epij)lianes.  By 
the  help  of  Ptolemy,  king  of  Egy]it,  whose 
daughter  Cleopatra  he  married,  he  reigned 
over  Syria  1,')0-14{)  B.  c.  He  proved  incai>a- 
ble  of  holding  the  kingdom  and,  betrayed  by 
Ptolemy,  was  easily  driven  out  by  Demetrius 
II.  He  made  treaties  with  Jonathan  Mac- 
cabaeus,  and  sued  for  the  help  of  the  Jews 
(1  Mac.  X.  1,  lS-20;  Antiq.  xiii.  2,  1  ;  4,  b). 

3.  A  son  of  Simon  of  Cyrene  (Mark  xv.  21). 

4.  A  leading  man  at  Jerusalem  when  Peter 
aud  John  were  tried  there  (Acts  iv.  (j). 

5.  A  Jew  who  was  involved  in  danger 
during  tbe  tumult  at  Ephesus  (Acts  xix.  33). 

(i.  One  who  made  shipwreck  of  his  faith, 
blasphemed,  and  was  excomnuniicated  by 
Paul  (1  Tim.  i.  19,  20)  He  perliajis  was  the 
same  as  Alexander  the  co]ip(  rsmitli.  who  did 
the  aiHistle  and  his  associates  much  injury 
(2  Tim.  iv.  14,  1.5). 

Al-ex-an'dri-a  [named  after  its  founder]. 

A  city  founded  l>y  Alexander  the  (iriat,  in 
the  year  oIj2  b.  c,  on  the  north  coast  of 
Egypt,  of  which  it  was  designed  to  be  the 
Greek  metropolis.  A  site  was  fortunately 
.selected  west  of  the  m<juths  of  the  Nile,  and 
the  Mediterranean  ctirrent  which  sweeps 
from  the  west  carries  the  mud  tif  the  river 
away  from  the  harbor  aud  prevents  silting. 
The  city  was  built  cm  a  tougue  of  land  lying 
between  the  Mediterranean  Sea  and  lake 
Mareotis.  and  connected  liy  a  mole  with  the 
isle  of  Pharos,  on  which  there  was  a  cele- 
Ijrated  lighthouse.  The  city  was  admirably 
situated  for  commercial  i>ur)ioses.  It  became 
the  great  ])ort  for  the  export  of  Egyptian 
wheat,  cargoes  destined  for  Eome  being  car- 
ried direct  to  Putcoli,  unless  unfavorable 
winds  compelled  the  vessels  to  coast  along 
Asia  Minor  (Acts  xxvii,  (J ;  xxviii.  11-13  ; 
Philo,  in  Flac.  v.).  It  was  also  the  mart  of 
interchange  between  the  Orient  and  the  Occi- 
dent. The  city  tiourishcd  greatly  under  the 
Ptolemies,  and  subse(|Uently  under  the  Ro- 
mans, until  it  extended  along  the  coast  fifteen 
miles  by  a  breadth  of  one.  During  the  time 
that  the  old  Koman  emiiire  was  dominant. 
Alexandria  was  considi'rcd  the  si'cond  city 
of  the  enii)ire,  having  a  ]ioi)ulation  of  ()()0,()00 
or  700.000.  Its  inhaliitants  were  drawn  from 
many  nationalities,  Greeks,  Egyptians,  Jews, 
Romans,  who  used  the  Greek  language  as  the 


Algum 


Almug 


medium  of  coimiiiinicatioii.  Tlie  ilifltTi'iit 
jiuoplfs  Dcciijiicil.  as  a  rulr.  diliVri'iit  i|iiartiTs 
of  the  city.  'I'lic  .lows  resided  in  tlie  iiorili- 
easteru  i)art,  enjoyed  equal  iij;iils  witli  tlie 
other  citizens,  and  were  {governed  liy  their 
own  ethnarcli  (Antii].  xix.  ri,  J:  War,  ii.  IS, 
7).  'I'he  I'tolciiiies  lotnided  a  liiuscuni  with 
a  renc»\\ned  lil>rary  of  :i(M»,0()()  volumes,  and 
the  city  was  looked  upon  as  one  of  the  great- 
est iiUelleetual  centers  in  the  world.  The 
translation  of  the  Hebrew  Seriiitures  into  the 
(ireck  lau;;iiai;e  was  he;;un  here  in  tlie  third 
century,  and  completed  hy  the  second  cen- 
tury, iH'fore  Clirist.  Here,  too,  the  sjiirit  of 
(ireek  iihilosojihy  permeated  .Judaism,  ami 
ex<-;;eleslike  i'hiloai-osc  who  exct'ssi  vely  alle- 
jjori/.cd  Scripture.  The  .lews  of  Alexandria 
had  their  own  syna^io^^ue  in  .Jerusalem,  and 
were  among  the  persecutors  of  Stephen  (Acts 
ii.  10;  vi.<J);  hut  the  teaching  of  .Jolm  the  liap- 
tist  and  tin-  knowli'dgt'  of  .Jesus  also  gained 
«'n trance  into  .Vlexandria,  and  under  (iod  ]iro- 
duced  sucli  men  as  Apollos  (Acts  xviii.  21,  2o). 
Tradition  ascribes  the  i)lauting  of  the  Chris- 
tian Church  in  Alexandria  to  the  evangelist 
Mark.  In  the  early  Christian  ages  the  city 
was  the  seat  of  a  celeliraled  Christian  cate- 
chetical .school  with  such  teachers  as  Clement 
and  Origen,  and  the  home  of  bish()])S  like 
Hesychius  and  Athanasius.  In  a.  D.  (JlG, 
Chosroes  II..  king  of  Persia,  took  Alexandria, 
and  in  tilll,  after  an  ol)stinale  defenci',  it  was 
captured  by  .\mrou,  the  general  of  Omar  1., 
the  Arab  caliph,  and,  witli  the  exception  of 
two  or  three  brief  intervals,  has  since  re- 
mained under  the  blighting  inlluence  of  Mo- 
hammedan government.  The  l'"rench,  under 
Na])oleon  I.,  ca)iture<l  it  in  ITilS,  but  were 
driven  out  by  the  British  in  Isoi,  after  which 
it  reverted  to  the  Mohammedans.  On  .July 
11,  IM.s-J,  the  Alexandrian  forts  were  bom- 
barded and  taken  by  the  British  fleet,  and 
tliat  temjiorary  occupation  of  Egyi>t,  wiiich 
still  continues,  began.  In  that  year  Alexan- 
dria contained  •J'JT.Oiil  inhabitants. 

Al'gum.     .See  Almtg. 
A-li'ah.     See  Ai.v.xn. 
A-li'an.     See  Alvax. 
Al-le-lu'la.    See  Hallklijau. 
Al-le'metli.     .See  Almon. 

Al'lon  [an  oak]. 

Not  a  proju'r  name,  as  in  A.  V.  of  .Tosh.  xix. 
3:5,  but  a  common  noun,  the  oak  or  terebinth 
of  IJeziumannim  (.Jmlg.  iv.  11,  K.  V. ;  wliere 
in  A.  V.  i)lain  should  be  oak).     .See  Zaanan- 

NI.M. 

Al'lon-bac'uth,  in  .\.  V.  AUon-bachutli 
[oak  ol'  weeping]. 

.\n  oak  near  Uethel  under  which  Deborah, 
Ivelx'kali's  nui-se,  was  buried  ((Jen.  xxxv.  h). 

Al-mo'dad. 

A  i)eople  descended  from  Shem  through 
Joktan  ((len.  x.  2<> ;  1  Cliron.  i.  'J(»).  They 
doubtless  settled  in  the  south  of  Arabia. 


Al'mon  [something  hidden]. 

A  village  within  tin-  ttrritory  of  Benjamin, 
assigned  to  the  ju-iests  (.Josh.  xxi.  It*).  In  1 
Chron.  vi.  tJO  it  is  called  Alemelh,  or,  follow- 
ing the  traditional  Hebrew  pronunciation 
more  closely.  Allemelh.  Both  names  have 
tlii^  sanu-  origin  and  meaning,  and  dilli-r 
merely  in  outwanl  form.  Its  >ite  is  the  ruin 
'Alinit,  a  low,  naked  mound  between  (Seba 
and  Auathoth. 

Armon-dib-la-tha'im  [jirobably  the  dis- 
trict included  between  Almon  and  Dibla- 
thaimj. 

A  station  of  the  Israelites  between  the  Ar- 
non  and  Shittim  (Num.  xxxiii.  ICj)  ;  i)robaJ)ly 
identical  with  Heth-diblathaim. 

Alm'ond. 

A  tree  and  its  fruit  ((Jen.  xliii.  11  ;  Ecc. 
xii.  .")),  calk'd  in  Hebrew  N'/uiivf/,  the  awaker, 
l)robably  bi'cause  it  is  the  lirst  tree  to  blos.som 
in  the  sjiring.  It  is  the  Ami/gtlalu.i  cuinmmiis  of 
botanists,  a  tree  about  2(t  feet  high,  originally, 
it  is  believed,  from  Barbary,  but  now  intro- 
duced into  many  lands.  In  ralestine  it  is 
found  on  Lebanon,  Hermon.  and  in  most  of 
the  region  beyond  Jordan.  The  town  (»f  Luz 
in  the    hill  country  of  Eiihraim  derived  its 


Aluiiiud  Tree. 

name  from  the  alnuiiid.  The  tree  grew  also 
in  Mesopotamia  Kien.  xxx.  ;}7,  Iv.  V.).  There 
are  two  varieties,  the  bitterand  the  sweet  :  the 
former  has  white  flowers,  the  latter  roseate. 
Almonds  were  sent  by  .Jacob  to  the  Kgyptian 
dignitary  ((Jen.  xliii.  11).  The  cups  on  the 
branches  of  the  golden  candlestick  were 
modeled  after  almoiul  blossoms  (Ex.  xxv.  .'i.'!. 
:M).     When   Aaron's   rod   budded  it  brought 

forth  al ml  blossoms  (Num.  xvii.  .'<).     The 

rod  of  an  almond  tree,  which  .Jeremiah  saw 
in  his  earliest  vision,  signKied  .Jehovah's 
wakefulness  (.Jer.  i.  11.  I'J).  The  white  hairs 
on  the  head  of  the  aged  are  jirobaldy  com- 
jiared  to  the  white  llower  of  the  bitter 
almond  tree  (Ecc.  xii.  'i). 

Al'mug,  in  '2  Chron.  Algum  [jjerhaps  from 
San.scrit  ntlijii,  valgum  (l..;is.sen.  Max  .Miiller)]. 


Aloes 


26 


Alphaeus 


A  tinihcr  brouf^lit  in  abundance  by  sea 
from  ( »|iliir  (liirinjr  tlic  rt-iiin  nl"  Solomon.  It 
was  iisi'il  to  niaki'  jpillars  or  l)aliistnides,  as 
also  harps  and  psiilteries  (1  Kin.  x.  11.  12  ;  2 
Chron.  ix.  10,  11).  According  to  Jcsephus,  it 
resembles  tbe  wood  of  the  tig  tree,  but  is 
whiter  and  shims  more  (.\ntiq.  viii.  7,  1). 
It  is  conuiionly  believed  to  he  .sandal  wood, 
the  Sdiitiiliim  album  of  botanists,  and  the  tyi)e 
of  the  order  Santaluvex.  The  tree  is  small, 
much-l)ranche(l,  in  aspect  somewhat  resem- 
bling a  myrtle,  a  native  of  India  and  the 
eastern  islands.  If  found  on  Lebanon  (2 
Chron.  ii.  S)  it  must  have  been  introduced 
there.  The  wood,  which  is  odoriferous,  is 
burnt  to  ]>erfume  teiu])les  aiul  ])rivate  houses 
both  in  India  and  China.  It  is  well  adapted 
for  the  purpose  for  which  it  was  used  by 
Solomon. 

Al'oes. 

Not  the  botanical  genus  Aloe,  consisting  of 
succulent  plants  belonging  to  the  order  Lilia- 


Lign-aloes  (Aquilaria  iu/allucka). 

cex,  and  furnishing  a  bitter  purgative  medi- 
cine. The  chief  value  of  the  scriptural  plant 
is  evidently  its  fragrance  (Ps.  xlv.  8  ;  Prov. 
vii.  17;  Song  iv.  14).  It  seems  to  he  Agal- 
locha,  called  in  various  Indian  dialects  agar, 
agaru,  and  nfiru,  of  which  the  Hebrew  words 
"haiim  and  '"haloth  are  probably  a  corrup- 
tion. The  siwcies  Aquilaria  agallocha  grows  in 
Sylhet.  in  the  east  of  Bengal,  and  at  Tennas- 
seriin,  in  the  Eastern  Penin.sula.  It  is  a  large 
tree,  having  alternate  lanceolate  leaves,  a 
leatliery  calyx,  no  petals,  ten  stamens,  and 
a  two-celled  seed-ve.ssel.  The  wood  contains 
a  resin,  and  an  es.sential  oil,  which  constitutes 
the  jierfume  for  which  it  is  ])rized  in  the  East. 
It  is  the  lign-aloes  of  Num.  xxiv.  (i,  and  the 
aloes  of  .lohn  xix.  lii),  one  of  the  kinds  of 
spice  with  which  Nicodemus  designed  to 
anoint  the  body  of  our  Lord. 

A'loth  [yielding  milk]. 

A  place  of  which,  according  to  tlie  IIel)n>w 
text,  the  name  may  just  as  well  be  Healoth, 
known  only  as  constituting  with  Asher  one 


of  the  twelve  districts  from  which  Solomon 
drew  provisions  (1  Kin.  iv.  16). 

Al'pha. 

The  first  letter  in  the  (ireek  alphabet ;  de- 
rived from  the  Plm'nician,  and  correspond- 
ing to  the  Hebrew  letter  Alejih.  Omega  is 
tlie  last  letter  of  tlie  Greek  ali)babet.  "  I  am 
Ali)ha  and  Omega"  means  "I  am  the  first 
and  the  last "  of  beings  (Kev.  i.  8,  11 ;  xxi.  G  ; 
xxii.  13;  cp.  Is.  xliv.  6). 

Al'pha-bet  [from  Greek  Alpha,  Beta,  the 
first  two  letters  of  the  (ireek  alphabet]. 

The  letters  used  in  writing  or  printing  a 
language,  these  being  arranged  in  a  conven- 
tional order.  The  English  alphabet  is  l)or- 
rowed  from  the  Latin,  which  in  turn  came 
from  the  Greek.  The  Greek  was  derived 
from  the  Pha'nician  ;  the  tradition  that  Cad- 
mus brought  letters  into  Greece,  if  not  true 
in  its  details,  being  yet  essentially  histori- 
cal. The  Phoenicians,  Hebre\vs,  I^Ioabites. 
and  Aramteans  used  a  common  al])habet  at 
least  as  early  as  the  eighth  ct'utury  n.  c.  The 
same  alphabet,  in  more  ]>rimitive  form,  was 
employed  centuries  earlier  by  the  Minaeans 
of  southern  Arabia.  In  their  original  form 
these  letters  were  pictures  of  familiar  objects, 
bore  the  names  of  these  objects,  and  had  the 
initial  sound  of  these  words;  thus.  Gimel 
had  the  sound  of  g  and  depicted  a  camel, 
which  was  called  gamalu.  The  names  of  the 
several  letters  in  the  Hebi-ew  alphabet  and 
the  order  in  which  they  are  arranged  have 
long  been  familiar  to  the  English  reader, 
from  their  haviiig  been  used  to  mark  the 
divisions  of  the  llSlth  Psalm.  The  E.  V.  gives 
in  addition  the  later  forms  of  the  letters 
themselves,  i.  e.  the  square  characters  intro- 
duced after  the  beginning  of  the  Christian 
era.  It  will  be  seen  that  they  are  twenty- 
two  in  number.  The  Hebrew  Bible  has  other 
alphabetical  psalms  than  the  119th.  though 
the  fact  is  not  ascertainable  from  the  English 
versions  ;  see  Psalms  and  L.\mentations. 
To  transliterate  the  Hebrew  letters  is  to  sub- 
stitute for  them  as  nearly  as  possible  the 
equivalent  Roman  characters.  There  are 
diflerent  methods  of  transliterating  some  of 
the  letters.  In  the  present  work  Alejih  is 
represented  by  the  smooth  breathing  '  and 
Ain  by  the  rough  lireathing  '.  Heth  by  h. 
Teth  bv  t,  Jod  when  a  consonant  bv  v, 
Tzaddi"by  .s.  Koph  by  k.  Shin  by  sh.  "The 
other  letters  re(|uire  neither  exjilanation  nor 
diacritical  point.  In  the  N.  T.  two  letters 
of  the  (ireek  al]ilia!)et  are  mentioned,  Ali)ha, 
the  first,  and  Omega,  the  last.  In  translating 
this  aljibabet.  l']])silon  is  re])resented  })y  e. 
Eta  by  e,  Tlieta  by  th,  Xi  by  x,  Omikron  by 
0,  U]i.silon  l)y  u.  Phi  by  j)h.  Chi  by  ch,  Psi  by 
ps,  and  Omega  by  o. 

Al-phse'us  [])erhaiis.  transient]. 

1.  The  husband  of  one  of  the  JIarys,  and 
father  of  .Tames  the  less  and  .loses  (]\Iat.  x.  3; 
Mark  xv.  40).  He  was  scarcely  Clopas,  in 
A.  V.  Cleophas  (John  xix.  25,  with  Mark  xv. 


Altar 


27 


Alush 


40),  for  Clopas  cannot  l)e  shown  to  be,  like 
AlphiiMis,  a  (iret'k  nioililication  of  the  Uebrcvv 
name  Ilitlpni/.     .St-e  .Iamks  2. 

■>.  The  fatlier  of  Levi  or  Matthew  (Mark  ii. 
11 ;  (-11.  Mat.  ix.  9). 

Al'tar. 

An  elevated  strneture  on  wiiieli  incense  is 
l)urne<l  or  siieritice  offered  to  the  deity.  It 
nii;iht  be  a  mound  of  earth  ;  or  a  huge  stone 
era  jthitform  built  of  several  stones,  dressed 
or  undressed  ;  or  an  obji'ct  of  similar  shape 
made  of  metal.  In  iiatriarehal  limes,  wor- 
shipers reared  altai-s  wherever  they  jiitched 
their  tents  or  had  special  occasion  to  sacrifice 
to  God  ((ien.  viii.2<);  xii.7;  xxii.9;  xxxv.  1,  7; 
Ex.  xvii.  1.") :  xxiv.  I).  The  fundamental  law 
of  the  Hebrew  altar,  which  was  embodied  in 
the  tlu'ocratic  covenant  and  was  given  at 
Sinai  before  the  tabernacle  was  built,  enjoined 
the  erection  of  an  altar  of  earth  or  stone 
wherever  .Jehovah  should  manifest  himself. 
Tills  law  was  the  ])rimarv  warrant  fur  the 
altars  at  the  tabernacle  and  temi)le,  where 
Jehovah's  i)resence  continually  was,  and  for 
the  transii'ut  altars  and  sacritici's  on  nccasious 
of  theophanies  (.ludg.  ii.  .">,  etc.i. 


Ancient  Assyrian  Stone  Altar. 


The  tabernach!  had  two  altars:  1.  The 
brazen  altar  or  altar  of  huriit  iiferiini,  which 
stood  in  the  outer  court  and  directly  in  fnmt 
of  the  door  of  the  tiibernacle.  It  was  5  cubits 
square  and  .'5  high.  It  consisted  of  a  hollow 
frame  of  acacia  wood  overlaid  with  l)rass,  and 
it  was  furnished  with  rings  ami  staves  that  it 
might  be  transported  from  place  to  ])lace.  On 
its  ui)i)er  corners  were  projections  called 
horns.  It  was  without  steps,  but  had  a  ledge 
round  about  it,  midway  Itetween  the  bottom 
an<l  the  top,  for  the  ]>riests  to  stand  on.  It 
was  ])robably  intended  to  be  filled  with  earth. 
All  sacrifices  were  offered  at  this  altar.  Its 
jtosition  at  the  very  threshold  taugiit  dis- 
tinctly that  man  has  no  access  to  .Jehovah 
except  as  a  sinn<'r  atoned  for  by  blood  (Ex. 
xxvii.  1-H;  XXX. '-'S;  xxxviii.  :J(i:  cp.  1  Kin. 
i.  .W;  Ps.  cxviii.  27).  2.  The  rioldrn  altar,  or 
altar  of  inceimp,  which  stood  in  the  holy 
platxi  before  the  veil  that  luing  J)eforc  the 
mercy  seat.     It  was  a  cubit  .square  and  two 


cubits  high,  and  was  made  of  acac'a  woml 
overlaid  with  gold,  with  a  border  of  gold 
about  its  top,  horns  at  its  corners,  and  two 
golden  rings  at  each  side  for  slaves.  Incense 
of  prescribed  ingredients,  lighteil  by  fire  from 
the  bra/.en  altar,  was  burned  on  it  morning 
and  evening  when  the  light  of  the  candle- 
stick was  seen  to.  It  symbolized  the  ol)liga- 
tory  and  acceptable  adoration  of  (iod  by  his 
people  (Ex.  xxx.  1-10,  2.S,  M-.il ;  xl.  o';  <  p. 
Ileb.  ix.  4  and  1  Kin.  vi.  22  ;  Lev.  xvi.  1."^,  l!»i. 
When  Solommi's  temi)le  was  buill,  the  new 
brazen  altar  had  nearly  four  times  the  di- 
mensions of  the  old  ( 1  Kin.  viii.  (il  ;  2  Chntn. 
iv.  1).  A  new  golden  altar  was  also  made 
(1  Kin.  vii.  48;  2  C'hron.  iv.  19). 

These  were  the  only  iiermanent  altars  on 
wliii'li  sacrifices  or  incense  could  be  accepta- 
bly offered  (l)eut.  xii.  2,  .'>,  0,  7).  Hut  the 
rearing  of  altars  and  offering  of  .sacrifice  in 
other  i)laces  where  (lod  manifested  himself 
was  aulhori/.ed  by  the  fundamental  law  :  and 
the  [irivilege  was  embraced,  as  for  example, 
by  the  Israelites  at  Hochiin,  by  (iideon.  l)y 
-Alanoah  (.ludg.  ii.  !-."»;  vi.  •20-2") ;  xiii.  l.")-2."i). 
The  law  of  the  altar  was  necessarily  in  abey- 
ance twice.  1.  When  (iod  forsook  the  talier- 
nacle  and  the  ark  was  in  the  hands  of  the 
Philistines,  or  in  dreaded  seclusion  at  Kirjath- 
,jearim,  there  was  no  jtlace  where  .Jehovah 
manifested  himself  (I's.  Ixxviii.  (i()-(il  ;  1  Sam. 
vi.  20-vii.  4).  Samuel,  as  the  projihet  and 
reinesentative  of  .Jehovah,  erected  an  altar 
at  Kamah  and  sacrificed  in  several  i>laces  (I 
Sam.  vii.  ft.  17).  Out  of  the  confusion  of 
worshii>  caused  by  the  cajiture  of  the  ark, 
the  domination  of  the  Philistines,  and  the 
political  complications  connecte<l  with  Saul 
and  David,  there  arose  and  continued  for  a 
time  two  high  ]»riests  and  two  altars,  the  orig- 
inal altar  at  the  original  tabernacle  ami  a 
new  altar  near  the  ark  in  .Jerusalem  (1  Kin. 
iii.  2.4.  1.');  2  thron.  i.  3-0).  2.  When  the 
Ten  Tribes  revolted,  the  jiions  Israelites  of 
tlie  north  who  were  debarred  the  ])ilgrimage 
to  .Jerus;ilem  were  comiielled  either  to  abstain 
from  worshiping  .Jehovah  b.\  sjicrifice.  or  else 
to  erect  local  altars.  They  chose  in  some  in- 
stances the  latter  alternative  (1  Kin.  xviii. 
:?0.  :{2  ;  xix.  10).  .Utars  were  not  always  in- 
tended for  s;icri(ices  or  for  the  burning  of  in- 
cense :  the  twi>  and  a  half  tribes  who  settleil 
east  of  the  .Jordan  built  an  altar  desigiu'd  to 
lie  a  memorial  of  their  aflinif  y  in  l)lood  to  the 
other  tribes.  whocros.setl  the  river  (.Josh.  xxii. 

io-;ui. 

Al-tash'heth,  in  A.  V.  less  accurately  Al- 
taschith  [do  not  destroy]. 

A  compound  word  occurring  in  the  titles 
of  P.s;iliiis  Ivii..  h  iii..  lix..  and  Ixxv..  all  K.  V. 
It  probably  refers.  lik<-  Ai.jeleth  Shaliar.  t..  the 
name  of  some  lU'brew  melody  to  tin-  tuue  of 
which  those  ii.sjilms  were  to  be  sung. 

A'lush  [tumult  of  men]. 
.Vn  emampnniit  of  the  Israelites  between 
Egypt  and  mount  .sinai  (Xuin.  xxxiii.  13.  14). 


Alvah 


28 


Amasa 


Al'vah  or  A-ll'ah  [hi-li,  tall,  tliick].  For 
variation  in  spi'Uiii^  in  rliaps  cp.  ^'AU. 

A  duke  of  Etiuiii,  (Icsceiuk'd  I'roiu  Esau 
(Geu.  xxxvi.  40;  1  (hroii.  i.  51).  He  prob- 
ably bears  the  name  of  his  district  (43). 

Al'vannr  A-li'an  [hi^'li.tall].  For  variation 
iu  form  jicrliaiis  cp.  \'.\v. 

A  lldiiif  ((ion.  xxxvi.  23;  1  Chrou.  i.  40). 

A'mad  [jieopk'  of  duration  or,  better,  sta- 
tion, duniicik']. 

A  IVoniier  village  of  Asher  (Josh.  xix.  26). 
Not  identified. 

A'mal  [labor,  sorrow]. 

An  Asherite,  sou  of  Heleni  (1  Chron.  vii. 
35). 

Am'a-lek. 

.St)n  (if  Elipbaz,  Esiiu's  sou,  liy  his  eoucu- 
biueTinina  (Cien.  xxxvi.  12)  ;  or,  collectively, 
the  Anialekites  (Ex.  xvii.  S;  Num.  xxiv.  20; 
Deut.  XXV.  17;  Judg.  v.  14,  etc.). 

Am'a-lek-ites. 

The  desceudauts  of  Esau  (Geu.  xxxvi.  12). 
For  a  long  time  they  were  centered  about 
Kadesh-baruea.  Iu  this  neighborhood  they 
dwelt  at  the  time  of  the  exodus  (Num.  xiii. 
29 ;  xiv.  25).  The  territory  occupied  by  them 
was  visible  from  the  mountaius  of  Abarim 
(Num.  xxiv.  20 ;  Deut.  xxxiv.'  1-3).  They 
were  among  the  foremost  people  of  their  time 
in  that  jiart  of  the  world  (Num.  xxiv.  20).  A 
writer  after  the  era  of  the  exodus,  refer- 
ring to  ancient  events  which  occurred  in  that 
region,  could  speak  proleptically  of  the  coun- 
try of  the  Amalekites.  Hence  in  the  narra- 
tive of  the  campaign  of  Cliedorlaomer  and 
his  allies  in  thi.s  region,  it  is  said  that  these 
eastern  invaders  "came  to  Kadesh  and  smote," 
not  the  Amalekites  (as  one  would  ex]iect  the 
writer  to  say,  after  the  manner  of  his  con- 
text, had  that  people  been  iu  existence),  but 
iu  guarded  phrase  "all  the  country  of  the 
Anialekites"  ((Jen.  xiv.  7).  From  their  cen- 
ter near  Kadesh,  the  people  roamed  and  their 
camps  radiated.  They  harassed  the  rear  of 
the  Israelites  soon  after  the  Hebrews  had  left 
Egypt  and  entered  the  wilderness;  and  at 
Keiihidim  on  the  west  of  Sinai  they  engaged 
with  Israel  in  battle  and  were  defeated.  Be- 
cause of  their  hostility  to  Israel,  their  utter  de- 
struction was  authorized  (Ex.  xvii.  S-lfi;  Deut. 
XXV.  17-19).  A  year  later,  when  Israel  had 
reached  Kadesh,  and  in  detiauce  of  (iod  at- 
temjited  to  push  northward  into  Canaan,  the 
Amalekites  opposed  and  repulsed  them  (Num. 
xiv.  43-45).  About  that  date  perhajis  or  later, 
their  name  became  attached  to  a  hill  district 
in  Ephraim  (Judg.  xii.  15:  cj).  v.  14).  8oon 
after  the  time  of  Moses  and  .loshua.  they 
aided  Eglon,  king  of  Moab,  to  wrest  .lericho 
from  the  Israelites;  and  a  few  generations 
later  they  were  allied  with  the  Midianites  in 
oppressing  northern  Israel  (.ludg.  iii.  13  ;  vi. 
3,  .33).  Evidently  they  had  been  working 
their  way  eastward,  iu  friendly  intercourse 
with  other  inhabitants  of  the  desert ;   and 


in  Saul's  time  their  bands  were  foun<l  roam- 
ing through  a  stretch  of  i)erliai)s  live  or  six 
hundred  miles  of  wilderness  from  the  border 
of  Egypt,  near  their  original  seat,  to  Havilah, 
a  designation  which  includes  northern  cen- 
tral .\rahia  (1  Sam.  xv.  7;  xxvii.  !^).  They 
suH'ered  crushing  defeat  from  Saul,  their  king 
was  cai)tured  and  slain,  and  they  jire.sently 
disappear  froui  Hebrew  history. 

A'mam  [i)erhaps,collection  orconjuuction]. 
A  village  of  Judah  in  the  southland  (Josh. 
XV.  26). 

Am'a-na  [tirmuess,  a  treaty]. 

The  mountains  of  Anti-Lebanou,  doubtless 
those  in  which  the  Abanah  or,  as  it  is  also 
called,  Amanah  takes  its  rise  (Song  iv.  8). 

Am-a-ri'ah  [Jehovah  hath  said  or  prom- 
ised]. 

1.  Son  of  Meraioth,  a  priest  descended  from 
Phiuehas  (1  Chron.  vi.  7). 

2.  A  priest  in  the  same  high-priestly  line  of 
descent,  a  sou  of  Azariah  (1  Chron.  vi.  11 ; 
Ezra  vii.  3). 

3.  A  chief  of  the  priests,  who  returned  from 
Babylon  with  Zerubbabel  (Neh.  xii.  2,  7).  A 
father's  house  bore  his  name  in  the  uext  gen- 
eration (ver.  13). 

4.  A  priest,  doubtless  head  of  a  father's 
house,  who  sealed  the  covenant  in  Nehemiah's 
time  (Nell.  x.  3). 

5.  A  man  who  had  taken  a  foreign  wife, 
wh(mi  Ezra  made  him  divorce  (Ezra  x.  42). 

6.  A  man  of  Judah.  family  of  Perez  (Neh. 
xi.  4). 

7.  A  son  of  Hezekiah,  and  an  ancestor  of 
the  prophet  Zephauiah  (Zeph.  i.  1,  E.  V.). 

8.  A  chief  priest  iu  Jehoshaphat's  time  (2 
Chron.  xix.  11). 

9.  A  Levite,  descended  through  Kohatb 
and  Hebron  (1  Chron.  xxiii.  19;  xxiv.  23). 

10.  An  assistant  distributor  of  the  freewill 
offerings  of  God  in  Hezekiah's  time  (2  Chron. 
xxxi.  14,  15). 

Am'a-sa  [a  burden]. 

1.  Till'  son  of  David's  half-sister  Abigail 
and  Jether  an  Ishmaelite  (1  Chrou.  ii.  17). 
He  was  Joab's  cousin  (2  Sam.  xvii.  25).  Ab- 
salom apjiointed  Amasa  cajitain  of  his  army 
(ibid.).  After  Absalom's  defeat  and  death. 
Amasa  was  forgiven  by  David  and  apjiointed 
commander-in-chief  in  sujiersession  of  .loab 
(2  Sam.  xix.  !.'{).  On  the  breaking  out  of 
the  revolt  headed  by  Sheba,  Amasa  received 
orders  to  have  an  army  in  readiness  to  start 
in  three  days.  He  was  behind  liis  time  ;  and 
Abishai  was  sent  with  troojis,  among  whom 
Joab  was,  after  Sheba.  The  two  comiianies 
united  at  (iibeon  ;  and  Joal),  under  jiri'text 
of  greeting  Amasa  with  a  kiss,  stabbed  him 
(2  Sam.  XX.  1-13). 

2.  A  lu-ince  of  Ephraim  and  son  of  Hadlai. 
When  cajitives  from  Judah  were  being  car- 
ried otl"  by  the  Israelite  army  under  Pekah. 
he  aided   iu  securiug  their  release  (2  Chrou. 

I    xxviii.  12). 


Amasai 


29 


Ammihud 


Am'a-sal  [Ininlcnsonu']. 

1.  A  I.cvitc  "if  llu-  K.iliatliite  family,  de- 
sciMiiliil  tliifjiigli  Ahiasiipli  and  an  ancestor 
of  Hc-Mian  tlio  sinjiei  (1  t'hron.  vi.  :$.")).  Ama- 
sai in  ver.  "J")  is  i)i'rliai>s  a  (litlVrent  person  of 
the  same  family  and  name,  hn'  deseended 
from  the  hrotliei-of  Ahiasajih  (Hx.  vi.  21). 

2.  A  Levite  who  l)le\va  trumi)et  in  David's 
rei^n  (1  Chron.  xv.  24). 

:i.  A  Kohathite  who  aided  in  the  religions 
revival  in  lle/.ekiah's  reign  i:J(']ir()ii.  xxix. 
1-J). 

Am'a-shai,  in  K.  V.  Amashsai  [iierhaps, 
two  variant  speliinjis  of  Amasai  eombined]. 

A  iMJest,  son  of  A/a  reel.  lie  lived  in 
Jernsaleni,  at  Nehemiah's  retiuest  (Neh.  xi. 
1:5). 

Am-a-si'ah  [Jehovah  hath  borne]. 
A  son   of  Ziiiiri,  and   hi«h   military  ortieer 
under  .lelioshaidiat  (2  Chron.  xvii.  KJ). 

Am-a-zi'ah  [.Fehovah  is  strong]. 

1.  .\  king  of . Indah.  whosiicceedcd  his  father 
•Tiiash  when  twiisty-five  years  old.  When  he 
found  himself  firm  on  the  throne,  he  put  to 
<leatii  the  murderers  of  liis  father,  hut  spared 
their  ciiildren,  in  eouformity  with  the  prin- 
ciple l.-iid  down  on  the  subject  in  the  Mosaic 
law  iDeiii.  xxiv.  16).  He  hired  lOil.OdO 
Israelitisii  mercenaries  to  accomi)any  him  on 
an  exi)edition  against  the  Kdomites,  but  at 
tlie  command  of  a  man  of  God  he  dismissed 
them  and,  taking  the  forces  of  .hidah  alone, 
defeated  the  Kdomites  in  the  Valley  of  Salt 
and  captured  their  ca])ital,  Selah.  But  he 
brought  back  idols  of  the  Ivlomites,  and  set 
them  u]i  for  his  gods.  The  dismissed  Israel- 
ites on  their  way  liome  ])lundered  the  cities 
of  Judah  north  of  Heth-horon.  Amaziah, 
following  bad  advice,  idiallenged  .lehoash. 
king  of  Israel,  to  tight,  but  he  was  defeated 
in  a  l)attle  at  Hetli-sheniesh.  taken  ])ris(»uer, 
and  carried  to  .lerusiilem.  Part  of  the  wall 
of  .Jerusalem,  his  capital,  was  broken  down 
by  .b'hoash.  and  treasure  and  Iiostages  were 
taken  by  him  to  .Samaria.  A  consjiiracy  was 
formed  against  Amaziah  in  .Jerusalem.  He 
lied  to  Lachish,  but  was  followed  thither 
and  murdered.  He  reigned  twenty-nine  years 
(2  Kin.  xiv.  1--J0  ;  2  Chron.  xxv."l-27).* 

2-4.  See  1  Chron.  iv.  .11 :  vi.  45;  Amosvii.  10). 

Am'ber. 

The  hardened  or  fossilized  rosin  of  a  now 
I'XtincI  pine-tree  (I'hiiis  siirciiilfcr)  allied  to 
tlie  Norway  sjiruce  or  to  the  Silver  fir.  Tliat 
it  W!is  originally  fluid  is  jjlain  from  the  fact 
that  it  is  found  to  enclose  numerous  remains 
of  plants  and  of  insects.  The  jiines  |iro- 
duciiig  it  gri'W  in  the  .soiilheaslcru  jL-irt  of 
what  is  now  the  bed  of  the  Baltic  Sea.  and  it  is 
still  picked  up  on  the  southern  shore  of  that 
sea.  It  w;is  r<-garded  as  a  gem.  an<l  early  be- 
came an  olijecl  of  conunerce  over  regions  very 
remote  from  the  Baltic  .Sea.  It  is  generally 
yellow,  and  that  is  the  color  of  amber  referred 
to  in  Kzek.  i.  »,  27;  viii.  2. 


A'men'  [firm,  established]. 

1.  .Icsus,  as  the  faithful  ;ind  true  One  (li^-v. 
iii.  11;  cp.  Is.  Ixv.  K!.  K.  \'.  margini. 

2.  An  interjection,  "  So  be  it,"  "  May  it  be  '' 
as  has  been  asked,  sjiid.  promised,  or  threat- 
ened (Mat.  vi.  1:5 ;  Dent,  xxvii.  l(i  2(i :  2Cor.  i. 
20).  To  render  it  more  emphatic,  it  is  some- 
times redoubled  (Num.  v.  22).  .Jesus  l)egins 
many  of  his  sayings  with  this  word,  which 
is  then  translated  "verily."  This  idioiu  is 
peculiar  to  him. 

Am'e-thyst  [the  Hebrew  name  suggests 
dream-stone]. 

A  precious  stone,  believed  to  he  intended 
by  the  Hebrew  name  for  the  last  gem  in  the 
third  row  ou  the  .Jewish  high  i>riest"s  breast- 
plate (Ex.  xxviii.  19;  x.xxix.  12).  The  ame- 
thyst formed  the  twelfth  foundation  <if  the 
New  .Jenis;ilem  I  Rev.  xxi.  2<0.  It  is  a  gla.ssy, 
clear,  purjile  or  bluish  violet  variety  of 
quartz,  the  color,  it  is  believed,  being  pro- 
duced l)y  mangane.se.  The  Hebrews  could 
obtain  it  in  Kdom,  Egypt,  (.ialatia,  or  Cyjirus  ; 
but  finer  specimens  came  from  India  and 
S])ain. 

A'mi.    See  Amox  1.  :;. 

A-min'a-dab.     See  Am.minau.\b. 

A-mit'tai  [truthful]. 

The  father  of  Jonah  the  prophet  (2  Kin. 
xiv.  2.T  ;  Jonah  i.  1). 

Am'mali  [inother  of  anything  in  a  figuni- 
tivf  sense  :  beginning,  foundation]. 

A  hill  near  (iiah.  on  the  road  from  (iilieon 
through  the  wilderness  to  the  .Jordan  (2 
Sam.  ii.  24;  cp.  Hi,  29).  Exact  situation  uu- 
known. 

Am'mi  [my  ])eople]  (Hos.  ii.  1^. 

Am'mi-el  [one  of  the  familv.  or  a  devoted 
ally,  is(;od]. 

1.  Son  of  (iemalli.  and  representative  of  tl»e 
tribe  of  J>an  on  the  commission  to  spy  out 
Canaan  (Num.  xiii.  12i. 

2.  A  man  of  Lo-debar.  and  father  ot' Machir 
(2  .Sam.  ix.  4,  .">;  xvii.  27). 

;{.   A    sou    of   Olied-edom    il    Chron.    xxvi. 

4.  leather  of  Bath-sheba  (1  Chron.  iii.  ."ii  : 
see  Em  AM. 

Am-mi'hud  [kinsman  of  i)raiscworlhiness. 
or  an  ally  is  the  praiseworthy  one]. 

1.  \u  I'phraimite.  descended  through  Ta- 
lian.  and  father  of  IClishaniu  (Num.  i.  10:  1 
Chron.  vii.  2<i). 

2.  .\  man  of  Simeon,  and  fatlier  of  .Shemue! 
(Num.  xxxiv.  20i. 

:{.  .\  man  of  Na)dituli.  and  fatlier  of  Peda- 
hel  (Num.  xxxiv.  2M. 

4.  Father  of  Talmai.  king  of  (ie.shnr  (2 
Sam.  xiii.  .'{7).  In  tln'  Hebrew  text  the  nam<- 
is  written  with  l.i  and  r  instead  of  b  and  d. 
but  is  tradilionally  pronounced  .Vmmihud. 

'1.  A  descendant  of  .Indah  through  IV-rez 
(1  Chron.  ix.  4.  K.  V.). 


AmmihuT 


30 


Amon 


Am-mi'hiir  [juTliaiis,  kiiisiiKin  <if  uobility]. 
See  AMMimi)  1. 

Am-min'a  dab,  in  A.  V.  of  X.  T.  Amlna- 

dab  [ilio  iH'o|il<'  or  kinsman  is  f;eneroiis]. 

1.  A  man  of  .I\uiah,  family  of  Hezroii, 
house  of  Kam  (1  C'hron.  ii.  10).  He  was  the 
father  of  Nahshon.  the  i)rinceof  Judah  (Xiiui. 
i.  7),  father-in-hi\v  of  Aaron  the  priest  (Ex. 
vi.  "23),  and  an  ancestor  of  David  (Euth  iv. 
19;  Mat.  i.  4;  Luke  iii.  '.V.i). 

2.  A  Levite,  family  of  Kohath,  house  of 
Uzzicl.  He  was  head  of  his  father's  house 
in  David's  reifrn  (1  C'hron.  xv.  10,  11  ;  ep.  Ex. 
vi.  18,  22). 

3.  A  Levite,  family  of  Kohath  (1  C'hron. 
vi.  22).  The  genealogies  of  Kohath,  how- 
ever, regularly  have  the  name  Izhar  in  this 
place  (vs.  37,  38;  Ex.  vi.  18,  21,  24),  so  that 
Ammiuadab  is  probably  either  another  name 
of  Izhar  or  a  ct>rruption  of  the  genealogy. 

Am-min'a-dib  [my  princely  willing  people, 
or  the  peo]ile  is  generous]. 

If  a  proper  name,  which  is  doubtful,  then 
it  is  some  one  famous  for  his  chariots  (Song 
vi.  12;  cp.  text  and  margin). 

Am'mi-shad'dai  [an  ally  or  kinsman  is  the 
Almighty]. 

A  Dauite,  father  of  Ahiezer  (Xum.  i.  12  ;  ii. 

2.->). 

Am-miz'a-bad  [the  kinsman  hath  en- 
dowed]. 

A  son  of  David's  mighty  man  Benaiah  (1 
f'hron.  xxvii.  (i). 

Am'mon  [pertaining  to  the  nation]. 

An  adjective  which  paraphrases  the  name 
of  Ben-ammi,  Lot's  younger  son,  ancestor  of 
the  Ammonites  (Gen.  xix.  38). 

Am'mon-ites. 

A  ]ie(iiilc  descended  from  Ben-ammi,  Lot's 
second  son  (Gen.  xix.  38).  They  dispossessed 
the  Zanizummim  of  the  territory  between  the 
Arnon  and  the  .Tabbok  (Deut.  ii.  20,  21  ;  iii. 
11) ;  but  were  in  turn  driven  out  by  the 
Amorites  and  compelled  to  keep  on  the  bor- 
der of  the  eastern  desert,  with  the  u])per 
.Tabbok  as  their  western  lioundarv  (Xum.  xxi. 
24  ;  Deut.  ii.  '.iT  :  .Tudg.  xi.  13,  22).  For  hav- 
ing joined  the  Moabites  in  hiring  Balaam 
to  curse  the  Isi-aelites.  they  were  excluded 
from  the  congregation  of  the  Lord  to  the  tenth 
generation  (Deut.  xxiii.  3-6).  They  aided 
Elglon.  king  of  Moab,  in  subjugating  ;i  por- 
tion of  the  Israelites  (Judg.  iii.  13).  In  the 
time  of  .h'lihthah  they  again  oppressed  the 
Israelites  east  of  .Tord'an  (.ludg.  x.  (i,  9.  18). 
.Tu.st  before  i^aul  became  actual  king,  X^aha.sh, 
the  Ammonite  king,  besieged  .labesh-gilead. 
Saul  came  to  the  assistance  of  tlie  beleaguered 
citizens,  and  totally  defeated  Xahash  (1  Sam. 
xi.  1-11).  Xahash  befriended  David  ;  doing 
this,  i)erhaps,  because  b(ith  were  enemies  of 
Saul.  On  the  death  of  Xahash,  I>avid  sent 
an  embassy  to  his  son.  Hanun:  but  the  ani- 
hassiidors  were  insulted,  and  war  sui)ervened. 


In  the  first  campaign,  the  confederate  Syrians 
and  Ammonites  were  defeated  by  the  Israel- 
ites, led  by  .loaband  Abishai  (2  Sam.  x.  1-19; 
1  t'hron.  xix.  1  1!)).  In  the  second,  the  Isr.iel- 
ites  captured  liiibbah,  the  Ammonite  cai)ital 
(2  Sam.  xi.,  xii. ;  1  Chron.  xx.  1-3).  Solo- 
mon took  several  Ammonite  women  as  wives 
(1  Kin.  xi.  1).  In  the  time  of  .lehoshajihat 
Moal)ites,  Ammonites,  and  Edomites  unsuc- 
cessfully invaded  .Judah  (2  C'hron.  xx.  1-30). 
To  Uzziah  and  .Totham  the  Ammonites  sent 
tribute  (xxvi.  8;  xxvii.. 5).  Ammonites  joined 
with  others  in  vexing  Jehoiakim  (2  Kin. 
xxiv.  2) ;  and  after  the  fall  of  .Jerusalem, 
they  frustrated  the  attempt  of  the  Jews  to 
form  a  new  community  (xxv.  2.^  ;  Jer.  xl.  11- 
14).  As  inveterate  enemies  of  Israel,  they 
were  denounced  by  the  prophets  (.Jer.  xlix. 
l-(j ;  Ezek.  xxi.  20;  xxv.  1-7  ;  Amos  i.  13-15  ; 
Zeph.  ii.  8-11).  They  oppo.sed  the  rebuilding 
of  the  walls  of  Jerusalem  by  the  returned  ex- 
iles ( Xeh.  iv.  3, 7) ;  yet  intermarriages  between 
them  and  the  Israelites  took  jilace,  which 
were  censured  by  Ezra  and  Xehemiah  (Ezra 
ix.  1.  2 ;  Neh.  xiii.  23-31).  Judas  ^laccabwus, 
under  strong  jirovocation,  made  war  against 
them  (1  Mac.  v.  1-8).  They  are  mentioned 
as  late  as  the  second  Christian  century.  Their 
chief  deity  was  Milcom,  another  designation 
of  Molech  (1  Kin.  xi.  7,  33).  In  the  time  of 
.Jephthah  they  were  worshiping  C'hemosh, 
the  Moabitc  god  (Judg.  xi.  24). 

Am'non  [faithful]. 

A  son  of  David  by  Ahinoam,  the  Jezreel- 
itess :  born  at  Hebron  while  that  was  his 
father's  capital.  He  behaved  scandalously  to 
Tamar,  his  half-sister,  and  was  in  consequence 
murdered  by  her  fuU-bi-other  Absalom  (2 
Sam.  xiii.  and  1  C'hron.  iii.  1). 

A'mok  [deep]. 

A  chief  of  the  priests  who  returned  from 
Babylon  with  Zerubbabel  (X'eh.  xii.  7).  In 
the  next  generation  a  father's  house  bore  this 
name  (ver.  20). 

A'mon,  I.  [security  or  handicraftsman]. 

1.  Governor  of  the  city  of  Samaria  under 
Ahab  (1  Kin.  xxii.  10.  2(i"). 

2.  A  king  of  Judah  who  at  the  age  of 
twenty-two  succeeded  his  father  Manasseh. 
He  followed  his  father's  bad  examjile.  In 
two  years  his  servants  murdered  him  in  his 
palace.  The  peo]ile  of  the  land  put  llie  mur- 
derers to  dentil,  and  placed  his  son  .losiah  on 
the  throne  (2  Kin.  xxi.  19-26  ;  2 Chron.  xxxiii. 
21-2o). 

3.  One  of  "the  children  of  Solomon's  ser- 
vants" (Xeh.  vii.  .")!l) ;  called  Ami  in  Ezra  ii. 
57. 

A'mon,  II.  [I'^gyptian  .-loiDf.the  hidden  one, 
the  un.seen  ))eing]. 

The  chief  divinity  of  Thi'bes.  named  after 
him  Xo-amon,  the  capital  of  Ui)jier  Egviit 
(.Jer.  xlvi.  2."'>,  K.  V. ;  Xah.  iii.  8,  R.  V.].  the 
Hyksos  were  ex])elled  from  Egyi)t  under  his 
ensign,  and  he  consequently  became  head  of 


Amorites 


the   piiuthcoii,  aud  was  i-allcd  tlie  successor 
of  Ka.     He  was  rejjreseiited  as  weariug  two 


K!,'yi)tiaii  iJotl  Anion. 


pinnies  of  hawk's  feathers,  a  disk,  and  a  red 
cap. 

Am'o-rites  [couimouly  exphiiiied  as  ''luouu- 
taineers,"  l)iit  this  explanation  is  question- 
ahle]. 

One  of  the  tribes  who  occujiied  Canaan  be- 
fore the  comiuest  of  the  count rv  by  the  He- 
brews ((ien.  X.  K) ;  xv.  21  ;  Ex.  iii.  H).  At  the 
time  of  Al)rahani,  they  <lwelt  at  least  on  the 
western  shore  of  the  Dead  Sea  and  back  on  the 
mountain  ((ien.  xiv.  7,  i;{).  Even  then  they 
wire  the  most  powerful  tribe  in  the  hill  coiHi- 
try,  and  tlieir  name  was  u.sed  as  synonym  for 
the  inhabitants  of  that  re^'ion  >;enerally  (xv. 
Hi),  if  not,  as  later  when  tlieir  power  had 
further  increased,  for  the  inhabitants  of 
Canaan  Kfin'rally  (xxxiv.  2  with  xlviii.  22; 
.losh.  vii.  7:  ix.  7  and  xi.  19  with  2  Sam.  xxi. 
2;  .ludt;.  vi.  10;  Amos  ii.  l(t).  At  the  time 
of  the  exodus  they  were  still  in  the  hill 
country  (Num.  xiii."  2!t :  Dent.  i.  7,  lit,  20,  14; 
they  could  of  course  be  called  Canaanitcs, 
Num.  xiv.  ■)."))  ;  but  before  this  date  they  had 
I'arried  tluir  concpiests  to  the  east  of  the 
.Ionian  (Num.  xxi.  2(i-.'{0),  and  taken  jiosses- 
sion  of  the  land  from  the  Arnon  to  mount 
Hermon  and  from  tin;  wilderness  to  the  .Jor- 
dan (Dent.  iii.  S;  iv.  l-<:  .Fo.sh.  ii.  10;  ix.  10; 
Jiidv;.  xi.22).  At  this  time  they  (i<'cn|iied  tiie 
entire  hill  country  west  of  .Jordan  from  .leru- 


31  Amphipolis 

salem  to  Hebron,  and  westward  to  and  inclu- 
sive of  the  Sheiihelah  (.Josh.  X.."),  (i)  as  far  north 
as  Aijaloii  ancl  even  the  territory  of  Ephraim 
(Judj;.  i.  '.iii;  .Josh.  xi.  3;  xiii.  4)'.  For  their 
wickedness  they  were  devoted  to  destruc- 
tion ;  but  a  slronjj;  remnant  remained  in  the 
land  after  the  coiKiuest  (.lud;;.  i.  ;{.");  iii.  5), 
with  whom  in  Samuel's  day  there  was  jteace 
(1  Sam.  vii.  14),  and  who  with  other  survivors 
of  the  earlier  races  were  made  bondservants 
by  Solomon  (1  Kin.  ix.  2l),  21;  2  Chron. 
viii.  7). 

A'mos  [liiirden;  burdeii-bi'ari'r]. 
.\  iPidplut  liorn  at  Tekoa.  in  the  territory 
of  tile  tribe  of  Judah,  about  six  miles  south 
of  IJethlehem  (Amos  i.  1).  He  was  originally 
a  herdsman  and  a  dres.ser  of  sycomore  trees 
(i.  1  ;  vii.  14,  1.")).  Althoiifih  a  man  of  .Fiidali, 
he  was  called  to  prophesy  in  the  kiii;,'doiii  of 
the  ten  tribes.  He  ajipi-ared  at  Bethel,  then 
the  kinj;'s  sanctuary  an<l  a  royal  Iniuse,  which 
still  had  within  it  one  of  the  two  };oldeii 
calves  reared  by  .Jeroboam  I.  as  objects  of 
Worship.  Amos  spoke  with  such  freedom  and 
faithfulness  against  the  sins  of  the  kiii^c  and 
the  i)eo])le  that  Amaziah,  the  idolatrous  jiriest 
at  Bethel,  sent  word  to  kinj;  Jeroboam  II. 
that  Amos  was  cons]>iring  against  him  in  his 
own  kingdom  (vii.  10).  'I'he  time  and  cir- 
cumstaiu-es  of  Amos'  di'atli  are  unknown. 

The  book  of  .\mos  is  the  third  of  the  minor 
pr()])hets.  Amos  proidiesied  in  the  <iays  of 
Uzziah,  king  of  .Judah,  and  in  the  days  of 
Jeroboam,  son  of  Joash,  king  of  Israel,  two 
years  before  the  eartlKjuake  (Amos  i.  1  ;  cp. 
Zech.  xiv.  5), and  probably  while  tlie  kingdom 
was  at  its  greatest  extent  (Amos  vi.  11  ;  cp.  2 
Kin.  xiv.  25).  The  liteniry  form  of  chajiters 
i.-vi.  is  literal,  of  vii.-ix.  allegorical  The 
theme  of  the  jirophecy  is  the  judgment  of 
the  Eord  (i.  2  ;  c]).  Joel  iii.  Ifi).  The  ]ini|ibccy 
consistsof  three  jiarts  :  1.  Introduction  :  judg- 
ment u])on  the  nations,  the  series  leading  up 
to  Israel  (i.  .'{-ii.  16).  2.  Denunciation  of 
Israel  (iii.  1-ix.  10):  three  discoui"ses.  each 
beginning  witli  the  words  "  Hear  this."  fol- 
lowed by  five  visions,  exiiibiting  (n)  The  in- 
strument of  judgment :  devouring  locusts, 
symbol  of  foreign  foes.  (6)  .Source  of  the 
judgment:  lire,  symbid  of  (iixl's  wnith.  (<•) 
Cliarader  of  the  judgnient  :  plumb  line,  .sym- 
bolizing righteous  retribution.  (<l)  Nearness 
of  the  judgnient :  rijie  fruit.  (e)  Inlliition 
of  the  imnishment:  the  Lord  smiting  ilown 
and  slaying.  .'5.  I'romises  (ix.  ••<-  l.'i) :  the  ex- 
ile only  a  sifting  IS  KM  ;  restonition  of  the 
royal  house  of  David  to  its  former  lilory  (11); 
extension  of  the  kingdom  over  E<lom  and 
other  heathen  nations  (12);  restonition  of 
Isniel  from  captivity  (l.'tl")). 

A'moz  [i)owerful,  bi-ave]. 

The  |prophet  Isaiah's  fatlu'r  (Is.  i.  1.  etc.). 

Am-phip'o-Us  [a  city  pres.sed  on  all  sides]. 

A  city  of  Tbnice.  situated  at  the  mouth  of 
the  ."^tryinon  on  a  bend  of  the  river.  It  was 
founded   bv  the   .\thenians  in  the  liftli  ceu- 


Amplias 


32 


Ananias 


tury  H.  c,  and  calli'd  Ainpliipolis  because 
nearly  surroundeil  l)y  tlie  river.  I'lider  tlie 
Koniaus  it  was  the  eliier  town  of  Maeedonia 
prima.  It  was  on  tlie  Via  l''-^'iiatia,  thirty- 
three  miles  southwest  oC  rhili])i>i,  and  I'aul 
aceordiujily  pa.-^sed  throuj^'h  it  while  traveling 
by  that  road  from  I'hiliiipi  to  Thessalonica 
(Afts  xvii.  1).  It  is  now  called  Eniiioli  or 
Yamboli,  is  about  three  miles  from  the  sea, 
and  has  a  village,  Neikkhorio  or  Joni  Keui 
(New  Town),  on  part  of  its  site. 

Am'pli-as. 

A  Cluistian  of  Kome  to  whom  Paul  sent 
salutation  (Kom.  xvi.  8). 

Am'ram,  I.  (1  C'hron.  i.  41).   See  Hemdan. 

Am'ram,  II.  [jierhaps.  inexperience]. 

1.  A  Levitc,  son  of  Kohath,  husband  of 
Joeliehed  and  founder  of  tlu'  father's  house 
<(f  the  Amramiti'S,  who  in  the  tiuK'  of  Mo.ses 
numbered  appi'oximately  two  thousand  males 
(Num.  iii.  17,  19,  27,  28).  He  was  an  ancestor 
of  Aaron  and  Moses,  and  lived  to  the  age  of 
137  years  (Ex.  vi.  20;  for  form  of  expression 
<;p.  Gen.  xlvi.  l(i-18,  19-22,  23-25;  Mat.  i.  5, 
6,  8,  11). 

2.  A  son  of  Bani,  induced  by  Ezra  to  put 
away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  34). 

Am'ram-ites. 

The  descendants  of  Amram,  constituting  a 
subdivision  of  the  Lcvites  (Num.  iii,  27 ;  1 
C'hron.  xxvi.  23). 

Am'ra-phel. 

King  of  Shinar,  ally  of  Cbedorlaomer  in 
the  invasion  of  the  west  (Gen.  xiv.  1,  9). 
Evideiice  exists  tliat  goes  far  to  identify 
him  with  Hammurabi,  king  of  Babel. 

Am'u-let. 

Anything  worn  as  a  protection  against 
sorcery.  It  often  serves  at  the  same  time  as 
an  ornament  (Is.  iii.  20,  R.  V.  ;  cp.  Gen. 
XXXV.  4). 

Ain'zi  [robust]. 

1.  A  Levite,  a  descendant  of  Merari  (1 
Chron.  vi.  4()). 

2.  A  priest  of  the  course  of  Malchijah  (Neb. 
xi.  12,  R.  v.). 

A'nab  [probably,  fruitful  in  grajies]. 

A  town  in  the  mountains  of  Judali  (Josh. 
xi.  21 ;  XV.  .TO).  Two  ruins  still  bear  the 
name;  one  is  twelve  miles  southwest  of  He- 
bron, and  the  more  extensive  is  one  and  a 
half  miles  farther  southwest. 

A'nah  [i)erhai)s.  hearkening  to,  granting]. 

A  tribe  of  llorites  (G(>n.  xxxvi.  20.  R.  V.), 
organized  under  a  chief  (2!)).  The  tribe  bore 
the  name  of  its  progenitor,  who  was  descended 
from  Zilieon  and  expanded  to  a  branch  tribe 
(20,  24).  He  discovered  warm  sjirings  in  the 
wilderness  (24).  From  this  circumstance  lie 
l)r()bablv  received  the  name  Beeri.  man  of 
the  well  (2  with  xxvi.  34,  where,  if  Hittite 
does  not  include  Ilivite.  the  two  names  may 
be  confused  ;  for  in  the  Se])tuagiut  of  xxvi.  34 
Elon   is  a  Ilivite,  but  in  the  Hebrew  text  a 


Hittite).  A  daughter  of  the  tribe,  traced  back 
also  to  Zibeon,  becauu'  a  wife  of  Esau  (xxxvi. 
2, 14, 25).  Many  interpreters,  however,  discern 
three  persons  of  the  name — a  woman  (2,  14) 
and  two  nu-n  (20,  25,  29  and  24). 

An-a-ha'rath  [possibly,  nostril  <ir  jiass]. 

A  frontier  village  of  Issachar  (.losli.  xix. 
19).  The  position  <if  en-Na'urah  (ipossihly  a 
corruption  of  the  old  name),  live  miles  north- 
east of  .Jezreel,  suits  for  the  site. 

A-na'iah  [.lehovah  hath  answered]. 

One  who  stood  by  Ezra  when  he  read  tlie 
book  of  the-  law  to  the  jieople  (Neh.  viii.  4), 
and  Avbo  afterwards  sealed  the  covenant  to 
serve  God  (x.  22). 

A'nak  [the  long  neck  (with  definite  article, 
Num.  xiii.  22.  28,  but  not  .33)]. 

Collective  name  of  the  Auakim  (Num.  xiii. 
22  with  Deut.  i.  28),  who  possibly,  though  not 
necessarily,  were  descended  from  Arl)a  (.Josh. 
xiv.  15  with  XV.  13). 

An'a-kim  ;  A.  V.  has  Anakims,  using  both 
the  Hel>rew  and  the  English  jilural  ending. 

A  stalwart  race,  connected  with  the  Re])h- 
aim  (Num.  xiii.  33;  Deut.  ii.  10.  11,  21). 
Three  families  of  them  settled  at  Hebron 
(Num.  xiii.  22),  and  others  were  found  in 
neighboring  towns  and  elsewliere  throughout 
the  hill  country  (Josh.  xi.  21  ;  xv.  14  :  ci>.  Keph- 
aim,  xvii.  15,  R.  V.).  They  were  cut  oil"  by 
the  Israelites  in  the  general  campaign  under 
Joshua  (Josh.  x.  3(),  39;  xi.  21).  and  particu- 
lai'ly  at  Hebron,  on  the  allotment  of  the  land, 
by  Judah  under  Caleb  (xiv.  12;  xv.  13-19; 
Judg.  i.  10-15).  A  remnant  was  left  in  Gaza, 
Gath,  and  Ashdod,  in  the  Philistine  couutrv 
(Josh.  xi.  22).  The  giant,  Goliath  of  Gatli, 
was  probably  one  of  the  Auakim. 

An'a-mim. 

An  Egyptian  tribe,  of  which  nothing  is 
known  (Gen.  x.  13;  1  Chron.  i.  11). 

A-nam'me-lech  [god  Auu  is  king,  or  Auu- 
king]. 

One  of  the  deities  worshiped  by  the  i)eo]>le 
of  Sepharvaim.  a  city  of  Babylonia  (2  Kin. 
xvii.  31).  Ann  was  god  of  the  sky.  Wlu'U 
Sepharvites  were  brought  to  colonize  Samaria, 
they  burnt  their  children  in  the  fire  to  him. 
wor,shi])ing  Auu  as  Molech  was  worshiped. 

A'nan  [a  cloud,  or  he  hath  covered]. 

One  who  with  Neheniiah  sealed  the  cove- 
nant to  worship  Jehovah  (Neh.  x.  2()). 

A-na'ni  [cloudy,  or  covered  hath  (God)]. 

A  sou  of  Klioenai  (1  Chron.  iii.  24). 

An-a-ni'ah  [.lebovah  hath  covered]. 

1.  The  father  of  Maaseiah  (Neh.  iii.  23). 

2.  A  town  of  Benjamin  (Neh.  xi.  32).  De- 
sjiite  the  did'erence  in  spc^lling.  it  is  comnu>nly 
idcutilied  with  licit  Hauiua.  about  three 
miles  north  of  Jei-usalem  toward   Giheon. 

An-a-ni'as  [(4reek  form  of  llananiab,  Je- 
hovah hath  been  gracious]. 

1.  .\  disciple  of  Jerusalem  who,  with  his 
wife  Sapphira,  sold  a  piece  of  land,  and  taking 


Anath 


33 


Anem 


a  portiou  of  the.  i)ricc,  laid  it  at  the  apostles' 
feet  (Acts  v.  1  seq.)-  The  ("hristiaii  enm- 
niunity  held  all  thiii;;s  coiiinioii.  There  was 
none  anionic  them  tliat  lacked  ;  for  as  many 
as  were  ])ossessors  of  lands  or  houses  sold 
thuni  and  laid  the  price  at  the  apostles'  feet, 
and  distrii)Ution  was  made  unto  each,  accord- 
in;;  as  any  one  had  need.  No  one  was  nnder 
ol)li,i.'ation  to  do  tliis  (ver.  4),  and  the  end  pro- 
jiosed  ditl  not  demand  that  all  property  he 
sold,  hilt  forhade  it.  Property  was  sold  as 
need  r((|iiired.  Ananias  l)rought  i)art  of  the 
lircic.'fds,  and  laid  it  at  the  apostles'  feet  o.s- 
tcnsihly  as  the  whole.  I'eter  rehiiked  him 
fi>r  havin;,'  lied  unto  the  Holy  (Hio.st,  and 
he  fell  down  and  expired  ;  as  did  his  wife 
Sajiiihira,  wlien,  coming  in  three  hours  after- 
wards, in  i;,'norance  of  what  had  taken  place, 
she  repeated  her  husband's  falseiiood,  and 
had  the  .same  doom  foretold  her  hy  Peter. 

2.  A  Christian  at  Damascus  who  was  in- 
forme<l  in  a  vision  of  Saul's  conversion,  aiul 
sent  to  restore  his  sight  and  admit  him  to 
the  Christian  Church  l)y  baptism  (Acts  ix. 
lO-lS). 

'.i.  A  high  i)riest  appointed  by  Herod,  king 
of  Chalcis,  about  A.  D.  -IS  (Anti(i.  xx.  .">,  2). 
Four  years  later  he  was  sent  to  Kome  by 
the  governor  of  Syria  to  answer  for  vio- 
lence done  by  the  Jews  to  the  Samaritans, 
but  he  was  ac(iuitted  through  the  influence 
of  Agri])pa,  and  returned  to  Jerusalem  (An- 
tu{.  XX.  (i,  2  and  li:  War  ii.  12,  (Jand  7).  Jona- 
than, former  high  i)riest,  was  jjolitically  asso- 
ciated with  him.  In  the  year  .'SS,  Paul  was 
arraigned  before  Ananias,  and  he  appeared 
against  the  a]>ostle  before  the  pro(Uirator  Felix 
(Acts  xxiii.2;  xxiv.  1).  .Jonathan.  Iiis  c(d- 
league,  was  now  murdered,  and  aljout  the 
year  ")!(,  toward  the  close  of  Felix's  admin- 
istration, Ananias  him.self  was  deposed  by 
Agrip]ia  (.\nti(|.  xx.  8,  5  and  8;  War  ii.  l.'J, 
3).  He  ai)i)carsto  have  resided  on  the  south- 
western hill  of  ,Terus;ilem,  in  tlie  upper  city, 
near  the  palace  of  the  Asniona-ans.  He  was 
nuirdered  in  the  yearfiT  (War  ii.  17,  G  and  9). 

A'nath  [a  hearkening,  a  granting]. 
Father  of  the  judge  Sliamgar  (Judg.  iii.  31  ; 
v.  C). 

A-nath'e-ma  [anything  devoted]. 

In  the  N.  T.,  a  jierson  or  thing  devoted  to 
destru(ti<m.  It  corresponds  to  the  Hebrew 
Jli-rriii  (Kom.  ix.  .i,  li.  V.  ;  1  Cor.  xii.  :},  U.  V. 
and  margin  of  A.  V.  ;  (Jal.  i.  8,  !l.  K.  V. ;  see 
Lev.  xxvii.  28,  2i);  Josh.  vi.  17;  vii.  1,  R.  V.). 

A-nath'e-ma  Mar-an-ath'a  [Creek,  one 
devoted  to  distruction.  and  .Vraniaic  Mdittit 
'iilliii.  the  Lord  conu'th]. 

One  accursed  at  the  coming  of  the  Liml 
(1  Cor.  xvi.  22,  A.  V.).  li.  V.  regards  .Maran 
atlia  as  a  distinct  sentence. 

An'a-thoth  [answere(l  prayers].  I 

1.  Iliail   of  a   father's  house  of  Benjamin,    ' 
family  ni'  I'.crher  ll  Chron.  vii.  8). 

2.  Head  and  rcpresentativi'  nf  the  men  of 


Anathoth,  who  in  their  name  sealed  the  cove- 
nant to  worshi])  Jehovah  (Xeh.  x.  lid. 

3.  A  city  in  the  territory  of  Henjamin,  as- 
.signed  to  the  priests  (Josh.  xxi.  18:  1  Chron. 
vi.  (;0).  It  was  the  home  of  Abiathar  the 
high  i)riest  (1  Kin.  ii.  2(>),  and  the  birth- 
l)lace  of  Jeremiah,  and  the  jirophet's  life  was 
also  endangered  here  l.ler.  i.  1  ;  xi.  21).  The 
town  was  re-i)eo]iled  after  the  exile  (Kzra  ii. 
2:}).  Its  site  is  represented  by  the  modern 
'Anatj\  which  is  about  3  miles  northeast  of 
Jerusalem.  It  was  once  a  fortilied  town 
Portions  of  the  wall  still  remain,  built  of 
large  hewn  stone,  apjiarently  ancient. 

An'a-tliotli-ite,  in  A.  \'.  Anethothite,  Ane- 
tothite,  and  Antothite. 

A  native  or  inhabitant  of  Anathoth  (2  Sam. 
xxiii.  27;  1  Chron.  xi.  28;  xxvii.  12). 

An'drew  [manliness]. 

Hrother  of  Simon  Peter,  born  at  Bethsaida, 
on  the  lake  of  (ialilee  (.John  i.  44).  By  vo- 
cation he  was  a  fisherman  like  his  brother 
(Mat.  iv.  18;  Mark  i.  IH-IS),  and  with  his 
brother  had  a  house  at  Capernaum  (Mark  i. 
29).  He  was  a  disciiile  of  John  tiie  Baptist, 
but  being  directed  by  .Joliii  to  .Jesus  as  the 
Laml)  of  God,  he  obtained  an  interview  with 
Jesus  and  became  convinced  that  Jesus  was 
the  Messiah.  Forthwith  he  found  his  brother 
and  induced  liim  to  visit  Jt-sus  (.John  i.  :iTi- 
42).  He  was  afterwards  calleil  to  permanent 
fellow.ship  with  Jesus  (Mat.  iv.  18,  1<»;  Mark 
i.  1().  17;  cp.  .John  vi.  8).  and  ajjpointed  an 
apo.stle  (Mat.  x.  2  ;  Mark  iii.  18  ;  I^uke  vi.  14  ; 
Acts  i.  1.3).  He  joined  with  his  brother  and 
•James  and  John  in  imjuiring  regarding  the 
destruction  of  the  city  and  temple,  ami  the 
second  advent  of  Christ  (Mark  xiii.  3,  4).  and 
with  Philip  he  presented  the  re(iuest  of  the 
Greeks  to  .Jesus  (John  xii.  22).  Nothing  trust- 
worthy is  known  of  his  sul)se(iuent  life.  Ac- 
cording to  tradition,  he  sull'ered  martyrdom 
in  Achaia  by  crucifixion  on  a  cross  shai>ed 
like  the  letter  X.  This  is  now  called  St.  An- 
drew's Cross.  It  is  also  related  that  a  shi]) 
hearing  two  relics  of  him  was  wrecked  in  a 
bay  of  Scotland,  afterwards  called  St.  An- 
drew's Bay.  The  mariiuTs  who  reached  the 
shor<'  introduced  the  gosi)el  into  the  region. 
St.  .\ndrew.  therefore,  became  the  ]>atron 
sjiint  of  .Scotland,  and  gave  name  to  .St.  An- 
drew's town.  Ilis  festival  is  kei)t  l)y  the 
Greek  and  Koman  churches  on  the  .'{(ith  of 
November.  In  the  Church  of  Knglaiul  it  has 
become  customary  on  that  day  to  ]>reach  on 
the  subject  of  missions.  The  Acts  of  St.  .\n- 
drew.  an  alleged  gosjjel  from  his  pen,  is 
spurious. 

An-dro-ni'cus  [conquering  men]. 

.\  .lewi-^h  Chrisiian,  and  once  f(dlow-]>ris- 
oner  of  Paul,  to  whom  at  Kome  Paul  sent 
greeting  I  I\om.  xvi.  7). 

A'nem  [two  fountains]. 

A  town  in  the  territory  of  Is.s.acliar,  given 
witii  its  siiliurbs  to  the  sons  of  (iershoin  (I 
Chron.  vi.  7:'>i.      Probably  a  corruption  of  the 


Aner 


34 


Annas 


text  out  of  En-gaunim  (Josh.  xxi.  29 ;   cp. 
xi.v.  211. 
A'ner. 

1.  An  .Viiiorite.  resident  at  Manirc,  and  one 
of  Aln-alianTs  confodfratis  in  tlio  l)attlc  with 
with  the  eastern  kings  ((Jen.  xiv.  V.',.  24). 

2.  A  town  of  JIanasseli  west  of  the  Jordan. 
It  was  given  witli  its  snburhs  to  the  Kohath- 
ites  (1  ChroM.  vi.  70).  In  .Josh.  xxi.  25,  K.  V., 
Taanach  aiii>eiirs  in  its  stead.  ICither  name,  as 
it  stands  in  the  text,  niiglit  easily  he  misread 
as  the  oilier. 

An'e-thoth-ite  or  AnetotMte.     See  Ana- 

TlKiTIlITE. 

An'gel  [messenger,  envoy]. 

1.  A  celestial  being  a  little  higher  in  dig- 
nity than  man  (Ps.  viii.  ."> ;  Heb.  ii.  7).  They 
are  spiritual  beings  (Heb.  i.  14),  and  they 
neither  marry  nor  are  given  in  marriage 
(Mat.  xxii.  30).  From  their  worship  of  God 
as  well,  probably,  as  from  their  nature  they 
are  called,  at  least  in  jioetry,  sons  of  God 
(Job  i.  () ;  xxxviii.  7) ;  and  fi'om  their  charac- 
ter, lioly  ones  (Job  v.  1,  K.  V. ;  Ps.  Ixxxix.  5,  7, 
K.  v.).  Their  office  is  denoted  by  the  tei-m 
angel.  In  the  later  books  differences  among 
angels  in  rank  and  dignity  are  implied,  for 
there  are  archangels  (chief  angels),  as  well 
as  those  of  a  more  ordinary  kind  (1  Thess. 
iv.  16;  Jude  9).  This  twofold  distinction 
does  not  seem  to  be  all.  Both  among  fallen 
angels  and  angels  uufallen  there  are  thrones, 
dominions,  principalities,  and  powers  (Eom. 
viii.  38 ;  Eph.  i.  21  ;  iii.  10  ;  Col.  i.  16 ;  ii.  1.5). 
Cherubim  and  Seraphim  seem  also  to  belong 
to  the  angelic  order.  The  inanimate  powers  of 
nature,  by  which  the  ordinary  economy  of  the 
universe  is  carried  on,  are  God's  messengers 
(Ps.  civ.  4,  R.  V.) ;  but  pestilence  and  death, 
when  acts  of  the  divine  government,  are  rep- 
resented as  under  angelic  charge  (2  Sam.  xxiv. 
16;  2  Kin.  xix.  25;  Zech.  i.  7-17).  Unseen 
they  encamp  round  about  them  that  fear  God 
(Ps.  xxxiv.  7;  Gen.  xxviii.  12;  xlviii.  16;  2 
Kin.  vi.  17;  Is.  Ixiii.  9).  The  angel  of  the 
Lord  came  in  human  form  to  Abraham, 
Hagar.  and  Lot,  to  Mo.ses  and  Joshua,  to  the 
Israelite's  at  Bochim.  to  Gideon  and  Manoah. 
An  angel  came  to  Elijah  and  to  Daniel.  An- 
gels are  fittingly  prominent  in  the  history  of 
.Jesus,  announcing  his  l)irth  and  that  of  his 
forerunner,  heralding  liis  advent  to  the  shep- 
herds, ministering  unto  him  after  his  victory 
over  temi>tation  and  in  the  garden  (Luke 
xxii.  43,  a  jiassage  omitted  in  many  old  copies), 
and  bearing  tidings  to  his  discijiles  at  the 
resurrection  and  ascension.  An  angel  also 
aided  Peter  and  stood  by  Paul.  The  names 
of  some  angels  or  archangels  are  mentioned, 
nanielv,  (Jabriel  (Dan.  viii.  Ki ;  ix.  21;  Luke 
i.  19,  26),  and  Michael  (Dan.  x.  13,  21 ;  xii.  1  ; 
Jude  9;  Rev.  xii.  7).  The  Apocryi)ha  adds 
Raphael  and  Uriel;  see  Michakl  11.  The 
old  Persians  and  the  modern  Parsees  have 
recognized  the  existence  of  angels  of  different 
rank  and  assigned  names  to  some  of  them. 


2.  The  representative  of  a  chui-ch  ;  but 
whether  this  is  the  board  of  elders  wliich 
directed  the  alliiirs  of  the  local  church,  or  the 
pastor,  or  a  celi'stial  being  of  the  angi'iic  order 
watching  over  the  cliurch,  is  Ijy  no  means 
clear  (Rev.  i.  20;  ii.  1,  8,  12,  lb;  "iii.  1.  7,  14). 

A'ni-am  [sighing  of  the  i)eople]. 

A  Maiuissite,  fanuly  of  Shemida  (1  Chron. 
vii.  19 ;  cp.  Num.  xxvi.  32). 

A'niin  [a  contraction  of  '"yanim,  fountains]. 

A  town  in  the  hill  country  of  Judali,  men- 
tioned immediately  after  l^shtenidh  (.losh.  xv. 
.50).  It  is  apparently  identical  with  the  ruin 
Ghuwein.  about  eleven  miles  south  of  Hihron 
and  three  south  of  Semua,  i.  e.  Eshtemoh. 

An'ise. 

An  umbelliferous  plant  {Pimpinella  nnisnm) 
somewhat  like  caraway  in  appearance,  occa- 
sionally cultivated  in  the  Ea.st  for  its  seeds, 
which  are  used  as  a  seasoning  and  as  a  car- 
minative. The  English  ver.sions  render  the 
Greek  word  anethon  (Mat.  xxiii.  23)  in  the 
text  by  anise,  on  the  margin  by  dill.  The 
latter  is  Anethmn  (jraveolexs  of  the  same  order 
(umbelliferous)  as  ani.se,  resembles  anise  in 
appeai-ance  and  properties,  and  is  more  com- 
monly grown  in  gardens. 

An'kle  Chain. 

A  chain  binding  together  the  two  ankles 
of  a  female,  so  as  to  compel  her  to  take  short 
steps,  and,  especially  when  they  were  com- 
bined with  anklets,  to  make  a  tinkling  sound 
when  she  walked  (Num.  xxxi.  50;  Is.  iii.  20, 
both  R.  V. ;  in  A.  V.  called  simply  chains  and 
ornaments  of  the  legs). 

Anklet. 

An  ornament  for  the  ankles,  consisting  of 
metallic  or  glass  rings,  and  corresponding  to 
bracelets  on  the  wrists.  Anklets  are  often 
worn  by  boys  as  well  as  women  in  the  East 
(Is.  iii.  18,  R.  V. ;  in  A.  V.  called  tinkling  orna- 
ments about  the  feet) :  see  Axklp:  Ch.\in. 

An'na  [Greek  form  of  Hannah,  grace]. 

A  widow,  daughter  of  Phanuel  of  the  tribe 
of  Asher.  Her  married  life  had  la.sted  seven 
years.  At  the  age  of  eighty-four  she  visited 
the  temple  daily,  and  was  there  when  the  in- 
fant Jesus  was  brought  to  be  dedicated.  A 
prophetess,  she  recognized  and  proclaimed 
him  to  be  the  JIes.siah  (Luke  ii.  3(i-38). 

An'nas  [a  Greek  form  of  Hananiah,  Jeho- 
vah hath  been  gracious]. 

A  high  priest  at  Jerusalem,  as  was  Caiaphas, 
in  the  year  when  John  the  Baptist  began  his 
ministry  (Luke  iii.  2),  it  is  thought  about 
A.  I).  2().  He  is  called  Ananos  by  .losephus, 
w-hich  is  nearer  the  Hebrew  form  of  the 
name  than  is  Annas.  He  was  appointed  high 
]iri(>st  about  A.  D.  7  by  (Juirinius,  governor 
of  Syria,  and  was  depi)sed  l>y  the  procurator 
of  Judiea,  ^'alerins  Gratus,  about  A.  D.  16. 
Each  of  his  five  sons  became  high  priest,  and 
he  was  father-in-law  of  tlie  high  jiriest  Caia- 
phas ( Antiq.  xviii.  2,  1  and  2  ;  John  xviii.  13). 
Although   Annas  was  no  longer  officiating 


Anoint 


35 


Antichrist 


hij^h  i)rie.st  wlieii  Jesus  was  arrested,  lie  was 
yet  tlie  most  iulluential  priest  ami  still  l)()re 
the  title  (l^iike  iii.  2;  Acts  iv.  (i),  and  to  him 
Jesus  was  tirst  t;ikeu  (John  xviii.  13),  and 
after  being  examined  hy  him  was  sent  bound 
to  C'aiaphas  (-'!).  When  IVter  and  John  went 
subseciueiitly  arrested,  Annas  was  iiromineut 
anion;;  their  examiners  (Acts  iv.  (i). 

A-noint'. 

To  pour  oil  upon  the  head,  or  in  any  other 
way  apply  it  to  a  person,  or  to  a  thing.  Among 
the  Jews  there  were  an  ordinary,  a  siicred  or 
ollicial,  and  a  medical  or  surgical  anoint- 
ing. The  ordinary  one  was  simply  a  matter 
of  the  toilet  (2  Sam.  xii.  20  ;  Dan.  x.  3  ;  Mat. 
vi.  17).  The  anointing  of  the  head  with  oil 
ill  the  time  of  Jesus  was  extended,  as  an  act 
of  courtesy,  also  to  guests  (Luke  vii.  -Ki).  The 
olHcial  anointing  was  conferreil  on  prophets, 
]>riests,  and  kings.  Elijah  the  i)ropliet  was 
directed  to  anoint  I'^lisha,  his  successor  (1  Kin. 
xix.  Ki).  Aaron  the  high  ])riest,  and  those 
who  followed  him  in  the  same  oilice,  were 
anointed  with  a  holy  consecniting  oil  (Ex. 
xxviii.  41  ;  xxix.  7  ;  xxx.  30  ;  xl.  13, 15).  Saul 
(1  Sam.  ix.  IfJ ;  x.  1),  David  (xvi.  1,  12,  13;  2 
Sam.  ii.  7;  iii.  39,  etc.),  Solomon  (1  Kin.  i. 
34),  Hazael  of  Syria  (xix.  l."i),  Jehu  (1(!), 
Jehoash  (2  Kin.  xi.  12),  and  others,  were 
anointed  kings.  Mes.siah  aud  Christ  mean 
the  Aiiointeil  One.  Jesus  the  Christ  was 
anointed  by  the  .Spirit  to  be  prophet,  jiriest, 
and  king.  Of  things,  the  altar  (Ex.  xxix. 
3() ;  xl.  10),  and  the  tabernacle  (xxx.  2() ;  xl. 
9),  the  laver,  etc.  (xl.  9-11),  were  also  anointed. 
The  medicinal  or  surgical  anointing,  not 
necessarily  with  oil,  was  a  customary  remedy 
ajiiilied  to  the  sick  and  wounded  (Is.  i.  <> ; 
Luke  X.  34;  Kev.  iii.  IS).  The  Christian 
])laci'S  reliance,  not  in  the  natural  UKans  in 
themselves,  but  in  Cod  who  works  through 
the  means  and  renders  them  eUcctual  (Jas.  v. 
11,  !.">). 

Ant. 

Any  hynienopterous  insect  of  the  family 
Fiinnirithc.  They  are  social  insects  like  bees 
and  was)is,  to  which  they  arc  not  reniotel.v 
akin.  The  species  are  nunierous  and  widely 
dill'Msed,  the  larger  members,  however,  oc- 
curring in  the  troi)ics.  The  ant  is  held  up  as 
an  cxaiiiple  of  industry  and  fori'thoiight,  in- 
dustriously jn'ovidiiig  food  in  summer  and 
gatlu-ring  grain  in  harvest  (I'rov.  vi.  (i-S  ;  xxx. 
24,  2.">).  That  the  ants  of  Palestine  store  food 
on  which  to  live  in  winter  is  not  ex]>re.ssly  as- 
serted in  Proverbs,  but  it  is  clearly  stated  in 
similar  Arabic  maxims.  Dr.  Tlnimson  states 
that  the  ants  of  Talcstine  are  great  robbers  of 
grain  in  liarvi'st.  .Syki-s  in  1^2!'  found  an  ant 
in  India,  at  I'oonah,  storing  grain,  and  called 
it  Altii  jiniriilciis.  Moggridge  witne.s.sed  similar 
forethought  exiTcised  by  certain  ants  in  the 
south  of  IOuroi>e,  and  McCook  by  ants  in  Texa.s. 

An'te-lope. 

An  aiiiiiial,  ])elieved  to  be  mentioned  in 
I  tent.  xiv..'>and  Ls.  li.20,  H.  V.  It  was  captured 


in  nets,  and  was  ceremonially  fit  for  food. 
Targum,  foUowetl  by  A.  \'.,  renders  wild  ox; 
probal)l,v  meaning  the  bubale,  Aiitilope htibulis, 
of  Egypt  and  Arabia,  clas.sed  by  the  Arabs  with 
wild  oxen.  In  the  (ireek  versions  and  the 
Vulgate,  the  word  is  generally  rendered  oryx, 
wliicdi  refers  to  the  Aitt'ilupv  Ifucmyx.  This 
animal  has  horns  wliich  are  long,  sleniler, 
conical,  and  with  ringlike  ridges  round.  The 
animal  is  white,  with  the  exception  of  a  long 
tuft  uf  hiiir  under  the  throat,  which  is  bla<'k. 
It  is  a  native  of  Sennaar,  Upper  Egyjit,  and 
Arabia,  and  is  said  to  be  I'ouikI  in  Syria. 

An-tho-thi'jah,  in  A.  V.  AntotMjali  [an- 
swers of  .lehovah]. 

A  Beiijamite  descended  through  Shashak 
(1  Chron.  viii.  24). 

An'ti-christ  [Greek  antkhristos,  against  or 
instead  of  Christ]. 

The  word  antichrist  may  mean,  as  the  ety- 
mology shows,  an  enemy  of  Christ  or  a  usur- 
per of  Christ's  name  and  rights.  Tlie  former 
was  jn-obably  its  ]u'imary  meaning,  though 
the  other  idea  was  also  attached  to  it.  In  the 
N.  T.  St.  John  alone  uses  the  term  (1  John  ii. 
18,  22;  iv.  3;  2  John  7).  From  1  John  ii.  1^, 
R.  v..  we  learn  that  the  Christians  had  been 
taught  that  "Antichrist"  would  aiijiear  in 
"  the  last  hour,"  /.  c.  l)cfore  the  second  advent 
of  Christ.  While  not  denying  that  Antichrist 
would  be  a  single  jierson.  John  lays  stress  on 
the  spirit  to  l)i'  eiiibodied  in  him,  and  declares 
that  already  many  aiiticliiists  had  come.  The 
su))slaiice  of  the  antichristian  spirit,  he  siiys, 
is  denial  that  .lesiis  is  the  Christ  or  the  real 
incarnation  of  the  Son  of  (4od,  hy  which  is 
meant  not  only  denial  of  the  doctriiK-.  but 
moral  antagonism  to  its  religious  implica- 
tions. This  opjiosition  was  already  ajipear- 
ing  in  the  Church  in  the  jjcrsons  of  false 
teachers  and  false  disciples,  for  Antichrist 
iirises  out  of  nominal  Christianity  itself.  Rut 
while  .lohn  alone  uses  the  term,  the  doctrine 
it  taught  elsewhere.  Jesus  himself  not  only 
warned  his  a]>ostles  of  "  false  Christs"  (Mat. 
xxiv.  5,  23,  24  :  Mark  xiii.  21,  22)— by  which, 
however,  he  meant  ])riiiiarily  .lewish  Mes- 
sianic ])retenders  -but  plainly  intiiriated  that 
apostasy  would  arise  within  the  Church  (see 
jtarables  of  tares,  ten  virgins.  Mat.  vii.  22, 
2.5;  xxiv.  12,  etc.).  Paul  more  fully  teaches 
(2  Thes.  ii.  3-12)  that  before  the  second  ad- 
vent "'the  man  of  lawlessness"  (It.  V.)  must 
be  revealed,  "who  o|ii)oseth  and  exalteth 
himself  above  all  that  is  called  Cod,  or  that 
is  worshiped."  and  "in  the  temple  of  (Jod" 
■(=  iirobably  the  Churchi  claims  to  be  (iixl  (to 
usur|t  the  place  of  (iod).  Paul,  too,  like.Iohn, 
represents  tliisas  the  ciiliniiiation  of  a  jirocess 
of  apostasy  (ver.  7:  see,  too,  1  Tim.  iv.  1). 
Many  interpreters  also  S4'e  in  the  "beast  "  of 
Kev.  xiii.  a  further  description  of  .Vntichrist. 
Thus  the  X.  T.  declared  that  Clirisfian  his- 
tory would  not  bea  jnire  development  of  good- 
ness and  truth,  bill  that  wilhin  Christendom 
apostasy   would    arise,    develoji.    have    many 


Antioch 


36 


Antioch 


reiircsriitativc's,  iuid  liiially  ciilmiiiiito  in  An- 
tii'lirist  iirt(|ii'r  (  citlur  a  ]i(isini  or  an  insti- 
tution, ]iiTiuii).s  liotii),  (if  wliicli  tlic  ch^sontial 
spirit  wouUl  be  antajionisni  to  Christ  and  the 
impious  elaini  of  tliat  allegiance  from  man's 
niinil  anil  life  which  is  alone  due  to  Ciod  and 
liis  Son.  In  ditl'erent  periods,  various  apos- 
tasies have  seenu'd  to  helit'vers  to  he  Anti- 
christ, ami  have  more  or  less  emhodied  the 
antichristian  i)i'incii)le  ;  hut  doubtless  the  full 
manifestation  of  Antichrist  is  yet  to  come, 
and  will  precede  and  l)e  destroyed  at  the 
second  advent  of  the  Lord.  (i.  T.  P. 

An'ti-OCh  []iertaininfr  to  Aiitiocluis]. 

1.  The  metro])<ilis  of  Syria  nnder  the  Mace- 
donian (! reek  dynasty  (1  Mac.  iii.  :}7ct  passim), 
founded  about  300  }5.  c.  by  Seleucus  Nicator, 
and  named  by  him  after  Antiochus,  his  father. 
It  was  situated  on  the  southern  side  of  the 
Oroutes,  about  twenty  miles  from  its  mouth, 


he  fetched  as  a  coadjutor  Paul  from  Tarsus. 
For  a  whole  year  these  two  great  evangelists 
made  the  city  the  sjihere  of  their  labors  and 
taught  much  people.  The  disciples  were  called 
Christians  first  in  Antioch  (Acts  xi.  19-2G). 
Further  reinforci'nii'nts  arrived  in  the  \>er- 
sons  of  jirophels  CiT).  From  Antioch  I'aul 
and  Barnal)as  were  sent  on  a  missionary  jour- 
ney (xiii.  2).  On  its  completion  tlu'y  returned 
to  the  city  (xiv.  2(5).  The  disciples  at  Au- 
tiotdi  kept  uj)  active  intercourse  with  the 
brethren  at  .lerusalem.  In  time  of  famine, 
they  sent  relief  to  them  (xi.  2«-30),  and  they 
subn)itted  the  question  regarding  the  cir- 
cumcision of  gentile  converts  to  a  council 
at  .lerusalem  (xv.).  The  second  missionary 
journey  of  Paul,  like  the  first,  commenced 
with  a  departure  from  Antioch  (35,  3()),  to 
which  Paul  returned,  this  time  by  the  way 
of  Ciesarea  (xviii.  -22).  At  Antioch  Paul  with- 
stocd  Peier  tu  the  face  becau.se  of  his  vacil- 


Antioch  of  [Syria. 


the  river  being  navigable  up  to  the  city.  Mount 
Casius  ai)proached  it  closely  on  the  south,  and 
th(;  Amanus  mountains  were  not  fiu-  off  on 
the  west,  whilst  in  front  lay  the  valley  of  the 
Oroutes,  five  or  six  nules  across.  The  city 
became  large  and  numerously  inhabited.  It 
remained  the  capital  when  the  Roman  prov- 
ince of  Syria  was  erected  in  li4  i?.  r.  Its 
poi)ulation  was  a  mixed  one,  chiefly  gentile, 
but  also  with  not  a  few  .Tews  (War  vii.  3,  3). 
Clnistians  who  fled  from  .Jerusalem  to  avoid 
the  iiersecution  which  arose  ujion  the  martyr- 
dom of  Stejihen  preached  the  gos])el  here,  ad- 
dressing at  first  only  Jews  who  spoke  the 
Aramaic  tongue,  then  those  who  siioke  (Jreek. 
Barnabas  was  desjiatched  from  .Jerusalem  to 
aid  the  work.  After  laboring  there  for  a  while 


lating  conduct  with  regard  to  the  gentile 
converts  (Gal.  ii.  11).  The  city  remained 
great,  and  the  Church  went  on  to  develoj) 
while  the  Roman  ('mi)ire  stood.  In  A.  D.  5:-W 
Chosroes,  the  Persian  king,  took  and  de- 
stroyed it.  It  was  rebuilt  by  the  Roman  em- 
peror Ju.stinian.  In  .v.  n.  ()3.")  it  was  taken 
by  the  Saracens,  from  whom  it  ]>assed  in  10f<4 
to  the  Turks.  Except  between  1098  and 
121)9,  when  it  was  the  seat  of  a  Christian 
kingdom  founded  by  the  crusaders,  it  has 
remained  in  ^Mohammedan  hands.  It  has 
been  all  along  very  liable  to  earth(|uakes, 
one  of  which,  occurring  in  1S22,  damaged 
.Justinian's  walls.  The  i>lace,  still  called 
'Antakia,  is  now  nnim]>ortant. 
2.  A  town  in  Asia  Minor,  also  founded  by 


Autiochus 


37 


Autipatris 


SeU-uciis  Nicator  and  nampd  after  his  father, 
Aiitiiifhiis.  Thiiii;;li  situated  in  I'liryfjia,  it 
ln'i-ainc  the  cajiital  of  tlic  Ivoiiiaii  inoviiice  of 
IMsidia.  Hariialias  and  Taiil  visited  item  their 
first  missionary  .journey  ( Aetsxiii.  l-i-52  ;  xiv. 
l!l  -il  :  2  Tim.  iii.  11).  In  IK!:!  Anindcl 
identitie(l  tiie  ruins  of  tliis  Antioch  near  the 
mmlern  town  of  Yaialiateli. 

An-ti'o-chus  [witlistander,  endiirer]. 

1.  Antkkiu's  III.,  siiriiamed  tlie  (Jreat, 
k\uu.  of  S\ria  and  si.xtli  ruler  of  tlie  Seleiiei- 
dan  dynasty,  father  of  Seleiuiis  IV.  and  An- 
tiociiiis  Ki>ii.lianes(l  Mac.  i.  10;  viii.  (i-M.  lie 
rei;;ned  from  'J^'.'i  to  l!S7  15.  c.  lie  attempted 
to  wrest  (  o'lesyria,  IMnenicia,  and  Palestine 
from  I'tolemy  I\'.,  Imt  wasdefeatetl  at  Raphia 
'217  l{.  c.  After  the  death  of  Ptolemy  he  re- 
newed the  atti'mj)!  and  was  siieeessfiil,  f;ain- 
inji  the  decisive  hattle  of  Panea.s  in  ISW.  He 
invaded  Enroiie,  l)iit  his  victorious  career  was 
terminated  at  Thernio]iyhe.  On  his  retreat 
he  was  decisively  defeated  at  Majinesia  in  .•Ksia 
in  IIKI.  Hy  the  terms  of  peace  he  was  ohlitced 
to  .send  twenty  hostajjes  to  Kome.  inchidinji 
his  son,  and  [lay  an  enormous  trihute.  While 
Ithmderinj;  a  temple  in  Susiana  he  was  mur- 
dered hy  a  moh.  The  Seleucidau  Hue  was 
eoutinued  as  follows: 

Autiochus  the  Great. 


merely  as  a  cloak  for  his  own  amhition.  and 
slew  liim  as  soon  as  he  felt  himself  estalilislied, 
142  B.  c.  U  Mac.  xi.  \i\),  40,  54  ;  xiii.  31,  :i2). 


Seleucus  IV 


Demetrius  I. 


Autiocinis  Epiphaues. 

I 
Autiochus  Eupator. 

I 
Alexander  Balas. 


Demetrius  II. 


Autiochus  VI. 
Autiochus  \'II. 

2.  Antiochis  E-I'Iph'a-xks,  the  eijjhth 
ruler  of  the  house  of  SeleiicidiP,  175-lt)4  B.  C. 
(1  Mac.  i.  10  :  vi.  l(i).  He  i)assed  fifteen  years 
of  his  life  as  a  ho.stage  at  Kome  (1  Mac.  i.  10). 
He  was  an  i^nerjietic  ]>rince  who  extended 
and  streiijrthened  his  kiii;,'dom.  hut  enrajjed 
liis  suhjects  hy  reli>jious  intolerance.  He 
stirred  U])  the  Jews  hy  rohhiuf^  the  tenii)le 
and  setting;  up  a  statue  of  .Fuiiiter  in  the  ludy 
of  holies.  He  also  imlled  down  the  walls  of 
•lerus.ilem,  commanded  t  lie  sacrilici'  of  swine, 
forliade  cirenmcision,  and  desti'oyed  all  the 
Kicred  liooks  that  could  he  found.  It  was 
these  oiitraKcs  whicdi  iuduceil  the  revolt  of 
the  Maccahees  (1  Mac.  i.  II  5:i).  He  diedhe- 
tween  I'lyniais  and  Hahylon,  shortly  after  re- 
ceivint;  news  of  the  .lewisli  revolt  (vi,  l-Ki). 

:{.  Antkkhis  Ki'i'A-Tou,  sou  of  the  ahove. 
As  a  minor  he  rei);ued  two  years  iiuil<-r  the 
refieucy  of  Lysias  (1  Mac.  vi.  17  <>:;).  He  was 
slain  and  succeeded  liy  Demetrius  Soter. 

I.  AN-ri<i<iirs  VI.,  the  youn-;  child  of  the 
I'retender  .Alexander  Halas.  He  was  set  ui>as 
king  hy  the  general  Tryphou,  who  used  hiui 


Head  of  .\ntioelms  Epij>liaiios. 

5.  Antiochus  VII.,  hrother  of  Demetrius 
II.,  who  reigned  in  the  stead  of  Demetrius 
during  his  iniiirisonnient  hy  Arsaces,  llW-l'iS 
B.  c.  He  defeated  Tryjihon  (1  .Mac.  xv.  1, 
10-14),  made  first  a  treaty  with  Simon  Mac- 
cahieus,  hut  afterwards  re]indiated  his  help 
and  tried  to  roh  the  temiile.  His  attemjit 
was  frustrated  hv.John  and  .hulas  Maccaha'us 
(1  Mac.  xvi.  1-10). 

An'ti-pas  [contraction  of  Antiiiater], 

1.  .\  Christian  who  suffered  martyrdom  at 
Pergamos,  in  Asia  Minor  (Kev.  ii.  1~',  l.'i). 

•2.  Sou  of  Herod  the  Great;  see  HkkoI)2. 

An-tip'a-ter  [in  place  of  or  like  the  father]. 

1.  A  Jew,  .son  of  Jasou.  He  was  one  of 
two  amba.ssjidors  sent  hy  .Jonathan  and  tlie 
ciders  to  Kome  to  renew  the  alliance  (1  Mac. 
xii.  Ki).  His  father  was  ])erhaps  the  .lasim 
who  liad  formerly  gone  on  a  similar  missiou 
(viii.  17). 

2.  Father  of  Herod  the  (Jreat  (.\uti(i.  xiv. 
7,  3). 

An-tip'a-trlB  [hehmgiug  to  Antipater]. 

A  town  founded  hy  Herod  the  (ireat,  in 
the  fertile  ]ilain  of  Cajihar  Saha,  on  the  site 
of  that  villagi',  uearthe  mountains,  .'indcalled 
after  Autii)ater,  his  fatlur.  It  wassurrouuded 
by  a  river  (.\ntii|.  xiii.  1."),  1;  xvi.  .">.  2;  War 
i.  4.  7  ;  21.  !t).  It  lay  on  the  Kouian  military 
road  hetweeu  Jt'riis;ilem  and  ('a's:irj'a.  forty- 
two  Roman  miles  from  the  t'ormer  city  and 
twenty-six  from  the  latter.  The  ohl  name  lin- 
gei"s  under  the  modern  form  Kefr  .S;iha,  and 
its  site  is  commonly  sought  at  this  village  ;  but 
the  condition-,  of  (he  site  are  in  all  other  re- 
spe<-ts  fulfilled  hy  Wilson  and  Conder's  location 
of  it  at  Ras  el  '.\'\i\.  at  tlie  junction  of  the  old 
Komuu  road  from  Jerusalem  with  that  from 


Antouia 


38 


Aphek 


Ranileh  througli  Lydda  to  Ca'sarca.  The 
large  inouiul  is  coviTcd  witli  ruins,  from  the 
sides  of  wliieli  on  the  nt)rth  and  west  the 
river  'Aujah  gushes  forth  a  full-sized  stream. 
It  was  the  limit  of  Paul's  journey  the  first 
night  while  he  was  l)eing  taken  as  a  jirisoiier 
from  Jerusalem  to  t'a.'SJiroa  (Actsxxiii.  31). 

An-to'ni-a,  Tow'er  of  [pertiiiuiug  to  An- 
ton ins]. 

A  eastle  connected  with  the  temiile  at  Jeru- 
salem. It  presumat)ly  o<cu]iicd  tlie  site  of  the 
stronghold  Birah,  whit'li  appertained  to  the 
temple  and  was  restored  hy  Nehemiah  (Neh. 
ii.  ^).  John  Hyrcanus  built  the  tower,  and  he 
generally  dwelt  in  it  and  koi)t  the  i)riestly 
vestments  there,  for  he  was  entitled  to  wear 
them  (Antiq.  xv.  11,  4  ;  xviii.  4,  3).  Until  the 
time  of  Herod  the  Great  it  was  known  as  the 
Baris.  hut  Herod  repaired  it  at  vast  expense, 
and  fortified  it  more  firmly  thau  before  in 
order  that  it  might  guard  the  temple,  and 
named  it  Antonia  in  honor  of  Marc  Antony 
(Antiq.  xviii. ;  War  i.  21,  1  ;  v.  5,  8 ;  Tacitus, 
Hist.  V.  11).  It  was  situated  at  the  north- 
western corner  of  the  temple  area,  on  a  rock 
fifty  cubits  in  height,  the  highest  point  in  the 
neighborhood  (Warvi.  1,5).  Its  presence  there 
prevented  the  area  from  being  foursquare 
(War  vi.  5,  4).  The  fortress  had  the  amplitude 
and  form  of  a  palace,  with  chambers,  courts, 
barracks,  and  baths.  Its  walls  rose  forty  cubits 
above  the  rock  on  which  they  rested.  At  the 
corners  were  turrets,  three  of  which  were 
fifty  cubits  high,  while  the  fourth,  which  over- 
looked the  temple,  was  seventy  cubits  (cp.  An- 
tiq. XX.  5,  3  ;  War  vi.  2,  5).  It  was  separated 
by  a  deep  trench  from  the  hill  Bezetha  (War  v. 
4,2),  hut  was  connected  with  the  northern  and 
western  cloisters,  at  the  junction  of  which  it 
stood,  with  gates  for  the  guards  and  a  stair- 
ca.se  (Acts  xxi.  35  with  37 ;  40  with  xxii.  24), 
and  with  the  inner  temple  at  its  eastern  gate 
by  a  subterranean  passage  (Antiq.  xv.  11,  7), 
which  seems  to  have  existed  in  tlie  Baris  as 
built  by  Hyrcanus  (Antiq.  xiii.  11,  2).  Over 
the  temple  end  of  this  underground  passage 
Herod  erected  a  tower.  The  arrangement 
was  intended  to  aftord  him  a  way  of  escape 
in  case  of  a  popular  sedition.  In  the  castle  a 
Roman  legion  was  stationed,  which  stood  on 
guard  in  the  cloisters,  especially  during  the 
Jewish  festivals,  to  prevent  any  excesses  on 
the  part  of  the  ii()])ulace  (.Xiitici.  xviii.  4,  3; 
War  v.  5,  8).  The  castle  was  finally  demol- 
ished bv  order  of  Titus  in  a.  d.  70  (War  vii. 
1,  1 ;  cp.  vi.  2,  7 :  5,  4  ;  9,  1  and  4). 

The  most  tragic  event  in  the  history  of  the 
castle  occurred  (luring  the  reign  of  Aristobu- 
lus,  son  of  Hyrcanus.  The  king  lay  sick  in 
one  of  its  chambers.  His  beloved  brother 
Antigonus,  returning  from  the  war,  hastened 
clad  in  armor  and  accom])anied  by  his  mili- 
tary escort  to  the  ten\])le  to  otVer  ]irayers  for 
the  recovery  of  the  king.  The  act  was  mis- 
represented to  Aristobnlus  ;  but  he  summoned 
his  brother  to  his  bedside,  with  the  request 


that  he  come  unarmed,  and  ordered  soldiers 
to  lie  in  the  undcrgr(jund  i)assage  and  slay 
him  if  lie  ai)peared  in  armor.  The  queen 
suppressed  the  mes.sage  in  part,  and  contrived 
to  have  Antigonus  informed  that  the  king 
desired  to  see  his  splendid  armor.  .Sus))ect- 
ing  nothing,  lie  entered  the  pas.sage  clad  in 
mail  and  was  murdered.  Tlie  deed  was  re- 
ported to  the  king,  and  the  shock  brought  on 
ii  hemorrhage.  A  slave  bore  away  the  vessel 
in  wliicli  the  blood  had  been  caught,  but 
stunil)led  on  the  s])ot  where  Antigonus  had 
been  slain.  The  blood  of  the  two  brothers 
mingled  on  the  floor.  A  cry  of  horror  ran 
through  the  i)alace,  and  roused  the  king  to 
inquire  the  cause.  When  he  learned  what 
had  occurred  he  was  filled  with  an  agony  of 
remorse  and  instantly  expired  (Antiq.  xiii. 
11). 

Paul,  when  rescued  from  the  infuriated 
mob  who  had  dragged  him  out  of  the  temple, 
was  carried  into  this  castle,  and  on  the  way 
was  allowed  to  address  the  people  from  the 
stairs  (Acts  xxi.  30  seq.). 

An-to-thi'jah.     See  Anthothijah. 

An'toth-ite.     See  Anathothite. 

A'nub  [joined  together]. 

A  man  of  Judah,  son  of  Hakkoz  (1  Chron. 
iv.  8,  R.  v.). 

Ape. 

A  quadrumanous  animal.  The  Hebrew 
word  Koph,  which  is  rendered  ape,  is  probaldy 
generic  and  includes  apes,  which  are  without 
tails,  and  monkeys,  which  jxissess  them.  In 
Greek  l-epos  denotes  a  monkey  of  Ethiopia. 
In  Malabar  and  Sanscrit  kapi  or  l-efl  signifies 
a  monkey.  There  is  no  genuine  ape  either 
in  Malabar  or  in  any  other  part  of  India.  If 
the  animals  which  were  brought  to  Palestine 
by  the  vessels  that  went  to  Ophir  for  gold 
(i  Kin.  X.  22;  2  Chron.  ix.  21)  came  from  In- 
dia, they  were  a  tailed  monkey,  perliaps 
that  called  Hunuman  (Semnapithecus  enteUiis), 
which  is  common  throughout  India,  and  is 
worshiped  as  a  god. 

A-pel'les. 

An  approved  Christian  at  Rome  to  whom 
Paul  sent  a  salutation  (Rom.  xvi.  10). 

A-pliser'e-ma. 

A  government  district  which  in  the  time 
of  Jonathan  Maccabseus  was  separated  from 
Samaria,  annexed  to  Judsea,  and  placed  under 
the  authority  of  the  high  ]>riest  (1  Mac.  xi. 
34  ;  cp.  X.  .30,  38).  The  name  is  thought  to  be 
a  Greek  corrujition  of  Ephraim.  and  to  desig- 
nate the  most  soutliern  inirt  of  Samaria  (cp. 
John  xi.  .vt). 

A-phar'sach-ites  or  Apharsathchites. 

A  trilif  fn (111  beyond  the  Euphrates,  settled 
by  .\siiapper  in  Samaria  (Ezra  iv.  9;  v.  6). 

A-pbar'sites. 

An  eastern  tribe,  transplanted  by  Asuapper 
to  Samaria  (Ezra  iv.  9). 

A'phek  [strength]. 

1.  A  city  ajiparently  north  of  Zidou  (Josh. 


Aphekali 


39 


Apocrypha 


xiii.  4),  iind  hfiice  (((iiinioiily  identifii'd  witli 
tlie  iiiicifiil  Aidiacii.  ;i  jilacf  iiortlirast  of 
Beirut  and  taiiious  t'uv  its  Icniiilo  of  N'onus. 
It  is  uow  known  as  Af  ka.  The  situation  of 
this  town  so  far  north  renders  (|Ui'stionahle 
its  identity  with  Ajiliek,  variant  Ajdiik.  wliieli 
was  situated  within  tlie  territory  of  Asher, 
but  not  cleared  of  its  (anaanite  inhal)itants 
(Josli.  six.  30;  Jud*;.  i.  31). 

2.  A  phice  near  El)enezer,  not  too  far  from 
Sliih)h.  and  jirobahly  near  Mi/jiah  (1  Sam. 
iv.  1,  \i;  vii.  11  ;  perliaps  Josh.  xii.  17,  IH). 
The  riiilistines  jiiteiied  liere  l)t'fore  the  battle 
in  which  tiiey  captured  tlie  ark. 

'i.  A  town  apparently  between  Sluinem  and 
Jezreel.  The  Philistines  i)it(hed  at  Shuneni, 
but  soon  discovered  that  tlie  Israelites  had 
occuiiied  the  hei;ilits  of  (Jilhoa.  From  Shu- 
neni they  advanced  to  Apliek,  and  thence  to 
Jezreel,  where  tiiey  attacked  the  Israelites 
who  had  desceiidecl  to  the  sjiriiiji  at  Jezreel, 
forciii;^  them  back  to  their  former  position 
ou  (iilhoa  and  completiiiji  the  slaii.tchter  ou 
that  mountain  (1  .Sam.  xxviii.  4;  xxix.  1,  11; 
xxxi.  1).  Proliably  it  is  the  town  Apku  men- 
tioned by  Ashinbaniiial,  kinit  of  Assyria,  as 
"on  the  liorder  of  .Samaria,"  and,  by  implica- 
tion, on  the  military  road  to  E.i?ypt.  It  may 
also  be  the  town  of  Ajihek  to  which  Ben- 
hadad  advanced  with  the  intention  of  giving 
battle  to  Allah,  and  to  whicli  he  and  his  army 
retreated  after  his  defeat,  and  wliere  a  wall 
fell  and  killed  27,000  of  his  .soldiers  (1  Kin. 
XX.  2<)-.'iO) ;  and  it  may  also  be  the  town 
where  .Toasli,  king  of  Israel,  should,  according 
to  pro]diecy,  smite  the  Syrians  till  they  were 
consumed  {2  Kin.  xiii.  14-l!l).  The  situation 
presu]ii)osed  in  the  narratives  is  fully  met  by 
a  town  West  of  the  Jordan  in  the  plain  of 
Je/.reel.  Still  the  Aphek  referred  to  in  these 
two  jia.ssages  may  be  the  town  of  that  name 
beyond  .Jordan,  about  three  miles  east  of  the 
sea  of  (ralilee.  on  the  highway  between  Da- 
mascus and  Beth-shean,  and  now  represented 
by  the  village  of  Fik. 

A-phe'kah  [strong  place,  fortification]. 

A  town  ill  the  hill  country  of  .ludah  (Josh. 
XV.  ."):{)  ;  i)robably  not  the  .same  as  Apliek  2. 

A-pM'ah  [jierhaps,  refreslied,  revivified]. 

An  ancestor  of  king  Saul  (1  Sam.  ix.  1). 

A'phik.     See  Apukk  1. 

Aph'rah,  in  R.  V.  Beth-le-Aphrah  [dust]. 

A  town  (Mic.  i.  10),  site  mhIvIkiw  n. 

Aph'ses.      See  I[\1'I'IZZKZ. 

A-poc'a-lypse  [disclosure,  revelation], 

A  name  fre<iuently  given  to  the  last  book 
of  the  l)ilde.     See  Uf.VKI.ATIoN'. 

A-poc'ry-pha  [(Jreek  npokruphn.  lii<l<leu 
things,  used  iiy  ec(desiastical  writers  for  (1) 
forged,  spurious;  (2)  unrecognized,  uncanoui- 
val]. 

The  name  generally  given  to  the  following 
sixteen  books:  1  and  2  Esdras,  Tobit,  Judith, 
The  Kest  of  Esther,  The  Wisdom  of  Solomon. 
Ecclcsiasticns,  Baruch,  with  the  Epistle  of 


Jeremiah,  The  Song  of  the  Three  Holy  Chil- 
dren, Tile  History  of  Susanna,  Bel  and  the 
Dragon,  The  I'rayer  of  Manasses,  1,  2,  3,  and 
4  Maccabees.  Sometimes  the  number  is  lim- 
ited to  fourteen,  3  and  4  Maccabees  lieiug 
omitted. 

L'nlike  the  books  of  the  O.  T.,  which  are 
in  Hebrew,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  verses 
in  Aramaic,  the  apocryjthal  jiroductions  are 
in  Greek,  though  at  least  Judith,  Ecdesi- 
asticus.  P.arucli  i.-iii.  s.  ami  1  Maccabees  were 
originally  written  in  Hebrew.  The  .Jewish 
church  considered  them  uninsiiired,  and  some 
of  their  writers  di.sclaim  inspiration  (Prologue 
to  Ecch^siasticus ;  1  Mac.  iv.  4(5 ;  ix.  27 ;  2  Mac. 
ii.  23;  xv.  .'{^t.  They  are  not  found  in  the 
Hebrew  canon  ;  they  are  never  (iiioted  by 
Jesus;  and  it  cannot  with  certainty  be  af- 
firmed that  the  ajiostles  ever  directly  allude 
to  them.  The  early  churches  i)ermitted  them 
to  be  read  for  edification,  and  recommended 
them  to  the  catechumens  for  study,  but  re- 
jected them  from  the  canon,  their  decisiou 
carrying  autlu)rity  during  the  middle  ages, 
as  it  does  now  witli  the  various  Protestant 
churches.  Thus  the  Church  of  l>iigland  iu 
the  sixth  of  the  Thirty-nine  Articles  imb- 
lished  in  l.")()2  calls  the  apocryphal  treatises 
books  which  "  the  Church  doth  rea<l  for  ex- 
ample of  life  and  instruction  of  manners;  but 
yet  doth  it  not  ajiply  them  to  establish  any 
doctrine."  The  Westminster  Confession  of 
1*M3  detdares,  as  a  matter  of  creed,  that  "  The 
books,  commonly  called  Apocry]>lia,  not  being 
of  divine  inspiration,  are  no  i)art  of  the 
canon  of  Scriiitnre,  and  therefore  are  of  no 
authority  in  the  Church  of  God,  or  to  be 
any  otherwise  a]>proved  or  made  use  of  than 
other  human  writings."  The  Council  of 
Trent  at  its  sitting  (»n  April  ].">.  ].")4f).  declared 
eleven  of  the  sixteen  apocryphal  books  to  be 
canonical,  enumerating  Tobit,  .Inditli,  Wis- 
dom, Ecclcsiasticns,  Baruch.  and  the  two 
books  of  Maccabees,  and  adiling  The  Kest  of 
Esther  to  the  canonical  Esther,  and  incorpo- 
rating the  History  of  .Susanna,  the  Story  of 
the  Three  Holy  Children,  and  the  Hisl(.ry  of 
Bel  and  the  Dragon  with  Daniel.  TheCouncil 
jironounied  an  anathema  against  anyone  who 
ventured  to  dill'er  from  it  in  opinion.  This 
has  since  regulated  the  belief  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church.  The  .\po<ryi>ha  was  intro- 
duced into  the  English  version  l)y  Coverdalo 
in  l."):{."),  and  was  included  in  king  .Fames' ver- 
sion, but  began  to  be  omitti'd  as  early  a-  11)29. 
When  inserted,  it  was  place<l  between  the  D. 
T.  and  N.  T.  A  controversy  on  the  subject 
was  carried  on  bi^tween  the  years  1S21  and 
ls2(i,  which  resulted  in  the  exclusion  of  tlie 
Apocrypha  from  all  Pililes  issued  by  the 
British  and  Foreign   Bible  Society. 

1.  1  Es'nnvs.  I'sdnis  is  simi)ly  the  Greek 
form  of  Ezra,  ami  the  book  narnit«'s  tin'  de- 
cline and  fall  of  the  kiiigilom  of  .Iiidah  from 
the  time  of  J..siah.  the  destruction  of  Jeru- 
salem, the  liabylonian  cajitivity.  the  return 
of  the  exiles,  and  the  share  taken  by  Ezra  iu 


Apocrypha 


40 


Apocrypha 


reorganizing;  the  Jewish  polity.  In  some  re- 
spects it  aniplities  the  l)ihlical  narrative,  but 
tlie  additiciiis  are  of  (l()iit)tf'ul  autliority.  It 
is  loHDWeil  l(y  .Toseiilius.  a.  l>.  SKi  (ej).  1  Esdras 
iii.  1-iv.  44.  with  Anti(|.  xi.  3,  2-8.  etc.).  Mow 
much  earlier  tiian  his  time  it  existed,  there 
is  no  evidence  to  show.  Nor  is  its  author 
known. 

2.  2  Es'dras.  This  is  in  quite  a  difl'ereut 
style  from  1  Esdras,  and  the  two  can  scarcely 
have  had  the  same  author.  It  is  not  a  his- 
toric book,  but  is  a  religious  treatise,  much 
in  the  style  of  the  Hebrew  projthets.  Its  au- 
thor is  unknown,  and  its  date  has  been  placed 
at)t)ut  .50-43  u.  c,  or  28-25  b.  c,  or  from  about 

A.  D.  b8  to  about  A.  D.  117.  Whenever  pub- 
lished, it  was  subsequently  interi)olated  by 
some  Christian.  Thus  Jesus  is  mentioned  by 
name  (vii.  28), and  is  called  by  God,  "my  sou 
Christ"  (29,  cp.  also  xiii.  37,  52  ;  xiv.  9)  ;  the 
Holy  Ghost  is  expressly  named  (xiv.  22). 
God  compares  his  care  in  gathering  his  peo- 
ple together  to  that  of  a  hen  gathering  her 
chickens  under  her  wings  (2  Esd.  i.  30  with 
Mat.  xxiii.  37),  and  there  are  many  other  re- 
semblances to  the  N.  T.  But  the  thinking 
of  the  book  is  Jewish,  and  the  distinctively 
Christian  passages  are  wanting  in  the  Arabic 
and  the  Ethiopic  versions,  a  strong  i)roof 
that  they  did  not  emanate  from  the  original 
writer. 

3.  To'bit.  This  is  a  narrative  of  a  certain 
pious  Naphtalite,  Tobit  by  name,  who  has  a 
son  Tobias.  The  father  loses  his  eyesight. 
The  .son,  dispatched  to  obtain  payment  of  a 
debt  to  Rages  in  Media,  is  led  on  by  an  angel 
to  Ecbatana,  where  he  makes  a  romantic 
marriage  with  a  widow,  who  still  remained 
a  virgin,  though  she  had  been  married  to 
seven  husbands,  all  of  whom  had  been  killed 
by  Asmodeus,  the  evil  spirit,  on  their  mar- 
riage day.  Tobias,  however,  is  encouraged 
by  the  angel  to  become  the  eighth  husband 
of  the  virgin-widow,  and  escapes  death  by 
burning  the  inner  parts  of  a  fish,  the  smoke 
of  which  puts  the  evil  spirit  to  flight.  Then 
he  cures  his  father's  blindness  by  anointing 
the  darkened  eyes  with  the  gall  of  the  fish 
which  had  already  proved  so  useful.  Tobit 
is  manifestly  a  tale,  and  not  a  serious  narra- 
tive. The  most  ]>robable  date  of  the  publica- 
tion is  about  350  B.  c,  or   from  250  to  200 

B.  C. 

4.  Ji^'dith.  Til  is  is  a  narrative  professing 
to  be  a  history  of  the  way  in  which  Judith, 
a  Jewish  widow  of  masculine  temperament, 
insinuated  her.self  into  the  good  graces  of 
Hiilofernes,  an  Assyrian  commander-in-chief, 
then  besieging  Bethulia,  and  seizing  his 
sword  when  he  was  asleep,  cut  od'  bis  head. 
The  narrative  is  full  of  misstatements,  ana- 
chronisms and  geograjihical  absurdities.  It 
is  doul)tful  if  there  is  any  truth  in  the 
story,  which  may  possibly  have  been  sug- 
gested to  the  author  bv  the  narrative  of  Jael 
and  Sisera  (Judg.  iv.  "l7-22).  The  first  dis- 
tinct reference  to  the  book  is  in  an  epistle  of 


Clement  of  Rome,  about  the  end  of  the  first 
century  A.  D.,  but  it  may  have  existed  as 
early  as  175  to  100  u.  c,  say  four  or  six  hun- 
dred years  after  the  event  it  i)rofe.ssed  to 
record.  By  that  time  to  .say  that  Nabuchodo- 
nosor,  apparently  Nebuchadnezzar,  reigned 
in  Nineveh,  instead  of  Babylon  (.Judith  i.  1), 
would  not  look  so  erroneous  as  it  would  to  a 
couteniiiorary  of  the  great  king. 

5.  TiiK  Rkst  of  the  Chaptkrs  of  the 
Book  of  Es'thkr,  which  arc  found  neither 
in  the  Hebrew  nor  in  the  Chaldee.  The 
canonical  Esther  ends  with  a  short  tenth 
chapter  of  three  verses.  The  ai)ocryj)hal  ])ro- 
duction  adds  ten  ver.ses  more,  and  six  chap- 
ters (xi.-xvi.).  In  the  Sei)tuagint  this  sup- 
])lementary  matter  is  distributed  in  seven 
])ortions  through  the  text,  and  does  not  in- 
terrupt the  hi.story.  It  amplifies  parts  of  the 
Scripture  narrative,  without  furnishing  a  new 
fact  of  value,  and  it  often  contradicts  the  his- 
torj'  as  contained  in  the  Hebri'w.  The  com- 
mon oi)inion  is  that  the  book  was  the  work 
of  an  Egyptian  Jew,  and  that  he  wrote  about 
the  time  of  Ptolemy  Philometor,  181-145  B.  C. 

6.  The  Wis'dom  or  Sol'o-mon.  This  is 
an  ethical  treatise  in  commendation  of  wis- 
dom and  righteousness,  and  in  denunciation 
of  iniquity  and  idolatry.  The  passages  which 
point  out  the  sin  and  folly  of  imagc-wonship 
recall  those  ou  the  same  theme  in  the  Psalms 
and  Isaiah  (cp.  Wisd.  xiii.  11-19  with  Ps. 
cxv.  ;  cxxxv.  15-18 :  and  Is.  xl.  19-25 ;  xliv. 
9-20).  It  is  remarkable  to  what  extent  the 
author,  in  referring  to  historical  incidents  il- 
lustrative of  his  doctrine,  limits  himself  to 
those  recorded  in  the  Pentateuch.  He  writes 
in  the  person  of  Solomon  ;  says  that  he  was 
chosen  by  God  as  king  of  his  peo])le,  and  was 
by  him  directed  to  build  a  temple  and  an 
altar,  the  former  on  the  model  of  the  taber- 
nacle. He  was  a  num  of  genius  and  of  piety, 
his  religious  character  being  sustained  by  his 
belief  in  immortality.  He  lived  apparently 
between  1.50  and  .50  b.  c,  and  possibly  be- 
tween 120  and  80  B.  c.  Though  never  for- 
mally quoted  or  in  any  way  referred  to  in 
the  N.  T.,  yet  occasionally  both  the  language 
and  the  trains  of  thought  in  the  N.  T.  some- 
what resemble  those  in  the  book  of  Wisdom 
(Wisd.  V.  lS-20  with  Eph.  vi.  14-17:  Wisd. 
vii.  2(;  with  Heb.  i.  2-6  ;  and  Wisd.  xiv.  13-31 
with  Rom.  i.  19-32). 

7.  Ec-cle-si-as'ti-cus,  called  also  the  Wis- 
dom of  Jesus,  tlH>  son  of  Sirach.  This  is  a 
comparatively  long  work,  extending  to  fifty- 
one  chapters.  Its  author  was  a  Hebrew  called 
Jesus,  s(m  of  Sirach  (1.  27).  In  cha]).  1.  1-21 
he  greatly  commends  Simon,  the  high  ]iriest, 
the  son  of  Onias,  probably  the  iKJiititf  of  that 
name  who  lived  between  .370  and  300  B.  c. 
The  work  may,  therefore,  have  bei'U  ])ub- 
lished  between  290  and  280  B.  c.  The  pro- 
logue implies  that  it  was  originally  in  He- 
brew, from  which  it  was  translated  into  Greek 
by  a  grandson  of  tlie  author,  unnamed  in  the 
prologue,  but  called  Jesus  in  the  unauthentic 


Apocrypha 


41 


Apollos 


and  late  preface.  Tlie  tniiislatioii  was  made 
in  K^cypt  "in  tlie  ei;;lit-an(l-Iliirtii-tli  year" 
"  wlu-n  lOner^ctcs  was  kinj;."  Tin-  reference 
iseitlicr  to  I'tnleniy  111..  suniaiMed  Kuer};<-tes, 
vvhii  was  kin;;  of  lO^ypt  froni  :J17  to  22'.i  B.  c, 
or  to  rtoleniy  IMiyscon,  wlio  was  likewise 
siirnanied  Euer^cti-s,  and  who  reigned  from 
ItiSt  to  IT)  and  1  Ifi  [o  117  n.  c.  Tlie  great 
theme  of  the  work  is  wisdom.  It  is  a  vaUia- 
l)le  ethical  treatise,  in  jilaces  reminding  one 
of  the  l)o(dcs  of  I'roverbs,  Ecclesia.stes,  and 
jiarts  of  Jol),  in  the  canonical  Scriptures,  and 
of  the  Wisdom  of  Solomon  in  the  Apocrypha. 
It  is  generally  (iiioted  as  Hccliis.,  to  distin- 
guish it  from  Ecc. — that  is,  h^cclesiastes. 

H.  B.\'kucii,  with  the  Ei)istle  of  Jeremiah. 
Baruch  was  Jeremiah's  friend.  The  first  five 
chapters  arc  made  nominally  to  emanati'  from 
Baruch,  while  the  sixtli  is  headed  "  The  Epis- 
tle of  Jeremiah."  The  first  is  intended  to 
comfort  the  Jcwsduring  the  I5al>ylonian  cap- 
tivity by  a  proini.se  that  they  should  ulti- 
matidy  return  to  their  own  land  ;  the  second, 
to  warn  them  against  Haliylonian  idolatry 
(cp.  with  Ikiruch  i.,  Dan.  i.\.;  with  Baruch  ii. 
and  iii.,  Lev.  x.wi,  and  Deut.  xxviii.).  The 
book  is  of  comparatively  late  date,  Ewald 
argues  that  the  lii-st  part  was  penned  in  the 
Persian  period,  when,  on  the  occasion  of  re- 
volt against  their  opi>n'ssors,  thi'  Babylonian 
Jews  did  not  share  the  struggles  and  hopes 
of  the  Jews  in  Palestine,  The  Epistle  of 
Jeremy  was  probably  written  about  the  same 
date,  or  even  a  century  later, 

!>.  TiiK  .Soxr;  ok  tuf.  TiikI';e  Ho'ly  Chil'- 
DitKX  was  designeil  to  fit  into  the  canonical 
l>aniel  bt'tween  iii.  •i;5an<l24.  Its  autiior  and 
exact  date  are  unknown.  (Cp.  verses  35-68 
with  Ps.  cxlviii.) 

in.  TiiK  History  of  Sr-is.^N'x.v.  This  is 
also  an  aiiocrypbal  addition  to  Daniel,  show- 
ing liow  the  i>ropliet  sagaciously  discovered  an 
accu.sation  against  Susanna,  a  godly  woman, 
to  be  a  malignant  slander.  Its  author  and 
date  are  unknown, 

11.  Tin;  Idol  P,i;L.\Nr)THKDRAG'oN.  Yet 
another  apocryphal  addition  to  the  canonical 
iiook  of  Daniid.  The  projihet  proves  that  tlic 
priests  of  1)(  1  and  their  families  ate  the  food 
orttTcd  to  the  idol  ;  and  he  kills  a  dragon,  for 
which,  a  second  time,  be  is  put  into  a  lions' 
di'ii.     .\iitl!or  and  date  unknown. 

12.  TiiK  PuAVKU  OF  .M A-NAs'si;p.  king  of 
.hidah,  when  he  was  holden  captive  in  Baby- 
lon Icp.  'J  Chron.  xxxiii,  12,  Pi).  .Viitlior 
unknown;  date  i)robably  the  tir>t  century 
1!.  c. 

PJ.  TiiK  First  Book  of  tiik  Mac'ca-hkks. 
-V  historical  work  of  great  value,  giving  an 
account  of  the  .Jewish  war  of  independence, 
under  the  .Maccal)ee  family  of  l,evit<-s  in  the 
second  century  n,  c.  ;  see  .Vntiocui'S  2  and 
>rvccAitKi:,  Its  author,  whose  name  is  un- 
known, was  evidently  a  Jew  belonging  to 
Palestine.  Two  opinions  exist  as  to  its  date  : 
the  (Uie  places  it  between  PJt)  and  Pm;  n.  c, 
the  other,  on  better  grounds,  between  1(13  and 


64  B.  c.  It  was  doubtless  translated  into 
Greek  from  a  Hebrew  original, 

11,  TuK  SixoNi)  Hook  of  tuk  Mac'ca- 
BKKS  is  ]irofessedly  an  aliridgmeiit  of  the 
large  work  of  Jason  of  (yrene.  It  is  con- 
cerned chiedy  with  Jewish  history  from  the 
reign  of  Seleiicus  IV.,  17.")  u.  c,  to  the  death 
t)f  Nicanor  in  Kil  n.  c.  It  is  much  less  val- 
uable than  the  first  book,  and  the  author  has 
a  love  of  the  marvelous  which  diminishes 
the  credibility  of  his  narrations,  though  they 
contain  a  good  deal  of  truth.  The  book  was 
written  after  PJ.")  B,  v..  and  before  the  de- 
struction of  .lerusaleiii  in  \.  D,  7<l. 

15.  TukTiiikd  Book  ofthk.Mac'ca-bkks 
refers  to  events  before  the  war  of  independ- 
ence. The  leading  incident  is  the  attempt 
of  Ptolemy  IV.  Pliilopalor  in  217  B.  c.  to 
Iieiietrate  into  the  holy  of  holies,  ami  his 
subse(iuent  persecution  of  the  Jews  in  Alex- 
andria. It  was  written  shortly  before  or 
shortly  after  the  beginning  of  the  Christian 
era.  It  has  even  been  dated  as  late  as  .\.  U. 
39  or  10. 

l(i.  The  Foi'RTH  Book  of  tiik  Mac'ca- 
BEF.s  is  a  moral  treatise  advocating  the  mas- 
tery of  the  passions,  and  illiLstrating  its  teach- 
ing by  examples  of  constancy  under  sull'ering, 
drawn  from  .Maccabsean  times.  It  was  written 
after  2  .Maccabees  and  before  the  destruction 
of  .(eru.sakin. 

Ap-ol-lo'ni-a  [pertaining  to  Apollo,  the 
youthful  god  of  music,  song,  soothsaying, 
archery,  etc.]. 

A  town  of  Macedonia,  on  the  Egnatian 
Way,  thirty  Uonian  miles  west  of  .\iiiphipcdis. 
Paul  iiassed  through  it  as  he  journeyed  to 
The.s.s;iloiiica  (Actsxvii.  1). 

Ap-ol-lo'ni-us  [pertaining  to  Ajmllo.] 

1.  .\n  orticial  under  .\ntioclius  Epiphanes. 
who  was  sent  to  Juda-a  to  collect  tribute,  and 
who  treacheroiislv  ordered  a  nias.s;icre  at  Je- 
ru.sjilem  (1  Mac. 'i.  2!»-32;  2  Mac.  v.  2[-2Ct; 
cp.  iv.  21).  lie  lu'came  governor  of  Samaria 
(Antiq.  xii.  5.  5).  He  was  defeated  and  slain 
by  Judas  Maccabteus  (1  Mac.  iii.  Id;  Antiij. 
x'ii.  7.  1). 

2.  Governor  of  Ca-lesyria.  whom  Deme- 
trius II.  made  general  of  his  army.  He  was 
defeated  in  l)attle  by  Jonathan  Maccabietis 
at  A.shdod  (1  Mac,  x,' ()!)-i-i5).  Ia>ss  credibly, 
Joseidius  s|)eaks  of  him  as  on  the  side  of 
Alexander  Balas  (.Vntici,  xiii,4,  3  and  1). 

A-pol'lOS  [a  modification  of  Apollonius  or 
A|...||,M|,,ni>l. 

.V  .li  w  born  at  .\lexandria,  elof|uont  and 
lejirned,  and  dee[>ly  versed  in  the  ().  T. 
Scrijitures.  He  l)ecame  a  dis<'iple  of  John 
the  P)aiitist,  ami  /.calously  taught  concerning 
the  .Messiah,  though  knowing  only  the  bap- 
tism of  niientance.  While  itineniiim;  in 
Asia  Minor  for  this  luirjiose,  lie  met  at  Ephe- 
sus,  .\(|uila  and  Pris<illa,  who  instnicled  him 
more  fully:  and  the  bretliien  wrote  ii-tters 
of  introduction  for  him  to  the  brethren  in 
\(li:ii:i.      (hi    arrivilii.'   in    (Ireece.    be   ludjied 


Apollyon 


42 


Apostle 


till'  Cliristiaus,  jiiiblicly  coufuting  the  Jews, 
aud  sliowiiig  from  the  ScTijjtures  that  Jesus 
is  the  Christ  (Aets  xviii.  •^l-2H).  The  dis- 
ciples witli  whom  Paul  sudu  aftiTwards  fell  in 
at  Epliesiis,  Avlio  knew  only  Joim's  |pai>tisni, 
and  had  uever  heard  that  there  was  a  iioly 
Ghost,  were  probably  convertsof  ApoUos  (xix. 
1-7).  ApoUos'  jireaeliiiig  at  t'orinth  raised 
a  party  in  the  eluireh  at  that  plaee  (1  Cor.  1. 
12;  iii'.  1.  5,  (j,  22;  iv.  (J).  But  Paul  had  all 
coutidenee  in  liini,  and  urged  hiin  to  revisit 
Coriuth  (xvi.  12).  lie  also  enjoined  Titus  to 
help  ApoUos,  ajiparently  then  in  or  on  his 
way  to  Crete  (Titus  iii.  i:}).  It  is  thought  by 
uiany  sehohirs  that  Ajiollos  was  the  writer 
of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews. 

A-pol'ly-on  [destroying,  a  destroyer]. 
The  angel  of  the  abyss  (Kev.  ix.  11).     The 
Greek  synonym  of  Abaddon. 

A-pos'tle  [one  sent  forth,  a  messenger,  an 
ambas.sador  (John  xiii.  16,  II.  V.  margin)]. 

1.  One  of  the  men  selected  by  Jesus  to  be 
•eye-witnesses  of  the  events  of  his  life,  to  see 
him  after  his  resurrection,  and  to  testify  to 
mankind  concerning  him  (Mat.  x.  2-42;  Acts 
i.  21,  22 ;  1  Cor.  ix.  1).  They  were  chosen  in 
succession  at  a  very  early  period  of  the 
Saviour's  public  life.  First  came  Andrew 
and  his  brother  Simon,  the  well-known  Simon 
Peter  (Mat.  iv.  18-20;  x.  2;  Mark  i.  16-18; 
Luke  vi.  11 ;  John  i.  3.3-42) ;  then  apparently 
James  and  John,  sons  of  Zebedee  (Mat.  iv. 
2f,  22;  X.  2;  Mark  i.  19,  20;  Luke  vi.  14); 
then  seemingl}- Philip  and  Nathanael,  named 
also  Bartholomew  (John  i.  4.3-.'j1);  and  sub- 
sequently six  more,  viz.,  Matthew,  called 
also  Levi  (Mat.  ix.  9-13;  Mark  ii.  14-17; 
Luke  V.  27-.32) ;  Thomas  ;  James  the  son  of 
Alphaius ;  Simon  the  Zealot  or  Canana-an  ; 
Judas,  the  brother  of  James ;  and  Judas 
Iscariot  (Mat.  x.  1-4 ;  Mark  iii.  16-19  ;  Luke 
vi.  13-16  ;  Acts  i.  13.  all  E.  V.).  The  apostles 
were  regarded  as  illiterate  men  by  the  higher 
Jewish  dignitaries  who  had  before  them 
Peter  and  John  (Acts  iv.  13).  All  they  seem 
to  have  meant  was  that  the  ajxjstles  laad  re- 
ceived elementary  rather  than  higher  educa- 
tion. Jesus  gave  great  attention  to  their 
spiritual  training :  yet  to  the  last  they  failed 
to  understand  bis  missi(m,  believing  that  he 
was  about  to  set  uji  a  tem]>(n'al  rather  than  a 
spiritual  kingdom  (Mat.  xx.  20-28;  Mark  x. 
3.3-4.5 ;  Acts  i.  6)  ;  they  slept  in  the  hour  of 
his  agonj'  in  the  garden  (Mat.  xxvi.  40),  and 
held  aloof  all  the  day  of  his  death  on  the 
cross  (Mat.  xxvi.  .'>6  ;' Mark  xiv.  50).  They 
were  often  called  disciples  or  i)U])ils  (Mat.  xi. 
1 ;  xiv.  26  ;  xx.  17  ;  John  xx.  2).  Peter,  James 
the  son  of  Zebedee,  and  John,  seem  to  have 
])ossessed  a  clearer  eomiirehension  of  the 
teacher's  instructi(His  and  a  higher  a])iirecia- 
tion  of  him  than  the  others.  On  three  dill'er- 
eut  occasions  they  were  singled  out  froTU  the 
rest  for  sjjccial  privilege.  They  were  in  the 
room  at  the  raising  from  the  dead  of  Jairus' 
daughter  (Mark  v.  37;  Luke  viii.  51) ;  they 


were  present  at  the  transfiguration  (Mat. 
xvii.  1;  Mark  ix.  2;  Luke  ix.  28),  and  were 
in  the  garden  of  Geth.semane  during  the 
agony  (Mat.  xxvi.  37  ;  Mark  xiv.  .33).  Peter, 
though  rash  and  impetuous  in  speech,  was 
constitutionally  the  best  fitted  to  lead.  He 
is  generally  mentioned  first,  but  not  always 
(Gal.  ii.  9).  John  was  the  discii)le  whom 
Jesus  peculiarly  loved  (John  xix.  2() ;  xx.  2; 
xxi.  7,  20).  Thomas  was  scruiiulous  as  to 
evidence,  l)ut  yielded  wluii  the  i)r<jof  he 
sought  was  complete.  Judas  jiroved  a  traitor, 
who,  betraying  his  divine  Jjord  to  death  for 
lucre's  sake,  and  then  rei)eiitiiig.  committed 
suicide.  The  stej)  taken  to  till  his  j^lace 
showed  that  the  number  of  the  apostles, 
fixed  originally  at  twelve,  required,  for  a 
time  at  least,  to  be  kept  »t  that  figure :  the 
reason  jiroljably  was  that  then-  might  be  as 
many  apostles  as  there  were  tribes  of  Israel. 
Two  men  possessing  the  necessary  (jualifica- 
tions  were  put  forward,  the  one  Josejih,  called 
Barsabas  and  Justus,  and  the  other  Matthias. 
The  lot  fell  upon  Matthias,  who  was  conse- 
quently elected  in  Judas'  room  (Acts  i.  15- 
26;  cp.'with  ver.  20,  I's.  cix.  8).  The  descent 
of  the  Holy  Spirit  on  the  day  of  Pentecost 
produced  a  spiritual  transformation  of  the 
apostles,  fitting  them  for  the  great  work  to 
which  tbev  were  called,  the  evangelization 
of  the  world  (Acts  ii.  1-47).  To  this  they  at 
once  addressed  themselves,  Peter  and  John 
taking  the  lead  (iii.  1-v.  42;  ix.  32-xii.  18). 
James  W"as  also  zealous,  for  he  became  so  ob- 
noxious to  the  Jewish  authorities  that  they 
slew  him  with  the  sword  (Acts  xii.  2).  Paul 
was  divinely  chosen  and  called  for  the  ar- 
duous work  of  preaching  the  gospel  to  the 
gentiles  (Acts  ix.  1-31  ;  xxii.  5-16 ;  xxvi. 
1-20).  He  had  not  itinerated  with  Jesus 
whilst  our  Lord  was  on  the  earth ;  but  he 
possessed  the  apostolic  qualification  of  having 
seen  Jesus  after  his  resurrection.  On  the  way 
to  Damascus  Jesus  appeared  to  him  and  sjioke 
to  him,  changing  his  hostility  into  jiassionate 
devotion.  He  was  able  to  say  "Am  I  not  an 
apostle?  Have  I  not  seen  Jesus  Christ  our 
Lord?"'  (1  Cor.  ix.  1).  Paul  was  a  highly 
educated  man,  and  able  to  address  cultured 
audiences  of  the  gentiles  at  Athens,  Rome, 
and  elsewhere.  Nor  did  his  intellectual  ac- 
quirements lead  him  away  from  his  proper 
work.  His  labors  were  so  abundant  that 
the  record  of  them  fills  about  half  the  book 
called  The  Acts  of  the  Apostles.  Where  the 
several  apostles  labored,  how  they  lived,  and 
how  they  died,  is  in  most  cases  known  only 
by  the  doubtful  evidence  of  tradition.  One 
matter,  however,  and  an  all-important  one, 
is  ])laced  by  tradition  on  a  secure  founda- 
tion, namely,  that  no  second  Judas  aiij)eared 
among  them;  all  were  fiiitbful  to  the  end  ; 
and  some  at  least,  if  not  even  the  majority, 
sealed  their  testimony  to  Jesus  with  their 
blood. 

2.  The  word  is  occasionally  applied  in  a 
less  restricted  sense  in  the  N.  T.  to  men  of 


Appaim 


43 


Arabia 


apostolic  gifts,  j;races,  liibors,  and  sticcossos.  It 
is  so  notably  ol'  l'>ariial)as.  who  was  sent  forth 
with  Paul  (Acts  xiii.  :i :  xiv.  I,  U).  Similarly 
<iiR'  still  moots  witli  siioh  oxpressioiis,  as  Jud- 
soii  the  Ai)ostle  of  Hiirmah.  The  name  is 
apipliid  also  to  Josiis,  in  Jioh.  iii.  1. 

Ap'pa-im  [tho  nostrils]. 
A  man  of  Jndah,  family  of  liezron,  house 
of  Jorahmool  (1  C'hron.  ii.  30,  31). 

Ap'phl-a. 

A  (•lni>tian  woman,  i)rolialily  the  wife  of 
i'liilcmon  ( I'hilemon  'J). 

Ap'pi-i  Fo'riiin  [market  jdaee  of  Ai)pins]. 

A  town  in  Italy,  about  forty-three  Roman, 
or  thirty-nino  and  a  half  Kn>;lish,  miles  from 
Kome,  on  tho  eolobratod  Apjiian  Way  from 
Komo  to  Cajiua.  Its  ruins  exist  noar  Triponti. 
Paul  was  mot  at  this  town  by  Christians  fnmi 
Ronu',  wlion  he  was  beinj;  hrouKht  a  prisoner 
to  the  eajntal  (Acts  xxviii.  15). 

Ap'ple. 

A  troe  and  its  fruit  (Scmg  ii.  3;  viii.  5; 
Prov.  XXV.  111.  tho  rondoring  of  the  Hobrew 
Tiippunh.  Tappuah  seoms  akin  to  the  Arabic 
tiiff'ih.  moaning  an  aiii)lo,  and  the  one  re- 
forro'd  to  in  the  ( ).  T.  is  iM-ol)ably  our  English 
api)lo  troe  I'l/rns  uinlns,  which  'I'homson  found 
growing  splendidly  at  Askolon  in  tho  Philis- 
tine country.  Tho  name  may  have  included 
the  (piinco  as  well.  Tristram  believes  that 
tho  apricot  is  meant.  Tho  ajiplo  troe  is  enu- 
merated with  tho  vino,  the  tig  tree,  the  pome- 
granate, an<l  tho  palm  tree,  as  one  of  the 
chief  trees  cultivated  (.Joel  i.  1'2).  There  wore 
several  towns  calloil  Tajipuah — in  the  lowland 
(.Josh.  XV.  31),  near  Hebron  ('>:i).  and  on  tho 
border  of  Hi)hraim  and  Manasseh  (xvii.  8), 
whore  doubtless  many  ajiple  trees  grew. 

The  apple  of  the  eye  is  the  eyeball  or  \m\n\ 
(l)eut.  xxxii.  11);  Ps.  xvii.  s";  Lam.  ii.  l.S ; 
Zoch.  ii.  1^).      For  apple  of  Sodom,  see  \'INK. 

Aq'ul-la  [eagle]. 

A  .low,  l)orn  in  Pontus,  wlio  with  his  wife. 
Priscilla,  lived  for  a  time  at  Pome,  but  had 
to  leave  that  city  when  tht!  om|ieror  Claudius 
ccimniamleil  all  its  .Jewish  inhabitants  to  de- 
]iart.  lie  removed  to  Corintii,  wiiere  ho 
Worked  at  his  craft,  tentmaking.  Paul,  who 
was  of  the  sjime  oceu]>ation,  lodged  with  him 
at  Corinth,  and  formed  a  high  opinion  of  him 
anil  his  wife  (.\(ts  xviii.  1-3).  They  were 
bis  follow-iiassongers  from  Corinth  as  far  as 
lOphesus,  on  his  way  to  Syria  (.\cts  xviii.  18, 
lit).  In  tho  Fir.st  Ejiistle  to  tho  Corinthian.s, 
the  two  join  Paul  in  semling  sjilntations  from 
Asia,  /.  r.  jirobably  from  I'|ihosus  (1  Cor.  xvi. 
111).  \t  Kl)hesu.s  they  met  Apollos,  anil  in- 
structed him  more  comi)letoly  in  Christian 
doctrine  (Acts  xviii.  M).  Afterwards  thoy 
seem  to  have  roturnod  to  Rome,  for  Paul  sends 
them  s;ilutations  in  his  letter  to  (hat  church 
(Kom.  xvi.  :'•).  Hut  they  must  again  have 
loft  it,  for  in  the  ajiostlo's  second  lCi>istlo  to 
Timothy,  written  from  Kouie.  sjilutations  are 
sent  tlieui  anew  (2  Tim.  iv.  1!)). 


Ar  [city]. 

One  of  the  chief  cities  of  Moah,  more  fully 
called  Ar  of  Moah  ( Isa.  xv.  1 ).  It  lay  on  the 
northern  Ixjundary  of  Moab  (Num.  xxi.  15; 
Dent.  ii.  IM,  in  the  midst  of  the  Arnon  valley 
(Num.  xxii.  ;5ti ;  Dent.  ii.  3(i ;  Josh.  xiii.  !•). 

The  (iroeks  connected  tho  name  with  Ares, 
the  god  of  war,  the  Homan  Mars,  and  called 
it  after  him  Aroopolis,  city  of  Mars.  Tho 
Jews  and  others  in  tho  early  Christian  cen- 
turies named  it  Kabbath  Moab,  or  simply 
Kabbah,  /.  c.  capital,  of  Moab.  It  was  de- 
stroyed by  oartluiuake,  jirobably  in  A.  I>.  34'J, 
and  tho  name  Aroopolis  was  transferred  to 
another  Kabbah,  about  ten  miles  south  on 
tho  jilatean. 

A'ra. 

A  man  of  Asher  (1  Chron.  vii.  38). 

A'rab  [ambuscade]. 

A    village   in    the   hill    country  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  52). 
Ar'a-bah  [arid  region,  desert]. 

1.  The  geographical  name-  of  that  great  de- 
I)ression  of  the  land  in  which  are  fcund  tlie 
sea  of  Galilee,  the  Jordan,  and  the  Dead  Sea 
(Josh.  xi.  2;  xii.  3,  K.  V.).  The  name  ap- 
parentlv  helonged  also  to  the  extension  of  the 
valley  to  tho  Ked  Sea  (Deut.  ii.  8,  K.  V.).  In 
A.  V.  tho  word  is  translated,  being  generally 
rendered  by  ])lain,  but  also  by  wilderness  or 
desert  (Amos  vi.  14;  Ezek.  xlvii.  8). 

2.  The  same  as  Hoth-arahah  ( Jo.sh.  xviii.  22). 
A-ra'bi-a    [Greek    form    of   Arabic   'drub, 

arid  region.]. 

In  modern  goograjjliy  tho  most  westerly  of 
the  three  groat  iioninsulas  in  southern  Asia. 
It  is  bounded  on  the  east  by  the  Persian  (iulf 
and  the  Gulf  of  Oman,  on  the  south  by  the 
Indian  Ocean,  and  on  the  west  by  the  Ked 
Sea.  Northward  it  projects  triangularly  and 
passes  insensibly  into  tlie  Syrian  desert.  Its 
length  from  north  to  .south  is  about  15(X) 
miles;  its  average  breadth  from  east  to  we.st, 
about  800;  its  area  about  l,13!l.(M)0  stiuare 
miles.  It  consists  mainly  of  an  elevated 
table-laud  called  Xejd.  higliost  along  the  west 
and  south  noar  the  coast,  and  sloping  on  the 
north  toward  the  Syrian  desert.  It  is  sep- 
arated from  the  <'oast  by  a  low-lying  sindy 
region,  the  Western  jtortion  of  whit'h  is  called 
Hejaz,  thesouthw<'storn  and  southern  Yemen, 
and  tho  eastern.  Oman,  Ilejr,  and  Rihroin. 
Araliia  lies  athwart  the  enormous  belt  of 
desert,  commeniing  near  tho  Atlantic  Ocean 
with  the  .Sahara,  and  extending  through 
Chinese  Tartary.  almost  to  the  Pacilic  Ocean. 
Arabia  iscon.sei"|Uently  largely  desert,  .\mong 
the  Hebrews  the  name  .\r.iliian  denoted  the 
inhabitants  ..f  the  ilosert  jiruiion  i J<-r.  iii.  2), 
whether  nt>ar  Pabylonia  or  i:thio|>ia  (Is.  xiii. 
20;  2  Chron.  xxi.  Hi),  often  as  distingnislud 
from  the  iirominoiit  settled  tribes  (Jor.  xxv. 
21:  K/.ek.  XX vii.  21 1.  Kvonlnally  Anibia 
came  to  den.ito  the  entire  peninsula  (Acts  ii. 
11  :  Gal.  i.  17;  iv.  25;  cp.  2  Chnm.  ix.  II). 
Ptolemy,  the  geographer  of  Alexandria  who 


Arabia 


44 


Arabia 


wrote  in  the  second  eentury  A.  D.,  divided 
the  roiintry  iiit(»  thn-e  regions  :  Arahia  Felix, 
the  Ilapiiy  or  Fertile;  Arabia  IVtra'a,  the 
Sti)ny;:iiid  Arahia  Descrta,  the  Desert.  Ara- 
hia Felix  was  of  iiuleliiiite  extent.  Arahia 
I'etra'a,  having  for  its  caiiital  I'etra,  was  the 
district  hetwecn  the  Red  and  the  Dead  Seas; 
and  Arahia  Dcserta  the  i)roJectinff  angle  on 
the  northern  houndary,  sometimes  ealled  the 
Syrian  desert.  The  streams  are  few  and 
small,  none  navigable.     The  geology  is  little 


existed  in  southern  Arabia  a  civilized  jxiwer, 
the  Miniean  kingdom,  with  its  capital  at 
Ma'in,  about  thirty  miles  to  the  north  of 
Mariaba.  The  names  of  thirty-three  Mina>an 
kings  have  l)een  recovered.  Even  the  Min- 
a'ans  used  the  familiar  Semitic  alphabet. 
The  Mintean  kingdom  was  ultimately  super- 
seded by  the  Saba-an,  the  scriptural  kingdom 
of  Sheba.  Arab  tribes  often  came  into  con- 
tact with  the  Hebrews  (Gen.  xxxvii.  28,  36; 
Judg.  vi.-viii.).  Solomon  bought  from  the 
Arabs  gold,  silver,  and 
spices  {2  Chron.  is.  14). 
Jchoshaphat  received 
tribute  from  them  in 
flocks  of  sheep  and  goats 
(xvii.  11).  In  the  reign 
of  Jehoram,  Arabs  with 
other  marauders  plun- 
dered Jerusalem  (xxi. 
Iti).     They  were  after- 


known,  Imt  gold  and  ])recious  stones  were 
obtained.  The  feature  of  the  botany  is  the 
l)revalence  of  aromatic  ])lants,  some  of  them 
furnishing  valuable  s])ices.  Of  its  birds  the 
most  noted  is  the  ostrudi ;  of  its  ([uadrupeds 
the  camel,  the  Arab  horse,  and  the  wild  ass. 
The  countrv  was  settled  by  Semites  ((len.  x. 
2(i-29;  XXV.  2-4;  1.3-ir,),"  as  physiognomy, 
traits,  and  language  evidence  ;  in  part  also  by 
Hamites  (Gen.  x.  6,  7).  As  early  as  the  time  of 
the  sojourn  of  the  Israelites  in  Egypt,  there 


wards  defeated  by  Uzziah  (xxvi.  7).  Isaiah 
and  Jeremiah  denounced  J  udgnu'Uts  against 
their  race  (Is.  xxi.  13-17:  .ler.  xxv.  24).  and 
both  used  the  wandering  Arab  in  their  poetic 
illustrations  (Is.  xiii.  20;  ,Ier.  iii.  2).  Arabs 
were  hired  allies  of  the  Syrians  against  Judas 
Maccaba'us  (1  Mac.  v.  3!>).  There  were  Arabs 
jirescut  on  the  day  of  Pentecost  (Acts  ii.  11), 
and  Paul  sojourned  for  a  time  in  Arabia,  be- 
fore eoninu'ncing  his  apostolic  work  (Gal.  i. 
17).     The  scantiness  of  water,  the  courage  of 


Arabian 


45 


Aram 


the  Arabs,  and  their  wandering  life,  pre- 
vented even  tlie  greatest  of  the  auriont  em- 
pires from  conciiicring  Aral)i:i  and  liolding  it 
ill  suhjection.    IJuth  .Iiuhiisiii and  Cluistianity 


Bedouin  Arab. 

had  rooted  themselves  in  Aral)ia  when,  in  the 
seventh  century  of  the  Christian  era,  Moham- 
med arose.  Before  his  death  (A.  D.  632)  his 
faith  was  everywhere  dominant  throughout 
the  i)eninsula.  and  in  a  century  more  the 
Saracens,  issuing  thenci-,  had  i)Ut  in  dangt'r 
the  civili/.atiiin  and  faith  of  the  whole  Chris- 
tian World. 

A-ra'bi-an. 

One  of  the  Arab  race  ;  a  native  or  inhabi- 
tant of  Arabia  (2  Chron.  xvii.  11). 

A'rad  [wild  ass]. 

1.  A  town  on  the  border  of  the  south  coun- 
trv  and  tlie  wihlerne.ss  of  .Tiidah  (\um.  xxi. 
1  ;"  .To.sh.  xii.  11;  .ludg.  i.  1(5).  The  site  is 
marked  by  Tell  'Arad,  on  a  barren-looking 
eminence  sixteen  miles  south  of  Hebron. 
Its  king  fought  against  tlie  Israelites  wlien 
they  were  at  mount  Hor  anil  took  som(>  of 
them  cajitive  ;  but  the  Israelites  roused  them- 
selves to  new  trust  in  (Jod,  and  devastated 
the  territory  of  the  king,  and  eventually  he 
himself  or  his  successor  was  vantjuished  by 
.loshua  (il)id.). 

2.  A  Henjamite,  descended  through  Heriah 
(1  Chron.  viii.  15). 

Ar'a-dus.     See  .\rv.\d. 
A'rah  [wayfarer]. 

1.  I'ounder  of  a  family,  members  of  which 
returned  from  Babylon  with  Zerubbabel  ( Kzra 
ii.  5  ;   Xeh.  vii.  Kli. 

2.  An  .\sherite.  a  son  of  I'lla  (1  Chron.  vii. 
39). 

A'ram. 

1.   .V    person,  or  collectively  a    people,  de- 


scended from  Sbem,  who  inhabited  the  region 
known  as  Aram  ((Jen.  x.  22,  2.'i ;  1  Chron.  i. 
17).  ^ 

2.  The  plain  occti]iied  by  the  .\ranui-ans, 
e.Ntending  from  tlie  Lebanon  mountains  to 
beyond  the  Eu))lirates,  and  from  the  river 
Sagur  on  the  north  to  Damascus  and  beyond 
on  the  south.  The  jiropliet  Amos  speaks  of 
the  Arama-ans  as  dwelling  from  Damascus  to 
Betli-i'deii  ;  in  other  words,  Iroiii  Lebanon  on 
the  southwest  to  mount  .Masius  on  the  north- 
east (i.  5).  Several  districts  were  distin- 
guished : 

(1)  A'ka.m-.va-ii.v-ka'i.m,  ).  f.  .\rani  of  the 
two  rivers,  referring  either  to  the  I-jipbrates 
and  Tigris,  or,  more  probably,  to  tlie  Kuplirates 
and  Chabur.  It  is  commonly  believed  that 
in  this  region  I'addan-aram  was  situ:ited, 
Paddan  being  identified  with  the  place  near 
Ilaran  called  Tell  Faddaii  ((ien.  xxviii.  .")aiid 
xxiv.  10.  17,  K.  v.).  This  is  the  Aram  where  the 
patriarchs  dwelt  before  they  went  to  Canaan, 
where  the  ancient  cities  of  Ilaran  and  Xisibis 
stood,  where  later  Ede.ssii  the  note<l  seat  of 
Syrian  culture  arose;  the  Aram  which  the 
Hebrews  speak  of  as  "  beyond  the  river  "  (2 
Sam.  x.  16). 

(2)  A'kam-da-mas'cus.  The  Hebrews  dur- 
ing almost,  if  not  quite,  the  entire  jieriod  of 
their  kingdom,  found  .Vraiiia'ans  in  Dama.scus 
(2  Sam.  viii.  5,  U.  V.  margin  ;  1  Kin.  xv.  lb). 
The  city  ln'came  eventually  the  center  of 
Arama'an  intluence  west  of  the  Eujdirates, 
and  waged  intermittent  warfare  with  the 
northern  Israelites  during  their  entire  ex- 
istence as  a  separate  kingdom. 

(.■J)  A'ram-zo'bah.  In  the  days  of  Saul, 
David,  and  Solomon,  another  jiowerful  Anim- 
a!an  kingdom  tlourished  west  of  the  Kuplir.i- 
tes.  namely  the  kingdom  of  Zobali  (1  Sam.  xiv. 
47  ;  2  Siim.  viii.  .'} ;  cj).  2  Chron.  viii.  .'5).  called 
Aram-zobah  by  Hebrew  writers  (2  S;im.  x.  (Jl. 
At  one  time  its  dominion  extended  as  far  as 
the  borders  of  Hamath  on  the  northwest  (1 
Chron.  xviii.  :{ ;  2  Sam.  viii.  Kt)  ;  had  D-.imas- 
cus  to  the  south  or  southwest,  for  oiu'  of  its 
towns,  Beidthai,  was  situated  between  Ha- 
math and  Damascus  (2  Sjim.  viii.  o  and  >  with 
Ezek.  xlvii.  l(i),  and  during  this  prosjierous 
jx'riod  ])robably  exercised  sway  well  toward 
the  Eujihrates  on  the  e;ist  and  the  Haunin  on 
the  south. 

(I)  A'uam-m.v'a-cah  lay  east  of  the  .Jordan 
within  the  contemidated  bounds  of  Isntel, 
hard  by  mount  Hernion  (,Tosh.  xii.  5;  xiii. 
11).  I'roin  the  des(ri))tion  of  .\bel,  wliich 
belonged  In  the  tribe  of  Nai.htali.  as  •' Abel 
[in  the  neigliborhoo<l]  of  Hetb-maacah,"'  it 
may  hv  inferred  that  Maacali  extended  as  far 
west  as  the  .Fordan. 

(."i)  (  Jk'siiih  in  .\nim  was  a  small  kingdom 
not  far  from  .Ma:ii;ili,  and  like  it  east  of  tlie 
Jordan,  near  mount  Hernion,  and  within  the 
territory  allotted  to  .Manasseli  (Dent.  iii.  14; 
2  Sam.  XV.  H.  K.  V.  margin,  with  xiii.  ."O. 

(())  .\'i{AM-ni:TH-itK'iioii  (2Sam.  X.  (ii.  Tho 
location  is  uncertain.     If  identical  with  tho 


Aramaic 


46 


Ararite 


place  mentioned  in  Num.  xiii.  21  and  Judg. 

xviii.  28,  it  adjoined  Maacah,  probably  ou  the 
nortli. 

.'{.   A  dosccndant  of  Asher  (1  C'liron.  vii.  34). 

Ar-a-ma'ic  or  the  Ar-a-mae'an  or  Ara- 
mean  Language. 

A  Semitic  huiguajie  sjioken  in  Aram.  It 
was  written  with  the  same  ali)lial)et  as  the 
Hebrew,  and  diilers  from  tliis  lanjinafic  chiefly 
in  the  system  of  voeali/.atidn  and  in  the 
structure  of  a  few  {grammatical  forms.  Be- 
fore the  inscriptions  revealed  that  the  Baby- 
lonian vernacular  was 

Assyrian ,  A  ramaic  was    ,e — 

incorrectly  called     '? 

Chaldee,  a  term  not 
yet  obsolete.  Aramaic 
was  used  by  Laban 
(Gen.  xxxi.  47,  E.  V. 
margin) ;  it  is  seen  in 
the  proper  names  Tab- 
rimmou,  Hazael  (1 
Kin.  XV.  18,  E.  V. ; 
xix.  15),  and  Mari' ; 
it  is  found  in  inscrip- 
tions as  early  as  the 
time  of  Shalmaneser 
and  Sargon,  showing 
that  it  was  used  by 
traders  at  Nineveh  ;  it 
became  the  interna- 
tional language  of 
business  and  diploma- 
cy (2  Kin.  xviii.  26,  E. 
V.  margin) ;  it  was 
used  by  Jeremiah  to 
state  an  address  to 
idols  (x.  11,  E.  V.  mar- 
gin),   and   by    Daniel 

and  Ezra  for  certain  portions  of  their  books ; 
it  wasadopted  by  the  Jews  who  returned  from 
Babylonia,  and  in  the  time  of  Christ  was 
spoken  by  large  numbers  of  the  Jews  collo- 
quially (see  Hebrew),  and  also  by  neighbor- 
ing nations.  The  Hebrew  Scriptures  were 
translated  into  it ;  the  Targum  of  Onkelos,,a 
pupil  of  Gamaliel,  comprising  the  Law  and 
the  Prophets,  was  the  first  work  of  the  kind 
and  a  fine  version.  Syriac  is  a  dialect  which 
developed  out  of  the  Aramaic. 

A'ram-betli-re'liob.     See  .\ram  2  (6). 

A'ram-i'tess. 

.\  woman  of  Aram  (1  Chrou.  vii.  14). 

A'ram-ma'a-cah.     See  Aram  2  (4). 
A'ram-na-ha-ra'im.     See  Aram  2  (1). 
A'ram-zo'toali.     See  Aram  2  (3). 

A'ran  [wild  goat]. 

A  descendant  of  Dishan  or  offshoot  of  that 
H<.rite  tribe  (Gen.  xxxvi.  28;  1  Chron.  i.  42). 

Ar'a-rat. 

A  mountainous  country  north  iif  Assyria, 
centering  about  the  elevated  iilateau  of  the 
Araxes.  In  the  time  of  Jeremiah  it  was  the 
seat  of  a    kingdom   ap])arently  adjacent  to 


those  of  Minni  and  Ashkenaz  (Jer.  11.  27). 
When  the  sons  of  Sennacherib  killed  their 
father  they  escai>ed  into  Ilie  land  of  ,\rarat, 
which  the  A.  V.  ha]ii)ily  identities  with  Ar- 
menia (2  Kin.  xix.  37  ;  Is.  xxxvii.  38).  On 
one  of  the  mountains  of  Ararat,  it  is  not 
stated  which,  the  ark  of  Noah  rested  ((ien. 
viii.  4).  The  Assyrian  cuneiform  account  of 
the  flood  implies  a  mountain  near  the  coun- 
try of  Urtu,  northeast  of  Babylonia.  Per- 
haps the  name  Ararat  (Urartu)  and  Urtu 
have  been  confounded.     Traditions  with  re- 


spect to  the  resting  place  of  the  ark  attach 
themselves  to  various  mountains  in  western 
Asia  ;  but  by  mount  Ararat  is  now  meant  a 
noble  mountain  almost  midway  between  the 
Black  Sea  and  the  Caspian,  and  not  far  from 
the  boundary  line  between  Eussia  and  Tur- 
key. It  has  two  peaks,  one  higher  than  the 
other.  The  loftier  one  ri.ses  17,260  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  ocean,  more  than  10,000  feet 
above  the  table-land  on  which  it  stands,  and 
3000  above  the  line  of  perpetual  snow.  The 
ascent  is  so  difficult  and  laborious  tliat  the 
Turks  call  Ararat  .Aghri  Dagh,  or  the  Painful 
Mountain.  Its  sunnnit  was  long  deemed  in- 
accessible, but  it  was  at  length  reached  by 
Parrot  in  1829.  and  in  1S.')(I  by  Col.  Khoelzko 
and  his  party  of  sixty,  while  they  were  en- 
gaged on  the  trigonometrical  survey  of  Trans- 
Caucasia. 

A-ra'thes,  in  A.  Y.  Ariarathes. 

King  of  Ca])pado(ia  fmm  102  to  1.31  n.  c, 
suruamed  Philopator  (1  Mac.  xv.  22). 

A'ra-rite. 

So  E.  v..  following  the  present  Hebrew 
text,  once  in  2  Sam.  xxiii.  .33,  where  A.  V. 
has  Hararite  as  in  the  corresponding  passage,. 
1  Chron.  xi.  35. 


Arauuah 

A-rau'nah. 

A  Jfljusite  wliii  possessed  a  tlircsliin;;  floor 
on  mount  Moriali.  Diivitl  imrchiiscd  tlu'  floor 
in  order  to  erect  there  an  altar  to  Jehovah 
that  the  ida^Mie  then  ra},MnK  niif,Mit  he  stayed 
('J  Sam.  xxiv.  l.S-2r> ;  1  Chron.  xxi.  lo-^H). 
The  jdace  afterwards  heeanie  the  site  of  Solo- 
mon's temple  ('J  Ciiron.  iii.  1).  Araunah  is 
called  Oman  in  Chronicles,  Urnah  or  Ornah 
in  the  llehrew  text  of  2  Sam.  xxiv.  IG,  and 
yet  ditlerently  in  ver.  18.  It  is  ditliciilt  to 
determine  which  was  the  original  form  (jf  the 
name.     Araunali  lias  the  most  foreign  look. 

Ar'ba,  in  A.  V.  once  Arbah  [four,  or,  per- 
haps, the  croucher  (with  article,  Gen.  xxxv. 
27)]. 

Father  or  greatest  man  of  Anak  (Josh.  xiv. 
15 ;  XV.  i:{).  He  founded,  or  gave  name  to, 
Kirjath-arha.  the  city  later  known  as  Hebron, 
or  else  he  derived  his  title  from  the  town 
(Josh.  xiv.  1.");  Judg.  i.  lOj.     See  Hehkon. 

Ar'bath-ite. 

An  inhahitant  of  Beth-arabah  (2  Sam.  xxiii. 
31;  1  Chron.  xi.  3->). 

Ar-bat'ta,  in  A.  V.  Arbattis. 

A  locality  near  (ialilee  (1  Mac.  v.  23).  The 
readings  of  the  name  vary  greatly  in  the 
mamiscripts,  and  it  is  uncertain  what  place 
is  meant. 

Ar-be'la. 

A  iilace  (1  Mac.  ix.  2);  according  to  Jo- 
sepluis,  the  well-known  town  of  the  name  in 
(ialilee  (.\nti(i.   xii.  11,   1),  now  Irhid.     See 

liETII-AKUKL. 

Ar'bite. 

A  native  of  Arab,  in  the  hill  country  of 
Judah  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  .■).").  ])o.ssibly  a  variant 
reading  of  1  Chron.  xi.  37). 

Ar-Che-la'u8  [leading  the  peojjle,  a  chief]. 

The  elder  one  of  two  sons  whom  a  Samari- 
tan wile  liore  to  Herod  the  Great,  the  younger 
one  being  Antii>as.  afterwards  Herod  the  Te- 
trarch  (Anticj.  xvii.  1,  3).  With  his  brother 
.\ntipas  and  his  half-brothers  Herod  and 
riiilip,  lie  received  his  education  at  Rome. 
While  there  Antipater,  a  half-brother  of  his, 
fals(;ly  accused  him  and  Philip  of  i)lottiug  to 
murder  their  common  father;  but  .\rchelaus 
and  I'hilii)  were  acijuitted,  and  the  crime 
which  the  accuser  had  alleged  against  others 
being  brought  home  to  hiuiself.  he  was  ]>ut  to 
death  (Antin.  xvi.  1,  3  ;  xvii.  7.  1  ;  War,  i. 
31,  2  to  32,  7).  Herod  died  immediately  after- 
warils,  4  n.  c. ;  and  when  his  will,  which  had 
been  altered  a  few  days  ju'eviously,  was 
oi)ene(l,  it  was  found  that  the  greater  part  of 
the  kin^jdom  was  h'ft  to  Ardudaus,  though 
tetrari'hies  had  been  cut  out  of  it  for  Antipas 
and  I'hilip,  and  souu-  cities  reserved  to 
Herod's  sister  Salome  I. \nti(|.  xvii.  8,1).  Rut 
at  that  time  the  . Jewish  kingdom  stood  to 
imperial  Uoiue  in  the  relation  of  .i  jirotected 
state.  Archelaus  therefore  prudently  ab- 
stained from  ascemling  the  throne  till  he  had 
solicited  permission  from  Augustus,  the  Ro- 


47  Archippus 


man  emperor,  and  he  resolved  to  start  at 
once  for  the  metropolis  to  urge  liis  suit  in 
person  (8,  4).  Hut  before  he  could  leave,  an 
unhappy  incident  occurred.  A  number  of 
people,  who  conceived  that  they  had  a  griev- 
ance, wished  it  n^lressed  by  strong  measures 
then  and  there.  Their  di-mand  w.as  clearly 
jirenuiture,  but  they  would  take  no  denial'; 
and  when  they  could  not  have  their  way, 
they  rioted  at  the  jiassover.  till,  sorely  against 
his  will,  for  he  wished  tc»  gain  jiopularity,  Ar- 
chelaus had  to  put  down  the  sedition  by  mili- 
tiiry  force,  3(100  ](eople  losing  their  lives.  In 
consefiui'uce  of  this,  a  dejiutation  of  Jews  was 
dispatchiil  to  Rome,  to  urge  the  eminror  not 
to  allow  .\rchelaus  to  obtain  the  kingilom. 
His  younger  brother,  Herod  Antii)as,  also  ap- 
peared as  his  rival,  petitioniug  that  he,  in 
place  of  Arcliilaus,  might  be  made  king. 
The  emjieror  contirnu-(l  Herod's  will  in  it.s 
essential  provisions.  Archelaus  obtained  the 
larger  portion  of  the  kingdom,  but  only  with 
the  title  ofethnarch  or  ruler  of  a  i)eople,  which 
was  inferior  to  that  of  king  (.Vntiq.  xvii.  ^,  1  ; 
9,7:  11,5).  His  rival  .\ntipas  was  given  only  a 
tetrarchy.  Soon  after  this,  Joseph  and  Mary 
returned  with  the  infant  Jesus  from  Egyjit. 
They  might  consider  that  the  queller  of  the 
jiassover  riot  was  not  a  man  over-tender  of 
liuman  lil'i',  and  that  it  was  only  connnon 
prudence  for  them  to  turn  aside  to  (Jalilee  so 
as  to  keej)  out  of  his  jurisdiction  (Mat.  ii.22). 
A  parable  of  our  Lord  liimself  .seems  to  refer 
to  the  circumstances  attendiui;  the  accession 
of  Archi'lau.s.  "A  certain  nobleman,"  wo 
read,  "  went  into  a  far  country  to  receive  for 
himself  a  kingdom,  and  to  return  "  (Luko 
xix.  12).  "  But  his  citizens  hated  him,  and 
sent  a  message  after  him.  sjiyiug.  We  will 
not  have  this  man  to  reign  over  us"  (II). 
If  the  reference  is  really  to  Archelaus,  then 
another  vt'rse  may  be  history  r.ither  than 
l)arable.  "  ]?ut  those  mine  enemies,  which 
would  not  that  I  should  reign  over  them, 
bring  hither,  and  slay  them  before  me  "  (27). 
(^uite  in  keejiing  with  this  view.  .Iose)>lius 
says  that  .\rclielaus  used  not  only  the  Jews 
but  the  Samaritans  barbarously,  out  of  resent- 
mi'ut  for  their  old  (|uarrels  with  him.  Both 
nationalities,  therefore,  .sent  endta.ssies  to 
Rome  to  com|ilaiu  of  his  cruelty.  They  suc- 
ceeded in  their  object.  In  the  ninth  year  of 
his  government,  about  .\.  D.  (>,  he  was  de- 
jiosecl,  and  banished  to  Vieiine,  in  (Jaul. 
while  his  wealth  was  put  into  the  emperor's 
treasury  (War  ii.  7,  3). 

Ar'che-vltes. 

Habylouians.  iuhabitants  of  Erech.  .\  body 
of  them  were  settled  by  .Vsuajiper  in  Sjimaria 
after  the  ten  tribes  had  b.-.  n  cMniid  .uptiM- 
(K/.ni  iv.  !)). 

Ar'chl.     See  .VucitiTK. 

Ar-chlp'pu8  [ma.ster  of  the  horse]. 
\  Christian  at  Colos.se  wlio  approved  him- 
self as  a  cliami>ion  of  the  Rospel,  was  intinmte 


Archite 


48 


Argob 


with  Pliik'inou,  and  an  office-bearer  iu  the 
church  (Col.  iv.  17;  Philcni.  2). 

Ar'chite,  in  A.  V.  once  Archi,  the  Hebrew 
form. 

A  uieuiber  of  a  Canaanite  tribe  of  the  same 
name,  or  else  a  native  or  inhabitant  of  a  vil- 
hijic  known  as  Erech.  The  liorder  of  the  Ar- 
cliites  was  on  thi'  l)oiin(hiry  between  Ephraim 
anil  Benjamin,  west  of  Bethel,  where  the 
fountain  'Arik  and  the  wady  'Arik  are  found 
(.Josh.  xvi.  2).  Hushai.  David's  faitliful  couu- 
sehir,  was  an  Archite  (2  Sam.  xv.  32). 

Arc-tu'rus  [the  Bear- ward]. 

A  large  and  liright  star,  which  the  Greeks 
and  Komans  called  liy  this  name,  meaning 
the  keeper  of  the  Bear,  because  in  its  cour.se 
through  the  heavens  it  always  kept  behind 
the  tail  of  I'rsa  Major,  or  the  Great  Bear.  In 
the  A.  V.  of  Job.  ix.  9  and  xxxviii.  32  it  is  the 
translation  of  the  Hebrew  \isli  or  'Ayish.  But 
'Ash  is  not  Arcturus,  which  looks  very  soli- 
tary in  the  sky,  while  the  'Ayish  of  Job 
(xxxviii.  .32)  has  sons  or  bright  stars  near  it 
in  the  heavens.  It  is  not  the  Bear-keeper 
but  probably  the  Bear  Itself,  and  is  so  ren- 
dered iu  the  R.  V.  The  Arabs  call  it  Na'sh, 
a  bier.  There  ai'e  iu  it  seven  bright  stars. 
The  four  constituting  the  irregular  diamond 
seem  to  the  Arabs  to  resemble  a  l)ier  carry- 
ing a  corpse,  while  the  three  stars  constitut- 
ing the  Bear's  tail  appear  to  them  to  be  the 
children  of  the  deceased  person,  walking  be- 
hind the  bier  to  the  place  of  interment. 

Ard. 

A  son  of  Bela  and  grandson  of  Benjamin 
(Gen.  xlvi.  21  ;  Num.  xxvi.  38  and  41  with  40). 
He  gave  name  to  a  family  of  the  tribe  of  Ben- 
jamin (ibid.).  The  person  called  Addar  in 
1  Chron.  viii.  3  is  probably  he.  The  varia- 
tion in  form  is  probably  due  to  a  copyisfs 
transposition  of  two  letters  very  similar  in 
Hebrew,  or  to  his  confusion  of  Hebri'wd  and 
r.  The  latter  error  is  especially  frequent, 
and  is  quite  intelligible  ;  see  under  Daleth. 

Ar'don. 

A  man  of  Judah.  family  of  Hezron,  house 
of  Caleb  (1  Chron.  ii.  18). 

A-re'li. 

A  son  of  Gad,  and  tounder  of  a  family 
(Cien.  xlvi.  l(i :  Num.  xxvi.  17), 

Ar-e-op'a-gite, 

A  judge  of  the  court  of  Areopagus  (Acts 
xvii.  34). 

Ar-e-op'a-gus  [hill  of  Ares]. 

1,  One  of  the  lower  hills  on  the  west  of  the 
acropolis  of  Athens.  It  was  consecrated  to 
Ares,  the  god  of  war,  and  was  crowned  )\v 
his  temple.  Eobinson  (liihi.  I'fsray..  i.  10,  11) 
describes  it  as  a  narrow,  naked  ridge  of  lime- 
stone rock,  rising  gradually  from  the  north- 
ern end,  and  terminating  al)niptly  on  the 
south,  over  against  the  acroiiolis,  or  citadel 
of  Athens.  Its  southern  end  is  50  or  (iO 
feet  above  the  valley  seiiarating  it  from  the 
acropolis,  which  is  nnu'li  the  higher  of  the 


two  hills.  Arcs  corresponding  to  the  Roman 
Mars,  Areopagus  is  tlie  same  as  Mars'  hill. 

2.  The  su])reme  court  of  Athens,  which 
met  on  the  hill  called  Areopagus  to  i)ass  sen- 
tence. Tlie  seats  of  the  judges  and  others  con- 
nected with  the  court  are  still  seen  hewn  in 
the  rock  ;  and  toward  the  .southwest  there  is  a 
flight  of  steps  descending  to  the  market  place. 
It  was  before  the  Areoi)agus  tliat  Paul  jileaded 
his  own  cause  and  that  of  Christianity,  and 
the  ]>hilosoi)hic  character  of  his  di.scoui"se 
aro.se  from  his  vivid  consciousness  that  he 
was  addressing  some  of  thi'  most  intellectual 
men  in  the  most  intellectual  city  on  the 
globe. 

During  judicial  trial  the  court  sat  in  its 
ofticial  chamber  on  the  market  i)lace,  and  ad- 
iourned  to  the  hill  to  pass  formal  sentence. 
It  has  iH-en  argued  that  Paul  made  his  de- 
fence in  the  chamber  of  justice  and  not  on 
the  hill,  before  the  Areopagus  and  not  on  the 
Areopagus  (Curtius).  Recent  studies  of  Aris- 
totle, however,  lead  to  the  conclusion  that 
cases  of  heresy  were  not  subject  to  the  ju- 
risdiction of  this  court  (Manatt).and  the  nar- 
rative in  The  Acts  militates  against  the  sup- 
position that  Paul's  discourse  was  a  fonnal 
defence  in  a  trial  before  the  court  (Conybeare 
and  Howson).  It  appears,  therefore,  that 
Paul  addressed  an  informal  gathering  of 
philosophers  on  the  Areopagus  (Acts  xvii. 
16  seq.). 

Ar'e-tas  [Greek  f(n-m  of  Har'thath]. 

More  than  one  king  of  Arabia  Petra^a.  dur- 
ing the  time  that  it  was  occupied  by  the 
Nabathsean  Arabs,  l.)ore  this  name.  Among 
others, 

1.  A  contemporary  of  the  high  priest  Jason, 
about  170  B.  c.  (2  Mac.  v.  8). 

2.  Father-in-law  of  Herod  the  Tetrarch. 
When  Herod  prejjared  to  divorce  his  daugh- 
ter in  order  to  marry  Herodias,  Aretas  de- 
clared war  against  Herod  and  totally  de- 
feated his  army  in  A.  D.  3f).  The  Romans 
took  Herod's  part,  and  Vitellius  was  dis- 
]iatched  to  chastise  Aretas,  but  the  death  of 
the  emperor  Tiberius  put  an  end  to  the  ex- 
pedition (Antiq.  xviii.  5,  1-3).  It  was  about 
A.  D.  39  or  40,  during  the  reign  of  Caligula, 
or  perhaps  in  3(),  that  Aretas  for  a  brief  period 
held  Damascus  (2  Cor.  xi.  32). 

A-re'us.     See  Arius. 

Ar'gob  [a  heap  of  stones  or  clods]. 

1.  A  region  of  Bashan,  included  within  the 
dominions  of  Og.  and  marching  on  (leshur 
and  Maacah.  It  contained  sixty  fenced  cities, 
liesides  the  nomad  encamiinunts  taken  by 
Jair  (I)eut.  iii.  4.  13,  14  ;  Josh.  xiii.  30:  1  Kin. 
iv.  13):  see  HAVvoTir-,TAiR.  The  Targum 
indicates  the  district  of  Trach(mitis.  but  this 
region  lies  too  far  to  the  east.  Josephus 
identities  a  portion  of  it  with  Gaulonitis 
(Anti(i.  viii.  2,  3  with  1  Kin.  iv.  13).  It  prob- 
ably corresponded  in  jiart  to  the  region  be- 
tween the  eastern  slojie  of  northern  mount 
(iilead  and  the  Lejjah. 


Ariarathes 


49 


Ark 


2.  A  man  assassinated  along  with  Peka- 
hiali,  kin;:,'  of  Israel,  l)y  Pekah,  who  aspired 
to  the  tlininL'  (:.'  Kin.  xv.  2'>). 

A'ri-a-ra'thes.     Sou  Akatues. 

A-ri'dal. 

A  son  of  Hanian  (Esth.  ix.  9). 

A-rid'a-tha. 

A  son  of  JIanian  (Esth.  ix.  8). 

A-ri'eh  [lion]. 

A  man  assassinated  alonj;  with  king  Peka- 
hiali.  Ar^ol),  and  others,  hy  Pekah,  the  son 
of  Hemaliah  (2  Kin.  xv.  25). 

A'ri-el  [li.>n  of  God]. 

1.  A  Urinative  name  given  hy  Isjiiah  to  Je- 
rusalem in  consideration  of  the  valor  of  its 
iuhal)itants  [Is.  xxix.  1,  2,  7). 

2.  A  eiiief  of  the  Jews  who  were  with  Ezra 
at  the  river  .\liava  (Ezra  viii.  Ki). 

Ar-i-ma-thSB'a  [Latin  and  Greek  modifi- 
cation of  Ivamah.  height]. 

The  t<iwn  from  which  the  councilor  Joseph 
came,  who  o))tained  ])ermission  of  Pilate  to 
take  away  the  hody  of  Jesus  and  give  it  hon- 
orable interment  in  his  own  new  se])ulcher 
(Mat.  xxvii.  ."-(iO;  Markxv.  4:V.  Luke  xxiii. 
51-."i:!;  .luhn  xix.  ;5fS).  Arinuitlueais  the  (ireek 
form  of  Kamali,  but  which  town  of  that  name 
is  intended  is  uncertain.  Kamlelmear  Lydda 
is  out  (»f  the  (luestiou  :  for  it  was  not  built 
until  the  beginning  of  the  eighth  century 
A.  I).  The  name  occurs  in  1  Mac.  xi.  '.'A  (cp. 
Antiq.  xiii.  4,  9)  as  belonging  at  that  period 
to  Samaria. 

A'ri-ocli  [servant  of  the  moon-god]. 

1.  King  of  Ellas;ir,  who  was  confederate 
witii  Clieilorlaomer  on  his  invasion  of  the 
Jordan  valley  ((ien.  xiv.  1,  9).  A  king  of 
Larsa  calleil  Eriaku,  son  of  Kudurnuibug,  is 
nieutioueil  in  Babylonian  inscrii)ti()ns.  Larsa, 
prol)ably  EUa.sar,  his  capital,  is  now  repre- 
sented l)y  the  mounds  of  Senkerah,  a  little 
to  the  east  of  Erech. 

2.  (,'a]>tain  <d'  the  king's  guard  at  Babylon 
under  Nebuchadnezzar  (Dan.  ii.  14,  15).  It 
liertaineil  to  the  office  U)  execute  sentences  of 
death  (21). 

A-rl'sai. 

A  son  of  Hanian  (Esth.  ix.  9). 

Ar-is-tar'chus  [best  ruling]. 

.\  .Macedonian  <jf  Thessaloinca  who  was 
with  Paul  at  Ephesus,  and  in  the  riot  was 
dragged  into  the  theater,  but  does  not  ajtpear 
to  havi'  l)een  seriously  injured  (Acts  xix.  29). 
On  the  ai)ostle's  return  fromtireece,  wliither 
he  had  gone  from  I'.phesus,  Aristarchus  ac- 
com|niiiicd  him  from  Troas  to  Asia  (Acts  xx. 
•1,  <>).  He  wassub.se(iuently  his  fellow-voyager 
to  Rome  ixxvii.  2:  i)).  Philein.  24),  as  also 
at  one  tinu'  his  fellow-prisoner  (Col.  iv.  10). 

Ar-is-to-bu'lus  [best  advising]. 

1.  .\  celibraled  .lewish  jihilosopher  at  Alex- 
andria   2  .Mac.  i.  1(1). 

2.  .\  Christian,  to  whose  household  at  Rome 
Paul  sent  s;ilutations  (Rom.  xvi.  10). 

4 


A-ri'us,  in  A.  V.  Areus. 

King  of  Si>arla  1 1  .Mac.  xii.  20;  Antiq.  xiii. 
5,  S),  ])rol)ably  the  first  of  the  name,  who 
reigned  from  309  to  205  u.  c. 

Ark. 

A  chest,  box,  or  vessel  of  similar  shape. 

1.  Noah's  ark  was  the  rude  vessel  which 
Noah  was  divinely  ordered  to  ccmstruct,  and 
in  which  he  floated  al>out  when  the  deluge 
was  on  the  earth.  If  the  cubit,  in  tenns  of 
which  the  dimensions  of  tlie  ark  are  stated, 
was  the  ordinary  cubit  of  IH  inches,  then 
the  length  of  the  ark  was  45(J  feet,  the 
breadth  75  feet,  and  the  height  43  feet.  The 
Great  Eaxh'rn  steamshij)  was  ()74  feet  long,  77 
feet  broad.  .5s  feet  deep,  and  had  a  gross  ton- 
nage of  22,500  tons.  The  ark  was  made  of 
gopher,  probably  cypress,  wood,  and  rendered 
watei'tight  by  being  daubed  inside  and  out- 
side with  bitumen.  It  had  lower,  .second, 
and  third  st(U'ies.  A  door  in  the  side  atlbrded 
ingress  and  egress.  A  window,  probably  a 
cubit  in  height,  extended,  with  slight  inter- 
ruptions, all  around  the  vessel.  A  rooflike 
covering  ])rotected  the  inmates  from  rain 
and  sun  ((tcu.  vi.  14-viii.  19;  Mat.  xxiv.  .38; 
Luke  xvii.  27 ;  Heb.  xi.  7  ;  1  Pet.  iii.  20).  The 
ark  was  designed  for  the  accommodation  of 
Noah,  his  family,  and  the  animals  which  were 
selected  to  be  preserved. 

Dr.  Howard  O.sgood,  in  The  Sunday  School 
Times  for  Feb.  6,  1892,  discus.ses  the  question 
whether  every  species  of  animals,  as  they  are 
now  classified  by  naturalists,  could  have  found 
accommodation  in  the  ark.  The  highest  es- 
timate of  the  number  of  species  of  land  mam- 
malia is  290  above  the  size  of  the  sheep,  757 
from  the  sheep  to  the  rats,  and  1359  of  the 
rats,  bats,  and  shrews.  The  average  size  is 
about  that  of  the  common  cat.  Allowing  five 
square  feet  of  deck  room  as  am]ily  suthcient 
for  a  cat.  two  of  each  species  of  mannualia 
could  find  room  on  two-thirds  of  one  deck  of 
the  ark,  with  its  33,750  square  feet  of  surface. 
The  representatives  of  10,000  species  of  birds, 
979  of  reptiles,  1252  of  lizards,  and  1(X),000 
of  insects  could  easily  be  placed  on  the  re- 
maining third  of  the  deck,  leaving  the  other 
two  decks  for  storing  lV)od. 

2.  The  infant  Moses'  ark,  nuide  for  his 
reception  when  he  was  exposed  upon  the 
Nile,  was  a  basket  comjiosed  of  papyrus 
leaves  or  stems,  or  both,  plaited  togi'tlier.  and 
remlered  watertight  by  a  c<iat  of  bitumen 
(Ex.  ii.  3-0). 

3.  The  Ark  of  the  Covenant  or  Testimony 
was  the  central  object  of  the  tabermide.  It 
was  a  chest  2^  culiits  long.  1^  cubits  broad, 
and  the  same  in  depth  ;  made  of  acacia  wood, 
and  overlaid  within  and  without  with  i)ure 
gold.  A  rim  or  moulding  of  gold  encirt'led 
it  at  the  top.  At  the  bottom  were  two  golden 
rings  on  each  side,  throii^li  wliich  ])oles  of 
acacia  wood  overlaid  with  gold  were  juit  for 
the  i)uri>ose  of  carrying  the  ark  about.  It 
was  covered  by  a  lid  of  solid  gold  which  was 


Ark 


50 


Armor 


called  the  mercy  seat.  Two  cherubim  of  gold 
stood  on  this  cover,  of  one  i)iece  with  it,  one 
at  each  end.  sprcadinj;  their  winjjs  on  hif^li  so 
as  to  oversliiidow  it.  and  facinji  each  other, 
hut  looking;  down  toward  thi'  mercy  seat. 
They  were  syndiols  tif  tlic  presence  and  nn- 
aiiiu'oachahlene.ss  of  Jehovah  who.  as  King 
of  Israel  in  the  midst  of  his  peojde,  dwelt  be- 
tween the  chernhiin,  nttered  his  voice  from 
hetween  them,  and  met  the  representative  of 
his  pecii)le  there  (Ex.  xxv.  10  seq.  ;  xxx.  (i  ; 
Num.  vii.  89 ;  1  Sam.  iv.  4).  It  was  made 
specially  for  the  reception  of  the  Testinmny, 
on  the  two  tables  of  .stone  (Ex.  xxv.  21 ;  xxxi. 
18),  and  it  was  ])lace(l  in  the  holy  of  holies 
(xxvi.  34).  Afterwardsa  pot  of  manna,  Aaron's 
rod  that  blossomed,  and  the  book  of  the  law 
were  put  beside  the  ark  (Ex.  xvi.  34 ;  Num. 
xvii.  10 ;  De>it.  xxxi.  26 ;  Heb.  ix.  4),  but 
were  removed  during  the  times  of  confusion 
(1  Kin.  viii.  9).  The  ark  was  placed  in  charge 
of  the  Kohathite  Levites  (Num.  iii.  29-31 ;  iv. 
4-15).  The  priests,  who  were  Levites  and  of 
the  family  of  Kohath,  bore  it  themselves  on 
occasions  of  special  solemnity  (Josh.  iii.  3; 
vi.  6 ;  viii.  33 ;  2  Sam.  xv.  24,  29;  1  Kin.  viii. 
3).  It  stood  in  the  midst  of  Jordan  till  the 
Israelites  had  done  crossing  the  river  (Josh. 
iv.  9-11).  It  was  carried  for  seven  days  round 


Egyjitian  Ark  or  .Sacred  Chest. 


Jericho  before  the  walls  of  the  city  fell  down 
(vi.  1-20).  Having  been  taken  in  Eli's  time 
to  the  tield  of  battle,  as  a  talisman  which  was 
expected  to  work  wonders  in  the  contest  with 
the  Philistines,  it  was  cajitured  by  the  euemy 
(1  Sam.iv.  1-22),  but  was  soon  afterwards  sent 
back  into  the  Hebrew  territory  (v.  1-vi.  11). 
It  was  successively  at  Beth-shemesh,  where 
the  inhabitants  looked  into  it  and  were  pun- 
ished (vi.  12-20)  ;  at  Kirjath-Jearim  (vii.  1,2)  ; 
and  at  IVrcz-u/zah,  where  Uzzah  was  struck 
dead  for  touching  it  when  it  .seenu'd  to  tot- 
ter. Thence  it  was  taken  by  David  to  Jeru- 
salem (2  Sam.  vi.  1-23).  It  was  placed  in  the 
holy  of  holies  in  Solomon's  temple  (1  Kin. 


viii.  1-9).  Mauasseh  substituted  an  image  for 
it,  but  Josiah  restored  it  to  its  i)lace  (2  C'hron. 
xxxiii.  7  ;  xxxv.  3).  It  disajipeared  when  Je- 
rusalem was  destroyed  by  Nel)uchaduezzar, 
and  has  not  l)een  seen  since. 

Sacred  chests  were  in  use  among  other 
peo])les  of  anticjuity.  They  were  emjiloyed 
by  the  (ireeks  and  Egyptians,  and  served  as 
receptacles  for  the  idol,  or  for  symbols  of  the 
deities,  or  for  other  sacred  objects. 

Ark'ite. 

A  tril)e  descended  from  Canaan  (Gen.  x. 
17;  1  Cliron.  i.  15).  According  to  Josephus 
they  founded  the  PhaMiician  city  Arke,  the 
modern  'Arka,  al)out  twelve  miles  north  of 
Triiioli,  in  .Syria  (Anti(i.  i.  (i,  2).  This  town 
is  mentioned  :is  Arkatu  liy  Thothnies  III. 
about  KiOO  years  l)cfore  Christ  (Brugsch). 

Ar-ma-ged'don,  in  R.  Y.  Har-Magedon 
[mountain  of  Megiddo]. 

A  prophetic  battlefield  where  the  kings  of 
the  whole  world  gather  together  unto  the 
war  of  the  great  day  of  God  (Rev.  xvi.  16). 
The  name  is  framed  with  evident  reference 
to  the  sanguinary  contests  which  took  jilace 
near  the  town  of  Megiddo ;  the  first,  that  in 
which  Sisera  and  the  Canaanites  were  de- 
feated at  the  waters  of  Megiddo  (Judg.  v.  19), 
the  second,  that  which  resulted  in  the  death 
of  Ahaziah,  king  of  Jndah,  at  Megiddo  (2 
Kin.  ix.  27),  and  the  third,  that  in  which  king 
Josiah  was  killed  when  in  conflict  with  the 
army  of  Pharaoh-necho  (2  Kin.  xxiii.  29; 
Zech.  xii.  11).  The  historical  associations 
with  Megiddo  in  the  jiast  were  seized  ui)on 
by  the  prophet  to  supply  a  speaking  name 
appropriate  in  a  description  of  the  future 
sorrows  and  triumphs  of  God's  people. 

Ar-me'ni-a.     See  Akarat. 

Arm'let. 

An  ornament  like  a  bracelet,  but  surround- 
ing the  arm  higher  up  than  the  wrist  (Ex. 
xxxv.  22,  R.  v.).  There  were  armlets  among 
the  spoil  of  the  Midiauites  (Num.  xxxi.  50, 
R.  v.).  In  ])arts  of  the  East  an  armlet,  gen- 
erally studded  with  jewels,  is  worn  by  kings 
as  one  of  the  insignia  of  royal  authority  (cp. 
2  Sam.  i.  10). 

Ar-mo'ni  [pertaining  to  the  palace]. 

One  of  Saul's  sons  by  his  concubine  Rizpah. 
He  was  slain  by  the  Gibeonites  to  satisfy  jus- 
tice (2  Sam.  xxi.  8-11). 

Ar'mor. 

Covering  worn  to  ])rotect  the  person  against 
offensive  weapons  (Eph.  vi.  11).  It  consisted 
of— 1.  The  shield.  Shields  were  used  by  all 
nations  of  antiijuity.  The  Israelites  eni- 
ploved  a  larger  and  a  smaller  kind  (1  Kin. 
X.  16.  17).  The  larger  kind,  translated  shiidd. 
l>uckler,  target,  l)elonged  to  the  heavy  armed 
sjiearmen  and  huicers  (1  Chron.  xii.  S,  24.  34  ; 
2  Chron.  xiv.  8).  The  .smaller  shield,  ren- 
dered shield  or  buckler,  was  carried  t)y  archers 
(1  Chron.  v.  18;  2  Chron.  xiv.  8).  Sliields 
were  of  various  shapes — round,  oval,  and  ob- 


Army 


51 


Aroer 


long.  They  were  commonly  made  of  several 
tliickiu'ssfs  of  kiitliiT  or  of  wood  covered 
witli  luatluT  (cp.  E/.tk.  xxxix.  9),  which  was 
oiled  to  ki'('i)  it  j^lussy  aiul  ])lial>Ii',  ami  to  pro- 
tect it  a;iaiiisl  tlic  wet  ( Is.  xxi.  .'>).  Tlii'v  were 
sonietiiiii'S  covered  witii  bras.s  (.\iiti(|.  xiii. 
12,  5),  or  made  entirely  of  brass  (I  Kin.  xiv. 
27,  j)rol)al)lv),  or  even  of  beaten  jjohl  {1  Kin. 
X.  17;  2  ("'hron.  ix.  !(!;  1  .Mac.  vi.  2,  :5!)). 
Bronze  shiehls  were  often  two  or  three  feet  in 
diameter.  Somelimes  a  sliieldbearer  accom- 
panied a  warrior  into  battle  (1  Sam.  xvii.  7). 
2.  Helmets  were  made  of  leather  and  event- 
tially  of  iron  and  l)rass  (1  Mac.  vi.  '.'>'>).  They 
were  known  to  E>;y|)tians,  I'hilistine.s,  As- 
syrians, Babylonians,  Persians  (1  8am.  xvii. 
5;  Jer.  xlvi.  4;  Ezek.  xxiii.  2.J,  24  ;  xxvii. 
10).  Helmets  of  l)rass  were  in  occasional  ii.se 
amonn  tiie  Israelites  and  I'Jiilistines  as  early 
as  tile  time  of  Saul  (1  Sam.  xvii.  .">,  3H).  Uz- 
ziah  armed  iiis  troojis  with  helmets  and  coats 
of  mail  (2  Cliron.  xxvi.  14).  '.i.  The  breast- 
l)late  or  properly  coat  of  mail,  as  it  is  some- 
times n-ndered,  covered  the  l)reast,  liack,  and 
shoulders.  It  was  made  of  leather,  (iiiilted 
cloth,  linen  (Herod,  iii.  47),  brass,  or  iron 
(1  .Sam.  xvii.  5;  Rev.  ix.  9),  and  I'veii  gold 
(1  Mac.  vi.  2).  There  were  joints  in  it  or  be- 
tween it  and  the  adjacent  armor  (1  Kin. 
xxii.  34).  Scale-armor  coats  were  worn  by 
Ctoliath,  and  cliain  coats  by  the  soldiers  of 
Antiochus   Ku])ator  (1  Sam.  xvii.  5,  Hebrew; 

1  Mac.  vi.  3."),  (ireek).  4.  (iri'aves,  consisting 
of  thin  plates  of  metal,  were  occasionally 
Worn  to  i)rotect  the  front  of  the  leg  below 
the  knee  (1  Sam.  xvii.  (!)  ;  and  sometimes,  '■>. 
Liiced  boots  set  with  nails  (Is.  ix.  fi,  K.  V. 
margin).  For  olleiisive  weapons,  see  the 
several  articles. 

Ar'my. 

The  army  of  Israel  consisted  originally  of 
infantry  only  (Num.  xi.  21  ;  1  Sam.  iv.  10; 
XV.  4),  eompo.sed  of  spearmen,  slingers,  and 
archers.  It  included  all  the  able-bodied 
men  of  the  nation — all  the  males  from  20 
years  old  and  upward,  al)le  to  go  forth  to 
war,   being   enrolled    for    service    (Num.  i. ; 

2  .Siim.  xxiv.  !l).  The  numbers  reported 
as  iiarticiitating  in  various  battles  are  suHi- 
cieiitly  large  to  incliKle  the  greater  i)art  of 
tiie  adult  male  ]i(iiiulatioii  of  the  region. 
For  military  optratioiis  of  no  great  magni- 
tude, each  tribe  furnished  its  quota  of  war- 
riors (Num.  xxxi.  4  ;  .(osh.  vii.  .'5;  Judg.  xx. 
10);  but  inroails  of  the  enemy  were  naturally 
met  by  all  the  manly  si)irits  seizing  their 
weapons  to  defend  their  firesides.  In  time  of 
national  peril  mes.sengers  wen-  .sent  through- 
out all  tlie  coasts  of  Israel  to  summon  the 
men  <if  war  by  the  sound  of  the  trumiiet,  by 
proclamation,  or  by  symbolic  act,  to  come  to 
the  rescue  (.ludg.  vi.  31.  .3.");  xix.  2!)  ;  1  .Sam. 
xi.  7).  The  army  was  divifleil  into  bodies  of 
a  tlmiisiind,  a  hundred,  and  lifty,  each  of 
which  was  under  its  own  ollicer  (Num.  xxxi. 
14;  Judg.  XX.  10;   1  Sam.  viii.  12;  2  Kin.  i. 


9  ;  xi.  4  ;  2  Chron.  xxv.  .'>).  The  commander- 
in-chief  and  the  olticers  formed  a  council 
of  war  (1  t'hron.  xiii.  1  ;  cp.  2  Kin.  ix.  .5, 
13).  The  tirst  traces  of  a  standing  army  are 
found  in  the  reign  of  Saul.  He  retained 
three  thousand  men  of  all  Israel  to  hold  the 
Philistines  in  check  (1  Sam.  xiii.  2),  and  im- 
pres-sed  any  men  of  marked  valor  whom  he 
.saw  (xiv.  r)2).  David  increased  the  army,  and 
organized  it  into  twelve  divisions  of  twenty- 
four  thousand  footmen  each  (1  Chron.  xxvii.), 
and  Solomon  added  a  large  force  of  chariots 
ami  horsemen,  which  he  distributed  in  the 
cities  throughout  his  kingdom  (1  Kin.  ix.  lit; 
X.  2(>;  cj).  iv.  2<);  2  Chron.  ix.  2.'>).  The  suc- 
cessors of  these  three  kings  of  all  Israel  con- 
tinued to  bestow  attention  on  the  organiza- 
tion and  equipment  of  the  host,  as  .Tehosha- 
pliat  (2  Chron.  xvii.  13-19)  Amaziah  (xxv. 
5,  (i),  Uzziah  (xxvi.  11-1.1),  Judas  Maccabieus 
(1  Mac.  iii.  .5.5).  See  \V.\K. 
.  Ar'nan  [agile]. 

Founder  of  a  family,  presumal)ly  of  the 
lineage  of  David  (1  Chron.  iii.  21). 

Ar'non  [murmuring,  noisy;  or,  perhaps, 
quickly  moving]. 

A  river  which  anciently  formed  the  boun- 
dary between  the  Amorite  country  on  the 
north  and  that  of  the  .Moabites  on  the  south 
(Num.  xxi.  13,  20),  and  at  a  later  ]ieriod  be- 
tween the  tribe  of  Keuben  on  the  north  and 
again  Moah  on  the  south  (Dent.  iii.  8,  10; 
Josh.  xiii.  Ki).  It  had  fords  (Is.  xvi.  2).  It 
is  now  called  the  Wady  .Mojib,  and  is  a 
perennial  stream  which  is  formed  by  the 
junction  of  three  smaller  tributaries,  and 
falls  into  the  Dead  Sea.  It  is  fringed  by 
oleanders,  the  vegetation  of  its  banks  is  ex- 
uberant, and  its  waters  are  full  of  tish. 

A'rod  or  Ar'o-di. 

A  .son  of  ( >ad,  and  founder  of  a  family  (Gen. 
xlvi.  Ki ;   Num.  xxvi.  17). 

Ar'o-er  [naked,  nakedness;  or  juniper 
thicket]. 

1.  A  town  on  the  right  or  northern  bank 
t)f  the  river  Anion.  It  was  the  southern 
jioint  of  the  Amorite  kingdom  ruled  by 
Silion,  and  afterwards  of  the  tribe  of  Keubeu 
(Deiit.  ii.  30;  iii.  12;  Josh.  xii.  2;  xiii.  16; 
.Judg.  xi.  20,  33).  It  was  taken  by  Mesha.  king 
of  .Moab  (Moabite  Stone.  20).  It  fell  into  the 
hands  of  Hazjiel,  king  of  .Syria  (2  Kin.  x.  3.3; 
1  Chron.  v.  H).  In  the  time  of  Jeremiah  it 
belonged  to  Moab  (.ler.  xlviii.  1!»).  It  is  now 
called  ".Vra'ir,  and  is  a  desolate  heap  just 
south  of  Dibon.  and  a  little  east  of  the  Ko- 
man  road  running  north  and  south  through 
Moab. 

2.  A  city  built  by  the  (Jadites  (Num.  xxxii. 
34).  It  was  before,  that  is  east  of,  Babbath 
Animon.  in  the  middle  of  the  valley  of  (Jad, 
on  the  southern  boundary  of  that  tribe  (.losli. 
xiii.  2.5;  2  Siim.  xxiv.  T)).   Exact  site  unknown. 

3.  .\  village  of  .ludah,  to  which  David  sent 
sju)il  after  his  victory  over  the  Amalekites 
who  had  ])illaged   Ziklag   (1  Sam.   xxx.  2S). 


Aroerite 


52 


Asa 


Its  ruins  consist  of  a  few  walls,  in  the  wady 
'Ar'ara,  twolve  mik's  southeast  of  Beer-sheha. 

If  ArotT  in  Is.  xvii.  2  is  a  jiroiwr  name,  and 
not  a  conmioM  noun  nieauinji  nakedness,  ruin, 
the  phrase  in  whicli  it  stands  may  be  ren- 
dered "the  cities  of  Aroer,"  and  interpreted 
as  the  suburlis  of  tlie  Gadite  Aroer  ;  or  "  the 
cities  Aroer,"  the  two  Aroers  east  of  the  Jor- 
dan beinj;  used  representatively  for  all  the 
cities  of  the  region. 

Ar'o-er-ite. 

A  native  or  inhal)itant  of  Aroer  (1  Chron. 
xi.  44,  wliere  the  reference  is  probably  to 
Aroer  3). 

Ar-pach'shad,  in  A.  V.  Arphaxad  [ety- 
mology unknown  ;  tlie  latter  part  of  the  name, 
if  separable,  is  contained  in  Chaldea]. 

A  sou  of  Shem  (Gen.  x.  22,  24 ;  1  Chron.  i. 
17, 18,  both  K.  v.).  He  was  a  remote  ancestor 
of  Abraham,  was  born  two  years  after  the 
flood,  at  the  age  of  35  begat  Shelah,  and 
died  403  yeai-s  afterwards,  at  the  age  of 
438  (xi.  10-13,  E.  V.).  Arpachshad  is  not 
necessarily  a  person.  The  structure  of  these 
genealogical  registers,  apparent  at  a  glance, 
is  such  that  the  name  may  be  that  of  a  tribe 
or  land,  of  which  the  people  were  descended 
from  that  son  of  Shem  born  two  years  after 
the  flood.  Arpachshad  was  long  identified 
with  the  mountainous  country  on  the  upper 
Zab  north  and  northeast  of  Nineveh,  called 
by  the  Greek  geographers  Arrapachitis,  and 
b}^  the  Assyrians  Arabcha.  But  this  identi- 
fication fails  to  account  for  the  final  syllable, 
shad. 

Ar'pad,  in  A.  V.  twice  Arphad. 

A  city,  generally  coupled  in  the  O.  T.  with 
Hamatii,  from  which,  consequently,  it  was 
not  far  distant  (2  Kin.  xviii.  34 ;  xix.  13  ;  Is. 
X.  9  ;  Jer.  xlix.  23).  It  has  been  placed  at 
Tell  Erfad,  13  nnles  north  of  Aleppo.  It 
was  a  place  of  importance,  and  was  sub- 
jected to  repeated  visitations  from  the  As- 
syrians. It  saw  the  army  of  Rammannirari 
in  806  B.  c,  and  of  Ashurnirari  in  7M  ;  it  was 
besieged  and  taken  by  Tiglath-pileser  742- 
740  ;  and  an  uprising  of  cities  which  included 
Arpad  was  sujjpressed  by  Sargon  in  720. 

Ar-phax'ad.     See  Arpachshad. 

Ar'sa-ces. 

King  of  Persia  and  Media  (1  Mac.  xiv.  2,  3; 
XV.  22).  from  174  to  136  B.  c.  He  M'as  the 
sixth  of  the  name,  l)nt  is  better  known  as 
Mithridates  I.  of  Parthia.  His  rule  extended 
far  beyond  the  bounds  of  Jledia  and  Persia. 
He  conquered  Asia  from  the  Hiiulu  Kush  to 
the  Eujihrates  and  raised  the  Parthian  king- 
dom to  an  empire. 

Ar-tax-erx'es  [possessor  of  an  exalted 
kingdom]. 

The  son  and  successor  of  his  father  Xerxes 
on  the  Persian  throne  465  b.  c.  He  is 
called  Longimanus,  the  Longhanded.  This 
epithet  is  generally  interpreted  literally,  but 
Dr.  John  Wilson  considers  that  it  is  figurative. 


and  means  only  that  Artaxerxes  had  a  widely- 
extended  dominion.  He  was  led  to  forbid 
building  at  .lerusjilem  (Ezra  iv.  7),  but  after- 
wards permitted  it  (vi.  14).  The  older  in- 
terpreters understood  the  king  referred  to 
to  be  the  Pseudo-Smerdis,  /.  e.  a  Magian  im- 
postor called  Gomates,  who  pretended  to  be 
Smerdis,  brother  of  the  deceased  Gambyses, 
and  reigned  as  such  for  seven  months  in  the 
year  521  B.  c,  until  the  fraud  was  discovered 
and  he  was  put  to  death.  But  see  remarks 
under  Ahasukkus.  In  the  seventh  year  of 
his  reign  (458  B.  c.)  Artaxerxes  allowed  Ezra 
to  lead  a  great  multitude  of  exiles  back  to 
Jerusalem  (Ezra  vii.  1,  11,  12.  21  :  viii.  1).  In 
the  twentieth  year  of  his  reign  (445  B.  c.)  he 
permitted  Nehemiah  to  make  his  first  journey 
to  the  Jewish  capital,  and  rebuild  the  walls  of 
the  city  (Neh.  ii.  1,  etc.).  In  the  thirty-second 
year  of  his  reign  (433-432  B.  c.)  he  allowed 
Nehemiah,  who  had  returned  for  a  little  to 
Persia,  to  revisit  Jerusalem,  and  become  gov- 
ernor of  the  restored  city  and  the  adjacent 
country  (xiii.6).  Artaxerxes  died  in  the  j'ear  • 
425  B.  c. 

Ar'te-mas  [gift  of  Artemis]. 

A  companion  whom  Paul  thought  of  send- 
ing on  an  errand  to  Titus  (Tit.  iii.  12). 

Ar'te-mis. 

The  Greek  goddess  of  hunting,  correspond- 
ing to  the  Eoman  Diana  (Acts  xix.  24.  R.  V., 
margin)  ;  see  Diana. 

Ar'u-both  [latticed  windows]. 

A  town  mentioned  in  connection  with 
Socoh  and  He))her ;  hence  probably  in  the 
southwest  of  Judah  (1  Kin.  iv.  10). 

A-ru'mah  [perhaps,  a  height]. 

A  village  near  Shechem,  once  the  residence 
of  Abimelech  (Judg.  ix.  41).  It  has  been  sup- 
posed to  be  identical  with  Eumah  (2  Kin. 
xxiii.  36),  and  has  been  placed  doubtfully  at 
el-'Ormeh,  6  miles  southeast  of  Shechem, 
which,  however,  is  spelled  with  a  diflereut 
initial  letter. 

Ar'vad  [wandering]. 

A  ])lace  which,  in  EzekiePs  time,  furnished 
mariners  and  valiant  defenders  of  the  strong- 
hold of  Tyre  (Ezek.  xxvii.  8,  11).  It  is  the 
island  of  Aradus  near  the  coast  of  Phoenicia, 
now  called  er-Ruad  (1  JIac.  xv.  23). 

Ar'vad-ite. 

One  of  the  inhabitants  of  Arvad.  They 
were  reckoned  to  Canaan  (Gen.  x.  18 ;  1 
Chron.  i.  16). 

Ar'za  [delight]. 

The  steward  of  king  Elah's  house  iu  Tir- 
zah  (1  Kin.  xvi.  9). 

A'sa  [physician]. 

1.  A  Levite,  son  of  Elkanah  who  lived  iu 
a  village  of  the  Netophathites  (1  Chron.  ix. 
16). 

2.  A  king  of  Judah  who  ascended  the 
throne  in  the  twentieth  year  of  Jeroboam, 
king  of  Israel.  He  was  son  of  Abijam  and 
grandson  of  Rehoboam.     His  mother  (really 


Asahel 


53 


Asaramel 


liis  grandmother)  was  Maacah,  daughter  of 
Absiiloin  (1  Kin.  xv.  9-10,  cp.  2).  His  rcigu 
iK'i^an  with  ton  years  of  jioafe  {2  ("hron.  xiv. 
1).  He,  tdiik  away  the  male  imislitiites  out 
oftiie  land,  aliolished  the  idolsof  his  iiredeees- 
sors.  iiiul  removed  his  jrrandmolher  from  her 
jtosition  of  queen-mother,  hecause  she  had 
ma<le  an  imajje  for  an  Asherali  (1  Kin.  xv. 
!t-ll>;  cj).  xiv.  "Ji-'it ;  2  Chrou.  xiv.  1-5;  xv. 
Kil.  He  also  destroyed  the  strange  altars, 
the  hi^ch  i)laees,  and  the  sun  images  through- 
out Judah  (2  Chron.  xiv.  :i-r>)  as  fully  as  he 
was  ahle  (ep.  1  Kin.  xxii.  4(5;  2  Chron.  xix. 
I):  l)iit.  though  his  own  heart  was  jierfeet 
with  tilt!  Lord,  the  people  still  occasionally 
.s;ierilieed  to  Jeiiovah  on  high  places  (1  Kiu. 
XV.  14  ;  2  Chron.  xv.  17).  His  kingdom  was 
invaded  by  the  Ethiopian  Zerah.  at  the  head 
of  an  enormous  liost  of  .Vfricans,  hut  by  the 
lielp  of  .Fehovah  he  defeateil  them,  and  drove 
them  from  the  land  (2  ('hron.  xiv.  !)-15).  In 
the  tifteenth  year  of  his  reign,  encouraged  by 
the  jiroplu't  .Vzariah,  he  completed  the  re- 
ligious reforuiation  which  he  had  begun,  re- 
stored the  altar  of  burnt  offering  at  the  tem- 
l>le,  and  indiu;ed  the  people  to  renew  the 
covenant  with  .lehovah  (2  Chron.  xv.  1-1.^). 
In  tlu'  thirty-sixth  year  of  his  reign,  Baasha, 
king  of  Israel,  invaded  Benjamin  and  fortified 
Kamah  on  the  main  road  from  Jerusalem  to 
the  north.  Asa.  fniding  himself  too  weak  to 
reo|K'u  the  road  by  the  cai)ture  of  Ramah, 
took  the  temple  treasures,  and  liired  Ben- 
hailad,  king  of  Damascus,  to  attack  Baasha. 
Ben-hadad  invaded  tlic  northern  ])ortion  of 
the  Israelite  kingdom,  compelling  Baasha  to 
withdraw  from  Rtmah.  .Vsa  took  the  build- 
ing materials  which  Baasha  had  gathered  at 
lv;imah  and  fortilied  (/ieba  and  .Mizpah.  Tlie 
prophet  Haiiani  reproved  the  king  for  his 
Worldly  i)olicy,  after  his  experience  of  (Jod's 
liclp  at  the  tiuie  of  the  l']lhioi>ian  invasion. 
-\sa  resented  the  interference  of  the  propiiet, 
jiuttiug  him  iu  prison  (1  Kin.  xv.  l(>-22  ;  2 
Chron.  xvi.  1-10).  In  the  thirty-ninth  year 
of  his  reign  he  became  diseased  in  his  feet. 
In  his  distress  In-  soiiuJit  helj)  from  the  iihysi- 
cians,  but  not  from  the  Lord  (I  Kiu.  xv.  23; 
2  Chron.  xvi.  12).  In  his  latter  days  he  was 
not  so  true  to  .Jehovah  as  in  his  earlier  life. 
He  dieil  in  the  forty-first  year  of  his  reign, 
and  was  buried  witli  I'oyal  honors  in  a  sepul- 
clier  which  he  had  maile  for  himself  in  the 
city  of  David.     See  footnote,  p.  129. 

As'a-hel  [(tod  hath  made]. 

1.  Son  of  Zeruiah,  and  l)rother  of  .loab  and 
Abishai  (1  Chron.  ii.  Ki).  For  a  time  he  was 
the  military  cai)tain  in  attendance  on  David 
for  tile  fourth  month  of  the  year,  his  men 
miinberiiig  2J,0(M)  (xxvii.  7).  He  was  exceed- 
ingly fleet  of  foot.  When  the  followers  of 
David  routed  those  of  Ishbosheth  he  i)ursued 
.\bner.  Ishboslwth's  commander-in-chief  with 
the  intention  of  killing  him.  .\l)mr.  afti-r 
warning  him  more  tlian  once,  was  compelled, 
reluctantly  ami  in  self-defi'nce,  to  strike  him 
a  mortal  thrust  (2  Sam.  ii.  lH-23). 


2.  One  of  the  Levites  employed  by  Jehosh- 
aphat  to  teach  the  people  the  law  (2  Chrou. 
xvii.  8). 

').  .\ii  overseer  of  the  tc'nii)le  in  the  reign 
of  lle/.ekiah  (2  Chron.  xxxi.  13). 

4.  Father  of  a  certain  Jonathan  (Ezra  x.  15). 

A-saiah,  in  A.  V.  twice  As-a-hi'ah  (2  Kiu. 
xxii.  12,  14)  [Jehovah  hath  made]. 

1.  A  Simeonite  ]>nnce  (1  Chron.  iv.  3(i). 

2.  A  Levite,  head  of  the  family  of  .Merari 
iu  David's  time  (1  Chron.  vi.  ."50;  xv.  (i,  11). 

3.  A  man  of  .Judah,  son  of  Baruch,  aud 
head  of  the  family  of  Shelah  at  the  time  of 
the  return  from  the  captivity  (1  Chron.  ix.  5). 
He  was  known  also  by  the  sj-nonymous  name 
Maaseiah  (Neh.  xi.  .">). 

4.  An  officer  whom  .Josiah  sent  with  others 
to  the  prophetess  Huldah  to  inquire  of  the 
Lord  about  the  things  which  he  lia<l  heard 
from  the  Law  found  liy  Hilkiah  (2  Kin.  xxii. 
12,  14;  2  Chron.  xxxiv.  20). 

A'saph  [collector  ;  or  He  hath  gathered  or 
removed  re]u-oach]. 

1.  .\  Levite,  the  son  of  Berachiali,  of  the 
Gershomite  family  (1  Chron.  vi.  39,  43).  With 
Heman  and  Ethan,  he  sounded  cymbals  be- 
fore the  ark  during  its  removal  from  the 
house  of  Obed-edom  to  the  city  of  David 
(xv.  l(j-19).  He  was  then  assigned  the  per- 
manent office  of  .sounding  cymbals  at  the 
service  (xvi.  4,  5,  7) ;  aud  when  the  service 
was  finally  and  fully  arranged,  of  the  three 
families  iiernianently  charged  with  the  mu.sic 
and  song  and  instructed  in  the  art,  his  family, 
with  him  at  the  head,  was  one  (xxv,  1-9). 
Their  i)osition  was  on  the  right  (vi.  39).  The 
family  often  receives  mention  (2  Chron.  xx. 
14;  xxix.  13).  A  hundred  and  twenty-eight, 
all  of  them  singers,  came  back  from  Babylon 
(Ezra  ii.  41  ;  Neh.  vii.  44),  and  conducted  the 
])salmody  when  the  foundations  of  Zerub- 
babel's  temple  were  laid  (Ezra  iii.  10).  Twelve 
psalms,  viz.  the  .".0th  and  the  7.'W  to  tlie83d, 
both  inclusive,  are  attribnted  in  the  titles  to 
the  family  of  Asaph  (cp.  2  Chron.  xxix.  30). 
The  .")Oth  belongs  to  the  second  book  of 
psalms ;  the  others  constitute  the  bulk  of 
tlie  third  book.  In  them  tiie  usual  name 
of  the  deity  is  God.  rather  than  Jehovah. 
Asiiph,  like  the  other  chief  singei's.  is  called 
a  .seer  (2  Chron.  xxix.  30;  cp.  xxxv.  15  and 
1  Chron.  xxv.  5). 

2.  Father  of  Hezekiah's  recorder  (2  Kin. 
xviii.  18). 

3.  Keeper  of  the  king's  jiark  in  Palestine 
under  .Vrlaxerxes  I.,ongimanus,  king  of  Per- 
sia (Xeh.  ii.  8). 

4.  In  1  Chron.  .xxvi.  1  re.id  Ilbiasiiph  (cp. 
ix.  19). 

A-sar'a-mel,  in  A.  V.  Saramel. 

I'erliaiis  a  title  of  Simon  .Maccaba*us,  Snr 
'dill  ■(/.  lU'ince  of  the  ]ieo)ile  of  ( iod  ;  or  more 
IM-obalily.  sinct'  the  wonl  is  jireceded  by  a 
lireposilion.  it  stands  for  /c.wc  'mn  "(7,  the 
court  (»f  the  |ieo|de  of  (hid,  the  forecourt  of 
the  temple  (1  Mac.  xiv.  28). 


Asarel 


54 


Asher 


As'a-rel,  iu  A.  V.  A-sar'e-el  [God  hath 
bound]. 

A  son  of  Jehiileleel  (1  Chron.  iv.  16). 

As-a-re'lah.     See  Ashaeelah. 

As'ca-lon  il  Mac.  x.  b(j).    See  Ashkelon. 

As'e-nath  [Kgyptiau  SHa<,  belougiug  to  the 
goddess  Xeitli]. 

Daughter  of  Poti-phera,  priest  of  On,  wife 
of  Joseph  and  mother  of  Mauasseh  and  Eph- 
raim  (Geu.  xli.  45,  50-52;  xlvi.  2UJ. 

A'ser.    See  Ashek. 

Ash. 

The  rendering  in  the  A.  V.  of  the  Hebrew 
'Oren  in  Is.  xliv.  14.  The  wood  of  the  tree 
was  suitalile  for  u.se  in  making  idols.  A  tree 
which  the  Arabs  call  'ardii  is  said  by  one  of 
their  writers  to  grow  in  Arabia  Petnea,  and 
is  described  as  having  thorns  and  producing 
bunches  of  bitter  lierries.  This  imperfect 
description  recalls  the  mountain  ash,  and  the 
name  'ardn  may  be  connected  with  'oren.  But 
by  'oren  the  Seventy  understood  the  lir  tree. 
Jerome  renders  it  june.  R.  Y.  accordingly 
translates  the  word  by  fir  tree,  and  places  ash 
on  the  margin.  The  Syrian  fir  {Phius  lude- 
pensis)  is  i>erhaps  intended,  which  flourishes 
on  the  mountains  of  Palestine,  and  is  occasion- 
ally found  as  far  south  as  Hebron.     See  Fie. 

A'shan  [smoke]. 

A  town  in  the  lowland,  allotted  to  Judah, 
afterwards  transferred  to  Simeon  and  assigned 
with  its  suburbs  to  the  Levites  (Josh.  xv.  42; 
xix.  7  ;  1  Chron.  iv.  32;  vi.  59).  In  the  pres- 
ent text  of  Josh.  xxi.  16  or  1  Chron.  vi.  59 
Ashan  and  Ain  have  become  confounded 
through  the  mi.sreading  of  one  letter.  Ashau 
is  apparently  identical  with  Cor-ashan,  in  A. 
V.  Chor-ashan.  smoking  furnace  (1  Sam.  xxx. 
30),  where  many  manuscripts  and  versions 
have  Bor-ashan,  smoking  pit. 

Ash-a-re'lah,  in  A.  V.  Asarelah  [upright 
toward  God]. 

A  son  of  Asaph  (1  Chron.  xxv.  2).  Called 
in  ver.  14  Jesharelah,  a  word  having  the  same 
meaning. 

Ash'be-a  [let  mc  call  as  witness]. 

A  descendant  of  Shelah,  of  the  tribe  of 
Judah.  The  members  of  the  family  wrought 
fine  linen  (1  Chnm.  iv.  21). 

Ash'bel  []ierhaps,  a  secondary  form  of  Esh- 
baal,  man  of  the  Lord]. 

A  son  of  Benjamin  and  founder  of  a  tribal 
family  (Gen.  xlvi.  21 ;  Num.  xxvi.  38 ;  1  Chron. 
viii.  1). 

Ash'che-naz.     See  Aphkenaz. 

Ash'dod,  in  N.  T.  Azotus  [a  fortified  place, 
a  castle]. 

One  of  the  five  chief  Philistine  cities,  ruled 
over  by  a  lord,  and  seat  of  the  worship  of 
Dagon  (Josh.  xiii.  3;  1  Sam.  v.  1  seii. ;  vi. 
17  ;  1  Mac.  x.  83 ;  xi.  4).  Anakim  remained 
in  it  after  the  conquest  of  Canaan  by  the  He- 
brews (Josh.  xi.  22).  It  was  assigned  to 
Judah  (xv.  46,  47),  but  was  not  possessed  by 


that  tribe.  The  ark  of  God  was  carried  to 
Ashdod  l)y  the  Pliilistines  after  they  captured 
it  at  Ebeni'zer.  and  was  ])laced  in  the  temjile 
of  Dagon  (1  Sam.  v.  1-8).  A  judgment  fall- 
ing on  the  inhabitants,  the  ark  was  trans- 
ferred to  Gath  (6-8).  Uz/.iah  broke  down  the 
walls  of  Ashdod  (2  Chron.  xxvi.  6).  The 
Tartan  or  Assyrian  commander-in-chief  under 
Sargon  besieged  it  with  success  (Is.  xx.  1). 
Psamnutichus,  king  of  Egyi)t.  utterly  de- 
stroyed it  about  630  b.  c,  after  a  siege  which, 
according  to  Herodotus  (ii.  157),  lasted  twenty- 
nine  years.  Only  a  remnant  survived  (Jer. 
xxv.  20;  c]).  Zeph.  ii.  4;  Zech.  ix.  6).  Its  in- 
habitants were  among  those  wlio  ojijiosed  the 
relniilding  of  tlie  walls  of  Jerusalem,  and 
they  spoke  a  different  language  frpm  the 
Israelites  of  that  day  ;  nevertheless  some  of 
the  returned  Jews  married  women  of  Ashdod 
(Neh.  iv.  7  :  xiii.  23.  24).  The  city  was  twice 
besieged  and  partially  destroyed  by  the  Mac- 
cabees (1  Mac.  v.  iiti ;  x.  84),  but  was  rebuilt 
by  the  Komans  about  .55  B.  c.  In  N.  T.  times 
It  was  called  Azotus  (Acts  viii.  40). 

Philip  fireached  the  gospel  from  this  place 
as  far  as  Ctesarea  (Acts  viii.  40).  The  city  be- 
came eventually  the  seat  of  a  bishop.  Its 
approximate  site  is  the  mud  village  of  Esdiid 
on  the  eastern  slope  of  a  low  round  knoll, 
among  sycomore  trees  and  prickly  pears, 
9  miles  northeast  from  Ascalon,  3  from  the 
Mediterranean,  and  about  midway  between 
Jatta  and  Gaza. 

Ash'dod-ite,  in  A.  V.  once  Ashdothite. 

A  native  or  inhabitant  of  Ashdod  (Josh, 
xiii.  3;  Neh.  iv.  7). 

Ash'doth-ite.     See  preceding  article. 

Ash-doth-pis'gali,  in  E.  Y.  slopes  of  Pis- 
gall,  in  A.  ^^  once  springs  of  Pisgah. 

The  slopes  of  Pisgah  east  of  the  Dead  Sea, 
wliich  face  the  west  (Dent.  iii.  17;  iv.  49; 
Josh.  xii.  3;  xiii.  20). 

Ash'er,  in  A.  Y.  of  N.  T.  Aser,  in  imitation 
of  the  Greek  form  [happy]. 

1.  The  eighth  scm  of  Jacob,  and  the  second 
by  Ziljiah,  Leah's  maidservant  (Gen.  xxx. 
12,  13;  XXXV.  26).  His  blessing  given  by 
Jacob  on  his  deathbed  is  thus  worded.  "Out 
of  Asher  his  bread  shall  be  fat,  and  he  shall 
yield  royal  dainties"  (Gen.  xlix.  20).  That 
of  Moses,  "Let  Asher  be  lilessed  with  chil- 
dren ;  let  him  be  acceiUable  to  his  brethren, 
and  let  him  dij)  his  foot  in  oil.  Thy  shoes 
shall  be  iron  and  brass  ;  and  as  thy  days,  so 
shall  thy  strength  be"  (Dent,  xxxiii,  24).  He 
had  four  sons.  Jiiiiiiah,  Ishuali,  Isui,  and 
Beriali  :  and  a  dauuhter  named  Serah  (Gen. 
xlvi.  17  ;  1  Chron.  vii.  .30). 

2.  The  tribe  of  which  Asher,  the  sou  of 
.Jacob,  was  the  iirogeiiitor.  As  assigned,  its 
territory  extended  on  the  north  to  the  north- 
ern l)oundary  of  Palestine,  and  on  the  .soutli 
reached  to  the  south  of  Carmel,  a  length  of 
about  60  miles.  On  the  east  it  was  hounded 
Ijy  the  territories  of  Zeliulun  and  Naphtali, 
aiid  on  the  west  by  the  Mediterranean  (Josh. 


Asherah 


55 


Ashterathite 


xix.  24-31).  But  from  Tyre,  Sidon,  Accho, 
ami  other  stron;^  i)l:K'fs  tlu?  Asheritos  did  not 
exi)el  the  ('iiii;i;iiiili'  iiihahituiits  (Jiid;;.  i.  .'51, 
3'2l.  The  lailiiru  of  the  Aslierites  to  eaiituru 
and  o('cii|iy  the  I'lueiiiiian  jdain  ahmjc  tlic 
sea  left  them  only  the  inhind  hill-country. 
exeei)t  nearCannel.  This  was  well  adajjted 
for  the  eulliire  of  the  olive,  so  that  the  in- 
liahitants  might  dip  their  feet  iu  oil  (cp.  Deut. 
xxxiii.  -i-l). 

o.  A  town  east  of  Shechem  {Josh.  xvii.  7)  ; 
perhaps  Ti'iasir,  ahoiit  11  miles  northeast  of 
Shechem  on  the  road  to  IJethsliean. 

A-sbe'rah,  jiliiral  A-she'rim,  masculine, 
and  Asheroth,  Iciiiininc  [iipriuht  or  uniting, 
or  less  iiiiil)al)ly,  hringin;;  forliun']. 

A  word  miiforndy  translateil  grove  in  the 
A.  v.,  hut  a  grove  of  trees  would  not  ))e 
brought  out  of  tlie  temjile  {2  Kin.  xxiii.  (!). 
It  was  something  upright  made  of  wood  (Ex. 
xxxiv.  i;il.  originally,  perhaps,  the  trunk  of 
a  tri-e  with  the  branches  chopped  off,  and  was 
regarded  as  the  wooden  symbol  of  a  goddess 
Ashenili,  jM-obalilv  .\shtoreth,  the  female  side 
of  the  bcnefu'cnt  and  ferliliziug  sun-god  (Ex. 
xxxiv.  l.'ii.  It  was  erected  beside  tlie  altar 
of  IJaal  (.ludg.  vi.  2."),  28,  K.  V.).  The  prophets 
of  tlie.\sherah  in  Ahab's  time  were,  with  those 
of  Uaal.  slain  by  I']li,jah  at  the  river  Kishon  (1 
Kin.  xvi.  ;{:5;  xviii.  I'si  l(t.  botli  U.  V.).  Women 
Wove  hangings  for  an  Asherah  in  the  temjile 
(2  Kin.  xxiii.  7,  H.  V.),  and  .losiah,  as  part 
of  his  religious  reformation,  brought  out  the 
idolatrous  symbol  and  burnt  it  at  the  brook 
Kidron  (fii. 

A-she'rim.     .See  preceding  article. 

Ash'er-ite. 

A  memlnrof  the  tribe  of  Asher  (.Ttidg.  i.  32). 

A-she'roth.     Sec  Ashkkaii. 

Ash'hur,  in  A.  V.  Ashur  [blackness]. 

Son  of  Ilc/.roii  by  his  wife  .\l)iah.  lie  was 
enrolled  with  the  house  of  Caleb,  was  head 
or  ancestor  of  the  inhabitants  of  Tekoa,  and 
had  two  wives  and  seven  children  (1  C'hrou. 
ii.  21  :  iv.  .")-7). 

Ash'i-ma. 

A  divinity  worshiped  by  the  pcojile  of 
Ilaniath  f.'  Kin.  xvii.  30). 

Ash'ke-lon,  in  .\.  V.  sometiuies  Askelon 
[starting  ])oint,  ndgratioii]. 

One  of  the  live  leading  Philistine  cities 
each  ruled  by  a  lord  (.losh.  xiii.  ;$).  It  was 
situated  in  a  valley  on  the  .Mediterranc.'in 
seashore  (.ler.  xlvii.  .">,  7),  12  miles  nctrth  of 
Gaza,  and  was  the  seat  of  the  worsbij)  of  Der- 
ceto,  a  goddess  with  the  body  of  a  tish,  whose 
temple  and  lake  lay  to  the  east  of  the  city.  It 
was  ca pi  II red  by  the  tribe  of  .ludah  in  the  time 
of  the  .judges  (.ludg.  i.  IS),  but  soon  reverted 
to  its  ol.l  rulers  (xiv.  lit;  1  Sam.  vi.  17).  It 
was  to  havi'  its  inhabitants,  all  but  a  rem- 
mmt.  cut  uir  anil  made  desolate,  apparently 
by  a  I'haniiih  in  .lercmiah's  time  (.ler.  xlvii. 
l.'j,  7:  Zcph.  ii.  I.  7;  cp.  also  Zech.  ix.  5). 
Ashkelon  was  twice  taken  by  Jonathan  Mac- 


cabieiis  (1  Mac.  x.  8fi ;  xi.  60).  It  was  the 
birthplace  of  Ilerod  the  (Jreat,  and  the  resi- 
(U'lice  of  his  sister  .^alomc.  It  was  several 
times  taken  and  retaken  during  tlie  t'ru.sades, 
till  at  length,  in  a.  D.  1270,  the  sultan  Kibars 
destroyed  it  and  filled  the  harb(jr  with  stones. 
Its  site  has  been  found  within  a  natural  am- 
])hitheater  constructed  by  a  ridge  of  rocks, 
forming  a  kind  of  senucircle  with  the  open 
side  to  the  sea.  The  wall,  now  in  ruins,  ran 
along  the  toj)  of  the  ridge.  The  .soil  is  fer- 
tile, producing  large  aiijiles,  svcomore  figs, 
etc.  The  kind  of  onion  called  shallot,  or 
eschalot,  came  at  first  from  Ashkelon,  after 
which  it  is  named.  Ashkelon  is  now  called 
'Askalan. 

Ash'ke-lon-ite  ;  in  A.  V.  Eshkalonite,  fol- 
lowing ])artl,v  the  traditional  Hebrew  pro- 
nunciation and  partly  the  obsolete  spelling, 
Eshkalon. 

An  inhabitant  of  Ashkelon  (.Tosh.  xiii.  3). 

Ash'ke-naz,  in  A.  V.  twice  Aschenaz. 

The  ebh'St  son  of  (ionier  KJen.  x.  3;  1 
Chron.  i.  (3).  The  name,  whether  originally 
that  of  a  ])erson  or  country  or  tribe,  denoted 
a  ]ieo])le  of  the  race  of  (Jomer.  In  the  time 
of  .lert'iniah  they  dwelt  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Ararat  and  ^liiini,  that  is,  near  eastern  Ar- 
menia (.ler.  Ii.  27). 

Ash'nah  [strong]. 

1.  A  village  in  the  lowland  of  Judah  near 
Zorah  (Josh.  xv.  33,  E.  V.). 

2.  .\nother  village  of  Judah,  but  farther 
south  (.losii.  XV.  13).     Exact  site  unknown. 

Ash'pe-naz. 

The  master  of  tlie  eunuchs  at  Babylon  dur- 
ing Nel)U(hadne/.zar's  reign  (Dan.  i.  3). 
Ash'ri-el.     See  Asriel. 
Ash'ta-rotli  [plural  of  A.shtoreth  (q.  v.)]. 

1.  In  connection  with  the  jilural  of  Baal,  a 
general  designation  for  all  the  false  gods  of 
the  neighboring  nations  and  their  idols;  or 
bettei'.  to  .judge  from  (ien.  xiv.  .">  and  1  Sam 
xxxi.  10,  the  old  Canaanitish  plural  of  emi- 
TUMH-e  whereby  the  goddess  Ashtoreth  was 
honorablv  s])oken  of  in  the  ])lural  number. 

2.  A  town  at  I!!drei,  named  after  the  god- 
dess A.starte.  and  the  cai>ital  of  ( )g,  king  of 
Bashau  (I)eut.  i.  t.  where  it  is  spelled  Asta- 
roth  in  A.  V.  ;  Josh.  ix.  10).  Some  of  the 
ancient  inhabitants  were  giants.  (),g  himself 
being  of  the  inimber  (.losh.  xii.  1 ;  xiii.  12). 
The  i>lace  fell  to  the  lot  of  Maehir,  the  son 
of  Mamisseh  (31 ),  but  became  a  Levitical  city, 
inhabited  bv  the  children  of  (Jershom  (1 
Chron.  vi.  71).  Uzzia,  one  of  David's  might.v 
men.  was  coiinecti'd  with  the  town  (xi.  -ID. 
Its  site  is  commonly  i(lentiti(>(l  with  Tell 
'.\shtenih.  which  agrees  with  the  statement 
of  Eu.sebius  that  the  town  was  distant  tj 
Roman  miles  from  Edrei.  This  tell  stands 
on  a  hill  in  the  midst  of  a  well-watered, 
grassy  ])lain.     See  .VsiiTKKOTU-KARNAl.M. 

Asb'te-rath-lte. 

A  native  of  .\shtar.ptli  (1  Chron.  xi.  11). 


Ashteroth-karnaim 


56 


Asnapper 


Ash'te-rotli-kar-na'lin  [two-horned  Ash- 
tarotli].     In  A.  V.  written  as  two  words. 

A  place  smitten  by  t'hedorlaonicr  on  his 
expedition  against  the  cities  of  the  phiin  (Gen. 
xiv.  5,  K.  v.).  Its  name  siif;gests  that  the 
inhabitants  specially  worshijied  the  horned 
moon.  I'robably  Ashteroth-karnaim  is  the 
full  name  of  Ashtaroth.  and  it  may  be  the 
])lacc  known  centuries  later  as  Karnaim, 
which  is  mentioned  in  connection  with  cities 
of  Uilead  and  in  which  Atargatis  was  wor- 
shiped (1  Mac.  V.  2(5,  3(i,  4;{ ;  2  Mac.  xii.  26). 
This  goddess,  whose  true  name  according  to 
Slrabo  was  Atliara,  was  the  Syrian  nature 
deity  corresjionding  to  Ashtoreth.  It  is  to 
be  remem])ered  that  the  phj-sical  features 
ascribed  to  t'aruion  iu  2  Mac.  xii.  21  do  not 
agree  with  Tell  'Ashterah,  the  commonly  ac- 
cepted site  of  Ashtaroth. 

Asi'to-reth  [a  binding  together,  union]. 

Astarte,  a  Phcenician  goddess,  partly 
evolved,  perhaps,  from  admiration  for  the 
planet  Venus,  but  symbolizing  also  the  soft 
radiance  of  the  moon ;  cp.  Ashteroth-kar- 
naim. Her  worship  was  early  established  at 
Sidon,  hence  she  is  called  the  goddess  or  the 
abomination  of  the  Zidonians  (1  Kin.  si.  5, 
33 ;  2  Kin.  xxiii.  13).  It  was  in  vogue  east 
of  the  Jordan  in  the  days  of  Abraham  (fxen. 
xiv.  5).  As  early  as  the  times  of  the  judges 
it  had  spread  to  the  Heln-ews  (Judg.  ii.  13 ; 
X.  6).  It  was  aLso  practiced  in  Philistia  (1 
Sam.  xxxi.  10).  Solomon  in  his  old  age  gave 
it  the  support  of  his  great  name  (1  Kin.  xi. 
5  ;  2  Kin.  xxiii.  13). 

Ash'ur.     See  Ashhur. 

Ash'ur-ite. 

A  people  belonging  to  the  kingdom  of  Ish- 
bosheth  (2  Sam.  ii.  9).  Tliey  are  enumerated 
between  Gilead  and  Jezreel.  Vulgate  aud 
Syriac  have  Geshurites. 

Ash'vath. 

An  Aiiherite,  family  of  Heber,  house  of 
Japhlet  (1  Chron.  vii.33). 

A'si-a. 

The  cf)ntinent  east  of  Europe  and  Africa 
(Herod,  iv.  3G-40).  The  name  was  employed 
in  a  narrower  sense  for  the  kingdom  of  the 
Seleucidae  (1  Mac.  viii.  6 ;  xi.  13),  which  em- 
braced Syria  and  extensive  regions  west  of 
the  river  Halys.  When  the  Romans  trans- 
ferred most  (if  tliese  western  districts,  Mysia, 
Lydia,  and  Phrygia,  to  Eumenes  II.,  king 
of  Pergamos,  the  name  was  used  by  them  for 
the  kingdom  of  Pergamos,  and  when  this 
kingdom  was  ai)iiropriated  by  them  in  133 
B.  c,  they  added  ('aria  and  a  strip  of  coast 
to  it  and  formed  the  province  of  Asia  (Acts 
vi.  9;  xxvii.  2;  1  Pet.  i.  1;  Eev.  i.  4.  11). 
Pliny,  however,  distinguishes  between  Phry- 
gia and  Asia  (v.  28).  So  do  Paul  and  others 
(Acts  ii.  9,  10;  xvi.  (i).  The  namc^  of  the  in- 
corporated districts  were  not  abandoned  ;  and 
Paul,  who  was  traveling  along  liut  outside  of 
the  borders  of  Asia,  mcnti'ius  Ixing  at  a  jidiut 


overagainst  Mysia  (Actsxvi.  7,  R.V.),  in  which 
Pergamos  was  situated,  one  of  the  cities  of 
Asia  (Kev.  i.  4,  11).  The  jirovince  was  at  first 
governed  by  projira'tors,  but  in  27  B.  c.  it 
was  made  seuatorial  aud  so  continued  for  300 
years,  being  governed  by  proconsuls  (cj).  Acts 
xix.  3S,  R.  v.).  Its  capital  was  Ephesus.  In 
the  N.  T.  Asia  always  denotes  the  Roman 
province  (Acts  xix.  10,  22.  2(j,  27;  xx.  4,  Ki, 
ly ;  xxi.  27;  xxiv.  IS;  xxvii.  2;  1  Cor.  xvi. 
19;  2  Cor.  i.  8  ;  2  Tim.  i.  1.5). 

A'si-arcli  [chief  of  Asia]. 

Member  of  a  colhge  of  deputies  who  were 
annually  appointed  by  various  towns  of  the 
province  of  Asia  to  conduct  a  festival  and 
games  in  honor  of  the  Roman  emperor.  The 
festivities  took  ])lace  yearly  at  one  of  the 
several  cities  which  had  the  honor  in  succes- 
sion. The  asiarchs  were  chosen  each  year, 
but  in  time  formed  an  intluential  body  in 
the  towns,  and  often  secured  the  reelection 
of  their  members.  The  asiarchs  of  Ephesus 
■were  friends  to  Paul  (Acts  xix.  31,  E.  V.  marg.). 

A-si-de'ans.     See  H.\sid.eans. 

A'si-el  [God  hath  made]. 

A  Simeouite  (1  C'hrou.  iv.  35). 

As'ke-lon.     See  Ashkelon. 

As-mo-nse'an  [Greek  ' Asamonaios,  from 
Hebrew  Hnshman,  opulent]. 

A  descendant  of  Hashman,  a  priest  of  the 
family  of  Joarib  aud  aucestor  of  the  Mac- 
cabees (Antiq.  xii.  6.  1 ;  cp.  1  Mac.  ii.  1 ;  1 
Chron.  xxiv.  7).  The  title  Asmonsean  is  com- 
monly employed  in  Jewish  literature  to  des- 
ignate the  family  from  Mattathias  to  Herod 
tiie  Great  and  Aristobulus  (Antiq.  xiv.  16,  4  ; 
XX.  8.  11). 

As-mo-nse'ans,  Pal'ace  of  the. 

A  {lalace  in  .Terusalem  erected  by  the  As- 
mona'an  princes,  opposite  the  western  court 
of  the  temple,  on  an  elevation  which  com- 
manded a  view  of  the  city  ami  the  sanctuary 
(Antiq.  XX.  8.  11).  It  stood  near  the  Xystus 
aud  overlooked  it  (il)id. :  War  ii.  16,  3).  It  is 
probably  the  royal  jwlace  which  was  i-eck- 
oned  one  of  the  two  fortresses  of  Jerusalem, 
the  Baris  being  the  other,  aud  iu  which  Herod 
the  Great  resided  before  the  erection  of  his 
palace  iu  the  ui)i)er  city  (Antiq.  xiv.  13,  9; 
XV.  3,  7;  S.  4  aud  5).  This  latter  building  ex- 
w^-lled  it  in  magnificence  and  as  a  fortress. 
So  late  as  a.  D.  60  the  last  prince  of  the  He- 
rodiau  house  used  it  as  a  residence,  Agrijipa 
II.,  the  king  Agriiijja  of  Acts  xxv.  13  (Anliq. 
XX.  8,  11 ;  War  ii.  16,  3).  It  was  probably  the 
palace  burnt  by  the  seditious  Jews  at  the  l)c- 
ginning  of  the  war  with  the  Romans  (War  ii. 
17,  6). 

As'nah  [a  bramble]. 

One  of  the  Nethinim.  some  of  whose  de- 
scendants rc'turned  from  the  captivity  at 
Babylon  (Kzra  ii.  ."iO). 

As-nap'per,  in  R.  V.  Osnappar. 

.\  high  Assyrian  dignitary  called  great  and 
noble  who  settleti   various   foreicu  trihfs  in 


Asp 


67 


Assir 


Samaria  (Ezra  iv.  10).  He  seems  to  have 
l)ceii  L-illu-r  Esiir-haddoii  or  diu'  of  liis  otticials 
(cj).  2  and  10).  Tlie  iiaiiie  issin)i)osi'd  by  suiiie  to 
be  a  nidc  Ai-iiiiair  luriii  of  Asliurl)aiu]>al,  the 
sou  (iT  Es:ir-ba(Ul()ii,  wlio  I'rom  about  (iTl  B.  C. 
or  later  was  liis  associate,  and  from  fi(i8  u.  C. 
bis  successor  on  tlie  Assyrian  tlirone,  and 
reiijned  until  about  6"J(j  u.  c.  Asliurbanipal 
records  that  be  i)eMetrated  IClaiii.  took  Susa 
tbe  caiiital,  and  carried  oil'  many  of  tbe  in- 
lial)itants  to  Assyria  (cp.  Ezra  iv.il,  10).  His 
fatber,  Es;ir-haddon,  had  comjuered  Egypt. 
Keltellioii  occurred  among  the  l)etty  rulers, 
and  assistance  was  re  inlered  them  i)y  the  aide 
Tiriiakab.  To  suppress  this  revolt.  Asliur- 
banipal conducted  two  campaigns,  in  which 
on  tbe  whole  he  was  successful,  though  Egypt 
was  lost  at  last.  In  the  later  camiiaign,  about 
t)(;4  B.  c  Thebes,  then  known  as  No,  was  cap- 
tured and  pliiii(bre<l  (<•]>.  Nab.  iii.  8-10).  He 
had  relations  first  friendly,  but  afterwards 
the  reverse,  with  Gygcs,  the  usurjiing  king 
of  Lydia  ;  see  CtOG.  He  had  to  crush  a  rebel- 
lion of  his  own  brother,  the  ruler  of  I'.abylon. 
ile  bad  a  war  with  tbe  Miiiiii.  J}y  the  ( Ireeks, 
who  called  him  Sardanapalus,  be  was  con.sid- 
ered  etl'eminate.  .Modern  scholars  regard  his 
memory  with  gratitude  on  account  of  the 
splemlid  lilirarv  wliicli  he  brought  together. 
He  had  cojjyists  incessantly  at  work  not 
merely  transcribing  A.s.syrian  Ixjoks.  but 
translating  works  of  value  from  the  so-called 
Accadiaii  and  other  tongues.  I'art  of  this 
library  has  been  recovered,  and  it  is  from  it 
that  we  derive  most  of  our  acquaintance  with 
the  Assyrian  empire  and  its  kings. 

Asp  [a  round  shield,  which  the  serpent 
when  coiled  up  reseiiil)les]. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  woi'd  Pethen 
in  Deut.  xxxii.  :$.'};  Job  xx.  14,  16;  and  Is. 
xi.  H,  and  of  the  (ireek  Aaph  in  l{om.  iii.  V.i. 
With  some  inconsistency  Pethen  is  rendered 
not  as])  but  adder  in  Ts.  Iviii.  t  and  xci.  13. 
Pethen  is  a  spi'cies  of  snake  (I's.  Iviii.  4).  veu- 
omons  (Dent,  xxxii. ;{;{), dwelling  in  holes  (Is. 
xi.  8);  proltably  Xaja  hiije,  which  is  found  in 
Egypt  and  I'alestine.  is  the  asp  of  the  ({reeks 
and  Koinans.  is  of  the  same  genus  as  the 
deadly  <'obra  of  India,  and  is  generally  used 
by  the  snake-charmers  in  their  perlorniances. 
It  has  a  hood  which  it  dilates  when  about  to 
strike  its  i)rey. 

As'pa-tha. 

A  .M)n  of  Hainan  (Esth.  ix.  7). 

As'phar. 

\  reservoir  in  (he  wilderness  of  Tekoah  (1 
Mac.  ix.  :i:{). 

Aa'rt-el,  in  .V.  V.  once  Ashriel  [probably, 

Vow  of  (Joil]. 

A  ilescemhint  of  Manas.seh  and  founder  of 
a  family  (Num.  xxvi.  ;jl  :  Josh.  xvii.  2). 

Abs. 

The  genus  called  by  zoologists  Ashins,  con- 
taining the  several  species  and  varieties  of 
asses,  wild  or  domesticated.     The  ass  genus 


belongs  to  the  family  Equidx  or  Horses.  Three 
asses  are  mentioned  in  Scripture. 

1.  The  wild  ass,  called  in  Hebrew  ^Arod, 
the  fugitive.  It  is  poetically  described  in  Job 
xxxix.  5  .■^,  where,  however,  there  is  mention 
also  of  the  coininon  wild  ass  of  Syria,  and  is 
named  also  in  Dan.  v.  21.  If  distinct  in 
species  from  the  common  wild  ass,  it  is  prob- 
ably Asiniis  oniKjer,  which  is  found  in  the 
Sahara  and  in  Arabia,  where  it  was  once 
common,  but  is  now  more  rare.  It  occa- 
sionally visits  the  Hauran.  It  is  the  pro- 
genitor of  the  domestic  ass. 

2.  The  wild  ass  of  Syria  (Aninnx  hemijipns); 
Hebrew  Pere',  tbe  leajier,  occurring  in  .lob 
xxiv.  5;  xxxix.  o;  I's.  civ.  11  ;  Is.  xxxii.  14, 
and  Jer.  xiv.  (i.  It  is  rather  smaller  than  the 
onager.  Tristram  mentions  that  enormous 
herdsof  them  often  entiMlhe  Armenian  moun- 
tains in  summer.  They  are  found  at  all  times 
in  Northern  Arabia,  Mesoi)otamia,  and  Syria, 
occasionally  entering  Northern  I'alestine. 
They  are  the  species  represented  on  the  Niue- 
vite  sculptures. 

3.  The  domestic  ass  (Asimis  atdnus),  the 
Hebrew  H"inor.  It  is  a  sub-species  descended 
fnjm  the  onager.  It  is  obstinate  and  tyiiical 
of  stui)idity.  Hut  on  the  other  hand  tlie  ass 
is  strong,  easily  fed,  iialient,  and  forgiving. 
Its  faults  are  mainly  lu-odiiced  by  the  cruel 
bondage  imposed  upon  it  by  its  huinan  task- 
master. The  ass  was  early  domesticated. 
Abraham  liad  asses  (Gen.  xii.  Ki)  on  which 
he  rode  (xxii.  3),  so  had  Jacob  (xxx.  43). 
They  were  used  also  ior  luirden-bearing  (xlix. 
14  ;  Is.  xxx.  6),  for  ])lougbiiig,  etc.  (Deut.  xxii. 
10).  White  asses  were  deemed  fit  for  persons 
of  rank  (Judg.  v.  10),  as  they  still  are  in 
Palestine.  Jesus  showed  his  lowliness,  and 
at  the  same  time  the  spirit  of  the  earlier 
kings,  by  rejecting  hor.ses  and  riding  on  an 
ass  in  his  trium|ihal  entry  into  Jerusalem 
(Zech.  ix.  9;  Mat.  xxi.  .'>). 

As'shur,  in  A.  V.  twice  Assur  fiu-obably 
ori.iiinally  .l-((.s7mr,  watered  plain  (Delitzsch), 
or  from  the  local  deity  Ashur,  the  good 
(Schrader)].     Pronounced  .\sb'iir. 

A  jieople  descended  from  Sliem  ((ien.  x.  22), 
and  the  country  which  they  inhabited  (Ezra 
iv.  2,  A.  V. ;  Ezek.  xxvii.  23).     See  Assybia. 

As-shu'rim. 

A  iieoi)ie,  doubtless  of  Arabia,  descended 
from  Dedaii,  and  more  remotely  from  .\bra- 
ham  by  Keturali  ((ieii.  xxv.  3).  The  like 
name  borne  b.v  an  individual  mentioned  in 
the  .Mimean  inscription  throws  little  or  no 
light  on  this  tribe.  The  Ashurites.  named 
after  (iilead  in  2  Sam.  ii.  it,  are  almost  cer- 
tainly dillerent,  as  is  also  .\sshur,  that  is  As- 
syria, in  I'zek.  xxvii.  23. 

As-si-de'ans.     See  H.\sid.eaxs. 

As'slr  [caiitive]. 

1.  A  descendant  of  Levi  through  Korah, 
born  in  Egyi)t  (Ex.  vi.  24  ;  1  Cliron.  vi.  22). 

2.  A  descendant  of  the  i)receding  (1  C'hrou. 
vi.  23,  37). 


Assos 


58 


Astrologers 


3.  A  son  of  king  Jeconiah  (1  Cliron.  iii.  17). 
The  name  does  not  appear  in  K.  V.  The 
revisers  refiurd  it  as  an  adjective  descriptive 
of  Jeconiali,  and  transhite  it  "the  caiitivc ;" 
1)11 1  there  is  no  definite  article  in  the  present 
Hei)rew  text,  and  there  was  none  in  the  text 
used  by  the  Seventy.  His  name  snjinests  that 
Assir  was  born  in  cai)tivity.  Thisaccordswith 
other  indications.  Jeconiali  was  IS  years  old 
when  carriid  olf  to  Ha))ylon,  and  in  tlie  enn- 
nieration  of  the  members  of  his  family  de- 
ported with  him,  no  chililren  are  mentioned 
(2  Kin.  xxiv.  ti-l.^).  Assir  did  not  succeed  to 
the  royal  title  ;  the  right  to  the  throne  passed 
to  Siiealtiel  (q.  v.). 

As'sos. 

A  seaport  town  of  Mysia,  now  called  Beiram, 
not  far  from  Troas  (Acts  xx.  13,  14). 

As'sur.     See  Asshue. 

As-syr'i-a  [Greek  modification  of  Asshur 
(q.  V.)]. 

A  country  on  the  river  Tigris  (Gen.  ii.  14, 
E.  v.  margin).  It  was  originally  the  district 
dominated  by  the  town  of  Asshur,  the  ruins  of 
which  have  been  found  at  Kalah  Shergat,  on 
the  western  bank  of  the  Tigris,  about  GO  miles 
below  Nineveh.  With  the  growth  of  the  city's 
power  and  dominion,  the  name  came  to  de- 
note the  region  compassed  by  the  Gordysean 
mountains  of  Armenia  on  the  north,  the 
ranges  of  Media  on  the  east,  and  the  little 
Zab  river  on  the  south.  Westward  it  ex- 
tended a  short  distance  from  the  Tigris  into 
]Mesopotamia.  This  district  is  the  Assyria 
proper  of  history,  but  the  name  was  often 
given  to  the  extensive  empire  conquered  and 
ruled  by  the  Assyrians.  The  inhabitants  were 
Semites  (Gen.  x.  22),  who  derived  their  cul- 
ture from  Babylonia,  and  probably  originally 
emigrated  thence.  They  became  powerful 
enough  under  king  Tukulti-adar,  about  1300 
B.C., to  subjugate  Babylonia,  and  thenceforth 
during  700  years  they  were,  with  brief  inter- 
ruptions, the  leading  power  in  the  east.  Tig- 
lath-])ileser  I.,  about  1120  to  1100  B.  c,  raised 
the  kingdom  into  the  most  extensive  empire 
of  the  age.  Under  his  successors  it  greatly 
declined,  its  decadence  leaving  a  void  which 
permitted  the  kingdoms  of  David  and  Solo- 
mon to  reach  their  widest  limits.  Ashur- 
nasirpal  (8S5  to  8(30)  by  his  conquests  restored 
the  prestige  of  the  empire.  He  erected  a 
palace  in  the  northwestern  part  of  Calah.and 
made  that  ancient  town  (Gen.  x.  11)  the  caji- 
ital.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Shalman- 
eser.  called  II.,  who  reigned  from  about  SHO 
to  825,  the  first  Assyrian  king  who  came  into 
conflict  with  the  Israelites  ;  see  Aiiab  and 
jEHtJ.  Among  the  other  kings  w'ere  Pul, 
also  known  as  Tiglath-jiileser  III.,  74r)-727  ; 
Shalmaneser  IV.,  727-722;  Sargon,  722-705 ; 
Sennacherib.  705-G81  ;  Esar-haddon,  680-6fi8  ; 
and  Ashurlianipal,  668-62(5.  Ashurl)anipal  is 
possibly  Asnaiiper.  Several  minor  kings  fol- 
lowed. About  607  B.  c.  the  Medes,  the  Baby- 
louians,  and  their  allies  captured  Nineveh, 


and  put  an  end  to  the  Assyrian  empire.  When 
at  the  height  of  its  power  in  the  seventh  cen- 
tury B.  c,  Assyria  held  sway  over  Babylonia, 
parts  of  Media.  .Armenia,  Syria,  Cyi>rus.  Ara- 
bia, and  Egypt.  Tlie  kings  of  Israel  mentioned 
in  the  Assyrian  iiiscrii)tionsareHuniri(Oniri), 
Ahablni  (Ahal)),  Yaua  (Jeliu),  Miniliimmu 
(Menahem),  Pakaha  (I'ekabi,  and  Ausi'  (Ho- 
shea).  The  kings  of  Judah  so  mentioned  are 
Azrij'au  (.Vzariali  or  Uzziah),  Yauhazi  (Ahaz), 
Hazakiyau(Hezekiah)andMiiiasi(Manasseli). 

The  Assyrian  religion  was  borrowed  from 
that  of  Babylon,  excejit  that  Ashur,  the  jire- 
siding  god  of  the  city  of  Asshur.  became  the 
chief  deity  of  Assyria.  It  was  animistic  na- 
tiire-worsliip.  Every  object  and  ]>lienomenon 
in  nature  was  believed  to  be  animated  by  a 
spirit.  The  great  gods,  after  Ashur,  were  the 
prominent  objects  of  nature.  Tliey  were 
eleven  in  number,  in  two  triads  and  a  pentad. 
Chief  were  Ann,  heaven,  Bel,  the  i-egion  in- 
habited by  man,  beast,  and  bird,  and  Ea,  ter- 
restrial and  sul)terranean  waters.  Next  in 
order  were  Sin,  the  moon,  Shamash,  the  sun, 
and  Eamman,  god  of  the  storm.  Then  came 
the  five  planets.  There  were  innumerable 
other  deities,  some  of  whom  were  merely 
different  aspects  of  the  foregoing.  Subordi- 
nate gods  often  attained  eminence  as  patrons 
of  iiiijiortant  towns. 

Excavations  in  the  Assyrian  palaces,  begun 
by  the  Frenchman  Botta  in  1843,  followed 
immediately  by  the  Englishman  La  yard,  and 
then,  after  a  time,  by  George  Smith  of  the 
British  Museum,  Eassam,  and  others,  have 
made  the  Assyrian  empire,  which  was  little 
more  than  a  myth  to  the  classic  nations  of 
antiquity,  to  us  a  great  reality. 

The  language  sjioken  by  the  Assyrians  and 
the  kindred  jieoide  in  Baliylonia  was  of  the 
Semitic  family  and  closely  allied  to  the  He- 
brew. An  alphabet  was  not  used.  The  lan- 
guage was  written  in  characters  which  ex- 
pressed syllables,  not  single  letters  or  sounds. 
These  signs  were  impressed  on  clay  by  a 
stylus,  each  impression  having  the  shape  of 
a  wedge  or  arrow,  whence  the  writing  is  called 
cuneiform.  The  characters  were  originally 
pictures  of  olijects,  but  in  time  assumed  con- 
ventional forms  which  often  bore  no  resem- 
blance to  the  original  object. 

As'ta-roth.    See  Ashtaroth  2. 

As-trol'o-gers. 

1.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  words 
lloh'ie  shmnai/iiii.  dividers  of  the  heavens. 
They  are  menti(med  with  stargazers  (Is. 
xlvii.  13).  There  is  no  question  that  these 
were  astrologers  who  divided  the  lieavens 
into  certain  mansions,  with  the  view  of 
tracing  the  course  of  the  ])lanets  through 
each  of  them,  in  the  vain  hoiie  of  l>eing  able 
to  tell  fortunes  and  ])redict  future  events. 
Though  their  failure  was  com]>Ute,  yet  the 
careful  study  of  the  heavens  which  astrolo- 
gers found  needful  led  to  the  gradual  growth 
of  the  sublime  science  of  astronomy. 


Asuppim 


69 


Athens 


2.  The  rendering  in  A.  V.  of  tlie  Hebrew 
and  Aramaic  words  'Ashshnphim  (Uan.  i.  20), 
'Ash'iihin  (ii.  27).  and  'Ash'phiiyiia  (iv.  7;  v. 
7),  all  translated  in  the  li.  V.  "enchanters." 
See  Enchantmknt  and  K.vciian teu. 

A-sup'pim  [c.illections.  stores]. 

A  htiildiii;;  lor  sturin.s;  temple  ffoods,  which 
stood  near  the  southern  gate  of  the  outer 
court  (1  ("hron.  x.Kvi.  1"),  17) ;  hence  R.  V. 
renders  the  word  by  storehouse. 

A-syn'cri-tus  [incomi)arablc  or  unlike]. 
A  Cliristian  at  Rome  to  whom  Paul  sent  a 
salutation  (Kom.  xvi.  14). 

A'tad  [a  i)lant,  Rhamnus paliurits,  or  Christ's 
thorn]. 

The  great  comj)any.  whicli  was  bearing  the 
body  of  Jacob  from  Egypt  to  the  se]>ulcher 
at  Hebron,  after  making  a  detour.  ])erha])s  to 
avoid  the  riiilistines  and  Edomites,  halted 
at  the  thrcsbing-tioor  of  Atad,  east  of  the 
Jordan,  and  made  a  mourning  for  seven  days. 
TheC'anaaiiites  saw  and  called  the  ])lace  Abel- 
mizraim.  Meadow,  or  with  slightly  altered 
pronunciation.  Muurning  of  ICgypt.  The  pro- 
cession afterwards  entered  Canaan  (Gen.  1. 
9-13). 

At'a-rah  [a  crown,  a  diadem]. 

A  wile  of  .lerahmeel  {1  Chrou.  ii.  26). 

At'a-roth  [crowns,  diadems]. 

1.  .\  tdwn  east  of  tbc  Jordan,  rebuilt  by 
the  tribe  of  (Jad  (Num.  xx.xii.  3.  31).  It  was 
taken  from  tlu'  men  of  (iad  by  Mesha,  king 
of  Moab  (.Moabite  Stone.  10,  11)".  Its  name  is 
generally  supposed  to  be  i)reserved  in  the 
ruins  '.Vttarfls,  on  the  western  slojie  of  Jebel 
'Attarus.  three  or  four  miles eastof  .Machirrus. 
The  mountain  is  some  miles  south  of  H(>sh- 
bon,  which  is  in  the  tribe  of  Reuben  ;  hut  the 
territories  of  Reuben  and  (Jad,  like  those  of 
Judah  and  Simeon,  were  nuich  cojnmingled. 
The  ruins  consist  of  unwrought  stonis,  lying 
in  heaps;  ranges  of  broken  walls;  remains 
of  foundations,  large  caverns,  and  circular 
cisterns.  The  old  citadel  was  an  hour's  walk 
from  the  town,  than  which  it  is  lower,  hut 
more  isolated. 

2.  The  same  as  Ataroth-aihlar  (.Tosh.  xvi.  2). 

3.  A  town  on  the  border  of  Ejjhraim,  not 
far  from  Jericho.  Api)areutly  ditt'erent  from 
Atarotb-addar  (Josh.  xvi.  7). 

4.  A  village,  api)arcntly  in  Judah  (1  Chron. 
ii.  51).  'I'hc  name  should  include  the  four 
words  that  follow  in  A.  V.  and  be  written  as 
in  It.  v..  Atnith-betb-Joab. 

At'a-roth-ad'dar,  in  A.  V.  once  Ataroth- 
adar  [crowns  of  Aildar].  j 

A  villag(!  on  the  southern  frontier  of  Ejth-    j 
raim  (Josh.  xvi.  .'>),  on  the  boundary  line  be- 
tween that  tribe  and  IIen,jamin.  west  of  Euz 
uud  near  the  hill  that  lietli  on  the  south  side    | 
of  the   nether    Heth-horon    (xviii.  13).      Not    I 
identified,     '.\tara.  M  miles  south  of  IJethel, 
on  the   road   leading  to  Jerusalem,  is  nunh 
too  far  east. 


A'ter  [shut]. 

1.  A  man  called,  J)y  waj-  of  distinction, 
Ater  of  Hezekiah,  ninety-iight  of  whose  de- 
scendants returned  from  Babylon  after  the 
ca])tivity  (Ezra  ii.  10;   Neb.  vii.  21). 

2.  A  porter  (Ezra  ii.  42;  Neh.  vii.  4r>). 

A'thach  [a  h)dging-place]. 

A  vill.ige  in  the  south  of  Ju(hxh,  to  which 
David  sent  some  of  the  spoil  of  Ziklag  (1 
Sam.  XXX.  30).  Perhaps  it  is  Ether  (J(jsh.  xv. 
42  ;  xix.  7),  kajjh  and  resh  being  confused  by 
a  scribe. 

A-tha'iah. 

A  man  of  Judah,  son  of  Uzziah,  of  the 
family  of  Perez  (Neh.  xi.  4);  scarcely  the 
same  as  L'thai  (1  CbroJi.  ix.  4). 

Ath-a-li'ah  [Jehovah  has  afflicted  or  is 
exalted]. 

1.  The  wife  of  .lehiiram,  king  of  Judah.  a 
daugliter  of  Ahab  and  granddaughter  of 
Omri  (2  Kin.  viii.  IS,  20  ;  2  Chron.  xxi.  0; 
xxii.  2).  She  i)ossessed  the  masculine  courage 
of  her  niotlier  Jezebel,  and  was  ecjually  un- 
scrupulous in  shedding  blood.  When  her  son, 
king  Aliaziab.  was  slain  by  Jehu,  she  killed 
all  the  sons  of  tlu' murdered  monarch  except- 
ing one  infant,  Joash,  who  was  stolen  away 
by  his  aunt,  Jehosheba.  Then  seizing  the 
throne,  she  reigned  six  years,  at  the  end  of 
which  a  priestly  insurrection  took  place  in 
favor  of  Joash.  Attemi)ting  to  quell  it,  she 
was  dragged  from  the  temjile  courts  and 
killed  at  the  carriage  entrance  of  the  palace 
'2  Kin.  xi.  1-10;  2  Chron.  xxii.  1-xxiii.  21). 

2.  A  Henjaniite  of  the  house  of  Jeroham 
(1  Chnm.  viii.  20). 

3.  A  man  of  the  father's  house  of  Elam 
(Ezra  viii.  7). 

Ath-e-no'bi-us. 

A  Commissioner  sent  by  Antiochus  Sidetes 
to  Simon  Maecaba'us.  He  belonged  to  the 
privileged  class  known  as  friends  of  the  king 
(1  JIac.  XV.  28). 

Ath'ens. 

The  capital  of  Attica,  one  of  the  Greek 
states.  The  city  became  the  center  of  en- 
lightenment in  science,  literature,  and  art 
for  the  ancient  world.  It  grew  up  arountl 
the  rocky  hill  called  .\cro])(ilis  (toji  or  high- 
est point  of  the  city),  ami  covered  the  smaller 
hills  and  intervening  \alleys  on  the  north- 
east side  of  the  Gulf  of  .Kgina.  betwei-n  the 
small  river  Ilissus  on  the  east  and  south,  and 
the  Cephisiis  a  little  to  the  west.  .Vthens  was 
about  .")  miles  from  the  sea.  Its  conunercial 
port  was  Pira'us,  with  which  the  city  when 
in  its  glory  was  connected  l>y  long  walls. 
The  navy  anchored  close  by  at  Phaleron. 
Trailition  .sjiys  that  Athens  was  founded  liy 
('(■crops  about  l.'i.Vi  It.  c.  that  it  sent  tifiy 
shijis  to  the  Trojan  war,  and  that  it  was  ruled 
by  kings  till  about  inos  n.  <-.  The  suiireme 
authority  was  afterwards  vested  in  archons. 
Two  celebrated  legislators  are  si)oken  of; 
Draco,  about  (i21   n.  c,  whose  name  has  be- 


Athlai 


60 


Attalia 


come  proverbial  for  pitiless  severity,  and 
Solcin,  about  5!)-l  k.  c,  a  wiser  man,  wliose 
laws  were  more  Inimane.  In  4!)()  R.  c.  tlie 
Athenians,  supiiorted  by  the  Platieans,  jjaincd 
tlie  great  vietory  ;it  Marathon  against  tlie 
generals  of  Darius  Hystaspis,  king  of  I'eisia. 
In  480  Athens  had  to  be  al)andoned  to  his  son 
and  suceessor,  Xerxes,  but  the  great  naval 
l>attle  at  Salaniis  gaini'd  l)y  the  (i reeks  eom- 
ixllcd  the  invader  to  withdraw.  Tlie  eity 
was,  however,  l)nrnt  in  47*J  u.  c.  by  his  gen- 
eral, ^Mardonius.  The  glory  gained  by  the 
Athenians  in  the  Persian  war  led  to  the  es- 
tablishment of  a  small  empire,  with  Athens 
for  its  capital  and  a  powerful  fleet  rather 
than  a  large  army  for  its  support.  About 
444  B.  c.  the  power  of  Pericles,  an  able  demo- 
cratic leader,  became  very  great.  The  good 
feature  of  his  enlightened  government  was 
the  erection  of  many  beautiful  juiblic  build- 
ings in  Athens.  Literature  also  greatly  nour- 
ished under  his  administration.  In  431,  while 
he  yet  lived  and  ruled,  the  Peloponnesiau 
war  began,  which  ended  by  the  surrender  of 
Athens  to  the  Spartans  in  404.  The  city  after- 
wards went  through  various  political  vicis- 
situdes, though  the  intellect  and  knowledge 
of  its  inhabitants  rendered  them  influential, 
whatever  changes  took  ]ilace.  Four  great 
schools  of  philosoiiliy — Platonic,  Peripatetic, 
Epicurean,  ami  Stoic — nourished  here  and 
attracted  numerous  students,  not  only  from 
Greece,  but  also  later  from  Eome.  The  city 
was  taken  by  the  Roman  general  Sulla  in  S(i 
B.  C,  and  was  still  subject  to  the  Komans 
when  Paul  was  there.  Altars  "to  an  un- 
known god  "  were  found  in  the  city  and  at 
the  harbor  Phaleron  (Acts  xvii.  23  ;  Pausanias 
i.  1,  4  ;  Philostratus,  vit.  Apol.  G,  2).  Mars' 
Hill,  on  which  Paul  delivered  his  celebrated 
discourse,  was  a  short  distance  west  of  the 
Acropolis  (Acts  xvii.  15-xviii.  1 ;  cp.  also  1 
Thes.  iii.  1).  Athens  subsequently  came  into 
the  hands  of  the  Goths,  the  Byzantines,  and 
other  tem])orarily  dominant  races,  ending 
with  the  Turks.  Since  the  establishment  of 
the  modern  Greek  kingdom,  in  A.  D.  1828, 
Athens  has  been  the  capital  not  merely  of 
Greece,  but  of  the  Hellenic  race  throughout 
the  world. 

Ath'lai  [afflicted  or  exalted]. 

A  man  who  was  induced  by  Ezra  to  divorce 
his  foreign  wife  ( Hzra  x.  28). 

A-tone'ment  [at-oiie-menf,  the  making  of 
those  one  in  feeling  who  before  wei-e  at 
variance]. 

1.  Reconciliation  between  persons  or  beings 
at  variance  (liom.  v.  11,  A.  V.). 

2.  That  which  iimduces  this  reconciliation, 
specially  an  expiatory  sacrifice  designed  to 
have  that  eftect  (Ex.  xxx.  IG ;  Lev.  iv.  20,  26, 
31,  .35).  This  is  the  sen.se  in  which  the  word 
atonement  is  now  commonly  used. 

A-tone'ment,  Day  of. 

The  annual  day  of  humiliation  and  expia- 
tion for  the  sins  of  the  nation,  when  the  high 


priest  offered  sacrifices  as  an  atonement  for 
the  sanctuary,  tlie  ju-iests,  and  the  people 
(Lev.  xvi. ;  xxiii.  2(5  32  ;  Num.  xxix.  7-11). 
It  was  observed  on  the  tenth  day  of  the 
seventh  montli  by  abstinence  from  daily 
lal)or,  by  a  holy  convocation,  and  by  fasting. 
It  was  the  only  fast  enjoined  by  the  law.  It 
was  "the  fast"  (Acts  xxvii.  9;  Antiq.  xiv. 
4,  3).  On  that  day  the  liigh  priest  laid  aside 
his  ollicial  ornaments,  and  clad  in  simple 
white  linen  siicrificed  a  bullock  as  a  sin 
offering  for  himself  and  the  i)riests.  Taking 
a  censer  of  live  coals  from  off  the  altar,  lie 
entered  the  holy  of  holies  and  burned  in- 
cense that  the  smoke  might  cover  the  mercy 
seat  above  the  law.  He  then  fetched  the 
blood  of  the  slain  bullock  and  sprinkled  it 
on  the  mercy  seat  and  on  the  floor.  This 
completed  the  atonement  for  the  priesthood. 
He  took  the  two  goats  provided  by  the  nation 
and  cast  lots  upon  them.  One  he  slew  as  a 
sin  offering  for  the  people,  brought  its  blood 
within  the  veil,  and  sprinkled  it  as  before  to 
make  atonement  for  the  holy  of  holies.  By 
similar  rites  he  made  atonement  for  the  holy 
place  and  the  altar  of  burnt  offering.  He 
now  took  the  remaining  goat,  placed  his 
hands  on  its  head,  and  confessed  over  it  the 
sins  of  the  people.  Typically  the  sins  of  the 
jieople  were  "laid  on  its  head,"  it  was  made 
the  sin  bearer  of  the  nation,  and  laden  with 
guilt  not  its  own  was  sent  away  into  the  wil- 
derness ;  see  Azazel.  The  high  priest  re- 
sumed his  official  raiment,  oflered  his  burnt 
otlering  and  that  of  the  peojile,  and  likewise 
the  fat  of  the  sin  otlering.  The  fiesli  of  the 
bullock  and  the  goat  were  carried  without 
the  camp  and  burned.  The  Epistle  to  the 
Hebrews  points  out  that  this  entry  of  the 
high  priest  into  the  most  holy  jilace.  once  a 
year,  and  not  without  blood,  foreshadowed 
the  entrance  of  Jesus,  the  great  high  priest, 
once  for  all  into  heaven,  having  purchased 
for  us  eternal  .salvation  (Hcb.  ix.  1-12,  24- 
28). 

At'roth.     See  Atkoth-shophax. 

At'rotb-beth-jo'ab  [crowns  of  the  house 
of  Joab]. 

A  village,  apparently  in  .Tndah  (1  Chron.  ii. 
54,  R.  v.).    In  A.  V.  the  name  is  cut  asunder. 

At'roth-slio'plian  [crowns  of  Shophau]. 

A  town  rel>uilt  by  the  Gadites  (Num.  xxsii. 
35,  R.  v.).  Site  unknown.  In  A.  V.  incor- 
rectly represented  as  two  towns. 

At'tai  [perhaps,  oiqjortnne]. 

1.  A  man  of  .ludali  whose  descent  through 
his  mother  was  from  Jerahmeel  and  Hczron, 
but  whose  father  was  an  Egyptian  slave  (1 
Chron.  ii.  34-36). 

2.  A  ({adite  who  came  to  David  at  Ziklag 
(1  Chron.  xii.  11).    * 

3.  A  son  of  Rehoboam  by  his  queen  Maacah 
(2  Chron.  xi.  20). 

At-ta-li'a  [pertaining  to  Attains]. 

A  city  on  the  seacoast  of  I'amphylia,  built 


Attalus 


61 


Azariah 


l>y  Atliihis  l'liila(lcli)liiis,  kiii;^  id'  l'ti>,';iinu.s, 
l.")!)-i:iH  n.  c,  ami  now  calk-d  Antali  or  Adal. 
Paul  s;iil((l  tlioiicc  to  Autioch  on  his  first 
luissiidiary  joiiniuy  (Acts  xiv.  25). 

At'ta-lus. 

Kiii.nol'  l'(  luainos,  oitlier  Attains  II.,  I'liila- 
ilcl|>liiis,  or  iiis  ncpiuw  Attalus  III.,  wiio  siic- 
cccilcd  his  uncle  in  KJs  i:.  v.  {I  Mac.  xv.  2~'). 

Au-gus'tan  Band,  in  A.  V.  Augustus'  Band. 

A  coliort  of  Konian  soUlicrs.  aiii)arcntly 
named  after  the  Kouian  emperor  Aui^ustus 
(Acts  xxvii.  1). 

Au-gus'tus  [venerable,  august]. 

The  |M  is.iiial  name  of  the  first  Roman  cm- 
I)eror.  called  in  tiie  N.  T.  Ciesar  Augustus. 
.See  t'.KSAU. 

A'va.     See  Avv.\. 

A'ven  [emptiness,  nothingness,  an  idol]. 

1.  The  Egyptian  city  On,  called  by  the 
Greeks  Heliopolis  (Kzck.  xxx.  17).  The  He- 
brew consonants  of  On  and  Aven  are  tiie 
.same,  thoiigii  the  vowels  differ.  Tlie  i)ro- 
nunciation  lias  been  intentionally  modified 
by  the  prophet  to  ex])ress  his  contempt  for 
the  idolatries  of  the  city. 

2.  A  name  ajtplied  l)y  Hosea  to  Bethel  as 
no  longer  the  house  of  God,  but  now  a  house 
of  idolatry  i  Hos.  x.  8) ;  see  Bkth-.wkn'. 

3.  A  town,  apparently,  which  served  to 
designate  a  valley  in  the  kingdom  of  Da- 
mascus (Amos  i.  ."))  ;  ])robal)ly  Heliopolis,  now 
Bjuvlbec,  wliich  like  the  Egyptian  On  was  a 
seat  of  the  sun-wor.ship  (cji.  1  above). 

A-ven'ger  of  Blood. 

One  who  iiilliris  imnishment  on  a  mur- 
derer, thus  vindicating  the  majesty  of  the 
law.  "  Whoso  siieddeth  man's  blood,  by  man 
shall  his  blood  l)e  shed  "  (Cien.  ix.  .5,  (5 ;  Num. 
XXXV.  31 1.  When  civil  life  is  regulated,  this 
duty  is  undertaken  l>y  courts  of  justice.  Of 
old,  however,  the  Semitic  nations,  like  tiie 
ancient  ( Jreeks,  (Jermans.  and  Shivs,  acted  to 
a  large  extent  on  the  system  of  each  injured 
man  being  his  own  avenger.  When  murder 
or  accidental  homicide  took  i)lace,  the  nearest 
relative  of  tiie  victim  was  expected  to  avenge 
his  deatii.  and  was  called  the  avenger  of 
blood.  He  slew  the  nuirderer  or  the  unin- 
tentional homicide,  without  any  i)reliminary 
trial  to  .settle  the  actual  facts  of  the  case. 
Then,  very  i)robat)ly.  the  nearest  relative  of 
the  second  man  ^laill  iiiunlered  the  av<'nger 
of  blood,  and  a  blood  feud  was  established. 
The  Mosaic  legislation  introduced  modifica- 
tions into  tlie  system  whiidi  destroyed  its 
Worst  features.  Cities  of  refuge  wei'e  estab- 
ii>lii'd,  and  any  one  killing;  a  man  and  lli'eini; 
to  one  of  those  cities  was  granleil  a  lair  I  rial, 
and  was  not  ])ut  to  <leath  unless  he  had  com- 
mitted actual  murder  (Num.  xxxv.  li),  21, 
2  J,  27;  2  Sam.  xiv.  11).  The  A.  V.  reads.  Re- 
venger of  blood.     See  ClTIK.S  OK  Refi'ge. 

A'vlm  and  Avlms.     See  AvviM. 

A'vltes.     See  .\vviti:s. 


A'vlth  [ruins]. 

An  Edomite  city,  the  native  place  of  king 
Hadad((;en.  xxxvi.3."):  1  Chron.i.46).  Exact 
siti'  unknown. 

Av'va,  in  .\.  V.  A'va. 

A  city  of  the  Assyrian  emiiire,  in  or  north- 
west of  Habyhtnia,  from  which  people  were 
brought  to  helj)  to  colonize  Samaria.  Their 
gods  were  Nil)ha/.  and  Tartak  (2  Kin.  xvii. 
24,  31).  It  is  doubtless  the  place  calletl  Ivvah 
in  2  Kin.  xviii.  .'51;  xix.  13,  li.  V. 

Av'vim,  in  \.  V.  A'vims  and  A'vltes  and, 
as  name  of  the  town,  A'vlin. 

1.  The  aborigines  of  the  Philistine  country 
about  Gaza.  AH  save  a  small  remnant  were 
destroyed  by  the  Caiihtorim,  afterwards  called 
riiilislines  (Dent.  ii.  23;  Josh.  xiii.  3). 

2.  A  town  of  Benjamin,  perhaps  the  same 
as  Ai  (.losh.  xviii.  23). 

Av'vltes,  in  A.  V.  A'vltes. 

1.  The  same  as  Avvim  (Josh.  xiii.  3). 

2.  People  of  Avva  (2  Kin.  xvii.  31). 
A'zal.     See  Azel. 

Az-a-li'ah  [Jehovah  hath  spared]. 

Son  of  Meshullam  and  father  of  Shaphan 
the  scribe  (2  Kin.  xxii.  3). 

Az-a-ni'ah  [Jehovah  hath  given  car]. 

A  Levite,  father  of  Jeshna  (Neb.  x.  !)). 

Az'a-rel,  in  A.  V.  A-zar'e-el,  once  A-zar'- 
a-el  (Neh.  xii.  36}  [(iod  has  helped]. 

1.  A  Levite  who  joined  David  at  Ziklag  (1 
Chron.  xii.  6). 

2.  A  singer  in  David's  time  (1  Chron.  xxv. 
18).  In  ver.  4  he  is  called  Uzziel  (as  king 
Azariah  was  also  known  as  Uzziah),  and  is 
recorded  as  of  the  lineage  of  Heman. 

3.  A  son  of  Jeroham,  the  chief  of  the  tribe 
of  Dan  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  22). 

4.  A  man  whom  Ezra  persuaded  to  divorce 
his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  41). 

5.  A  priest  of  the  father's  house  of  Immer 
(Xeh.  xi.  13). 

6.  A  musician  of  priestly  descent  (Neh.  xii. 
36). 

Az-a-ri'ah  [Jehovah  hath  heliied]. 

1.  A  man  of  Jndah,  family  of  Zerah,  house 
of  Ethan  (1  Chron.  ii.  S). 

2.  A  Lc>vite.  family  of  Kohath,  line  of 
Izhar.  and  an  ancestor  of  Sanniel  the  i)rophet 
and  Heman  the  singer  (1  Chron.  vi.  3(! ;  per- 
haps, 2  Chron.  xxix.  12). 

3.  (hu-  of  Solomon's  oflicials,  .sim  of  the  high 
prie.st  Zadok  (1  Kin.  iv.  2)  and  brother  of 
Ahimaaz. 

4.  (Jrandson  of  Zadok  and  son  of  Ahimaaz. 
He  was  in  the  line  of  high-i>riestly  succession 
(1  Chron.  vi.  !l). 

.">.  Son  of  Nathan,  and  hence  probably  Solo- 
mon's nephew  (2  Siim.  v.  II),  who  was  over 
Solomon's  twelve  tax-collectors  (1  Kin.  iv.  ">). 

(i.  .\  i)ro]ihet.  son  of  Oded.  who  encouraged 
king  .Vsa  to  |>ei-severe  in  national  religious 
reformation  (2  Chron.  xv.  1-H). 

7.  Two  sons  of  kini;  .lehoshaphat  (2  Chron. 
xxi.  2). 


Azarias 


62 


Azel 


8.  A  man  of  Jiulah,  family  of  Hezron, 
house  of  .loraliim-il  (1  C'lvron.  ii'.  '38,  39).  His 
graiidfatlior  was  Obcd  [',i)<)  ;  hence  he  was 
perliaps  the  captain  Azariah.  son  f)f  ()1)0(1, 
who  assisted  in  overthmwinj;  Athaliah  and 
phieing  Joasii  on  tiu'tlirone  ("JChron.  xxiii.  1). 

}>.  Another  captain,  son  of  Jerohani,  who 
aided  in  overthrowing  Athaliah  (2  Chrou. 
xxiii.  1). 

10.  A  prince  of  Ephraim,  son  of  Johanan, 
who  aided  in  j)ersuading  the  soldiers  of 
Pekah'sanny  to  release  the  captives  of  Judah 
(2  C'hron.  xxviii.  12). 

11.  A  king  of  Judah.  known  alsoasUzziah 
(cp.  2  Kin.  XV.  1  with  2  C'hron.  xxvi.  1)  ;  sec 
Vz7AXii.  In  Assyrian  inscriptions  he  is  called 
Azriyahu. 

12.  A  high  priest  (1  Chron.  vi.  1(1),  jiroljably 
he  who  rebviked  Uzziah  for  encroaching  on 
the  priest's  office  (2  Chron.  xxvi.  17-20).  Per- 
haps he  was  still  officiating  in  Hezekiah's 
reign  (xxxi.  10,  13),  but  probably  the  pontiff 
of  the  latter  reign  was  another  priest  of  the 
name  Azariah  ;  see  High  Priest. 

13.  A  Levite,  family  of  Merari,  who  as- 
sisted in  purifying  the  temple  in  Hezekiah's 
reign  (2  Chron.  xxix.  12). 

14.  A  high  priest,  son  of  Hilkiali  and  father 
of  Seraiah,  not  long  before  the  exile  (1  Chron. 
vi.  13,  14  ;  perhaps  ix.  11).     See  Seraiah  12. 

15.  A  son  of  Hoshaiah  and  an  opponent  of 
the  prophet  Jeremiah  (Jer.  xliii.  2). 

16.  The  Hebrew  and  original  name  of 
Abednego  (Dan.  i.  7:  1  Mac.  ii.  59). 

17.  A  prominent  person,  probably  prince 
of  Judah,  who  marched  in  the  procession  at 
the  dedication  of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh. 
xii.  32,  33). 

18.  A  son  of  Maaseiah,  who  had  a  house 
at  Jerusalem  in  Nehemiah's  time,  and  re- 
paired the  wall  in  its  immediate  vicinity 
(Neh.  iii.  23,  24). 

19.  One  of  those,  apparently  Levites,  who 
explained  to  the  people  the  law  w'hich  Ezra 
read  (Neh.  viii.  7). 

20.  A  priest,  doubtless  head  of  a  father's 
house,  who  in  the  days  of  Neheniiah  sealed 
the  covenant  to  keep  separate  from  foreigners 
and  observe  the  law  of  God  (Neh.  x.  2). 

21.  A  descendant  of  Hilkiah  who  was  ruler 
of  the  house  of  God  after  the  exile  (1  Chron. 
ix.  11)  ;  see,  however,  Seraiah  12. 

Besides  these,  a  king  of  Israel  (not  Uzziah) 
is  called  Azariah  in  2  Chron.  xxii.  6,  but  this 
seems  a  copyist's  error  for  Ahaziah.  which  is 
given  in  the  next  verse  (2  Chron.  xxii.  6,  7  ; 
cp.  2  Kin.  viii.  29). 

Az-a-ri'as  [(Jreek  form  of  A/ariah]. 

One  of  two  men  aiiiminted  by  Judas  ]\Iac- 
cabseus  to  chief  authority  in  .luda-a  during 
his  absence  (1  Mac.  v.  IH),  but  who  were  de- 
feated by  Gorgias  (56-60). 

A'zaz  [strong]. 

.\  Keulxiiite,  line  of  Joel  (1  Chron.  v.  8). 

A-za'zel  [probably  for  'nzalsrl,  in  the  sense 
of  dismissal  or  dismissed,  separated  one]. 


The  word  occurs  originally  in  one  passage 
only  (Lev.  xvi.  8,  10,  26,  K.  V.) ;  see  Atone- 
ment, Day  of.  The  data  for  determining  its 
meaning  are  meager  and  insufficient,  being 
confined  as  yet  to  etymology,  exegesis  of  tlie 
passage,  and  general  biblical  teaching.  Nu- 
merous interpretations  have  been  projiosed, 
but  they  are  conjectures  more  or  less  satis- 
factory. The  word  has  been  interpreted  both 
imi)ersonally  and  jiersonally,  as  meaning — 1. 
A  place  :  a  .solitary  desert  (Jonathan,  .Jerome) ; 
2.  A  goat :  the  dei)arting  goat  ( Jewisli  revisers 
of  the  Septuagint ;  Vulgate) ;  scape-goat,  the 
goat  that  is  allowed  to  escape  (A.  V.) ;  3.  Au 
abstract  noun  :  utter  removal  or  dismissal 
(Biihr,  Winer,  R.  V.)  ;  4.  A  per.sonal  being: 
(a)  some  demon  of  the  wilderness  (Stade) ; 
(h)  a  fallen  angel  who  seduces  men  to  evil 
(Book  of  Em)ch  vi.  7  ;  viii.  1  et  passim),  later 
identified  with  Sannnael  ;  (cl  an  eiiilhet  ap- 
plied to  the  devil  (Origen,  Hengstenberg, 
Oehler,  Kurtz,  Keil ;  see  Milton,  Paradise 
Lost  i.). 

Either  of  two  interpretations  is  satisfac- 
tory :  1.  To  regard  the  word  as  an  abstraction. 
Aaron  shall  cast  lots  upon  the  goats,  "one 
lot  for  the  Lord  and  the  other  lot  for  dis- 
missal," and  shall  send  the  goat,  uixm  which 
the  latter  lot  falls,  away  "as  a  dismis.sal  to 
the  wilderness."  The  idea  of  the  escaped 
goat  is  virtually  preserved  by  this  interpre- 
tation. 2.  To  regard  the  word  as  an  epithet 
of  the  devil,  the  apostate  one.  Those  who 
are  laden  with  sin  belong  to  the  devil.  The 
objection  to  this  interj)retation  is  that  Satan 
is  nowhere  mentioned  in  any  part  of  the 
Pentateuch.  The  serpent  indeed  is,  but  it  is 
not  certain  that  the  devil  was  as  yet  recog- 
nized as  the  possessor  and  actuator  of  the 
serpent  of  the  temptation. 

Az-a-zi'ah  [Jehovah  is  strong]. 

1.  A  harper  for  religious  service  during  the 
reign  of  David  (1  Chron.  xv.  21). 

2.  Father  of  a  jirince  of  Ephraim  in  David's 
reign  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  20). 

3.  Au  overseer  of  the  temple  in  the  reign 
of  Hezekiah  (2  Chron.  xxxi.  13). 

Az'buk. 

Father  of  a  certain  Nehemiah,  contempo- 
rary but  not  identical  with  the  celebrated 
governor  of  that  name  (Neh.  iii.  16). 

A-ze'kah  [a  field  dug  by  a  hoe  and  set  out 
with  new  vines]. 

A  town  in  the  lowland,  near  Socoh,  to 
which  the  kings  besieging  Gibeon  were  driven 
by  Jttshua  (Josh.  x.  10,  11).  It  was  assigned 
to  Judah  (xv.  35).  The  Philistines  pitched 
tlitir  ( am]>  near  it  wlien  they  brought  with 
them  G(ilialli(l  Sam.xvii.  1).  Itwas  fortilied 
t)y  Kchoboam  (2  Chron.  xi.  9).  Nebuchad- 
nezzar fought  against  it  (Jer.  xxxiv.  7),  and 
prol)ably  took  it.  but  it  continued  to  exist 
after  the  cai)tivity  (Neh.  xi.  30).  Its  .site  has 
not  bi'en  identified. 

A'zel ;  in  A.  V.  once  A'zal  (Zech.  xiv.  5),  a 
Hebrew  i)ronunciation  sometimes  employed 


Azem 


63 


Baal 


wheu  the  word  stands  at  a  pause  in  the  sen- 
tence (as  in  text  of  1  Clnou.  viii.  38,  but  not 
of  ix.  44,  li.  V.)  [iJcrhajis,  nohle]. 

1.  A  (IcsiiiKhiut  of  Jonathan,  Saul's  son  (1 
Chron.  viii.  ;>7,  -i^ :  ix.  l.i,  41). 

2.  l'rol)al>l.v  a  liauilct ;  and  if  so,  it  hiy  to 
the  east  of  JcnisaU'ni  (Zerh.  xiv.  5).  Ter- 
hajis  identical  with  Bcth-czel. 

A'zem.     Sec  Ezkm. 

Az'gad  [i)crha]is,  stronj;  of  fortune]. 

Koini(kT  of  a  family,  niciiihcrs  of  which  n'- 
turncd  from  Haliylouia  with  Ixith  Zcruhhahcl 
and  Ezra  (Ezra  ii.  1,J ;  viii.  12).  Its  rci>rc- 
seutative  scaled  the  covenant  (Neh.  x.  15). 

A'zi-el.     Sec  .Taazikl. 
A-zi'za  [robust]. 

A  man  whom  Ezra  induced  to  divorce  his 
forcijiu  wife  ( I']zra  x.  27). 

Az'ma-veth  [brave  even  to  death]. 

1.  A  IJarliuniite.  one  of  David's  mighty 
men  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  31). 

2.  A  Hcn.jannte.  whose  .sons  came  to  David 
at  Zikiaji  (1  Chron.  xii.  3). 

3.  The  son  of  Adiel.  He  was  over  David's 
treasures  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  2r>). 

4.  A  .son  of  Jchoadah  and  deseendjint  of 
Jonathan,  Saul's  son  (1  ("liron.  viii.  3ti). 

").  A  village  in  the  vicinity  of  .Icru.salcni, 
near  txcha.  Forty-two  of  its  inlial)itants  re- 
turned from  the  Babylonian  captivity  (Ezra 
ii.  24).  Some  singers  resided  on  its  fields 
(Neh,  xii,  29).  Called  also  Bcth-azmaveth 
(Neh.  vii.  28).   Its  .site  has  not  l)een  identified. 

Az'mon  [robust], 

A  place  on  the  southern  boundary  of 
Canaan,  to  the  west  of  Kadesh-barnea  and 
near  the  brook  of  Egypt  (Num.  xxxiv.  4,  5; 
Josh,  XV,  4,  K.  V,),     Exact  site  unknown. 

Az'noth-ta'bor  [the  ears,  i.  e.  slopes  or 
toi)S,  of  'l'ab(ir]. 

A  place  on  the  boundary  of  Najjhtali,  evi- 
dently near  mount  Tabor  (Josh,  xix,  34). 

A'zor. 

An  ancestor  of  Christ  who  lived  after  the 
exile  (Mat,  i.  13,  14). 

A-zo'tU8.    See  Ashdod. 

Az'rl-el  [help  of  God], 

1,  A  cliief  man  of  the  half  tribe  of  Manas- 
sch,  east  of  the  .Ionian  (1  Cliron.  v.  24). 

2,  A  Na|ihtaiite  of  David's  time,  father  of 
Jerinioth  il  Ciuon,  xxvii.  1!)). 

3,  Fatiier  of  Seraiali  of  .Icrcniiah's  time 
(Jer.  xxxvi.  2(i). 

Az'rl-kam  [help  against  an  enemy,  or  helj) 
hath  arisen], 

1.  A  son  of  Neariah  (1  Chron.  iii.  23). 

2.  A  son  of  Azel,  and  <lescendant  of  .Jona- 
than, Siiul's  .son  (1  C'hroii.  viii.  38  ;  ix.  44). 

3.  A  lA'vite,  descended  from  Merari  (1 
Chron.  ix.  14). 

4.  The  governor  of  the  palace  under  king 
Ahaz,  He  was  killed  by  an  Ei)hraiuiite, 
Zichri  (2  Cliron.  xxviii,  7). 


A-zu'bah  [forsaken  or  desolation], 

1,  A  wife  of  Caleb  (1  Chron.  ii.  18,  19). 

2,  A  daughter  of   Shilhi   and   mother   of 
Jehoshaphat  (1  Kin,  xxii.  42). 

A'zur.  See  AzzuR, 
Az'zah,  See  Gaza, 
Az'zan  [strong]. 

Father  of  Paltiel,  prince  of  Issachar  in  the 
days  of  Mo.ses  (Num.  xxxiv.  2()). 

Az'zur,  in  A,  V,  twice  A'zxir  [helpful], 

1.  Fatiier  of  Hanauiah  the  false  prophet 
(,Ier.  xxviii.  1), 

2.  Father  of  Jaazaniah  (Ezek,  xi.  1). 

3.  t)neof  those  who,  with  Neheniiah,  sealed 
the  covenant  (Neh,  x,  17), 


B. 


Ba'al  [master,  lord,  posses.sor]. 

1.  A  sun-god,  exhiliiting  dillereut  aspectsof 
tile  solar  energy,  the  center  of  whose  worsiiip 
was  Pho'iiicia,  wlienci'  it  sjiread  to  tiic  neigh- 
boring countries,  Jiaal  was  adored  on  liigh 
lilaces  in  Moab  as  early  as  the  days  of  Balaam 
and  Balak  (Num.  xxii.  41).  In  tlie  time  of 
tiie  judges  lie  had  altars  within  tlie  ciJiintry 
of  tlie  Israelites  (Judg.  ii.  13;  vi.  28-:52),  and 
when  king  Ahab  married  .lezebel,  the  daugh- 
ter of  Etiibaal,  king  of  the  .Sidoniaiis,  the 
Worship  of  Baal  almost  sujiplaiited  that  of 
Jeliovah,  The  life  and  death  struggle  be- 
tween the  two  religious  culminated  on 
mount  Carmel  when  the  projihet  Elijah  met 
tlie  ])rii'sts  of  Baal  (1  Kin.  xvi.  31,  .32  :  xviii. 
17-40).  Thougii  it  ended  in  the  slaiigiittr  of 
the  priests  of  Baal,  yet  they  soon  swarmed 
anew  until  crushed  by  Jehu  (2  Kin.  x.  18- 
28).  About  this  time",  the  worshiip  of  Baal 
received  new  imjiuLse  in  Judah  liiroiiuii  tlie 
influence  of  Jezeliel's  dauglitcr,  Atlialiah, 
wife  of  Jchoram  (2  Chron.  xvii.  3:  xxi.  (j ; 
xxii.  2),  On  her  overthrow,  the  tenijile  of 
Baal  at  .Terusalem  was  pulled  down,  tlie  al- 
tars and  images  were  destroyed,  and  Mattan, 
tlie  chief  priest,  slain  before  tlie  altar  [2  Kin, 
xi,  18),  After  a  time  the  woi-shi])  of  Baal 
was  revived  in  botli  Israel  (IIos.  ii.  8  ;  iv.  1.3) 
and  Judah.  Ahaz  made  molten  images  f(ir 
tile  Baalim  (2  Chron.  xxviii.  2).  llezekiah, 
indeed,  wrought  a  reformation,  but  Manas- 
seh  erected  altars  to  Baal  (2  Kin,  xxi.  3). 
.losiali  destroyed  the  ves.-^t'ls  of  Baal  at  Jcru- 
salt'iii,  and  made  the  ]uil)lif  woi-shi])  of  Baal 
for  the  time  t<i  cease  (xxiii.  I.  ."il.  .leremiah 
fn(|iieiitly  denounced  it,  as  did  otiier  jiropliets 
(,h'r.  xix.  4,  .">).  Tiie  worshi])  of  Baal  was  ac- 
companied with  lascivious  rites  (cj).  1  Kin. 
xiv.  21),  the  sacrifice  of  children  in  tiie  lire 
l)y  parents  (Jer.  xix.  5),  antl  kissing  tiie 
image  (1  Kin.  xix.  IM  ;  IIos.  xiii.  2).  Baal  was 
often  associatt'd  witii  Ashtoretli,  the  moon- 
god  (.ludg.  ii.  1.3),  and  in  fiie  vicinity  of  his 
altar  tliere  was  (dteii  an  Asherali  (.ludg.  vi. 
30  ;  1  Kin.  xvi.  32,  33,  both  K,  V,),    Baal  must 


Baalah 


64 


Baal-shalishah 


not  be  confounded  with  the  Babylonian  Bel, 
thoufjli  l)»)tli  arc  siin-ffods. 

2.  A  Ivi'uht'iiiU',  house  of  Joel,  who  lived 
before  the  captivity  of  the  ten  tribes  (1  Chron. 
V.  5,  6). 

3.  A  Benjamite,  son  of  king  Saul's  ancestor 
Jeiel  (1  Chiou.  viii.  30;  ix.  35,  3(),  39,  K.  V.). 

4.  A  vilhifje  of  Simeon  (1  t'hrou.  iv.  33)  ; 
the  same  as  Baalath-beer  (q.  v.). 

Ba'al-ah  [mistress]. 

1.  A  town  better  known  as  Kirjath-jcarim 
(Josh.  XV.  9). 

2.  A  mountain  in  Judah,  some  distance 
westward  of  the  town  Haalah  (Josh.  xv.  11). 
Exact  situation  unknown. 

3.  A  town  in  the  soutli  of  Judah  (Josh.  xv. 
29)  ;  apparently  the  same  as  the  Simeonite 
town  Balali  (Josli.  xix.  3)  or  Bilhah  (1  Chron. 
iv.  29).     Site  unlinown. 

Ba'al-ath  [mistress]. 

A  village  of  the  original  territory  of  Dan 
(Josh.  xix.  44).  near  Gezer  (Autii).  viii.  6,  1). 
Solomon  fortilied  it  (1  Kin.  ix.  1^ ;  2  Chron. 
viii.  6). 

Ba'al-ath-be'er  [possessor  of  a  well]. 

A  town  on  the  boundary  line  of  the  tribe 
of  Simeon.  Called  simjily  Baal  (1  Chron.  iv. 
33),  and  known  also  as  Eamah  of  the  South 
(Josh.  xix.  8,  E.  v.).     Site  unknown. 

Ba'al-be'rith  [lord  of  a  covenant ;  /.  e.  the 
god  who  enters  into  a  covenant  with  his  wor- 
shipers] . 

A  designation  under  which  in  the  time  of 
the  judges  Baal  was  worshiped  at  Shechem, 
where  he  had  a  temple  (Judg.  viii.  33  ;  ix.  4). 
Sometimes  he  was  spoken  of  as  El-berith,  the 
covenant-keeping  god  (Judg.  ix.  46,  E.  V.  ; 
where  A.  V.  partly  translates  the  name). 

Ba'al-e,  or  rather,  as  in  E.  V.,  Baale  Judah 
[a  construct  form,  probably  singular,  Baal  of 
Judah]. 

A  town  of  Judah,  the  same  as  Baalah  and 
Kirjath-baal  and  Kirjath-jearim  (2  Sam.  vi. 
2;  cp.  1  Chron.  xiii.  ti ;  Josh,  xviii.  14).     See 

KlR,JATII-.JEARIM. 

Ba'al-gad  (lord  of  fortune]. 

A  place  at  the  foot  of  mount  Hermon,  in 
the  valley  of  Lebanon,  where  apparently  Gad, 
the  god  of  fortune,  was  worshiped.  It  consti- 
tuted the  extreme  northern  limit  of  Joshua's 
Con(iuests  (Josh.  xi.  17  ;  xii.  7  ;  xiii.  .5).  It 
can  scarcely  be  identified  with  either  Banias 
or  I!aal])ek. 

Ba'al-ha'mon  [place  of  a  multitude]. 

A  place  where  Solonuiu  had  a  vineyard 
(Song  viii.  11).  Its  identity  with  Balamon,  a 
town  near  Dothan  (Judith  viii.  3),  which  Cese- 
nius  suggested,  is  extremely  douhtful  in  view 
of  the  Viiriant  spelling  Belhaim,  Belmaim, 
Abelniaein  (iv.  4;  vii.  3). 

Ba'al-ha'nan  [lord  of  benignity]. 

1.  Son  of  Achhor  and  king  of  Edom  (Gen. 
xxxvi.  38;  1  Chron.  i.  49). 

2.  Custodian  of  the  olive  and  syconiore 
trees  under  king  David  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  28). 


Ba'al-Iia'zor  [lord  of  a  village]. 

A  place  beside  Kphraim  (2  Sam.  xiii.  23). 
Geseuius  suggested  Jlazor  in  Benjamin  (Neh. 
xi.  33).  Another  view  is  that  it  was  at  Tell 
'Asur.  4  miles   northeast  of  Bethel. 

Ba'al-her'nion  [Baal  or  lord  of  Jlermon]. 

A  mountain  nuirking  the  northwestern 
limit  of  the  half  tril)e  of  Manasseh  east  of 
Jordan,  and  situated  .south  or  southwest 
of  mount  Hermon  projier  (.Judg.  iii.  3;  1 
Chron.  V.  23).  The  comjiarisou  of  Josh.  xiii. 
5  with  Judg.  iii.  3  is  not  sufhcieut  to  estab- 
lish its  identity  with  Baal-gad. 

Ba'al-i  [my  master]  (Hos.  ii.  KJ). 

Ba'al-im  [Helircvv  plural  of  Baal]. 

The  sun-god  Baal  as  worshiped  under  difier- 
ent  aspects  by  the  nations  neighbor  to  Israel, 
or  the  old  Canaanite  plural  of  eminence  in- 
stead of  the  singular  number  (Judg.  ii.  11  ; 
iii.  7;  viii.  33;  x.  10;  1  Sam.  vii.  4;  xii.  10). 
Often  coujiled  with  Ashtarotb  (q.  v.). 

Ba'a-lis. 

A  king  of  the  Ammonites  who  reigned 
shortl.v  after  Nebuchadnezzar's  cajiture  of 
Jerusalem  (Jer.  xl.  14). 

Ba'al-me'on  [lord  of  Meon  or  habitation]. 

An  old  Amorite  city  on  the  frontiers  of 
Moab,  known  fully  as  Beth-baal-meon  (Num. 
xxxii.  38 ;  Ezek.  xxv.  9 ;  both  forms  on 
Moabite  Stone  9,  30).  It  was  assigned  to  the 
Eeubenites  and  rebuilt  by  them  (Num.  xxxii. 
38  ;  in  ver.  3  called  Beon  ;  Josh.  xiii.  17  :  1 
Chron.  v.  8).  It  was  held  by  Mesha,  king 
of  Moab  (Stone  9,  30),  and  was  in  possession 
of  the  same  people  in  the  sixth  century  B.  c. 
(Ezek.  xxv.  9  ;  and  Jer.  xlviii.  23,  where  it 
is  abbreviated  to  Beth-meon).  It  was  still 
a  considerable  town  in  the  time  of  Jerome, 
who  gives  its  distance  from  Heshbon  as  9 
Eoman  miles.  The  ruins,  now  called  Ma 'in, 
lie  in  the  northern  JMoabile  territory,  4  miles 
southwest  of  Medeba.  Tristram  describes 
them  as  occupying  the  crests  and  sides  of 
four  adjacent  hills,  one  being  evidently  the 
site  of  the  central  city,  connected  with  the 
rest  by  a  causeway.  There  are  remains  of 
foundations,  walls,  streets,  arches,  carved 
stones,  caverns  and  cavernous  dwellings, 
wells,  and  cisterns. 

Ba'al-pe'or  [lord  of  Peor]. 

A  Moabite  deit.v  worshiped  with  impure 
rites  on  the  top  of  nmunt  Peor.  The  Israel- 
ites, when  eneaniiied  at  Shittim,  felt  attracted 
by  it,  and  so  sinned  that  a  plague  broke  out 
among  them,  and  was  not  sta.ved  till  a  slaugh- 
ter had  been  ordered  of  the  chief  transgres- 
sors (Num.  xxv.  1-9;  Ps.  cvi.  28;  Hos.  ix. 
10). 

Ba'al-per'a-zim  [place  of  breaking  forth]. 

A  idace  near  the  valley  of  Eei)haim  where 
David  gained  a  victory  over  the  Philistines 
(2  Sam.  V.  18-20  ;  1  Chron.  xiv.  9-11  ;  cp.  Is. 
xxviii.  21). 

Ba'al-shal'i-shah,  in  A.  V.  Baal-shallsha 
[lord  of  Shalishah,  a  third  part]. 


Baal-tamar 


65 


Babel,  Tower  of 


A  village  from  which  bread  and  corn  of  the 
(irstfniits  were  l)n>iif;lit  tn  ICiisiia  when  he 
was  at  (filj;al,()n  tiic  iiKiiiiitaius,  seven  and  a 
liair  miles  nortli  of  15ethel  {2  Kin.  iv.  42-44). 
The  gift  was  hroiiglit  to  (iilgal  becanse  a 
school  of  the  iirophets  was  there.  Jerome 
and  Kuseliiiis  call  JJaal-shalisbah  l?etli-sbal- 
ishah,  and  dcscriiie  it  as  situateil  \'>  Koman 
miles  to  the  north  of  I>ydda.  ('under  locates 
it  at  the  present  village  nl'  Kefr  Tliilth  on 
the  lower  hills  <if  lOphraim,  IIJ  Knglish  miles 
niirtheast  of  Lyilda  and  1I5A  miles  northwest 
of  (Jilgal.  The  distance  and  etymology  iavor 
the  identification.     C'lt.  1  8ani.  ix.  4. 

Ba'al-ta'mar  [lord  or  pos,ses.sor  of  a  palm]. 

A  place  in  ]5en.jamin  where  the  Israelite 
army  took  their  stand  when  about  to  assail 
Gil)eah  (.Iiidg.  xx.  :{:}).     Exact  site  unknown. 

Ba'al-ze'but)  [lord  of  the  fly]. 

The  name  under  which  the  sun-god  Baal 
was  worshiped  at  Kkron  as  the  i)rodMcer  of 
flii's,  and  consequently  able  to  del'end  against 
this  i)est.  Ahaziah,  king  of  Judab,  applied 
to  him  for  a  revelation  (2  Kin.  1.  (i,  16).  See 
Bkki.zkiuh. 

Ba'al-ze'phon  [lord  of  watchfulness,  scarce- 
ly Baal  of  the  north  or  place  of  Tyi)hon]. 

A  place  which  was  over  against  the  Israel- 
ites while  they  were  encamjjt'd  beside  Pi- 
hahiroth,  between  Migdol  and  the  sea,  just 
hefon;  they  eros.sed  through  the  sea  (Ex. 
xiv.  2.  9).  So  also  in  Num.  xxxiii.  7,  Pi- 
liahiroth  is  s;iid  to  be  before  Baal-zephon. 
Site  dis]>uted. 

Ba'a-na,  in  A.  V.  once  Baanah  (1  Kin.  iv. 
Kj)  [.Vnimaic  form  of  Baanah]. 

1.  Solomon's  purveyor  for  the  southern  dis- 
trict of  the  ])lain  of  .lezreel  from  Megiddo  to 
the  .Jordan.  He  was  a  sou  of  Ahilud  and 
l>robably  brotlier  of  Jehoshai)hat  the  recorder 
(1  Kiu.  iv.  12;  cj).  ver.  3). 

2.  Solomon's  purveyor  for  Asher  and  vicin- 
ity. He  was  a  son  of  Hiishai,  not  unlikely 
of  that  Hushai  who  was  the  friend  and  ad- 
viser of  David  (1  Kin.  iv.  K!). 

3.  A  certain  Zadok's  father  (Xeh.  iii.  4). 

Ba'a-nah. 

1.  A  Ittujamite.  brother  of  Rechab,  and 
leader  of  a  predatory  baud.  Although  the 
brothers  belonged  to  the  tribe  of  Saul,  they 
neverlheless  murilered  his  son  Ish-bosheth, 
and  thus  were  jiartly  instrumental  in  turning 
the  kingdom  to  I)avid.  They  carried  the 
head  of  the  nuirdered  man  to  David  at  He- 
bron in  expectation  of  a  rewanl  :  but  David 
liad  them  (lut  to  death  as  criminals  (2  Sam. 
iv.  1-12). 

2.  A  Netophathite.  father  of  Heled.  one  of 
David's  worthies  (1  Chrnu.  xi.  »)). 

.'J.  ( >ne  of  Solomon's  purveyors.  See  B.\.\X.\. 

4.  .\  .lew  who  returned  from  Babylon  with 
Zenibbabel  (Ezra  ii.  2;  Neh.  vii.  7).  It  was 
probably  the  representative  of  his  family  who 
sealed  the  covenant  in  Neln-miali's  lime  (x. 
27). 


Ba'a-ra  [perhaps  stupidity]. 

A  wifi-  of  Shaharaim  (1  C'hrou.  viii.  8). 

Ba-a-se'iah. 

A  Levite,  descendant  of  Gershom  and  an- 
cestor of  Asaph  the  singer  (1  C'hrou.  vi.  40). 

Ba'a-sha. 

Son  of  Aliijah,  of  the  tribe  of  Issachar,  who 
consiiired  against  Nadab,  the  son  and  succes- 
.sor  of  Jeroboam  I.,  king  of  Israel.  When 
Nadab  was  directing  the  siege  of  Gibbethon, 
then  in  the  hands  of  the  Philistines,  Baasha 
murdered  him  and  all  .Jeroboam's  descend- 
ants, thus  fullilling  the  judgment  denounced 
against  his  house  (1  Kin.  xvi.  7;  cp.  Acts  ii. 
2.'i).  Then  the  assa.ssiu  ascended  the  throne 
of  Israel  in  the  third  year  of  Asa,  king  of 
Judab,  and  fixed  his  capital  at  Tirzah  il  Kiu. 
XV.  2.')-xvi.  1).  He  carried  on  a  long  war 
with  Asa.  He  began  to  fortify  Raniah  to 
blockade  the  northern  frontier  of  Judah,  but 
was  diverted  from  his  i)ur]iose  by  the  iu- 
vasion  of  his  kingdom  by  Beiihadad,  king 
of  Damascus,  whom  Asa  hired  (1  Kin.  xv. 
lG-21  ;  2  Cliron.  xvi.  l-(i).  Though  Baasha 
had  extirpated  the  house  of  Jeroboam,  yet 
he  imitated  it  in  its  calf-worship,  and  a 
l)roi)het,  Jehu,  son  of  Hanani,  was  sent  to 
threaten  him  and  his  house  with  a  similar 
fate.  He  die<l  after  a  reign  of  24  years,  and 
was  buried  in  Tirzah.  leaving  his  son  Elah  to 
ascend  the  throne  (1  Kin.  xv.  34-xvi.  6). 

Ba'bel  [gate  of  God]. 

A  city  in  the  plain  of  Shinar.  It  was 
the  beginning  of  Nimrod's  kingdom,  /.  e. 
])robably  the  earliest  and  chief  seat  of  his 
power  (Gen.  x.  KM.  Soon  after  the  deluge  it 
became  celebrated  as  the  spot  where  the 
fannuis  tower  was  undertaken  (xi.  9).  In  the 
English  versions  the  word  Babel  occurs  in 
these  two  passages  only,  being  rendered 
Babylon  iu  all  later  notices. 

Bab 'el,  Tower  of. 

A  tower  underiaken  at  Babylon  shortly 
after  the  Hood.  Those  who  began  to  erect 
it  desired  to  establish  a  renowned  center  and 
lu'eveiit  the  danger  of  their  being  scattered 
over  the  earth.  There  is  neither  building- 
stone  n<n'lime  on  the  alluvial  ]>lain  of  Shinar, 
so  bricks  were  used  in  jilace  of  stone  in  build- 
ing this  towi'r,  and  for  mortar  bitumen  was 
emjiloyed,  abundant  sui>i)lies  of  which  were 
found  at  Hit,  about  1  l(t  miles  higher  up  the 
river.  The  tower  was  never  tinished,  fortiiose 
erecting  it  were  visited  with  a  iiunishment 
which  instantly  or  soon  produced  dilference 
of  dialect  and  the  withdrawal  of  men  to  new 
regions.  Hence  the  city  was  called  liibel, 
place  of  God's  judgment.  To  describe  the 
event  the  Hebrew  writer  .selected  a  word 
which  bears  some  I'esemblance  in  sound  to 
Bjibel  (Gen.  xi.  1  !»).  Babylon  was  not  wholly 
de.siTted,  a  considerable  number  of  the  old 
biiildei"s  remaining  there,  so  that  the  city  .soon 
became  a  i)opul(tus  place.  \  groundless  tradi- 
tion identifies  the  tower  of  Biibel  with  the 


Babylon 


66 


Babylonia 


Birs  Ninirud,  at  Borsippa,  about  7  miles  from 

till'  ci'iitiT  of  Babylon. 

Bab'y-lon  [I5al)cl,  Assyrian  Bnli-il,  with 
the  (iiX'i'k  onding  on]. 

1.  The  eai)ital  of  the  Babylonian  empire. 
Its  fii-st  mention  in  the  Hebrew  Seriptuivs  is 
in  (4en.  x.  10.  with  three  other  ])laees,  as  the 
besinninfi  of  Nimrod's  kinfidom  (e]).  I.s.  xxiii. 
i:}).  There  the  tower  of  Habel  (q.  v.)  was  un- 
dertaken and  the  eonsequent  eonfusion  of 
tongues  took  plaee  (Gen.  xi.  1-i)).  It  grew  in 
size  and  inqMntanee  century  after  century 
until  it  reached  its  greatest  glory  in  the  reign 
of  Nebuchadnezzar  (f)04-r)()l  h.  c.),  who  did 
much  for  it,  rendering  it  the  largest  and 
most  splendid  caiiital  of  the  then  known 
world,  if  not,  indeed,  of  the  ancient  world 
itself  The  earliest  writer  who  estimated  its 
magnitude  when  at  its  greatest  was  Herod- 
otus, wlio  flourished  alxiut  443  B.  c.  He  says 
that  Babylon,  which  he  presumably  visited, 
was  a  s(iuare,  each  side  being  120  stades,  or 
about  fourteen  miles,  in  length.  This  meas- 
urement yields  an  area  of  nearly  200  square 
miles,  and  includes  Borsippa  in  the  city 
limits.  Ctesias,  also  an  eyewitness,  who 
flourished  about  the  year  400  b.  c,  makes 
each  side  of  the  square  only  about  90  stades, 
or  the  length  of  the  four  sides  together 
3(i0  stades,  or  42  miles,  in  which  case  the 
area  would  slightly  exceed  100  square  miles. 
Other  writers  prioi"4o  the  Christian  era  speak 
of  SdT),  3(i8,  and  38.'i  stades.  The  city  was 
surrounded  by  a  wall  (Jer.  li.  58),  or  rather 
double  walls  "(Herod,  i.  181).  Without  the 
walls  was  a  deep  and  broad  moat.  Between 
the  two  walls,  all  round  the  square,  was 
a  space  within  which  no  houses  Avere  al- 
lowed to  be  built.  Within  the  inner-  wall 
were  vast  s]iaces  connected  liy  gardens  and 
open  fields,  which  counted  much  for  the  area 
but  added  little  to  the  population  of  the  city. 
Herodotus  says  that  the  walls  were  50  royal 
cul)its  broad,  or  about  85  Engli.sh  feet;  while 
Quiutus  Curtius  makes  them  the  equivalent 
of  about  32  English  feet.  Regarding  the 
height  of  the  walls,  Herodotus  calls  it  200 
royal  cubits,  about  335  English  feet ;  Cli- 
tarchus  (as  reported  by  Diodorus  Siculus) 
and  Stralx)  agree  in  reducing  tliis  to  75  Eng- 
lish feet.  The  city  had  a  hundred  gates 
of  brass,  twenty-five  on  each  side.  From 
these  there  ran  broad  streets  at  right  angles 
to  the  walls,  thus  dividing  the  whole  area 
into  a  large  number  of  smaller  scpiares.  The 
Euphrates  ran  through  the  midst  of  the  city, 
dividii\g  it  into  two  portions.  The  eastern 
section  was  the  larger,  and  contained  the 
palace,  the  hanging  gardens  (see  Nebuchad- 
nezzar), and  the  tem])le  of  Bel-Marduk, 
patron  deity  of  the  city.  A  smaller  palace 
and  a  temi)l(^  of  Nebo  stood  in  the  western 
section.  Along  each  bank  of  the  river  there 
was  a  continuous  (|uay  like  the  Tliauies  em- 
bankment. A  wall  cut  the  quay  (iff  from  the 
city ;  but  it  was  perforated  by  twenty-five 
gateways  with  gates,  whence  there  was  a  de- 


scent to  the  river  bank.  There  were  ferry- 
boats, a  bridge,  and  even  a  tunnel.  The 
material  of  tlie  walls,  the  (jiuiys,  the  ]ia]aces, 
temples,  and  private  edifices,  wasliriek;  the 
cement  or  nu)rtar  was  bitumen  (ci>.  (!en.  xi. 
3).  The  timber  of  the  houses,  which  were 
two,  three,  and  four  stories  high,  was  of 
l)alm  wood  (Herod,  i.  178-lMi).  The  Scrij)- 
ture  pro])hecies  regarding  J?abyIon  have  been 
fulfilled  (Is.  xiii.;  xiv.  1-23;  .\xi.  1-10;  xlvi. 
1,  2;  xlvii.  1-3  ;  Jer.  1.  and  li.).  .leremiah  (li. 
37,  cj).  1.  2())  says  that  it  should  become  heaps, 
and  mounds  are  all  that  remain  of  it  now. 
They  conuuence  3\  to  5  miles  above  the  vil- 
lage of  Hillah.  and  extend  from  north  to 
south  slightly  above  3  miles,  l)y  I'i  from  east 
to  west,  lying  cliiefiy  on  the  eastern  side  of 
the  river.  The  three  most  notable  mounds 
are  now  called  by  the  Arabs  the  Babil,  the 
Kasr,  and  the  Amram  mounds.  Babil  marks 
the  site  of  Marduk's  temjjle;  Kasr.  that  of 
Nebuchadnezzar's  palace,  and  has  furnished 
bricks  stamped  with  his  name  ;  the  Amram 
mound,  apparently  that  of  the  palaces  of 
jirior  kings,  i)ossibly  of  the  hanging  gardens. 
The  efl'ort  to  trace  the  course  of  the  lofty 
walls  has  been  unsuccessful. 

2.  The  mystic  Babylon  of  Revelation  xiv. 
8;  xvi.  19  ;  xvii.,  xviii.,  is  the  city  of  Rome, 
which  stood  on  seven  bills  (cp.  xvii.  3,  5.  G,  9, 
18). 

Bab-y-lo'ni-a. 

A  region  of  western  Asia  which  had  Baby- 
lon for  its  cajiital.  It  is  sometimes  called,  in 
whole  or  in  \K\vt,  Shinar  (Gen.  x.  10;  xi.  2; 
Is.  xi.  11),  and  sometimes  land  of  the  Chal- 
deans (Jer.  xxiv.  5  ;  xxv.  12  ;  Ezek.  xii.  13). 
It  was  bounded  on  the  north  by  Upper  Meso- 
potamia, the  dividing  line  between  them  run- 
ning from  near  Hit  im  the  Eu])hratcs  to  a 
little  below  Samarah  on  the  Tigris.  The 
boundary  is  a  natural  one,  separating  the 
slightly  elevated  plain  of  secondary  forma- 
tion on  the  north  from  the  low-lying  alluvium 
brought  down  by  the  Ijiiilirates  and  the  Ti- 
gris on  the  south.  Babylonia  is  bounded  on 
the  east  by  the  Tigris,  on  the  south  by  the 
Persian  Gulf,  and  on  the  west  by  the  .Vrabian 
desert.  In  ancient  historic  tinu's  tiie  area 
was  about  25,000  square  miles,  but  the  north- 
ern part  of  the  Persian  Gulf  is  being  grad- 
ually filled  with  alluvium,  so  that  now  the 
district  is  430  miles  long  by  1H5  broad  at  the 
widest  jiart,  and  contains  30.0(10  scpiare  miles. 
The  deep  rich  alluvial  soil,  artificially  irri- 
gated, was  of  almost  nuitchless  fertility. 
Cnshitcs  were  early  in  the  country  (Gen.  x. 
8-10),  and  likewi.se  the  Semites.  Cities  were 
built,  notablv  Vr  (xi.  28),  Larsa  (cp.  xiv.  1), 
Ercch,  Babei,  Accad  (x.  10),  Cuthah  (2  Kin. 
xvii.  24),  and  Nii)ur.  These  towns  were 
sometimes  independent  kingdoms,  at  other 
times  uiuler  one  monarchy.  The  Cushite 
Nimrod  early  united  four  under  his  sway. 
Sargon  of  Agade.  who  was  a  Semite  by  race 
or  had  adopted  the  Semitic  language,  held 
the  entire  region  under  his  rule  about  3750 


Babylonia 


67 


Bsean 


B.  c.  But  bis  (Idiiiiiiiou  and  that  of  his  son 
Xaram-siii  extfiuU'd  far  l)oyond  Babylonia, 
and  i-faihfd  to  tlii'  .Mfditfrram'un  Sea.  Abont 
'iti^j  If.  ('.,  Kndiiriiaiihiiiidi  (b'sccncb'd  I'roni 
Elani  and  romiiurcd  IJaliyliinia.  To  tliis 
Elaniito  dynasty  (.'hcduilaouKT  iirol)ably  l)i'- 
lonjted  (Geu.  xiv.  1).  Abont  tho  .sixtci-nth 
century  B.  v.,  the  otheials  of  I'aU-stine  u.sed 
the  Babybdiiaii  serijit  and  lanjiuaue  in  tlieir 
corresi)on(b-mi-  wilb  tlif  10.i,'yi)lian  court. 
About  l-JTt)  li.  <.■.  llu'  Assyrians  under  Tukulti- 
adar  sulijujiated  Bal)yb)nia,  whicli  for  the 
next  700  yeai-s  remained  a  .second-rate  jiower, 
thou;;h  occasionally  castinji  olf  the  As.syriau 
yoke.  Nabonassar  acbieved  inileiieiulence  in 
747  H.  »'.  It  was  recon(|Uered  by  Tiglath- 
pileser  about  7.'U  it.  c. ;  then,  after  successive 
revolts,  a;;ain  by  .Sargon  in  70!»  B.  c,  by  Sen- 
nacherib in  70-')  H.  c,  liy  Ksarhaildon  in  fiSO 
K.  ^'..aiid  l>y  Ashurlianiiial  in  fiis  p..  c.  During 
this  period  Merodach-baladan  twici'  occujiied 
the  throne,  once  from  ~'^l  to  70!',  and  ajjaiu 
in  704  or  703.  In  (125  n.  c,  liabylonian  inde- 
pendence was  finally  secured  by  Xabupalu- 
sur,  known  to  the  (ireeks  as  Xabopolassar,  an 
Assyrian  nol)leman  of  hif^h  rank.  The  As- 
syrian emi)ire  was  threateni'd  by  Medes  and 
restless  Haliylonians.  Nalio[>olassar  was  or- 
dered to  defend  it  against  all  enemies.  He 
was  faithless,  and,  soon  after  enterin<j  Baby- 
lon, declared  his  iucU'iiendence,  and  laid  the 
foundations  of  what  soon  develoiied  into  the 
fjreat  Babylonian  empire.  He  reigned  from 
the  year  fij.">  to  (j05  B.  c.  He  betrothed 
his  son  Xebuchadnezzar  to  Aniuhia  or  Amy- 
itis.  daughter  of  Cyaxares.  king  of  Media, 
:md  the  two  fathers-in-law  sent  their  united 
forces  to  attack  Xineveh.  They  were  suc- 
cessful. Xiueveh  was  taken  and  destroyed 
about  (>0(;  B.  c,  and  the  As.syrian  empire 
partitioned  between  the  victors.  The  share 
of  Xabo|i()las.sar  was  .'^usiana,  tlu'  valley  of 
the  Kuphrates,  .Syria,  and  Palestine,  which 
were  annexed  to  the  Babylonian  empire.  He 
made  peace  between  the  Syrians  and  the 
Medes,  who  had  been  at  war.  In  his  old  age 
his  territiu'v  was  invaded  by  I'liaraoh  Xecho, 
king  of  Egypt,  and,  too  inert  or  intirm  to  re- 
sist theent'iny,  he  sent  his  son  Xel)ucliadnez- 
zar  in  his  stead.  Xebuchadnezzar  totally  de- 
fealeil  Neclut  at  the  l)attle  of  Carchemish, 
fought  fio.'i  li.  c,  and  ]iui-suing  him  to  or  into 
Egypt,  metlitatid  fresh  victories,  but  was  re- 
called to  Baliylon  by  the  news  of  his  father's 
death.  He  ascended  the  throne  in  (j0r>  B.  v., 
and  reigned  nearly  forty-four  years.  Under 
him  the  Kaliylonian  empire  reached  the  far- 
thest limits  to  which  it  ever  attained  ;  and 
almost  all  its  engineering  and  architectural 
achievenu-nts  wer<'  <'arrie<l  out  under  his 
direction.  .lenisalem  was  captured  and  de- 
stroyed by  him,  and  the  ptople  of  .ludah 
carried  into  captivity  ;  .see  Xkbich-VDNEZ- 
ZAR.  On  his  death  in  r)(i2  B.  c,  he  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son  Evil-merodach,  who  be- 
friended the  captive  .lehoiachin  (2  Kin.  xxv. 
-'7;  Jer.  lii.  ;jl).     After  a  reign  of  two  years 


(.W2-r)(i0  B.  c.)  Evil-merodach  was  jnit  to 
death  by  consi)irators,  headed  by  Xeriglissar, 
husband  of  a  daughter  of  Xebuchadnezzar. 
Xeriglissar,  who  is  probably  Xergal-sharezer 
(.ler.  xxxix.  :{,  ll{),  then  ascc-nded  tiie  throne 
and  reigned  four  years  and  a  half,  dying 
early  in  .">.'>(;  b.  c.  His  son  and  successor, 
l.jiborosoarchod  or  Labossoracus,  a  mere  boy, 
was  tortured  to  death  a  few  months  later,  and 
witii  him  the  bouseof  Xal)oiM)lass;ir,  which  had 
ruled  seventy  years,  canu-  to  an  end.  Tlu'  con- 
spirators against  the  boy-king  then  invested 
one  of  their  number,  Xabonadius,  with  the 
-sovereignty.  In  the  sevent«'enth  year  of  his 
reign,  .");i9  B.  c.  Cyrus  the  Persian  entered 
Babylon,  termimiling  the  Babylonian  em- 
pire ;  see  Cyrus.  In  .520-19  b.  c,  atid  again 
in  514,  Babylon  revolted  against  Uarius  Hys- 
tasi)is.  but  on  both  occasions  it  was  subdued, 
and  the  last  time  was  dismantled.  From  that 
date  it  gradually  decayed,  the  building  of 
Seleucia  on  the  Tigris,  in  :j22  b.  c,  hasten- 
ing its  ruin.  Since  then  the  territory  on  the 
Lower  Euphrates  has  passed  successively  to 
the  I'ersians,  the  Macedonians,  the  tJreeks. 
the  Komans,  the  Parthians,  the  Persians 
again,  and  linally  to  the  Mohannnedans, 
whose  mi.sgovernment  renders  comparatively 
unproductive  a  country  which  under  firm 
and  enlightened  rule  would  become  well  cul- 
tivated and  prove  itself  one  of  the  nu)St  fer- 
tile regions  in  the  world.  With  the  exception 
of  Ashur,  till'  Babylonian  gods  were  the  siime 
as  tho.se  of  Assyria. 

Ba'ca  [a  balsam  tree,  so  named  from  its 
sheihling  as  it  were  tears  of  gum  ;  possibly 
also  a  noun  meaning  weeping]. 

A  valley  in  Palestine  (Ps.  Ixxxiv.  (i),  so 
called  from  the  balsam  tires  which  grew  in 
it;  i)ossil)ly  the  valley  <»f  Kephaim,  where 
such  trees  were  found  (2  Sam.  v.  22,  2.'?,  K.  V. 
margin).  Perha])s.  however,  the  expression  is 
figurative,  as  tlu'  (ireek  and  Syrian  transla- 
tors believed,  like  "  valley  of  the  shadow  of 
death,"  and  denotes  any  vale  of  tears. 

Bac'cM-des. 

A  Syrian  general  sent  by  Demetrius  I.  at 
the  (lost-  of  i(!2  B.  c.  to  i)lace  Alcimus  in  the 
high  ]>riesthood,  and  to  subjugate  rebellious 
.ludah  (1  .Mac.  vii.  s-20).  The  next  year  he 
defeated  .ludas  and  .lonalhan  Macc.abaMis ; 
but  his  third  campaign,  which  he  undertook 
in  1.57  B.  c,  was  mit  successful,  and  he  re- 
turned discouniged  (ix.  1-57;  59-72). 

Badg'er. 

Tlie  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  word  Tithnsh 
in  the  A.  V.  (Ex.  xxvi.  14  ;  xxxv.  7;  Xum. 
iv.  25;  Ezek.  xvi.  10).  It  was  an  animal.  Its 
skin  was  used  for  the  outer  covering  of  the 
tabernacle,  and  f<u'  sindals.  Tristram  siys 
that  the  coniiiion  badger.  Milis  rnhidiis.  is  not 
rare  in  the  hilly  and  woodeil  parts  of  Pales- 
tine, but  it  does  not  seem  to  be  alltuled  to  in 
the  Bible.     See  Skai.,  I. 

Bse'an. 

i'roliably  a  Bedouin  tribe  which  made  pri'd- 


Bagpipe 


68 


Balak 


atory  incursions  (1  Mac.  v.  4).  Blau  has,  how- 
ever, suggested  that  it  luay  be  the  name  of 
the  i)hKe  which  is  called  Biijaa  in  the  iu- 
scriiilion  at  K:iniak,  and  which  was  situated 
in  tlir  region  indicated  by  the  narrative. 

Bag'pipe. 

Tlic  rendering  on  the  margin  of  the  R.  V. 
of  the  Aranuiic  l^Hmpliuuci/u  in  Dan.  iii.  5,  7, 
10,  lo.  The  texts  of  the  A.  V.  and  R.  V. 
translate  it  Dulcimer.  Sumphoncf/a  is  ap- 
parently from  the  Greek  snmphoiiia,  sym- 
I>hony,  unison  of  .sounds.  The  bagpipe  is 
known  in  Italy  l)y  the  name  sambogna,  and 
in  Asia  jMiuor  as  sanibonya,  names  which  re- 
call Kiimph()Hci/(t.  The  iustrunient  is  used  also 
in  Egypt  and  Arabia,  where  it  consists  of  a 
leathern  bag  in  which  two  pipes  are  inserted, 
one  for  iuHatiug  the  bag,  the  other  for  play- 
ing uiKiu  with  the  fingers. 

Ba-ha'rum-ite. 

An  inhabitant  of  Bahurim  (1  Chron.  xi.  33). 

Ba-hu'rim  [young  men]. 

A  village  near  the  mount  of  Olives,  on  the 
road  from  Jerusalem  to  the  Jordan  (2  Sam. 
xvi.  5).  It  is  mentioned  repeatedly  in  the 
history  of  David.  Thence  came  Shimei,  who 
cursed  him,  and  in  a  well  thei-e  Jonathan  and 
Ahimaaz  hid  when  pursued  by  the  partisans 
of  Ab.salom  (2  Sam.  iii.  16 ;  xvi.  5 ;  xvii.  lb ; 
xix.  Iti;  1  Kin.  ii.  8). 

Ba'jith  [the  house].  The  Hebrew  text  has 
the  definite  article. 

A  Moabitc  town  or  temple  (Is.  xv.  2). 

Bak-bak'kar. 

A  Levite  (1  Chron.  ix.  15). 

Bak'buk  [a  flagon]. 

One  of  the  Nethinim,  and  founder  of  a 
family,  members  of  which  returned  from  the 
captivity  (Ezra  ii.  .51 ;  Neh.  vii.  53). 

Bak-bu-ki'ah  [efl'usion  of  Jehovah]. 

1.  A  Levite  resident  of  Jerusalem,  and  in 
high  office  immediately  after  the  exile  (Neh. 
xi.  17). 

2.  A  Levite,  perhaps  representative  of  the 
family  of  the  earlier  Levite  of  this  name, 
who  served  as  gatekeeper  of  the  temple  in 
Neheniiah's  time  (Neh.  xii.  25). 

Ba'laam  [jierhaps,  devouring]. 

A  ]>ro]iliet,  the  son  of  Beor.  and  resident 
of  the  Hittitccity  of  Pethor,  on  the  Eujihrates. 
Balak,  king  of  Sloab,  sent  an  embassy  to  him, 
consisting  of  elders  of  Moab  and  Midiau, 
otfering  him  great  reward  to  cnr.se  the  Israel- 
ites, that  it  might  afterwards  be  more  easy 
to  (b'stroy  them  in  l)attle.  He  answered  the 
deputies  that  he  could  not  do  so  without  the 
consent  of  Jehovah,  the  God  of  Israel.  Con- 
sent was,  of  course,  refused.  Balak  disj)atched 
more  honorable  negotiators,  not  tdders,  but 
princes.  Balaam  rciilicd  that  not  for  a  house 
full  of  gold  and  silver  would  he  go  beyond 
the  word  of  Jehovah.  Applying  again  to 
God  for  permission  to  go,  he  was  allowed  to 
accompany  the  men,  on  condition  of  utter- 
itig  only  tiie  divine  words  put  into  his  mouth. 


On  the  way  an  angel  of  the  Lord  with  drawn 
sword,  visible  to  the  ass  on  which  Balaam  rode 
but  nott<j  its  rider,thrice  disputed  his  progress. 
The  ass  refused  to  go  forward.  When  beaten, 
voice  was  given  tc)  it.  and  it  sjioke  out.  and 
finally  Balaam  himself  was  iiermitted  to  see 
the  angel,  and  learn  the  peril  he  was  in.  He 
otiered  to  turn  back,  but  was  allowed  to  go 
forward,  on  the  same  stringent  condition  as 
before.  Balak  nu't  him  on  the  banks  of  the 
Arnon,  and  conducted  him  to  Kiriath-huzoth 
(the  city  of  streets),  probably  the  same  as 
Kiriathaim,  on  the  first  conspicuous  emi- 
nence after  passing  the  Arnon.  After  ofler- 
ing  sacrifices,  prol)al)ly  on  the  toj)  of  'Attarus, 
with  its  commanding  luosjiect,  the  two,  ac- 
companied by  the  princes  of  ^Sloab,  went 
northward  to  the  high  i>laces  of  Baal,  from 
which  elevated  spot  the  whole  camp  of  Israel 
was  visible  (Num.  xxii.  1-41).  After  .sacri- 
fices on  seven  altars,  J5alaam  went  alone  to  a 
bare  height.  There  the  word  of  the  Lord 
came  to  him.  He  returned  to  Balak,  and 
blessed  the  jieople  he  had  been  invited  to 
curse  (xxiii.  1-12).  Balak  was  dreadfully 
disappointed,  but  it  occurred  to  him  that  the 
Israelites  when  all  visible  at  once  looked  too 
imposing  ;  if  Balaam  saw  only  the  outlying 
part  of  their  camp,  perhaps  he  might  be  able 
to  curse  them.  He  took  Balaam  to  the  top 
of  Pisgah  and  sacrificed  as  before ;  but  the 
only  result  was  fresh  blessing  instead  of 
cursing  (13-26).  A  third  attempt  was  made, 
with  the  usual  preliminaries,  the  station  this 
time  being  the  top  of  Peor,  on  the  ridge  north 
of  Nebo.  Not  merely  was  there  blessing  in 
the  most  decided  language,  but  the  utterance 
ended  with  a  prophecy  that  Israel  should 
ultimately  conquer  Moab.  Balak  was  en- 
raged at  what  he  considered  Balaam's  treach- 
ery, and  dismissed  him  to  his  own  country 
without  conferring  on  him  the  intended  honor 
(xxiii.  27-xxiv.  25).  Balaam,  however,  be- 
fore quitting  the  country,  suggested  that  if 
the  Israelites  could  be  seduced  into  the  idol- 
atry and  the  impurity  of  the  worship  i)rac- 
ticed  in  Baal-peor.  Jehovah  would  leave  them 
to  their  fate.  The  evil  counsel  was  taken, 
with  the  result  of  heavy  judgment  on  the 
Israelites.  In  the  war  waged  by  the  Israel- 
ites to  execute  vengeance  on  the  Midianites, 
Balaam  was  slain  (xxxi.  8. 16).  Various  other 
O.  T.  books  and  some  of  the  N.  T.  writers 
refer  to  Balaam's  character  and  fate  (Dent, 
xxiii.  4. 5 ;  Josh.  xxiv.  9,  10  ;  Neh.  xiii.  2  :  Mic. 
vi.  5;  2  Pet.  ii.  15;  Jude  11 ;  Rev.  ii.  14). 

Ba'lac.    See  Balak. 

Bal'a-dan  [a  son  he  hath  given].  The  name 
is  abl)reviated  by  omission  of  the  name  of 
some  god  who  bestowed  the  son. 

Father  of  Merodach-baladau  (Is.  xxxix.  1). 

Ba'lah.    See  Baalah  3. 

Ba'lak,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Balac  [emptying]. 

A  Moabite  king,  sou  of  Zii)por,  who  lured 

Balaam  from  Pethor  to  curse  Israel  (Num. 


Bald  Locust 


69 


Baptism 


xxii.-xxiv. ;  Josh.  xxiv.  9  ;  Judg.  xi.  25;  Mic. 
vi.  T) :  I{ev.  ii.  14). 

Bald  Lo'cust. 

TIk'  rciidiTiii^  of  tlic  Hebrew  !^urain,  con- 
suiiuT.  An  iiiikiiown  speeies  of  locust  or 
f^nissliojuier  (Lev.  ,\i.  '22).  There  is  iiothiug 
ill  the  llel)re\v  etyiiioloffv  to  suggest  that  the 
auiinal  liail  a  l)al(l  ai)i>earauce. 

Balm,  Balm  of  Gil'e-ad. 

Tlic  leiidciini;  of  the  Hchrcw  wnvd  f^ri, 
ooze,  a  ve}ictal)le  inodiut  obtained  esjieeially 
in  (Jilead  Mien,  .x.xxvii.  "J.") ;  ,h-r.  \iu.22:  .xlvi. 
11 1,  and  e.xported  from  Palestine  (Gen.  xxxvii. 
27i :  E/.ek.  .\xvii.  17).  It  was  used  as  an  oint- 
ment for  the  healing  of  wounds  (Jer.  li.  8). 
It  was  onee  strongly  believed,  and  still  is  by 
many,  that  the  balm  of  (iilead  was  opobal- 
sauunn.  a  greenish-yellow  oily  resin  of  the 
consistency  of  honey,  to  which  wonderful 
healing  virtues  were  attributed.  It  conies 
from  a  tree,  lialKtiniodendran  opubiilndiiiuiii  or 
ililruilensi',  bebtiigiiif;  to  the  order  Aini/iidnceie 
(Aini/ri(h).  It  is  from  six  to  ei;,dit  feet  high. 
But  the  identification  of  the  oiioliaisainmn 
with  the  balm  of  (iilead  is  rendered  (loiil)tful 
by  the  fact  that  the  tree  producing  it  is  not 
iiow  found  in  (iilead,  even  in  gardens,  and 
there  is  no  proof  that  it  ever  existed  in  that 
locality.  It  is  a  native  of  .\rabia  and  Xubia, 
and  hence  is  often  culled  the  balm  of  Mecca. 
On  the  margin  of  K.  V.  (Gen.  xxxvii.  "J."))  the 
Word  is  rendered  by  mastic.  Pixtncid  leiiti.scu.s, 
a  bushy  evergreen  tree,  about  twelve  feet 
high.  It  grew  in  Palestine  (I'liny  14,  2.")). 
The  transparent,  pah'  yellow,  fragrant  gum 
was  used  for  incense  and,  when  dissolved  in 
water,  as  an  ointineiit;  whih;  oil  obtained 
from  the  bark,  leaves,  and  berries  was  used 
as  a  medicine.  ,Iosepliiis  mentions  a  iilaiit 
bearing  very  ]irecious  l)alsam  as  cultivated  at 
Jericiio.  but  he  does  not  give  details  sufficient 
for  it.s  identilication  (.\nti(i.  xiv.  4,  1  ;  xv.  4, 
2;  War  i.  U,  (i).  Nor  can  it  be  examined  now, 
for  it  has  been  extinct,  it  is  believed,  since 
the  tiiiu'  of  the  crusades. 

Bal'sam  Tree. 

Tile  remlering  of  Hebrew  Ihika'  on  the 
margin  <ri'  I's.  Ixxxiv.  (J;  2  Sam.  v.  23,  24;  1 
Cliron.  xiv.  14,  1.")  in  R.  V.  The  plant  grew 
near  .lerusalem.  The  .\rabs  apjily  the  name 
lo  a  l)usli  which  ^rows  near  Mecca,  resembles 
the  balsam  (see  Hai.mi,  and  liasa  white,  acrid 
sip. 

Ba'mah  [hi-b  i)lace]   (Kzek.  xx.  29).     See 

llKill    l'l,A(   KS. 

Ba'moth  Ihi^'h  iilaces]. 

.\n  encampment  of  the  Israelites  north  of 
the  .\rnoii.  pidl)ably  an  abbreviation  of 
liainoth-haal  (  Num.  xxi.  19). 

Ba'moth-ha'al  [liiKh  places  of  Haal]. 

.\  place  north  of  the  .\riion.  jirobably  that 
at  which  the  Israelites  tem|iorarily  encam[)ed, 
lo  which  Halak  took  Halaam,  and  whence 
llie  jilains  of  Moab  were  visilile  ( Num.  xxi. 
I!';  xxii.  41.  K.  V.  margin).      It  was  within 


the  limits  of  the  tribe  of  Reuben  (Josh.  xiii. 
17  ;  where  it  is  named  between  Dibon  and 
Heth-baal-meon).  It  is  believed  to  be  one  of 
the  peaks  of  the  long  ridge  of  "Attarus  on  the 
south  bank  of  the  Zerka  Ma 'in. 

Ba'ni  [built]. 

1.  \  Gadite,  one  of  David's  mighty  men  (2 
Sam.xxiii.  3<)).  Textual  criticism  is  still  un- 
able to  determine  the  text  of  this  verse  and 
of  1  (,'hron.  xi.  38.  One  or  both  may  need 
revision. 

2.  A  descendant  of  Judah  through  Perez 
(1  Chrou.  ix.  4,  R.  V.). 

3.  Founder  of  a  family,  membei-s  of  which 
returned  from  Babylonia  with  Zerubbabel 
(Ezra  ii.  10).  Some  of  them  took  foreign 
wives  (x.  29).  The  family's  representative 
sealed  the  covenant  (Neh.  x.  14).  Called  also 
Binnui  (Neh.  vii.  15). 

4.  A  Levite  of  the  family  of  Merari  (1 
Chrou.  vi.  4(i). 

5.  A  Levite  who  lived  before  the  return 
from  exile,  of  the  sons  of  Asaph  and  hence 
of  the  family  of  ({ershom  i  Neh.  xi.  22). 

6.  A  Levite,  father  of  Rehum  (Neh.  iii.  17)  ; 
jierhai)s  he  who  took  a  iirominent  part  at  the 
feast  of  tabernacles  in  lOzra's  timi^  (Xeh.  viii. 
7;  ix.  4,  5),  and  in  behalf  of  his  house  sealed 
the  covenant  (x.  13). 

7.  A  Levite  (Neh.  ix.  4).  As  the  name  is 
mentioned  twice  in  ver.  4  and  only  once  in 
ver.  5,  it  is  jierliaps  once  corrupt  in  ver.  4. 

8.  Foundi'r  of  house  or  family  (Ezra  x.  34), 
among  whose  descendants  was  a  person  also 
named  Bani  (38). 

Bap'tlsm. 

The  rite  of  washing  with  wafer  as  a  sign 
of  religious  purification  and  consecration. 
Among  the  Jews,  as  elsewhere,  such  wash- 
ings were  frequent ;  some  ]irescribed  in  the 
O.  T.  (e.  (J.  Ex.  xxix.  4 ;  xxx.  20;  xl.  12;  Lev. 
XV.;  xvi.  26,  28;  xvii.  15:  xxii.  4,  (J ;  Num. 
xix.  8)  and  others  the  product  of  later  cus- 
tom (sec  Mark  vii.  3,  4;  Heb.  vi.  2).  Many 
believe  also  that  in  Christ's  time,  as  certainly 
was  the  case  later,  (iroselytes  to  .ludaism  were 
baptized.  Hence  .b)bn,  the  Eoreruimer,  when 
sent  to  call  Israel  to  rei>eiitaiice,  was  directed 
by  God  (Jolin  i.  33)  to  administer  bajiti.sm  to 
those  who  accepted  his  message.  His  rite  is 
called  "  the  ba])tism  of  reiieiitance  unto  remis- 
sion of  sins"  (Slark  i.  4,  R.  V.).  Recipients  of 
it  thereby  acknowledged  their  sins  and  pro- 
fe.s,sed  their  faith  that  through  the  coming 
Messiali  they  would  be  forgiven.  Jesus  sought 
ba]itisni  iiarlly  to  ex]iress  his  sympathy  with 
.John's  work,  partly  to  di'dittite  himself  to  his 
own  work,  and  partly  to  express  his  assumj)- 
tion  of  the  sins  of  men.  The  mode  of  .lohn's 
bai)tism  is  not  described,  but.  as  .lesus  entered 
into  the  .iordan  (Mark  i.M.  ]()),  it  was  probably 
by  affusion  or  by  immersion.  .\t  first  Christ's 
discijiles  continued  to  baptize  the  jieople  as 
John  had  done  (John  iv.  1,  2),  thus  carrying  on 
John's  work,  but  after  Christ's  (ialila-an  min- 
istry Iw-gan,  we  read  of  this  no  more.     But 


Baptism 


70 


Bar-jonah 


in  his  parting  instructions  (Mat.  xxviii.  19), 
Christ  made  bai)tisni  tho  initiatory  ritu  of  his 
t'liurrli,  oiu'  of  the  two  safrauiciits  to  be  ob- 
served by  his  fbUowers.  Hence  we  find  it 
from  the  first  requii-ed  and  administered  by 
the  apostles  and  their  eo-laborers  (Acts  ii.  38. 
41 ;  viii.  12,  38  ;  ix.  18  ;  x.  48  ;  1  Cor.  i.  14,  16, 
etc.).    It  signifies  and  seals  a  believer's  union 


Ancient  representation  of  the  Baptism  of  Christ, 
from  a  Church  in  Ravenna.  John  stands  on 
the  river  bank,  our  Lord  in  the  water.  The 
river  Jordan  is  symbolized  by  the  sitting  figure. 

witli  Chi-ist  through  repentance  and  faith  ; 
the  removal  of  his  sins  by  Christ's  death  and 
the  Spirit's  operation  in  liim  ;  and  his  en- 
gagement to  be  the  Lord's  (Rom.  vi.  4;  Gal. 
iii.  27;  Col.  ii.  11,  12;  1  Tet.  iii.  21).  Chris- 
tians have  ditt'ered,  even  from  early  times,  as 
to  the  mode  of  baptism.  While  the  word  is 
derived  from  a  verb,  bnptizd,  which  means 
etymologically  to  immerse,  this  does  not 
prove  that  immersion  was  the  mode  always 
practiced  nor  that  it  is  necessary.  In  fact, 
instances  occur  where  the  word  plainly  does 
not  mean  immerse  (e.  (i.  Luke  xi.  38,  in  Eng- 
lish version  "  wash,"  and  probably  Mark  vii. 
4).  The  Scrijitures  nowhere  describe,  much 
less  prescribe,  the  mode.  In  the  jiost-apos- 
tolic  times  both  innner.sion  and  atfusion  were 
used.  The  Eastern  churches  and  the  Protes- 
tant Baptists  still  yiractice  immersion,  the 
Latin  Church  generally  uses  atfusion,  while 
most  Protestants  use  allusion  or  asjKM-siou 
(sprinkling).  Prol)ably  tlie  mode  varied  even 
in  apostolic  times.  According  to  Christ's  com- 
mand, it  is  to  be  administered  in  the  name 
of  the  Trinity.  Modern  15a)dists  contend 
that  bai>tisni  should  only  be  administered  to 
adult  believers.  The  Churcli,  however,  from 
the  earliest  time  has  administered  it  also  to 
children  who  have  sjjonsors  to  care  for  their 
Christian  nurture.  It  is  certainly  scriptural 
to  do  tliis  to  children  of  believers,  since  St. 
Paul  expressly  teaches  (Gal.  iii.  l.")-2!))  that 
believers  in  Christ  are  under   the   gracious 


l)rovisions  of  the  covenant  which  God  made 
with  Abraham.  Under  that  covi-nant  cir- 
cumcision was  a<lniinistered  to  children  as  a 
sign  of  their  particijiation  in  the  relation  in 
which  their  parents  stood  to  God.  The  chil- 
dren of  Ciiristian  believers  have  therelore  a 
similar  right  to  the  ordinance  which  has  re- 
])laced  circumcision. 

The  jilirase  "baptized  for  the  dead'"  (1 
Cor.  XV.  29)  is  difiicult  to  explain.  It  i)rob- 
ably  either  means  "bai)ti/.ed  with  a  view  to 
the  world  of  the  dead  into  which  we  are 
going."  or  refers  to  a  custom  of  baj>ti7.ing  one 
per.son  in  place  of  another  who  has  died,  a 
custom  which  Paul  might  cite  for  his  argu- 
ment without  approving.  (;.  T.  p. 

Bar-ab'has  [son  of  a  father]. 

A  rol)ber  who  had  made  an  insurrection  in 
which  he  had  committed  murder.  He  was  a 
notable  prisoner  when  Jesus  was  arrested. 
Pilate,  anxious  that  Jesus  should  be  released, 
offered  the  Jews  the  option  of  releasing  Jesus 
or  Baralibas,  and  thev  chose  Barabbas  (Mat. 
xxvii.  Kj,  17,  20,  21,  2()), 

Bar'a-chel  [God  has  blessed], 
A    Buzite,    father   of    Elihu,    Job's   friend 
(Job  xxxii.  2,  6). 

Bar-a-chi'ah,   in   A.    V.    Barachias,    the 

Greek  modification  of  the  Hebrew  name  [Je- 
hovah hath  blessed]. 

Father  of  that  prophet,  Zachariah,  who  was 
slain  between  the  temple  and  the  altar  (JIat. 
xxiii.  3."')i.     See  Zachariah. 

Ba'rak  [lightning]. 

An  Israelite,  belonging  to  the  city  of  Kedesh- 
naphtali,  who  at  the  command  of  Deborah 
the  prophetess,  called  together  10,t)00  men  of 
Naplitali  and  Zebulun,  with  whom  lie  routed 
Sisera,  Jabin's  connnander-in-chief,  and  de- 
stroyed his  army  (Judg.  iv.  1-24:  v.  1,  12; 
Heb'.  xi.  .'52). 

Bar-ba'ri-an. 

1.  Originally  one  who  did  not  speak  the 
Greek  language.  The  phrase  Hellenes  and 
barbarians  embraced  all  nations  (cp.  Eom.  i. 
14).  There  lieing  nothing  oflensive  in  the 
word,  the  Koinans  and  the  Jews  were  content 
to  be  called  barbarians. 

2.  Later,  one  who  did  not  belong  to  the 
cultivated  Hellenic  race  Icp.  Col.  iii.  11). 

3.  One  who  spoke  an  unintelligible  foreign 
tongue  (1  Cor.  xiv.  11). 

Bar-hu'mite. 

I'r((bably  a  misreading  of  Baharumite  (2 
Sam.  xxiii.  31  with  1  Cliron.  xi.  33). 

Ba-ri'ah  [fugitive]. 

A  descendant  of  Shecaniah  (1  Chron.  iii. 
22). 

Bar-je'sus.     See  Elymas. 

Bar-Jo'nah,  in  A.  V.  Bar-jona  [son  of 
Jonah]. 

A  surname  of  the  apostle  Peter,  meaning 
that  he  was  the  son  of  a  man  named  Jonah 
(Mat.  xvi.  17). 


Barkos 


71 


Barzillai 


Bar'kOB  [painter]. 

(Jiic  of  the  Xctliiiiim.  who  foiiiuled  a  fam- 
ily, iiU'iiihiTsof  which  rt'tiiriR'd  from  the  cap- 
tivity (l'>.i:i  ii.  'y.i;   Neh.  vii.  .V)). 

Bar'ley. 

A  rcroal  grain,  ralk'd  hy  tiie  Hehrews 
S''oriih,  the  hairy,  hristliiig  tiling,  and  iiy  the 
(freel\S  Krilliui,  and  hirgeiy  cultivated  in 
I'aleslini-  (Until  i.  'J-Jl.  Kgyiit  (K.\.  ix.  .'ni,  and 
the  adjacent  regions,  and  made  into  cakes  or 
loavi's  (.ludg.  vii.  1:5;  John  vi.  S)).  The  sev- 
eral harleys  helong  to  the  genus  llordemn. 
Tliey  are  cereal  grasses,  with  the  spikelets, 
which  are  in  threes,  on  opposite  sides  of  the 
racliis  or  llower  axis,  so  as  to  form  a  two- 
sided  spike.  Ten  species  are  known,  of  which 
Tristram  found  six  in  Palestine,  one  of  them, 
lluriliitiii  ulliiihitri'iisc.  from  mount  Tahor,  being 
])eculiar  to  the  Holy  J.,and.  That  now  culti- 
vated ill  I'alesline  is  chiefly  Jlnidcam  dis- 
tii-huiii,  which  has  only  the  central  floret  fer- 
tile, the  two  .side  ones  being  abortive. 

Bar'na-bas  [son  of  projihecy,  especially  of 
])n)|piie>yiug  which  takes  the  form  of  ex- 
iiortalioii  or  consolation]. 

The  suriianie  of  Joses,  a  Levitc  of  Cyprus, 
who.  early  converted  to  (Jhristianity,  sold  his 
land  and  laid  the  price  at  the  feet  of  the 
ai)oslies  in  .lerusalem  (Acts  iv.  3(),  ;{7).  When 
the  (  iiristians  of  .lerusalem  were  afraid  to  re- 
<'eive  the  new  convert  Paul,  Barnabas  spoke 
ill  his  behalf,  and  removed  their  ai)])relien- 
sions  (ix.  27}.  On  the  re|)ort  rea(diing  .leru- 
.salem  that  Christians  of  ('v]>rus  and  Cyreiie 
had  been  iiroclaiining  the  gospel  with  great 
success  to  ( ireeks  as  well  as  to  .Jews  at  Antioch 
of  Syria,  the  Church  sent  Barnabas  thither, 
and  he  aided  in  t\w  work  (xi.  lit  24).  From 
.\ntinch  he  Went  to  Tarsus  and  brought  back 
Saul  (xi.  2->-:M>}.  ].,ater  the  two  were  dis- 
patched to  carry  alms  to  their  brethren  at 
Jerusalem,  theii  siitfering  from  famine  (27- 
•iO).  Uetnrning  with  John  Mark  to  Antioch 
(xii.  -J.")),  they  weri'  sent  forth  by  the  church 
on  a  mission  to  the  gentiles  (xiii.  2).  They 
visited  Cyprus,  and  went  thence  to  Perga, 
Antioch  in  Pisidia,  Iconiiim,  Lystra,  and 
Derbe.  At  Lystra  the  simple  inhabitants 
mist(Hik  Barnabas  for  tlieir  supreme  god 
Jupiter,  and  Paul,  who  perhaps  was  the  cliii-f 
speaker  and  less  imposing  in  a]>pearance.  for 
Mercury,  the  messt'iiger  of  the  gods  (xiii.  .'{- 
xiv.  2"^l.  Having  retiirnecl  to  .\ntioch  of 
Syria,  they  were  .sent  by  the  church  to  the 
council  of  .lerusjilem.  Barnabas  si)oke,  as 
<lid  Paul  (XV.  1,  2,  12).  At  the  clo.se  the  two 
Were  commissioned  to  <'arry  the  deci-ees  of 
the  council  to  the  churches  in  Syria  and 
Asia  Minor  (22  :il).  After  further  labors  at 
Antioch  i'Ct),  Paul  ])ro])(ised  a  second  niis- 
siouary  journey.  Bai-iiabas  was  ipiile  willing, 
but  desired  to  have  with  him  his  young  rela- 
tive. John  Mark  (Col.  iv.  10).  To  this  Paul 
objected,  as  John  Mark  had  lost  heart  and 
g'liie  home  from  Perga  on  the  former  tour. 
Kaeli  maintained  his  view  peitiiiacioiisly.  and 


the  two  evangelists  separated  and  went  dif- 
ferent ways.  Barnabas  with  Mark  sailed 
again  to  Cyprus,  while  Paul  went  on  to  Asia 
Minor  (:5(>-41).  15ut  their  mutual  all'ection  did 
not  cease.  Paul,  in  his  epistles,  sjieaks  in  a 
friendly  way  of  Barnabas  (1  Cor.  ix.  (J :  Gal. 
ii.  1,  !»,  1.3;  C(d.  iv.  10),  and  yet  more  so  of 
John  Mark,  about  whom  the  tjuarrel  arose  (2 
Tim.  iv.  11). 

Bar-sab'bas,  in  A.  V.  Bar'sa-bas  [son  of 
Sabba  (?)]. 

1.  The  surname  of  the  Jo.sejdi  who  stood 
candidate  for  the  apostleship  against  Matthias 
(Acts  i.  2:5). 

2.  The  surname  of  the  Judas  who  was  sent 
to  Antioch  as  a  delegate  of  the  metropolitau 
church  with  Paul,  Baruabas,  and  Silas  (Acta 
XV.  22). 

Bar-thoro-mew  [son  of  Tolmai]. 

One  uf  (he  twelve  apostles  (Mat.  x.  3;  Mark 
iii.  IS  ;  Luke  vi.  14  ;  Acts  i.  Vi).  As  in  the 
first  three  of  these  passages  the  name  of 
Bartholomew  immediately  follows  that  of 
Philip,  and  nearly  does  so  in  the  fourth, 
Bartholomew  was  probaldy  the  surname  of 
Nathaiiael,  who  was  led  to  Christ  bv  Philip 
(John  i.   1.").  4()). 

Bar-ti-mse'us  [sou  of  Timseus]. 

A  l)lind  man  healed  bv  .Jesus  at  Jericho 
(Mark  x.  4()). 

Ba'ruch  [blessed]. 

1.  A  member  of  the  family  of  Neriah,  and 
a  friiiid  of  Jeremiah.  He  had  custody  of  the 
deed  of  the  field  imrchased  to  testify  that 
land  should  again  l)e  bought  after  the  exile 
(Jer.  xxxii.  12-l(ij.  In  the  fourth  year  of 
.Jelioiakim,  he  wrote  the  i)rophecies  of  Jere- 
miah at  the  ])rophet's  dictation  (xxxvi.  1-8). 
In  the  following  year  he  ]iul)licly  read  them 
on  the  fast  day  (10),  and  afterwanls  before 
the  princes,  who  took  possession  of  the  roll 
(14-20).  The  king,  on  hearing  the  opening 
sentences,  burnt  the  roll  and  ordered  the 
.seizure  of  the  i)ro]iliet  and  the  scribe,  but  they 
escajied  (21-211).  Baruch  made  a  new  cojiy 
with  .additions  (xxxvi.  27-:{2).  When  Zede- 
kiah  cast  the  i)roi)het  into  ])rison.  Baruch  re- 
mained by  him  (xxxii.  12.  Ki).  and  was  one 
of  tlio.se  taken  with  .Ii-remiah  to  Egypt  (.Jer. 
xliii.  1-7).  For  the  book  bearing  the  name 
of  liiiruch.  see  .Vi'dirvpha. 

2.  .Son  of  Zabbai.  He  repaired  part  of  the 
wall  of  .Jerusalem  (Neh.  iii.  20).  He  is  per- 
hajis  the  iierson  of  that  name  who  sealed  the 
covenant  (x.  (i). 

3.  A  man  of  Judali.  of  the  Shiloiiite  fam- 
ily (Neh.  xi.  n). 

Bar-zil'la-i  [made  of  iron]. 

1.  A  wealthy  (iih'adile  of  Kogelim,  east  of 
the  .lordaii.  He  showed  David  jwincely  hos- 
l>itality,  sending  him  an<l  his  army  foo<l  and 
other  necessaries  while  the  fugitive  king  was 
at  .Mahanaim  during  .Misilom's  rebellion  (2 
Sam.  xvii.  27  2!ii.  Aft<r  the  victory,  Barzil- 
lai escorted  l)avid  over  the  .lordan.  and  was 
iiiviteil    to   become   a    iiieiiiber  ol'  the  king's 


Bascama 


72 


Bat 


household  and  court  at  Jerusalem,  but  he 
excused  himsolf  on  account  of  his  jireat  aj^e 
— eijfhty  years.  It  was  therefore  arran^u'd 
that  his  son  Cliiinham  should  go  in  liis  stead 
(xix.  31-40). 

2.  A  Meholathite,  whose  son  Adriil  mar- 
ried Saul's  daujfhter  Michal  {2  Sam.  xxi.  !S). 

3.  A  ])riest  who  married  a  daiifiliter  of  Bar- 
zillai  the  Gileadite,  and  assumed  his  father- 
in-law's  name  (Ezra  ii.  (Jl ;  Nch.  vii.  63). 

Bas'ca-ma. 

A  town  east  of  the  Jordan  near  which 
Jonathan  Maccabjeus  was  put  to  death,  and 
where  for  a  time  he  was  buried  (1  Mac.  xiii. 
23 ;  and  Antiq.  xiii.  6,  6,  where  it  is  called 
Basca). 

Bas'e-math,  in  A.  "V.  Bashemath,  once 
Basmath  U  Kin.  iv.  15)  [fragrance]. 

1.  One  of  Esau's  wives,  daughter  of  Elon 
the  Hittite  (Gen.  xxvi.  34) ;  in  xxxvi.  2  called 
Adah.     See  Au.\h. 

2.  One  of  Esau's  wives,  a  daughter  of  Ish- 
ruael  and  sister  of  Nebaioth  (Gen.  xxxvi.  3, 
4,  13,  17)  ;  in  xxviii.  9  called  Mahalath. 

3.  A  daughter  of  Solomon  and  wife  of  his 
tax  collector  for  Xaphtali  (1  Kin.  iv.  15). 

Ba'shan  [broad,  open  land]. 

A  region  east  of  the  Jordan.  Its  location 
and  extent  in  O.  T.  times  is  best  learned  from 
its  cities.  Within  its  bounds  were  Golan, 
north  of  the  Yarmuk  (Dent.  iv.  43),  Edrei  and 
Ashtaroth  (Deut.  i.  4),  Salecah  on  the  south- 
ern slope  of  the  Jebel  Hauran  (Deut.  iii.  10 ; 
Josh.  xiii.  11,  both  E.  V.).  That  is  to  say,  it 
extended  southeastwardly  from  the  neighbor- 
hood of  the  upper  Jordan  to  the  border  of 
the  Arabian  desert  south  of  the  Hauran 
mountain.  It  marched  on  the  north  with 
Geshur  aud  Maacah  (Josh.  xii.  5  ;  see  Ar.\m), 
and  contained  '"the  region  of  the  Argob," 
famous  for  sixty  cities  high-walled  (Deut.  iii. 
4,  5 ;  1  Kin.  iv.  13).  So  large  a  number  is 
not  incredible.  In  the  mountainous  parts  of 
the  country  there  are  still  at  least  one  hun- 
dred deserted  cities  and  villages,  many  of 
them  built  of  basalt  aud  with  basaltic  doors 
(Porter,  Cities  of  Bdshun).  Joscphus  identities 
Bashau  with  Gaulonitis  and  Batanea  (Antiq. 
iv.  5,  3  with  1  Kin.  iv.  13 ;  and  ix.  8,  1  with 
2  Kin.  X.  33).  In  the  days  of  Abraham  it 
was  occui)ied  by  a  people  of  es])ecially  large 
and  itowcrful  Imild,  known  as  Kephaim  (Gen. 
xiv.  5).  The  last  king  of  this  race  was  Og,  who 
was  defeated  and  slain  at  Edrei  by  the  Israel- 
ites in  the  time  of  Moses  (Num.  xxi.  3.3-35; 
Detit.  iii.  1-7).  Bashan  was  assigned  to  the 
half  tribe  of  Manasseh  ( Deut.  iii.  13).  It  is  a 
broad,  fertile  jilateau,  of  volcanic  formation, 
and  well  adapted  for  pasture.  It  was  celebrated 
for  its  cattle  (Ps.  xxii.  12;  Ezek.  xxxix.  IM; 
Amos  iv.  1),  aud  for  its  breed  of  sheep  (Deut. 
xxxii.  14).  It  was  celebrated  also  for  its  oak 
trees  (Is.  ii.  13  :  E/.ek.  xxvii.  (! ;  Zecli.  xi.  2). 
Forests  of  ivei'grcen  oak  still  survive. 

Ba'shan-ha'voth-ja'ir ;  rightly  separated 
by  K.  v.,   which  renders  "he  called   them. 


even  Bashan,  after  his  own  name,  Havvoth- 

jair"  (Deut.  iii.  14).     See  H.wvoTH-JAlE. 

Bash'e-math.     See  B.\se.math. 

Bas'i-lisk. 

The  rendering  of  the  R.  V.  of  the  Hebrew 
Sil)liii •  and  Sijih  'oni,  a  venomous  serpent  living 
in  a  liole  (Is.  xi.  «).  It  deposits  eggs,  from 
whicli  its  young  are  hatched  (lix.  5).  It  is 
insensible  to  the  charmer's  arts  (Jer.  viii.  17). 
The  marginal  rendering  is  adder,  except  in 
Prov.  xxiii.  32.  where  adder  is  used  in  the 
text.  Except  in  the  last  case,  the  A.  V.  trans- 
lates the  word  by  cockatrice. 

Ba'sin,  formerly  sjielled  Bason. 

A  ]iortahle  vessel  for  holding  water  for 
washing  and  other  purjjoses  (John  xiii.  5). 

In  the  English  version  the  word  is  used 
for  bowls  and  dishes  of  various  kinds,  espe- 
cially for — 

1.  A  small  vessel,  in  Hebrew  'Aggan  (Is. 
xxii.  24,  rendered  cup),  used  for  wine  (Song 
vii.  2,  rendered  goblet)  and  other  liquids  (Ex. 
xxiv.  6). 

2.  A  shallow  vessel,  in  Hebrew  Saph,  used 
for  domestic  pur])o.ses  (2  Sam.  xvii.  28)  and  to 
receive  the  blood  of  sacrifices  (Ex.  xii.  22). 
They  were  employed  in  the  temple  (Jer.  Iii. 
19,  k  V.  cups;  2  kin.  xii.  13,  A.  V.  bowl,  E. 
V.  cup). 

3.  A  large  bowl,  in  Hebrew  Misrule,  used  in 
the  tabernacle  and  temple,  especially  in  min- 
istrations at  the  great  altar  (Num.  iv.  14),  to 
hold  the  meal  ofi'ering  (Num.  vii.  13.  rendered 
bowl),  and  to  receive  the  blood  of  sacrifices 
(Zech.  ix.  15  with  xiv.  20,  rendered  bowl). 
It  was  made  of  gold,  silver,  or  brass,  and 
burnished  (Ex.  xxvii.  3;  Num.  vii.  84,  ren- 
dered bowl  :  1  Kin.  vii.  45,  50).  Revelers 
sometimes  drank  wine  from  such  vessels 
(Amos  vi.  6,  rendered  bowl). 

Bas'ket. 

Baskets  of  different  sizes,  shapes,  and  con- 
struction were  in  use,  and  various  names 
were  employed  for  them.  As  ancient  sculp- 
tures and  relics  show,  and  as  the  etymology 
denotes,  they  were  woven  open  or  close,  were 
made  of  the  fiber  or  leaves  of  the  palm  tree 
or  of  rushes,  reeds,  twigs,  or  rojies,  tapered  at 
the  top  or  at  the  bottom,  were  shallow  or  deej), 
ornamented  with  colors  or  plain,  small  enough 
to  be  carried  in  the  hand,  or  so  large  that 
they  were  carried  on  the  sboukler  or  head  or 
borne  on  a  pole  between  two  men.  They  were 
employed  for  carrying  fruit  (Deut.  xxvi.  2 ; 
Jer.  vi.  9 ;  xxiv.  2  ;  Amos  viii.  2,  where  in 
each  passage  a  different  Hebrew  word  is 
used)  ;  for  carrying  bread,  cakes,  and  flesh 
(Gen.  xl.  17;  Ex.  xxix.  2,  3;  Lev.  viii.  2; 
Judg.  vi.  19;  ISIark  viii.  19,  20,  where  still 
another  Hebrew  and  two  Greek  names  occur) ; 
for  carrying  clay  to  the  brickyard  and  earth 
for  the  building  of  emhaukmeiits  (Ps.  Ixxxi. 
tj.  Ii.  y. :  see  illustratit)!!  under  Egypt). 

Bas'math.     See   B.\.skmatii. 

Bat. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  word  '"tal- 


Bath 


73 


Bealiah 


leph.  It  was  classed  with  fowls,  and  was 
ceremonially  iiiielfati  (Ix-v.  xi.  1:5,  1!);  Dent, 
xiv.  11,  12.  1S|.  It  hides  itself  rnnn  oliserva- 
titju  in  dark  |>laees  (Is.  ii.  'JO).  The  referi'iicc^ 
is  pretty  elcarly  to  the  hat  order,  of  which 
Tristram  emuiicrates  seventeen  species  as  oc- 
curriiiK  in  I'alestine.  The  bat  is  not  a  bird, 
but  is  a  (juadrui>ed.  covered  witli  hair  instead 
of  feathers,  havin;^  teeth  insteail  of  a  bill,  and 
suckiin;^  its  youn)^  instead  of  laying;  vj^as. 
Nor  is  its  "wing"  u  flying  apparatus  of  the 
bird  type;  it  is  an  unfeathered  membrane 
connecting  the  fore  and  hind  legs. 

Bath. 

A  Hebrew  measure  of  capacity  used  for 
measuring  liipiids  (1  Kin.  vii.  iJI!,  '\H  ;  "2  Chron. 
ii.  1(1;  iv.  .") ;  Ezra  vii.  22).  It  was  the  tenth 
l)art  of  an  homer,  and  corresponds  to  the  dry 
measure  ephali  in  capacity  (I>,ek.  xlv.  lU, 
11.  111. 

Bath'ing. 

Ill  the  warm  climate  of  the  East  frequent 
bathing  is  a  necessitv.  The  daughter  of 
Fhanioh  bathed  in  the  Nile  (Ex.  ii.  .'5).  The 
Egyptians  wore  linen  garments,  constantly 
fresh-washed,  and  their  priests  washed  them- 
selves in  cold  water  twice  every  day  and  twice 
every  night  (Herod,  ii.  iJT).  Egyptians,  He- 
brews, and  .'Syrians  waslied  the  dust  of  the 
road  from  their  feet  when  they  tarried  at  a 
bouse  ((ien.  xviii.  4  ;  xix.  2  ;  xxiv.  '.i2  ;  xliii. 
24;  .John  xiii.  l(t).  If  the  Israelites  con- 
tracted ceremonial  delilement,  they  bathed 
the  body  and  washed  the  raiment  (Lev.  xiv. 
-8 ;  XV.  .5  ;  xvii.  1.") ;  Num.  xix.  7,  8),  either  in 
running  water  (Lev.  xv.  13),  at  a  fountain 
(.ludith  xii.  7,  9;  cji.  .lohn  ix.  7),  in  a  river  (2 
Kin.  V.  10),  or  at  home  in  court  or  garden 
(2  Sam.  xi.  2,  1  ;  cp.  Susanna  1.")).  They  washed 
and  aiiointe(l  themselves  and  jiuton  their  best 
garments  for  gala  and  court  attire  and  on 
l>utting  awav  mourning  (Ex.  xl.  12,  13  ;  Ruth 
iii.  :j;  2  Sani.  xii.  2<»;  .Judith  x.  .'5;  Mat.  vi. 
17).  The  jiriests  washed  tlieir  hands  and 
feet  before  entering  the  sanctuary  or  burning 
an  offering  on  the  altar  ( Ex.  xxx.  19-21).  The 
high  i)riest  bathed  at  his  inauguration  ajid 
on  the  day  of  atonement  before  each  act  of 
Iin.piliation  (Lev.  viii.  (> ;  xvi.  I,  21).  In  tlu; 
time  of  Christ,  the  Jews  washed  their  hands 
bet'ore  eating,  and  washed  orsi)rinkled  them- 
selves on  coming  from  the  market  (Mark  vii. 
•i,  I).  At  this  time  also,  when  (Jreek  and  Roman 
customs  had  gained  en  I  ranee  among  the  .lews, 
there  were  |)ul)lic  baths.  'I'he  warm  springs 
at  Tiberias,  (Jadara,  anil  Callirrhoe,  near  the 
eastern  shore  of  the  Dead  Scii.  were  resorted 
to  fur  health  (.\nti<|.  xvii.  (i,  5  ;  xviii.  2,  3). 
The  lish  ponds  connecteil  with  the  ])alace  at 
.'ericlio  Were  used  for  bathing  and  swimming 
\ntii|.  XV.  3,  :;i. 

Bath-rab'bim  [daughter  of  many  ]ieo])le]. 

One  of  (be  gates  of  Heshbon  ^Song  vii.  4). 

Bath-she'ba  [daughter  of  an  oath]. 

Daughter  of  Eliam,  and  wife  of  Uriah  the 
Hittite  ;  thus  perhaps  the  daughter  of  one, 


as  she  was  the  wife  of  another,  of  David's 
mighty  men.  She  is  the  woman  with  whom 
David  so  shamefully  sinned,  and  who,  after 
flu-  removal  of  her  hiisbanil,  became  the  wife 
of  David  and  mother  ot'  Solomon  (2  Sam.  xi. 
3,  4;  xii.  24  ;  1  Kin.  i.  11).  When  Adonijah 
was  preparing  to  usurj)  the  kingdom,  Bath- 
sheba,  su|)ported  by  the  jirophet  Nathan,  ap- 
jiealed  to  David  in  favor  of  her  own  son  Solo- 
mon, the  result  being  that  .Vdonijairs  enter- 
l)rise  was  thwarted  (1  Kin.  i.  11  .■).■>),  and  him- 
.self  ulliniately  put  to  death  lii.  13-25). 

Bath'-shu-a  [daughter  of  riches  or  .salva- 
tion]. 

1.  The  daughter  of  8hua  (as  the  name  is 
rendered  in  A.  V.)  and  wife  of  .ludah  (1 
Chron.  ii.  .3  ;  see  (Jen.  xxxviii.  2,  12,  liotli  K.V.). 

2.  The  text  of  1  Chron.  iii.  5  refers  to  tlie 
mother  of  Solomon  as  Hath-shua,  the  daugh- 
ter of  Annniel.  Rath-shua  is  probably  merely 
a  misreading  of  Ilath-sheba,  due  to  a  i)ar- 
tialeHaeeiuentoftlie  Hebrew  letter beth.  The 
Sejituagint  has  here  the  usual  form  for  Bath- 
shel)a. 

Bav'vai,  in  A.  V.  Ba'vai. 

A  son  of  Henadad,  who  .superintended  the 
repair  of  part  of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh. 
iii.  1«). 

Bay  Tree. 

The  rendering  in  the  A.  V.  of  the  Hebrew 
'Ezfdh  in  I's.  xxxvii.  3.").  The  plant  referred 
to  by  the  translators  is  Limrus  nubilis,  a  tree 
thirty,  forty,  or  more  feet  high,  with  lauce- 
sha])ed  evergreen  aromatic  leaves,  inconspic- 
uous flowers,  and  cherry-like  fruits.  Tristram 
met  with  it  on  Carniel,  Tabor,  and  in  (lilead. 
The  K.  V.  renders  ' K::r<ih  "a  green  tree  in  its 
native  soil,"  which,  of  course,  tends  to  flourish 
better  than  a  transplanted  and,  jierhaps,  a 
sickly  exotic.  The  .same  Hebrew  word  is 
used  in  Lev.  xvi.  29;  xviii.  2(),  for  a  native 
as  distinguished  from  a  man  from  another 
country. 

Baz'lith  or  Baz'luth  [nakedness].  Either 
form  is  in  itself  legitimate. 

One  of  the  Nethinim  and  founder  of  a 
fannly,  meml)ers  of  which  returned  from 
captivity  (Ezra  ii.  52;  Neh.  vii.  54). 

Bdell'ium. 

The  rendering  of  tlie  Hebrew  B'lhilnh,  a 
substance  of  the  same  color  as  manna  (Num. 
xi.7),and  found  like  gold  and  the  onyx  stone 
or  the  beryl  in  the  land  of  Havilah  ((ien.  ii. 
12).  The  (Jreeks  gave  the  name  hitillioii  to  a 
transparent,  waxy,  fragrant  gum  obtained 
from  a  tree  in  Arabia,  Habylonia,  India,  and 
Media.  The  best  came  from  Bactria.  As 
gold,  the  onyx,  and  the  beryl,  belong  to  tlie 
mineral  kingdom,  buUiJuh  may  jierhajis  also. 
The  Sei>fuagint  translates  it  in  (ien.  ii.  12 
anihrii.r.  the  carbuncle,  ruby,  and  garnet; 
and  in  Num.  xi.  7,  knt.stallos,  rock  crystal. 

Be-a-li'ah  [.Jehovah  is  Lord]. 
\  Benjamite  warriiir  who  came  to  David  at 
Ziklag  (1  Chron.  xii.  5). 


Bealoth 


74 


Bed 


Be'a-lotli  [literally  mistresses,  possessors]. 

1.  A  villiifjc  ill  the  extreme  south  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  '21).     Site  imkiiowii. 

2.  A  loeality  in  the  vicinity  of  the  tribe  of 
Asher,  perhaps  known  t)y  this  name  (1  Kiu. 
iv.  16,  11.  v.).    See  Alotu. 

Bean. 

Beans  were  used  for  food  (2  Sam.  xvii.  28), 
and  oeeasionally.  i'si>ecialiy  during  famine, 
were  mixed  with  Lcrain  and  made  into  a 
coarse  bread  (K/ek.  iv.  9).  Tlie  common 
beau,  Vicia  faha,  is  still  known  in  Palestine 
by  the  O.  T.  name  for  beau. 

Bear. 

The  Syrian  bear  ( Ursiis  sijriacits)  is  of  a 
yellowish-brown  color,  and,  unless  i>ressed  by 
uecessity,  lives  chielly'ou  vt'^ictahlc  food.  But 
all  bears  are  dangerous  when  meddled  with 
(Is.  xi.  7 ;  Amos  v.  19),  especially  when  robbed 
of  their  whelps  (2  Sam.  xvii.  8  ;  Prov.  xvii. 
12;  llosca  xiii.  8).  Though  now  almost  con- 
tined  to  Ijebanou,  on  the  west  of  the  .Jordan, 
aud  Hermou,  Gilead,  and  Bashau,  on  the  east 
of  the  river,  it  anciently  roamed  over  the 
land  (cp.  Prov.  xxviii.  15).  David  killed  one 
iu  the  vicinity  of  Bethlehem  (1  Sam.  xvii. 
34),  and  near  Bethel  two  she  bears,  which 
came  out  of  the  woods,  tore  in  ])ieces  forty- 
two  young  persons  who  mocked  Elisha  (2 
Kin.  ii.  24). 

The  bear  of  Dan.  vii.  5,  commissioned  to 
devour  much  Hesh,  was  the  Medo-Persiau 
empire,  one  of  four  successive  empires  of  the 
world.  The  four  beasts  of  Daniel  are  com- 
bined in  one  beast  in  Rev.  xiii.  2,  to  symbol- 
ize all  the  power  of  the  world.  The  feet  are 
bear's  feet. 

Beard. 

The  beard  was  cherished  as  the  badge  of 
manly  dignity.  Its  neglect  was  an  outward 
sign  of  mental  aberration  (1  Sam.  xxi.  1.3)  or 
of  affliction  (2  Sam.  xix.  24).  As  a  mark  of 
nunirning  it  was  customary  to  pluck  it  out 
or  cut  it  oil'  (Ezra  ix.  '.i  ;  Is.  sv.  2  ;  Jer.  xli. 
5;  Herod,  ii.  30).  The  king  of  the  Ammon- 
ites grievou.sly  insulted  David's  ambassadors 
when,  among  other  acts,  he  shaved  otf  one 
lialf  of  their  beards  (2  Sam.  x.  4,  5;  cp. 
Herod,  ii.  121,  4).  The  ancient  Egyptians 
shaved  the  head  and  the  face,  but  often  wore 
a  false  beard.  They  let  the  hair  and  beard 
grow  as  a  sign  of  mourning  (Herod,  ii.  3()). 
Hence  Jo.seph,  when  released  from  i)risou, 
shaved  the  beard  in  order  to  apjtear  l)efore 
Pharaoh  ((Jen.  xli.  14).  The  ])ractiee  of  shav- 
ing oft"  the  corners  of  the  beard  (Lev.  xix.  27  ; 
Jer.  ix.  2():  xxv.  23,  both  K.  V.)  was  jirobably 
a  heathenish  sign,  as  the  Arabs  shaved  the 
side  of  the  face  between  the  ear  and  the  eye 
in  honor  of  their  god  Orotal  (Herod,  iii.  8). 

Beast. 

1.  A  mauunal.  not  man,  as  distinguished 
from  a  fowl  of  (he  air  aud  a  creeping  thing 
(Gen.  i.  29.  ."!()).  The  wild  beasts  are  distin- 
guished   from    domesticated    animals    (Lev. 


xxvi.  22 ;  Is.  xiii.  21,  22 ;  xxxiv.  14 :  Jer.  1. 
39;  Mark  i.  13). 

2.  Any  of  the  inferior  animals,  including 
reptiles  and  birds,  as  distinguished  from  man 
(Ps.  cxlvii.  9;  Ecc.  iii.  19  ;  Acts,  xxviii.  5).  In 
this  sense  there  was  a  distinction  drawn  un- 
der the  Mosaic  law  between  ceremonially 
clean  and  unclean  beasts. 

3.  Figuratively,  a  fierce  destructive  power. 
Four  successive  empires,  beginning  with  the 
Babylonian,  are  thus  symb(jlized  in  Dan.  vii. 
The  four  beasts,  combined  int()  a  comjiosite 
monster,  reiireseut  llie  power  of  the  world  iu 
Ivev.  xiii.  l-lii,  with  its  seat  transferred  from 
Babylon  to  Kome,  xvii.  3-18.  A  beast  with 
lamb's  horns  represents  false  i)rophecy  (xiii. 
11-18),  which  is  a  ravening  wolf  in  shee])'s 
clothing.  The  beasts  of  Kev.  iv.  (j-9  of  the 
A.  V.  are  very  properly  altered  to  "living 
creatures"  in  the  E.  V. 

Be'bai. 

The  founder  of  a  family,  some  of  whose 
members  returned  from  the  captivity  (Ezra 
ii.  11  ;  viii.  11  ;  Neh.  vii.  IG). 

Be'cher  [young  camel]. 

1.  A  son  of  Benjamin  (Gen.  xlvi.  21 ;  1 
Chroii.  vii.  6).  His  descendants  were  ap- 
parently too  few  at  the  beginning  to  form  a 
tribal  family,  at  least  they  found  no  ])laee  in 
the  registry  of  families  (Num.  xxvi.  38  :  1 
Chron.  viii.  1-6),  but  they  ultimately  in- 
creased to  nine  fathers'  houses,  inhabiting 
Anathoth  and  other  towns  in  the  territory 
of  Benjamin  and  mustering  20,200  men  (1 
Chron.  vii.  8,  9). 

2.  A  son  of  Ephraim,  and  founder  of  a 
family  (Num.  xxvi.  35  ;  reference  to  Becher 
lacking  iu  the  Septuagint).  He  is  not  men- 
tioned among  the  sous  of  Ephraim  in  1  Chron. 
vii.  20-27.  Perhaps  the  children  of  Becher 
the  Benjamite  were  not  so  few  in  numbers 
during  tlie  sojourn  in  Egypt  as  has  been  sup- 
posed, but  were  i)rincipally  ideutilied  with 
Ejihraim.  perchance  through  a  marriage  of 
Becher  with  Sheerah,  and  hence  their  family 
as  a  wlujle,  but  not  all  the  fathers'  houses, 
were  enrolled  with  Ei)hraim. 

Be-co'rath,  in  A.  ^'.  Be-cho'rath  [primo- 
geniture]. 

A  Benjamite,  an  ancestor  of  king  Saul  (1 
Sam.  ix.  1). 

The  identification  of  Becorath  with  Becher 
(1  Chron.  vii.  6)  is  groundless.  Becorath  was 
son  of  A])hiah,  tiie  son  of  a  Benjamite.  where- 
as Becher  was  the  son  of  Benjamin  himself. 

Bed. 

An  article  of  domestic  furniture  to  sleep 
upon.  The  poor  aud  travelers  often  .slept  ou 
the  ground,  using  their  ujiper  garment  as  a 
covering  ((Jc'u.  xxviii.  11  ;  E.x.  xxii.  2()).  A 
bed  might  be  no  more  than  a  rug  or  mat, 
easily  bundled  up  aud  carried  away  (Jlat.  ix. 
0).  But  beds  raised  from  the  ground  were 
early  iu  exisleuce  (2  Kiu.  i.  4.  (i ;  iv.  10),  with 
bedsteads  of  wood,  or  of  iron  (Deut.  iii.  11), 
or  among  the  wealthy  of  ivory  (.\uu)s  vi.  4), 


Bedad 


75 


Beelzebub 


Tvith  silken  cushions  (Amos  iii.  12,  R.  V.) 
and  ricli  coverings  (I'rov.  vii.  Hi;  Judilli 
X.  ;-Mi. 

Be'dad  [separatinn]. 

Tlic  I'atluT  ul'  Hailad,  king  of  Edoni  (Gen. 
xxxvi.  :>.">;  1  t'luun.  i.  4(J). 

Be'dan. 

A])i(arcMlly  a  Ilclm-w  judge,  riiliiii,'  !)('- 
twfcii  (Jidi'oii  and  Jcplitliah,  and  <listin- 
>;iiislu'd  ciKiiitili  to  rank  with  tlicni  and  with 
ijaniiifl  (1  Sam.  xii.  11).  No  sndi  inTsonage 
is  nu-nlioni'd  in  the  Hook  of  Judges.  Four 
tlu'orii'.'S  have  ln'i-n  jn'oposed  in  oxjjlanation. 
1.  IJcdan  rnh'd  Israel,  tlioiijih  no  record  of 
liis  adniinistral  ion  is  found  in  the  Hook  of 
Judjies.  '2.  He(hin  means  in  Dan,  or  is  a  con- 
traction of  Hen-J)an.  son  of  Dan,  and  iseiiuiv- 
aloiit  to  Samson.     Inciter  is  '.i.  Hcdan  is  the 


Bee. 

An  in.sect  which  makes  lioney  (Judj;.  xiv. 
8,  I.s).  It  is  comjiared  to  an  army  (Is.  vii. 
18)  diasing  man  (Deut.  i.  11),  or  surroundinsi- 
liim  (Ps.  cxviii.  12).  As  Canaan  was  a  lancl 
flowing  with  milk  and  honey  (Ex.  iii.  8  ;  cj). 
Gen.  xliii.  11  ;  Ezek.  xxvii.  17),  bees  must 
have  been  tlierc  in  large  numbers.  Their 
nests  were  in  rocks  (I*s.  Ixx.vi.  Hi]  and  in 
woods  (1  Sam.  xiv.  '2rt),  esjx'cially  in  .Judah 
(E/.ek.  xxvii.  17;  cp.  Mat.  iii.  4). 

Be-e-li'a-da  [the  Lord  hath  known,  i.  e. 
kindly  regarded]. 

A  son  of  king  David,  born  at  .Jerusalem  (1 
Chron.  xiv.  7).  Durin<;  his  lifetime  he  may 
havi!  been  called  l)y  the  alternate  name 
I'^liada.  (iod  hath  known  ;  at  any  rate,  when 
tlie  word  Haal  became  distasteful  ou  account 


'Ain  Mnweileh,  the  traditioiial  Heer-laliai-roi. 


judge. Tair;  for  a  juTson  called  Hedan  is  reg- 
istered in  1  t'hron.  vii.  11  17  as  a  descend- 
ant of  Gilead,  the  son  of  Macliir,  the  son  of 
Manas.seh  ;  and  .lair  the  judj;ewasa  (iileadite, 
and  belonj^ed  to  the  villajies  named  from  .Tair, 
a  descendant  of  Machir  (1  Chron.  ii.  •_>!. -J-,'). 
He<lan's  descent  from  Maiiasseh  ditl'ered  from 
that  of  .lair  who  ca])tured  and  named  the 
vill;if;es;  l)ut  this  fact  does  not  ])revent  He- 
dan  from  repri'senting  the  descendants  atul 
the  district  of  .lair  the  con(|Ueror,  and  being 
odicially  called  .I:iir.  Hest  is  J.  Hedan  is  an 
i-arly  niisreadin};  for  either  Abdon  (.(ndj;.  xii. 
i:!|  or  for  Harak,  which  is  found  in  the  Sep- 
tua^'int,  Syriae  and  .Vrabic  versions  (cj).  Ileb. 
xi.  :5i). 

Be-de'iali. 

A  son  of  Hani,  who  was  induced  by  Ezra  to 
put  away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  .'i")). 


of  idolatrous  associations,  the  Hebrew  his- 
torians were  ajit  to  write  Hliada  instt-ad  of 
Heeliada  (2  Sam.  v.  Hi;  1  Chron.  iii.  8|. 

Be-el'ze-bul). 

The  prince  of  the  demons  (.Mat.  x.  2r)  :  xii. 
24;  Mark  iii.  ;.'2 ;  Luke  xi.  1."),  18,  19),  whom 
Jesus  identities  with  Sjttau  (Mat.  xii.  2(i ; 
Mark  iii.  2'.',:  Luke  xi.  isi.  Tlie  spellinj^ 
]?eelzebub  ditlers  but  slightly  from  Haalze- 
hub,  god  of  ICkron.  The  Creek  text,  how- 
ever, has  Beelzebul.  The  common  explana- 
tion is  that,  with  the  view  of  insulting  the 
I'^kronite  god  and  his  worshi])ers,  the  .lews 
wished  to  make  -.^Inil).  tly.  into  -ilihiil  or  zi-hrl. 
dun;;.  Hut  as  in  Hebrew  y/o//  means  liabita- 
tion,  Haalzebul  may  si^'uify  lord  of  the  liabi- 
tation,  and  the  notion  of  insult  falls  to  the 
;;rouiid.  .lesus  ]ilayed  ujHin  this  meaning  of 
the  name  in  Mat.  x.  2Tt.    The  notion  of  insult 


Beer 


Beer-sheba 


also  falls  on  the  plausible  suiiposition  that 
Beelzebiil  was  merely  a  Greek  imKliticatiou 
of  IJeel/.ebuh,  adapted  l)eeaiise  tlie  iiromincia- 
tioii  was  for  the  (ireeks  easier  to  the  toiij^ue 
ami  more  jileasant  tt)  the  ear. 
Be'er  [a  wellj. 

1.  A  station  of  the  Israelites  on  the  eon- 
tines  of  Moat),  at  wliich  a  well  was  (liij;:  by 
the  leaders  of  Israel  with  their  staves  or  un- 
der their  olHeial  supervision  (Num.  xxi.  16- 
18)  ;  possibly  the  same  as  Heer-elim. 

2.  A  plaee  to  which  .(otham  lied  from  hi.s 
brother  Al)inu>le(h  (.lud.u.  ix.  21).  Situa- 
tion iniknowu.  Eusebiusdiseriminatesit  from 
Beerothiu  Henjamin.andloeatesit  in  the  plain 
8  Konian  miles  to  the  north  of  Eleutheropolis, 
i.  e.  Beit  Jibrin.  Jo.sei>hus  says  that  Jotham 
fled  to  the  mountains  (Antiq.  v.  7,  2). 

Be-e'ra  [a  well]. 

An  Asherite,  family  of  Heber  (1  Chron. 
vii.  37). 

Be-e'rah  [a  well]. 

A  prinee  of  the  Reubenites,  who  was  car- 
ried captive  by  Tiglath-pileser,  king  of  As- 
syria (1  Chron.  v.  6). 


out  to  her  by  an  augel  when  she  and  her  sou 
Ishmael  were  in  danger  of  perishing  from 
thirst  ((ien.  xvi.  10-15;  xxiv.  02;  xxv.  11). 
The  iJedouin  connect  'Ain  Muweileh,  at  the 
eastern  foot  of  .lebel  ^luweileh,  a  lew  miles 
west  of  Kadesh,  on  the  caravan  route  to 
Egyjit,  with  llagar.  (See  ilhistratiou,  p.  75.) 
Be-e'roth  [wells]. 

1.  A  (;ibeonite  town  (Josh.  ix.  17),  after- 
wards assigned  to  the  Beujamites  (xviii.  25; 
2  Sam.  iv.  2).  It  continued  to  be  inhabited 
after  the  captivity  (Ezra  ii.  25;  Neh.  vii.  29). 
It  still  exists  in  the  village  el-Bireli,  a  little 
more  than  8  miles  uorth  of  Jeru.salem  on 
the  way  to  Bethel.  It  is  built  on  a  ridge 
running  west  to  east,  and  is  seen  from  a  dis- 
tance toward  both  the  north  and  south. 
Many  large  stones  and  various  substructions 
testify  to  the  antiquity  of  the  site. 

2.  Beeroth  of  the  children  of  Jaakan  ;  wells 
on  the  borders  of  Edom,  belonging  to  the  tribe 
of  Jaakan,  by  which  the  Israelites  encamped 
on   their  way  to  Canaan   (Deut.  x.  6).     See 

J.\AKAN. 

Be-e'roth-ite,  ouce  Berothite. 


-^-^^*;^^^v^^^^^^^^^^5t:\v  re 


Beer-sheba. 


Be'er-e'lim  [well  of  heroes  or  of  trees]. 
A  village'  of  Moab  (Is.  xv.  8) ;  possibly  the 
same  as  Beer  1. 
Be-e'ri  [man  of  a  well]. 

1.  A  ITittite,  father  of  Judith,  one  of  Esau's 
wives  (Gen.  xxvi.  .'54).     See  Anah. 

2.  Father  of  the  prophet  Ho.sea  (Hos.  i.  1). 
Be'er-la-hai'-roi   [the  well  of  the  Living 

Cue  who  secth  niel. 

The  name  given  by  Ilagar  to  a  well  in  the 
desert  between   Kadesh  and  Be  red,  pointed 


A  native  or  inhabitant  of  Beeroth  (2  Sam. 
iv.  2  ;  xxiii.  :57  :  1  Chron.  xi.  39). 

Be'er-she'ba  [well  of  seven].  The  pres- 
ence of  tlic  woni  seven  in  the  name  was  a 
constant  reminder  that  a  covenant  had  lieen 
sworn  to. 

K  well  dug  l>y  Aln-aham  in  the  wilderness 
adjacent  to  tlie  Pliilistine  country,  and  where 
he  and  th(>  king  of  Gerar  ninde  a  covenant 
not  to  molest  each  other.  This  well  had 
already  been  an  object  of  strife  between  their 


Beeshterah 


Bell 


respective  herdsmen.  Accordingly  Abraham 
gave  Abinielech  seven  ewi'  lani))s  as  a  witness 
«f  the  llcln'fW  titlf,  and  to  further  iircstrve 
the  nieniory  of  the  transaction,  calk'd  tlii' 
well  Heer-sheba  (({en.  xxi.  22-:{2).  He  al.so 
planted  there  a  tamarisk  tree,  and  called  on 
the  name  ol'.b'hovali,  the  everlasting  God  Ci.'J, 
K.  v.).  Ahraliani  rcsi<i((l  tor  many  years  at 
thisplaee.  Then  lie  went  to  Ik-))ron.  and  after- 
wards Sojourned  at  I5cer-hihai-roi.  l)urin<i 
the  al)sence  of  the  Hel)re\vs  from  this  part 
of  tin;  wihlcrncss,  tlie  I'iiilistines  lilled  up 
tlie  wills;  hilt  when  Isaac  came  into  au- 
thority he  returned  to  this  distrii't  and  be- 
gan to  reopen  them.  Wliile  at  Heer-sheba, 
engaged  in  elearing  oiit  that  well  also,  the 
kiuf^  of  ({crar  came  and  made  a  covenant 
with  him,  as  he  or  his  picdi'ccssor  had  done 
with  Abraham.  The  riiilistine  and  his  com- 
panions had  scan'ely  departed,  when  Isaac's 
servants  announced  that  they  had  reached 
water.  As  in  former  like  cases,  Isaac  piously 
revived  the  old  nami',  callini;  the  well  Shil)ah, 
the  feminine  form  of  the  numeral  xheba', 
thus  contirminf;  and  i)reserving  the  name 
Beer-sheba  (xxvi.  :52,  33,  R.  V.).  It  was  from 
this  welt  that  .Jacob  started  on  his  .journey  to 
Haran  (xxviii.  Id),  and  there  he  saeriliced  on 
his  way  to  Egypt  (xlvi.  1-.")).  A  town  ulti- 
mately rose  in  tlie  vicinity  of  the  well  {.Jo.sh. 
XV.  28).  It  was  situated  in  the  extreme 
south  of  Judah  (.losh.  xv.  28  :  2  Sam.  xxiv. 
7;  2  Kin.  xxiii.  8),  though  allotted  to  the 
Simeon ites  (.losh.  xix.  1.2;  1  Chron.  i v. 28),  and 
was  also  the  southern  limit  of  Palestine,  so 
that  the  expression  became  iiroverbial.  "  from 
Dan  to  Beer-sheija,"  i.  e.  from  the  extreme 
north  to  the  extreme  south  of  the  Holy  Land 
<Ju<lg.  XX.  1  et  jias.).  Samiu'l's  sons  were 
judges  in  Beer-sheba  (1  Sam.  viii.  2).  Hli.jah 
pas.sed  through  it  on  his  way  to  Horeb  (1  Kin. 
xix.  3).  It  was  inhabited  after  the  caiitivity 
(Neh.  xi.  27,  30).  Robinson  found  two  deep 
wells,  still  called  Bir  es-Seba',  on  the  north- 
ern side  of  a  wide  watercourse  or  bed  of  a 
torrent,  wady  es-Seba'.  The  wells  are  some 
distance  aiiart.  They  are  circular  and  built 
around  with  solid  masonr.v.  The  largest  he 
found  124  feet  in  diameter  and  44i  (leep,  to 
the  surface  of  the  water,  K!  feet  at  the  lower 
part  being  cut  through  solid  rock. 

Be-esh'te-rah  [house  or  temple  of  Astarte]. 

Tlu'  same  j)lace  as  Ashtaroth  (.Josh.  xxi.  27 
with  I  t'hron.  vi.  71).  This  contraction  of 
Beth-eshterah  is  like  that  of  Bethshan  to 
Beisan. 

Bee'tle.    See  Cricket. 

Be'he-moth  [iirobably  derived  from  Egyp- 
tian ii-iJir-iiunt.  water  ox.  and  niodilu'd  by 
the  llel>rews  into  l/licmotli,  a  plural  of  ex- 
celleiwe  denoting  an  animal  which  i)os.sesses 
in  a  liigh  degree  the  attributes  of  b'hemah, 
a  beast]. 

A  large  animal  described  by  Job.  It  cats 
grass  like  an  ox.  Its  body  is  thick  and  mas- 
sive, with  bones  like  bars  of  iron,  and  a  tail. 


which  it  moves  like  a  cedar.  It  is  am- 
phibious, .sometimes  feeding  with  other  (luad- 
riipe<ls  ujioii  the  mountains,  and  sometimes 
lying  in  fi'ns.  among  reeds,  or  under  willows 
orapi)arenlly  in  Hooded  rivers  (Job.  xl.  15-24  ; 
R.  \'.  margin  "hippopotamus").  It  is  i)rob- 
abl.v  tile  hip])opotamus  of  the  Nile  (IHjiiw- 
jwlmntis  uiiijikihiuK).  This  lias  an  unwieldy 
body  eleven  or  twelve  feet  long,  a  large 
clumsy  head,  short  stout  leg.s*.  with  four  feet 
bearing  toes.  The  gape  of  its  nn)nth  is  enor- 
mous and  the  tusks  of  formidable  size.  It 
feeds  on  green  ciu'ii,  grass,  and  young  shrubs. 
In  ancient  times  it  descended  the  Nile;  but 
it  was  hunted  for  its  valuable  skin,  teeth, 
and  llesh.  and  it  was  also  taken  in  eon.sidera- 
ble  luimbi'rs  to  Rome  for  exhibition  in  the 
circus.  Now.  therefore,  these  animals  are 
extinct  in  Egvi)t,  though  found  on  the  Ujiper 
Nile. 

Be'ka,  in  A.  V.  Be'kah  [division,  half]. 

Haifa  shekel  (Ex.  xxxviii.  2()).  The  value 
was  about  1().8  pence  or  33  cents.  It  was  used 
for  weighing  the  precious  metals  ((tcu.  xxiv. 
22).     See  Wkights. 

Bel  [lord]. 

Title  of  the  patron  god  of  Babylon  (Is. 
xlvi.  1 ;  Jer.  1.  2  ;  li.  44  ;  Bel  and  Dragon  3- 
22  ;  Herod,  i.  181),  whose  projjer  name  was 
Marduk  or,  as  pronounced  by  the  Hebrews, 
Merodach.  He  was  a  sun-gotl,  the  sun  of 
early  day  and  of  spring  ;  and  he  was  re- 
garded as  the  son  of  Ea.  god  of  the  ocean 
and  other  terrestrial  waters.  His  festival  was 
celebrated  in  the  spring,  at  the  beginning  of 
the  year.  Because  the  sun  in  this  aspect  ex- 
erts such  jiotent  influence  in  nature,  and  be- 
cause he  was  their  tutelary  divinity,  the  men 
of  Babylon  paid  him  supreme  worsliii>  and  as- 
cribed to  him  the  loftiest  attributes.  He  was 
not  originally  numbered  among  the  chief 
gods  by  the  people  on  the  lower  Tigris  and 
Euphrates,  but  grew  in  iniiiortance  with  the 
increasing  power  and  renown  of  the  citj-  of 
Babylon. 

Another  Bel,  god  of  the  region  between 
earth  and  sky.  and  grouiied  in  a  triad  with 
Ann,  heaven,  and  Ea,  was  one  of  the  eleven 
great  gods. 

Be'Ia,  in  A.  V.  once  Be'lah  (Gen.  xlvi.  21) 
[devouring,  destruction]. 

1.  .\  king  of  Edom,  whose  father's  name 
was  Beor  ((ien.  xxxvi.  32). 

2.  A  Keubcnite  chief  ( 1  Chron.  v.  8). 

3.  A  son  of  Benjamin,  and  founder  of  a 
faniil.v  (Gen.  xlvi.  21  ;  Num.  xxvi.  38). 

4.  One  of  tlie  cities  of  the  plain,  the  same 
as  Zoar  ((ien.  xiv.  2,  8). 

Be'li-al  [worthlessness.  wickedness]. 

rngo.Uiness  (I's.  xviii.  4.  R.  V.).  The 
])lirase  "  men  of  belial  "  is  a  Semitic  circuni- 
iocntion,  in  default  of  the  ajiiiroiiriate  ail- 
jective,  for  ungodly  men  (Dent.  xiii.  13). 
Belial  is  personilied  in  2  Cor.  vi.  If). 

Bell. 

Small  liolden  bells,  alternating  with  orna- 


Bellows 


Bene-jaakan 


ments  iu  the  form  of  pomegrauates,  were  at- 
tached to  the  lower  part  of  the  otiicial  )>liie 
robe  of  the  liii^h  jiriest  in  order  to  send  forth 
a  sound  that  nii.iiht  he  heard  in  the  temple 
for  a  memorial  of  the  children  of  Israel,  that 
he  die  not  (Ex.  xxviii.  33.  31  ;  Keelus.  xlv. 
9).  A  striiijLi  of  Hat  pieces  of  hra.ss  was  hung 
around  the  neck  of  horses,  or  a  single  hell 
was  suspi'uded  from  their  throat  (Zech.  xiv. 
•20:  cii.  .ludg.  viii.'Jl).  In  either  ease  the  tink- 
liufT  kept  tlie  horses  together  at  night,  and 
made  it  easy  to  lind  a  strayed  heast. 

Bel'lows. 

An  instrument  for  blowing  t])e  tire  of  a 
smelting  furnace  (Jer.  vi.  2!) ;  Iliad  xviii.  470). 
As  used  by  the  ancient  Egyi)tians.  the  liellows 
consisted  of  a  pair  of  leatlier  bags,  fitted  into 
a  frame,  from  eacli  of  which  a  jiipe  extended 
to  the  tire.  They  were  worked  by  the  feet, 
the  operator  standing  upon  them  with  one 
under  each  foot,  and  pressing  them  alter- 
nately while  he  pulled  up  the  exhausted 
skin  with  a  string  which  he  held  in  his 
hand.  A  double  pair  was  used  for  each  fur- 
nace. 

Bel-shaz'zar  [Babylonian  Bel-skar-umr, 
Bel  protect  the  king]. 

A  king  of  the  Chaldeans,  descended  from 
Nebuchadnezzar,  and  slain  on  the  night  that 
the  Medo- Persian  army  entered  Babylon  ( Dan. 
V.  1-31).  It  appears  from  contemporary  in- 
scriptions that  he  was  the  eldest  son  of  Nabu- 
ua'id,  pronounced  Nabonadios  and  Nabonidos 
by  the  Greeks.  As  early  as  551  B.  c,  the  fifth 
year  of  Nabuna"id,  Belshazzar,  the  king's  son, 
W'as  a  man  of  afl'airs,  employing  a  scribe  ;  and 
iu  the  eleventh  year  he  was  a  holder  of  proi)- 
erty,  and  had  a  steward  over  his  house  and 
scribes.  To  the  moon-god  Nabuna'id  prayed  : 
"  As  for  me,  Nabuna'id  king  of  Babylon,  de- 
liver me  from  sin  against  thy  great  divine 
nature  and  grant  unto  me  length  of  days. 
And  concerning  Belsharusur  my  firstborn,  the 
otlspring  of  my  bodj',  his  heart  also  fill  tliou 
with  awe  of  tliy  great  divinity,  that  he  may 
never  indulge  in  sins.  With  abundance  of 
days  let  him  be  satisfied."  See  Cykus  and 
Daxiel. 

Bel-te-shaz'zar  [Babylonian.  BnJntsu-nsnr, 
l>rotect  his  life].  The  name  is  abbreviated 
by  omitting  tlie  name  of  the  deity  invoked. 

The  name  given  by  the  i)rince  of  the  Hal)y- 
loniau  eunuchs  to  the  prophet  Daniel  (Dan. 
i.  7).  Bel,  the  god  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  was 
the  deity  invoked  in  the  name  (iv.  8). 

Ben  [son]. 

A  Levite  (1  Chron.  xv.  18),  but  probably 
the  name  has  erroneously  crept  into  the  text ; 
cp.  'JO,  -Jl. 

Ben-a-bin'a-dab  [son  of  Abinadab]. 

Son-in-law  of  Solomon  and  his  jjurveyor  in 
the  region  of  Dor  (1  Kin.  iv.  11,  R.  V.). 

6e-na'iah  [Jehovah  hath  built]. 
1.  A   Levite,  the  son  of  .Tehoiada  of  Kab- 
zeel  in  Judali  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  20).     His  father 


was  a  priest  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  5).  If  the  title 
here  denotes  a  minister  at  the  altar,  Benaiah's 
father  was  probably  the  leader  of  the  i)riests 
who  Joined  the  army  which  i)laced  David  on 
the  throne  (xii.  27).  Benaiah  was  a  valiant 
man,  i'eh'l)rated  for  having  descended  into  a 
pit  and  killed  a  lion,  for  having  slain  two 
lion-like  mcTi  of  Moab,  and,  when  armed  only 
with  a  stall',  for  having  met  an  Egyptian 
giant,  wrested  away  his  spear,  and  killed  him 
with  his  own  weapon  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  20,  21 ; 
1  Chron.  xi.  22,  23).  He  was  over  the  Cher- 
ethites  and  I'elethites,  David's  bodyguard 
(2  Sam.  viii.  18),  and  also  commanded  the 
military  division  for  the  third  month  (1 
Chron.  xxvii.  5,  (i).  He  with  tlie  bodyguard 
remained  faithful  to  David  during  Abssilom's 
rel)ellion  (cp.  2  Sam.  xv.  18;  xx.  23)  and  that 
of  Adonijah  (1  Kin.  i.  10).  By  David's  order 
he.  at  the  head  ol'  the  guard,  escorted  Solo- 
mon to  (rihon,  to  be  anointed  king  (38),  and 
as  chief  of  the  guard  he  executed  Adonijah 
(ii.  25).Joab  (29-34).  and  Shimei  (46).  The 
death  of  Joab  having  left  the  office  of  com- 
mander-in-chief vacant.  Benaiah  was  pro- 
moted to  the  same  (35). 

2.  A  Pirathonite,  one  of  David's  thirty 
mighty  men  of  the  second  rank  (2  Sam.  xxiii. 
30;  1  Chron.  xi.  31).  He  commanded  the 
military  division  for  the  eleventh  mouth 
(xxvii. 'l4). 

3.  A  Ecvite  of  the  second  degree  who 
played  the  psaltery  before  the  ark  when  it 
was  escorted  to  Jerusalem,  and  afterwards 
in  the  tabernacle  erected  by  David  (1  Cliron. 
XV.  18,  20:  xvi.  5). 

4.  A  priest  who  blew  a  trumpet  in  the 
company  which  escorted  the  ark  to  Jeru- 
salem and  afterwards  in  David's  taliernacle 
(1  Chron.  xv.  24;  xvi.  (i). 

5.  A  Levite,  descended  from  Asai)h.  and 
living  before  the  reign  of  Jehoshai)hat  (2 
Chron.  xx.  14). 

6.  A  Simeouite,  possibly  a  contemporary 
of  Hezekiah  (1  Chron.  iv.  36  ;  cp.  41). 

7.  A  Levite,  an  overseer  of  dedicated  offer- 
ings in  Hezekiah's  reign  (2  Chron.  xxxi.  13). 

8.  Father  of  Ezekiel's  contemporary,  prince 
Pelatiah  (Ezek.  xi.  1,  13). 

9-12.  Four  men,  sons  of  Parosh,  Pahath- 
moab,  Bani,  and  Nebo,  respectively,  who  were 
induced  by  Ezra  to  put  away  their  strauge 
wives  (Ezra  x.  25,  30,  35,  43). 

Ben-am'mi  [son  of  my  people ;  a  circum- 
locution ftir  my  kinsman,  and  equivalent  to 
Ammon,  kin]. 

Son  of  Lot's  younger  daughter,  from  whom 
sprang  the  Ammonite  tribe  (Gen.  xix.  38). 

Ben-de'ker  [son  of  Deker]. 
Sohinion's  purveyor  in   Bethshemesh   and 
some  other  towns  (1  Kin.  iv.  9,  R.  V.). 

Ben'e-be'rak  [sons  of  Berak]. 
A  town  of  Dan  (Josh.   xix.  45),  now  Il)n 
Ibrak,  4  miles  east  of  Jaffa. 
Ben'e-ja'a-kan.     See  Ja.\k.\n. 


Ben-geber 


Benjamin 


Ben-ge'ber  [son  of  (Jeber]. 
SdldiiKin's  ])iirvi'yur   in    Iviinioth-gilead   (1 
Kin.  iv.  1.:.  K.  v.). 

Ben-ba'dad  [son  of  Hiuliul,  the  supreme 
god  of  Syria  J.     See  Ha  DA  I). 

Tile  name  of  three  kings  ruling  at  Da- 
niascns. 

1.  Hcnliadatl,  son  of  Tahrinunon  and  grand- 
son of  He/.iiin.  When  Baaslia,  king  of  Israel, 
hiiilt  Ivaniah  to  l)lockade  the  entrance  into 
.Iiidah  from  tlie  north,  Asa,  king  of  Judah, 
liired  Henhadad  to  hrcak  his  treaty  with 
Baaslia  and  invade  the  kingdom  of  Israel. 
The  army  of  Hi'iihadad  entered  the  territory 
of  the  ten  trii)es,  eapturt'd  the  cities  of  Ijon, 
Dan, and  Ahel-maaeah,  and  ravaged  tlie  laud 
west  of  the  lake  cd'  ( Jennesaret.  The  diver- 
sion cau.sod  Maasha  to  withdraw  from  Kamah 
and  terminate  the  Idockade  of  the  kingdom 
of  .hidali  (1  Kin..\v.  1,S--21  ;  'iChron.  xvi.  1-6). 

•J.  Menhadad,  contemporary  of  Ahah.  His 
full  name  ap|)ears  to  have  been  Benhadadidri, 
the  son  of  Hadad  is  my  help.  He  besieged 
Samaria,  but  drove  Ahal)  to  desjieration  and 
forced  him  to  I)attle  by  insulting  demands, 
and  was  defeated.  The  next  year  Benhadad 
renewed  the  war,  but  sustained  a  still  heavier 
defeat  than  on  the  jirevious  occasion.  Ahab 
granted  him  conditions  of  peace,  making  a 
covenant  with  him  and  letting  him  go  (1  Kin. 
XX.  1-.'51).  The  arrival  of  a  common  enemy, 
Shalmaneser  king  of  Assyria,  in  the  west  in 
N")(i  B.  c.  necessitated  the  preservation  of  the 
l>eace.  and  it  continued  three  years  (1  Kin. 
xxii.  1).  In  s.')l  Benhadad,  assisted  by  Ahab 
and  other  royal  allies,  olfered  resistance  to 
the  Assyrians  at  Karkar  near  Haniath,  but 
was  defeated.  In  the  following  year,  as  is 
probal)le,  in  early  s)M-ing  Ahab  unsuccessfully 
attempted  to  wr<'st  Kaniotli-gilead  out  of  the 
hands  of  Benhadad  (xxii.  l-:5(i).  For  some 
time  Bi'uhailad  waged  predatory  warfare  with 
the  Israelites,  and  later  he  invaded  Israel 
with  his  army  and  laid  siege  to  Samaria  (2 
Kin.  v.  -J:  vi.  s-vii.2(i),  but  these  varied  hos- 
tilities were  ri'peatedly  interruiited  by  Shal- 
maneser's  operations  against  Benhadad  in 
the  years  H,")(),  Htil,  and  s|(!.  Between  Si'i 
and  the  (dose  of  si:;,  Benhadad  was  murdered 
and  succeeded  by  Ha/.acd  (2  Kin.  viii.  l.")i. 

:{.  Benhadad,  son  of  Hazael,  and  called  by 
the  murdered  king's  name.  In  the  reign  of 
.blioahaz,  king  of  Israel,  Hazatd  and  then 
Benhadad  opiiressed  the  ten  tribes  (2  Kin. 
xiii.  :i-i;{).  But  .loash,  son  of  .Tcdioahaz,  in- 
llictcd  three  defeats  on  Benhadad.  and  re- 
covered the  cities  of  Israel  which  had  been 
under  Syrian  ride  (22-2.")).  llisson,  .leroboam 
II.,  followed  uji  these  victories  by  retiiking 
Hamath,  and  even  temporarily  occui)ying 
l>aina.si-iis  (xiv.  2s). 

The  i)alaces  of  BcMihadad  arc  the  jialaces 
of  I>ainascns  (.ler.  xlix.  27;  .\mos  i,  1). 

Ben-ha'il  [son  of  strength,  virtnou.s]. 
One  of  the  princes  sent  by  .lehoshaphat  to 
teach  in  the  cities  of  .Iiidah  (2(1iron.  xvii.Tj. 


Ben-ha'nan  [son  of  the  kind  one]. 
A  son  of  Shiinon,  registered  with  the  tribe 
of  .Jiidali  (  1  t'hron.  iv.  20). 

Ben-he'sed  [sou  of  benevolence  or  of 
Hesed]. 

Solomon's  purveyor  iu  Aruboth  (1  Kin.  iv. 
10,  E,  v.). 

Ben'hur  [son  of  Hur]. 

Solomon's  jjurveyor  in  mount  Ei)hraim  (1 
Kin.  iv.  8,  II.  Y.i. 

Be-ni'nu  [our  sou]. 

A  Levite  who  witli  Nehemiah  and  others 
sealed  a  covenant  with  Jehovah  (Neh.  x.  13). 

Ben'ja-min  [son  of  the  right  hand,  i.  e.  of 

happiness]. 

1.  The  youngest  of  Jacob's  twelve  sons.  He 
was  the  full  brother  of  .lose))!!,  l)olh  being 
childieu  of  lv;icliel.  As  .Jacob  was  ajiproach- 
ing  Bethlehem,  IJachel  gave  birth  toBeujamin, 
and,  feeling  that  his  advent  into  the  world 
was  about  to  cost  her  her  life,  named  him 
Benoui,  son  of  my  sorrow,  but  Jacob  called 
liim  Benjamin  (Gen.  xxxv.  l()-20).  Being 
the  youngest,  and  associated  with  such  mem- 
ories, he  was  peculiarly  dear  to  his  father, 
especially  after  the  suii))osed  death  of  .Joseph. 
With  excessive  reluctance  liis  parent  allowed 
him  to  go  to  Egypt  with  his  other  brothers 
(Gen.  xliii.  1-17),  and  Judah  was  probably- 
right  in  supposing  that  the  father  would  die 
of  grief  if  any  untoward  occurri'uce  happened 
to  the  son  of  his  old  age.  .Joseph  also  felt 
much  allection  for  Benjamin  (xliii.  29-34; 
xliv.  1-34).  Ultimately  Benjamin  had,  be- 
sides other  descendants,  five  .sons  and  two 
grandsons,  through  whom  he  became  the 
founder  of  families  and  a  tribe  in  Israel 
((xen.  xlvi.  21 ;  Num.  xxvi.  3S-41  ;  1  Chron. 
vii.  <)-12;  viii). 

2.  The  tribe  to  whi(di  Benjamin  gave  ori- 
gin, and  the  territory  that  it  obtained.  .Jacob 
)irophesied  :  "  Benjamin  is  a  wolf  that  ravin- 
eth.  In  the  7uorning  he  shall  di'Vour  the 
prey,  and  at  even  he  shall  divide  the  sjioil"' 
((»en.  xlix. 27,  R.V.  i; and  Moses:  "The beloved 
of  the  Lord  shall  dwell  in  s;ifety  by  him.  He 
covereth  him  all  the  day  long  ami  lie  dwell- 
eth  between  his  shoulders"  (Deut.  xxxiii. 
12.  R.  v.).  In  the  distriiuitiou  of  the  laud  by 
lot  under  Joshua  at  Sliiloh,  after  .Judah  and 
Ephraim  had  received  territory,  the  first  lot 
came  to  Benjamin,  who  was  assigned  the  dis- 
trict lying  between  those  of  .Judah  and  Eph- 
raim. Its  northern  boundary  ran  from  .Jor- 
dan throuiih  Bethel  to  .Vtanlth-addar.  south 
of  nether  Bethhoron.  Its  western  border  ran 
from  this  iioiut  to  Kirjath-jearim.  Its  south- 
ern boundary  went  thence  through  the  val- 
ley of  the  sou  of  Ilinuom.  imniedialely  south 
of  Jerus;ilem,  to  the  northern  point  (d"  the 
Dead  Sea.  Its  eastern  limit  was  the  Jordan 
(Josh,  xviii.  11-20).  The  territory  thus 
marked  out  extended  from  west  to  east  about 
2S  miles,  and  from  north  to  south  about  12 
miles.  It  was  a  billy  country,  but  extremely 
fertile  (.\nti<i.  v.  1.  22)  and    it  was  studded 


Beno 


80 


Bemice 


with  towns,  the  cliief  of  which  were  Jerusalem, 
Jericho,  Bethel,  (libeoii,  Gibeath.  and  Mizpeh 
(Josh,  xviii.  '21-28).  The  tribe  early  fiirnislied 
Israel  with  a  deliverer  from  foreign  u])])res- 
sion  (Jiidfi.  iii.  1")).  The  tril)e  was  nearly  ex- 
terminated for  ]>roteeting  tlie  guiity  inhabi- 
tants of  (iibeah  (xix.-xxi.).  Later  it  gave  the 
first  king  to  Israel,  and  long  clung  to  the 
house  of  Saul  (2  Sam.  ii.  9,  15;  1  Chron.  xii. 
29).  Even  after  David  had  become  king  of 
all  Israel,  Benjamites  occasionally  showed 
dissatisfaction  (2  Sam.  xvi.  5  ;  xx.  1-22 ;  Ps. 
vii.  title) ;  but  a  large  part  of  the  tribe  re- 
mained true  to  the  house  of  David  when 
the  ten  tribes  sei)arated  under  Jeroboam  (1 
Kin.  xii.  21),  and  shared  the  fortunes  of 
Judah  to  the  end  (Ezra  iv.  1).  From  this 
tribe  sprang  the  apostle  of  the  gentiles  (Phil. 
iii.  5). 

Two  gates  at  Jerusalem  bore  the  name  of 
Benjamin.  The  upper  or  high  gate  of  Ben- 
jamin Avas  in  the  temple  (Jer.  xx.  2).  For 
the  other  gate  of  Benjamin,  see  Jerusalem 
II.  3. 

3.  A  Benjamite,  a  son  of  Bilhau,  family  of 
Jediael  (1  Chron.  vii.  10). 

4.  A  son  of  Harim,  who  had  taken  a  foreign 
wife  (Ezra  x.  32). 

Be'no  [his  son]. 

A  descendant  of  Merari  through  Jaaziah 
(1  Chron.  xxiv.  26,  27),  if  Beno  is  a  proper 
name,  as  it  seems  to  be  in  ver.  27. 

Ben-o'ni  [son  of  my  sorrow]. 

The  name  designed  l)y  Eachel  for  the  child 
whose  birth  was  causing  her  death.  But 
Jacob  changed  it  to  Benjamin  (Gen.  xxxv. 
18). 

Ben-zo'heth  [son  of  Zoheth]. 

A  descendant  of  Ishi,  registered  with  the 
tribe  of  Judah  (1  Chron.  iv.  20).  Perhaps, 
however,  a  name  has  dropped  out  of  the  text 
before  this  name.  If  so,  the  passage  should 
be  translated :  "  And  the  sons  of  Ishi,  Zoheth 
and  ....  the  sou  of  Zoheth." 

Be'on.    See  Baal-meon. 

Be'or  [a  torch]. 

1.  Fatlier  of  Bela,  king  of  Edom  (Gen. 
xxxvi.  32;  1  Chron.  i.  43). 

2.  Father  of  Balaam  (Num.  xxii.  5).  Called 
in  A.  V.  of  2  Pet.  ii.  15  Bosor. 

Be'ra  [excellence]. 

A  king  of  Sodom,  defeated  by  Cliedorlaomer 
and  his  confederates  (Geu.  xiv.  2). 
Ber'a-chah  [blessing]. 

1.  A  Benjamite  who  joined  David  at  Zik- 
lag  (1  Chron.  xii.  3). 

2.  A  valley  in  Judah  near  Tekoa.  Jehosh- 
aphat  gave  it  its  name  because  he  and  his 
army  there  returned  thanks  to  God  for  a 
great  victory  over  the  Ammonites,  Moabites, 
and  Edomites  (2  Chron.  xx.  2(1).  Tlie  name 
still  lingers  as  Hereikut,  a  ruin  al)out  4  miles 
northwest  of  Tekoa,  6  miles  southwest  of 
Bethlehem,  and  a  little  east  of  the  road  from 
the  latter  village  to  Hebron. 


Ber-a-chl'ah.     See  Berechiah. 

Be-ra'iah  [Jehovah  hath  created]. 

A  son  of  Sliinu-i  (1  Clirou.  viii.  21,  R.  V.), 
descendant  of  Sliaharaim  who  had  his  regis- 
try with  Benjamin  (8,  11-13). 

Be're-a. 

A  town  in  Juda;a  near  which  Judas  ilac- 
caba'us  was  slain  (1  Mac.  ix.  4).  Not  iden- 
tified. 

For  Be-re'a,  a  city  of  Macedonia  (Acts  xvii. 
10,  A.  v.),  .see  Beecea. 

Ber-e-cM'ah,  in  A.  V.  once  BeracMah  (1 
Chron.  vi.  3!))  [Jehovah  hath  blessed]. 

1.  A  Levite,  the  father  of  Asajjh,  descended 
from  Gershom  (1  Chron.  vi.  39;  xv.  17). 

2.  A  Levite,  one  of  the  four  doorkeepers 
for  the  ark  in  David's  reign  (1  Chron.  xv.  23, 
24). 

3.  One  of  the  chief  men  of  Ephraini  in  the 
reign  of  Pekah.  He  took  the  part  of  the  cap- 
tives from  Judah.  He  was  a  son  of  Meshil- 
lemoth  (2  Chron.  xxviii.  12). 

4.  A  son  of  Zerubbabel  (1  Chron.  iii.  20). 

5.  A  Levite.  descended  from  Elkanah  of 
Netophah  (1  Chron.  ix.  16). 

6.  A  son  of  Meshezabel.  His  son  repaired 
part  of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  iii.  4,  30). 

7.  Father  of  the  prophet  Zechariah  (Zech. 
i.  1,  7). 

Be'red  [hail]. 

1.  A  place  in  the  wilderness  of  Shur,  tothe 
west  of  Kadesh,  and  not  far  from  Beer-lahai- 
roi  (Gen.  xvi.  7,  14).  Its  exact  locality  has 
not  been  determined. 

2.  An  Ephraimite,  of  the  family  of  Shu- 
thelah  (1  Chron.  vii.  20). 

Be'ri  [man  of  a  well]. 
An   Asherite,    son   of   Zophah,  family  of 
Heber  (1  Chron.  vii.  36). 

Be-ri'ah  [perhaps,  with  an  outcry,  or  in 
evil]. 

1.  A  son  of  Asher,  and  founder  of  a  family 
(Gen.  xlvi.  17;  Num.  xxvi.  44). 

2.  A  son  of  Ephraim  (1  Chron.  vii.  23). 

3.  A  Benjamite,  head  of  a  father's  house 
among  the  inhabitants  of  Aijalon  (1  Chron. 
viii.  13). 

4.  A  Levite,  a  son  of  Shimei,  the  Gershon- 
ite  (1  Chron.  xxiii.  10).  His  sons  were  united 
with  the  children  of  his  brother  Jeush  into 
one  father's  house  (11). 

Be'rite. 

Api)arently  a  people  living  near  Abel-beth- 
maacah  (2  Sam.  xx.  14),  but  it  is  questionable 
if  the  present  text  is  correct. 

Be'rith.     See  Baal-berith. 

Ber-ni'ce  [for  Phcrfiiike,  carrying  off  vic- 
tory, victorious]. 

The  eldest  daughter  of  Herod  Agrippa  I. 
She  was  married  to  her  uncle.  Herod,  ruler 
of  Chalcis,  who  soon  afterwards  died.  She 
was  so  nuich  with  her  brother  Agri]ipa  that 
scandal  arose  in  consequence.  She  tried  to 
allay  it  by  a  marriage  with  Polemo,  king  of 


Berodach-baladan 


81 


Bethany 


Cilicla.  She  soon  became  tired  of  him,  and, 
deserting  him,  rctunii'd  to  her  brother  Axrip- 
pa  (Antiij.  xx.  7,  .'5;  War  ii.  11,  5).  She  was 
with  liiiii  wlien  Paul  made  his  defense  before 
him  (Acts  xxv.  23;  xxvi.  ."iO).  Slie  afterwards 
heeanie  the  mistress,  first  of  Vespasian  and 
tlieii  of  Titus. 

Ber'o-dach-bal'a-dan.  See  Mkrudach- 
hai.ahan. 

Be-roe'a,  in  A.  V.  Be-re'a. 

1.  A  city  (if  Macedonia,  aliont  ."0  miles  west 
of  Thcssalfinica  and  'Si  or  :J1  iiiilcs  from  the 
sea,  where  Paul  preached  on  his  lirst  journey 
to  Euroiie  (Acts  xvii.  10-14;  xx.  4).  It  is  now 
called  Verria  or  lioor. 

2.  A  Syrian  city  lietween  Antioch  and 
HierajMilis,  where  .Menclaus  was  smothered 
in  a  tower  of  ashes  (2  ^lac.  xiii.  4).  An  earlier 
name  of  the  town  survives  in  Aleppo,  the 
desif^nation  Benea,  which  was  j^iven  by  Se- 
leueus  Nicator,  having  had  a  transient  ex- 
istence. 

:i.  See  Herka  1. 

Be-ro'thah  or  Ber'o-thai  [wells]. 

Ikrothali  was  a  town  situated  between  Ha- 
math  and  Damascus  (Ezek.  xlvii.  Ki).  It  is 
probably  identical  with  Herothai,  a  city  which 
was  once  subject  to  I  ladadc/er,  king  of  Zobah, 
but  was  captured  by  David  and  yielded  liim 
large  booty  in  brass  (2  .Sam.  viii.  8;  in  1 
Chron.  xviii.  8  called  Cun,  in  A.  V.  Chun  ; 
probably  a  corruption,  for  the  Seventy  read 
the  noun  Mibhtir,  of  which  the  letters  are 
much  like  those  of  Berothai).  Site  unknown. 

Ber'yl. 

1.  Tlie  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Tnvshish, 
a  jirccioiis  stone  brought  doubtles.s  trom  the 
place  bearing  the  same  name.  It  was  the 
first  stone  of  the  fourth  row  on  the  Jewish 
high  i)riest's  breastjilate  (Ex.  xxviii.  20; 
xxxix.  13;  Song  v.  14;  Ezek.  i.  Ifj ;  x.  9; 
xxviii.  115;  Dan.  .\.  (j).  None  of  these  pas- 
sages tells  the  ecdor  of  the  stone.  On  the 
margin  of  the  R.  V.  of  Song  v.  14  tnrshish  is 
rendered  topaz,  and  on  that  of  Ex.  xxviii.  20 
chalce(lony.  Tlie  Septuagint  renders  the  word 
by  chrysolite  in  Ex.  xxviii.  20;  xxxix.  13; 
Ezek.  xxviii.  13  ;  and  by  anthrax,  carbuncle, 
in  Ezek.  X.  !». 

2.  The  Creek  Urnillos  (Rev.  xxi.  20),  the 
eighth  foundation  of  the  wall  of  the  New 
Jeriis;il('m.  The  l)eryl  is  an  earthy  mini-ral, 
havingasitscbicf  const  it  ut'uts  silica,  alumina, 
and  beryllium  (glucinum).  It  nr.iy  })e  color- 
less or  aipiamarine,  bluisb  green,  or  various 
blues  an<l  violet,  or  yellow  and  brown.  It  is 
closely  allied  to  tlie  emerald.  It  is  found  in 
Siberia.  India,  P.ni/.il,  and  in  some  (larts  of 
Great  Britain. 

Be'sai. 

<  >ne  of  the  Nethinim  and  founder  of  a 
family  (  K/ra  ii.  l!> ;   .Neb.  vii.  iVJ). 

Bes-o-de'iah  [in  familiarity  with.Tehovah]. 

Father  of  .Meshnllam.  who  heliu'd  to  repair 
a  gate  of  .Jerusalem  (Neh.  iii.  lil. 

i; 


Be'sor  [perhapscoldness,  or,  jwssibly,  haste]. 

A  brook  south  of  Ziklag  (1  Sam.  xxx.  9,  10, 
21),  perhaps  the  Xalir  Chazzeb.  which  ri.ses 
near  Beer-sheba  and  empties  into  the  Medi- 
terranean south  of  Gaz-i. 

Be'tah  [trust,  confidence]. 

A  city  of  Arajn-zobah  (2  Sam.  viii.  8),  prob- 
ably to  be  read  Tebah.  Called  Tibhath  iu 
1  Chron.  xviii.  8.     Site  unknown. 

Be'ten  [body,  belly,  or  valley]. 

A  village  of  Asher  (.losh.  six.  2o).  Eu.sebius 
identified  it  with  a  village  Beth-beten,  8  Ro- 
man miles  east  of  Acre. 

Beth. 

The  second  letter  of  the  Hebrew  alphabet. 
Originally  it  was  a  rude  representation  of  a 
dwelling,  and  from  this  circumstance  it  de- 
rives its  name,  which  means  a  house.  The 
English  letter  1}  has  the  same  origin.  Beth 
stands  at  the  head  of  the  second  section  of 
Ps.  exix.  iu  many  versions,  in  which  section 
each  verse  begins  with  this  letter. 

The  Hebrew  letters,  beth,  eaph,  mem,  and 
pe,  or  b,  k,  m,  and  p,  have  at  difierent  stages 
of  their  development  been  so  similar  as  to 
cause  readers  some  difiiculty  in  distinguish- 
ing them,  and  open  the  way  to  misreadiugs; 
for  example,  they  are  written,  in  the  order 
just  named,  on 


OMMivwMns 

Tomb  (^  James 
/•'Cffituo' BC 


5yna^o<^iiealJiefr     -^  ^ 
fla/mynvte  J^ 


Beth-ab'a-ra  [house  of  the  ford]. 

A  place  beyond  Jordan  at  which  John  bap- 
tized (John  i.  28,  A.  V.).  The  oldest  manu- 
scripts have  Bethany,  as  now  the  R.  V. ;  but 
Origen,  not  being  able  to  find  a  place  of  this 
name,  decided  in  favor  of  the  reading  Beth- 
abara.  If  the  correct  reading  be  Bethabara, 
then  the  site  is  evidently  at  one  of  the  nu- 
merous fords  of  the  Jordan,  and  of  these  only 
one  is  now  called  ]Makbadet  'Abarah.  It  is  a 
main  ford  of  the  river  just  above  the  place 
where  the  Jalud  stream,  flowing  down  the 
valley  of  Jezreel  by  Beisan.  enters  the  Jor- 
dan. The  traditional  site,  however,  is  east 
of  .lericbo.  / 

Beth-a'nath  [house  of  the  goddess  Anath]. 

A  fenced  city  of  Naphtali  (Josh.  xix.  38), 
from  which,  howevi'r,  that  tribe  faile<l  to 
drive  out  the  Canaanite  inhabitants  (.lutlg.  i. 
33).  Suitably  located  at  the  village  of  "Anata, 
'Ainata,  or  '.Xinitlia,  (i  miles  west  of  Kedesh. 

Beth-a'nath  [house  of  the  goddess  .\nathl. 

.V  town  in  the  mountains  of  Judah  (.Josh. 
XV.  ">!•)  ;  commonly  sought  at  Beit  '.Vinnn,  1* 
miles  southeast  of  Halhul. 

Beth'a-ny  [house  of  the  alllicted  one  ;  iu 
Talmud,  house  of  non-maturing  dates]. 


Beth-arabah 


Beth-biii 


1.  A  siiiiiU  town  on  the  mount  of  Olives 
(Mark  xi.  1 ;  Luke  xix.  2!t),  about  15  l"urlonf;s 
from  Jerusalem  (Jolin  xi.  It^)  on  the  road  to 
Jericho.  Our  Jjonl  often  lodged  there  (Mat. 
xxi.  17  ;  xxvi.  (J ;  ISIark  xi.  1,  11.  1:.' ;  xiv.  :i). 
It  was  the  town  of  La/.arus,  of  Jhirtha,  and 
of  Mary  (Jt)hu  xi.  1 ;  xii.  1),  as  well  as  of 
Simon  the  leper,  in  whose  house  one  of  the 
anointings  of  Jesus  took  place  (Mat.  xxvi.  (i- 
13;  Mark  xiv.  3).  From  near  the  town  Jesus 
ascended  to  heaven  (Luke  xxi  v.  50.  51).  It  has 
been  generally  ideutitied  as  the  village  of  el- 
'Aziriyeh  (Lazarus'  village),  on  the  farther 
side  of  a  shallow  valley  on  the  eastern  slope 
of  the  mount  of  Olives,  southeast  from  .leru- 
salem.  It  is  now  a  miserable  village  with  a 
few  ancient  stones  built  into  modern  habita- 
tions.    The  houses  of  Simon  and  of  Martha 


Beth-ar'bel  [house  of  God's  ambush]. 

\  town  destroyed  by  Shalman  with  hor- 
rii)le  cruelty  (llus.  x.  14).  Tbe  best  identifi- 
cation that  has  been  proposed  is  with  Arbela 
of  (iiililee  (Anti(i.  xii.  11,  1;  xiv.  15,  4:  cp. 
1  Mac.  ix.  2),  now  Irbid.  4  miles  west-north- 
west of  Tiberias.  Tliere  are  many  natural  cav- 
erns in  a  limestone  precipice,  which  have  been 
connected  by  artificial  iiassages  cut  through 
tbe  rock,  with  defenses  wherever  access  was 
possible.  Herod  the  Great  found  these  cav- 
erns the  abode  of  robbers,  whom  he  rooted 
out. 

Beth-a'ven  [house  of  nothingness  or  idol- 
atry]. 

1.  A  town  in  the  territory  of  Benjamin, 
near  Ai.  east  of  Bethel  (Josh.  vii.  2),  west  of 
Michmash  (1  Sam.  xiii.  5;  cp.  xiv.  23),  and 


and  Mary  and  the  tomb  of  Lazarus  are  all 
shown,  but  there  is  no  reason  to  })elieve  that 
they  are  genuine.  Presumably  when  the  vil- 
lage was  first  named  date  jialms  grew  in  the 
vicinity.  They  do  not  do  so  now.  but  in 
their  place  are  olives,  figs,  and  pomegranates. 
2.  A  place  east  of  the  Jordan,  )>robal)ly  a 
village,  where  John  was  baptizing  when 
Jesus  returned  from  the  temptation  (Jolm  i. 
28,  R.  V.  ;  cp.  X.  40).    See  RETH.VRAiiA. 

Beth-ar'a-bah  [bouse  <if  the  wilderness]. 

A  village  in  the  wilderness  of  Judah,  on 
the  boundary  Hn(>  between  .ludab  and  Benja- 
min (Josh.  XV.  61 ;  xviii.  22).  t'aUed  simply 
Arabah  in  xviii.  18 ;  unless  the  reading  of 
the  Septuagint  be  correct,  Beth-arabah  in- 
stead of  "the  side  over  against  the  Arabah." 
Site  not  yet  ideutitied. 

Beth-a'ram.     See  Betji-iiaram. 


on  the  border  of  a  wilderness  (Josh,  xviii. 
12).     Not  yet  identified. 

2.  A  name  applied  by  Hosea  contemptu- 
ouslv  to  Bethel  after  it  had  become  a  seat  of 
idolatry  (Hos.  iv.  15;  v.  8;  x.  5). 

Beth-az'ma-veth.    See  Azmaveth. 

Beth-ba'al-me'on.    See  Baal-meox. 

Beth-ba'rali  [perhaps  for  Beth-abarah, 
house  of  the  ford]. 

A  place  on  the  Jordan,  jirobably  on  the 
right  bank  (Judg.  vii.  24). 

Beth-ba'si. 

A  i)lace  in  the  wilderness  (1  Mac.  ix.  62i. 
proba))Iy  the  wilderness  of  Tekoa  (33).  Jose- 
))lius  calls  it  Bethalaga  (Antiq.  xiii.  1.  5). 

Betb-bi'ri,  in  A.  V.  Beth-bir'e-i  [house  of 
mv  creation]. 

A  Simeonite  town   (1   Ghron.  iv.  31).     The 


Beth-car 


83 


Bethesda 


uaiiu'  is  iirobably  a  corruption  of  Betli- 
li-l):i()tli  ((■]>.  .Fosh.  xix.  6). 

Beth'-car  [house  of  pasture,  a  place  lit  for 
Urazinn]- 

A  iiiacc  wiiicli  is  iianiiil  to  iiidiiatt'  tin-  point 
to  wliicli  the  I'liilistiues  were  pursued  liy  tlie 
Israelites  alter  the  seci>u(l  aud  decisive  battle 
of  lOheuezer  (1  Saui.  vii.  11).  Tiie  use  of  the 
word  "uuder"  soeuis  U>  imply  that  it  over- 
looked a  ]daiu. 

Beth-da'gon  [liouse  of  Dagon]. 

1.  A  viilavie  in  the  lowland  of  Judah  (Josh. 
XV.  Ii:>,  111.  apparently  in  the  vicinity  of 
Kleutlieropolis.      N(.t  ideutitied. 

2.  .\  town  of  Aslier.  on  the  frontier  toward 
Zehulun  (.Io>li.  \'i\.27).     Not  identified. 

Beth-dib-la-tha'im  [house  of  fij;  cakes]. 

A  town  on  the  tableland  of  Moab,  territory 
once  in  i)ossession  of  Israel  (Ji'r.  xlviii.  21, 
22).    I'robably  the  siinie  as  Aluion-diblathaini. 

Beth-e'den.     See  Edex  2. 

Beth'el  [house  of  (iod]. 

I.  .V  tiiwn  of  Piilestine,  west  of  Ai,  south 
-.1  .Siiiiidi  ((!cn.  xii.  8;  Juds;;.  xxi.  19),  and 
lu-ar  Michniash  (1  Sam.  xiii.  2).  Abraham 
on  his  first  journey  into  Palestine,  and  sub- 
sequently, iiitched  his  tent  near  it  ((ieu.  xiii. 
3).  The  town  was  called  Luz  by  the  Canaan- 
ites ;  but  .lacob  called  the  name  of  the  place 
close  by,  where  he  passed  the  ni.uht  sleeping 
on  the  ground,  Helhel  on  account  of  the 
vision  which  he  saw  there,  and  he  erected  a 
I>illar  to  mark  the  spot  (({en.  xxviii.  19  seq.  ; 
xxxi.  i;!i.  The  two  are  distinguished  (.losh. 
xvi.  2) ;  but  the  name  lietlud  soon  suiii>lauted 
Luz  as  designation  of  the  town.  On  the  re- 
turn of  .hu'ob  from  Taddau-aram  he  went  to 
IJethel,  built  an  altar,and  realtirnied  tlie  name 
((ien.xxxv.  1  1.") ;  llos.  xii.  1).  The  ])eo])le  of 
the  town  heljK'd  those  of  Ai  in  the  second  bat- 
tle with  .loshiia  (.losh.  viii.9,  12,  17).  Later  it 
was  taken  and  its  king  slain  (xii.  9,  Ki).  It 
was  assigned  to  Heiijamin.  and  stood  on  the 
boundary  line  between  that  tribe  and  Eph- 
raini  (.lush.  xvi.  2:  xviii.  1:5,  22).  It  was  en- 
tered and  its  Cauaanite  iuhabitant.s  were 
slain  by  the  men  of  Ephraim  when  they  were 
engage<l  in  securing  their  recently  accpiired 
t<Tritory  (.ludg.  i.  22  seq.).  Its  villages  on 
the  north  of  the  l)oiindary  line  belonged  to 
Kiihniim,  and  so  jierhaps  did  the  town,  as  a 
result  of  this  extermination  of  the  Canaanites 
within  its  walls  (1  Ciiron.  vii.  28).  When 
the  Israelites  were  gathered  at  Mizpah  near 
(Jibeali  to  war  against  Hen  jamin.  the  ark  was 
brought  from  Shiloh,  Is  miles  distant,  to 
Itethel,  H  miles  olfi.lndg.  xx.  1,  27).  Thither 
the  men  of  Israel  rei)aired  to  ask  counsel  of 
<i>pd.  and  there  they  built  a  temjiorary  altar 
and  ollered  s.icritices  (IH.  2t),  It.  V.).  At  the 
cud  iif  the  war  they  came  again  to  Bethel, 
Silt  there  befVue  the  Lord,  built  a  new  altar 
or  repaired  the  old  one.  aud  otl'ired  .sjicritices 
I  xxi.  2-1.  K.  v.).  When  the  regular  ser- 
vices of  the  sanctuarv  at  Shiloli  were  sus- 


pended during  the  loss  and  seclusion  of  the 
ark,  Bethel  was  one  of  the  places  where 
Samuel  judged  Israel,  and  whither  men  went 
with  their  ollerings  to  (iod  (1  Sam.  vii.  1(>; 
X.  ;>).  .leroboam  tixed  one  of  his  calves  there 
(1  Kin.  xii.  29-33),  and  Helhel  becanu' a  great 
center  of  idolatry  (1  Kin.  xiii.  1-32;  2  Kin. 
X.  29).  It  was  taken  and  temjiorarily  held 
by  Abijah  (2  ("hron.  xiii.  19).  Elijah  jiassed 
through  it  (2  Kin.  ii.  1-3),  an<l  it  was  from 
Bethel  that  the  youths  came  who  uua-ked 
Elisha  (23,  24).  The  prophets  denounced  it 
for  its  idolatries  (Jer.  xlviii.  13;  Hos.  x.  1,^; 
Amos  iii.  11;  iv.  4;  v.  .5,  (!).  and  called  it 
Hetli-aven,  house  of  naught  (Hos.  iv.  1.");  v. 
S  ;  X.  r>).  Amos  was  in  danger  in  Hethel  for 
his  bold  preaching  (Amos  vii.  l(t-13).  Josiah 
broke  down  its  altars  and  its  iiigh  jilaces,  aud, 
as  foretold,  burned  the  bones  of  the  priests 
taken  from  its  sei)ulchers  (2  Kin.  xxiii.  4, 
1.^-20).  Some  of  its  inhabitants  returned 
from  Babylon  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra  ii.  28; 
Neh.  vii.  .32),  the  place  again  revi-rting  to  the 
Benjamites  (xi.  31).  In  .Maccabee  times  it 
was  fortified  by  the  Syrian  Bacchides  (1  JIac. 
ix.  5(1).  In  the  Jewish  war  it  was  captured 
by  Vespasian,  later  Komau  emjieror  (War  iv. 
9,  9).  The  ruins,  called  Beitin,  lie  on  the 
watershe<l  of  I'alestine,  about  11  miles  north 
from  Jerusalem.  They  are  on  the  summit 
of  a  hill  sloping  to  the  southeast,  aud  cover 
three  or  four  acres.  A  range  of  hills  trends 
to  the  southeast  (cj).  1  Sam.  xiii.  2).  In  the 
valley  to  the  west  is  a  broken  reservoir,  314 
feet  hmg  by  217  broad,  with  two  brooks  of 
living  water.  Two  other  brooks  are  in  the 
vicinity.  There  an-  sei)ulcliers  cut  in  a  low 
clitl'.  All  the  country  round  is  of  gray  stone 
or  white  chalk,  with  a  great  deficiency  of 
vegetable  mould.  As  in  Abraham's  time,  it  is 
a  pastoral  region. 

2.  A  towu  in  the  territory  of  Simeou  (1 
Sam.  XXX.  27).     See  Bethuel. 

Beth-e'mek  [house  of  the  valley]. 

A  town  within  the  territory  of  Asher  (Josh, 
xix.  27).     Not  identified. 

Be'ther  [sei)aration,  division]. 

Not  a  mountain  range  near  the  strong 
fortress  Bether.  where  the  Jews  uuder  Bar- 
cocheha  made  their  last  stand  in  their  contest 
with  the  Komans,  for  this  word  has  a  different 
orthograi>hy,  Heth-ther.  Hether  is  jirobably 
a  common  noun,  aiul  describes  the  mountains 
as  cleft  and  rugged  (Song  ii.  17). 

Be-thes'da  [house  of  mercy]. 

Earliii-  iiiauiiscriiits  of  the  N.  T.  have  other 
si)elliugs,  as  Hethsaida,  house  of  fishing,  and 
Bethzatha,  house  of  the  olive. 

A  pool  at  .lerusjilem,  which  was  near  the 
sheep  gate  and  had  five  jiorches,  that  were 
snllicieiitly  ample  to  accommodate  a  great 
multitude  (John  v.  2.se(|.).  Its  waters  were 
supposed  to  possess  healing  virtue.  The 
fourth  verse  of  the  A.  V..  which  mentions  a 
periodie  troubling  of  the  waters,  and  a.scribes 
it  to  an  angel,  is  omitted  in  E.  V.  as  being 


Beth-ezel 


84 


Bethlehem 


insufficiently  supported  by  early  texts.  Tra- 
dition located  Bcthesda  at  the  Birket  Israel, 
north  of  the  teniple,  or  at  an  adjacent  pool. 
The  tradition  was  well  founded,  even  if  it 
ultimately  went  astray.  1.  In  A.  D.  333  the 
Bordeaux  pilj;rim  stated  that  there  were  two 
pools  and  five  i)orches.  2.  Early  manuscripts, 
e.g.  the  Sinaitic,  have  Beth/.atha,  ai)hreviated 
Bezatha,  instead  of  Bethesda.  These  words 
are  api)arently  variations  of  Bezetha,  the 
name  of  the  (juarter  of  the  city  north  of  the 
temple  hill,  and  imjily  that  the  pool  was  in 
the  Bezethan  section  of  the  city.  3.  The 
pool  was  near  the  sheep  gate,  aud  the  natural 
explanation  of  Neh.  iii.  determines  the  loca- 
tion ui  this  gate  to  have  been  north  of  the 
temple  area.  4.  In  the  autumn  of  1888  ex- 
cavation in  the  northeast  part  of  Jerusalem, 
in  connection  with  the  repair  of  the  church 
of  St.  Anne,  laid  bare  100  feet  northwest  of 
that  building  a  pool  with  five  porches.  A 
faded  fresco  on  the  wall  depicts  an  angel  aud 
water,  and  shows  that  in  the  early  Christian 
ages  this  pool  was  regarded  as  Bethesda. 

Beth-e'zel  [house  of  root]. 

A  town  of  Judah  or  Samaria — it  is  uncer- 
tain which  (Mic.  i.  11).  Perhaps  identical 
with  Azal,  i.  e.  Azel  (q.  v.),  mentioned  in 
Zech.  xiv.  5. 

Beth-ga'der  [house  of  a  wall]. 
A  town  of  Judah  (1  Chrou.  ii.  51).     See 
Gedek. 

Beth-ga'mul  [house  of  perfection]. 
A  Moabite  town   (Jer.  xlviii.  23),  possibly 
Jemail,  east  of  Uibon. 

Beth-hac'che-rem,  in  A.  V.  Beth-hac'ce- 

rem  [house  of  the  vineyard]. 

A  town  of  Judah  (Neh.  iii.  14;  Jer.  vi.  1). 
Jerome  knew  a  village  Beta-charma.  It  was 
visible  from  Bethlehem  where  he  resided, 
and  was  situated  on  a  hill  between  Tekoa 
and  Jerusalem.  Accordingly  its  site  has  been 
sought  at  the  Frank  mountain,  3i  miles  south- 
east of  Bethlehem. 

Betli-ha'ran,    Beth-a'ram,     Beth-ha'ram 

[last  two  forms  may  signify  place  of  the 
height]. 

A  town  in  the  Jordan  valley,  rebuilt  by 
the  children  of  Gad  (Num.  sxxii.  36;  Josh, 
xiii.  27).  Tristram  well  identified  it  with 
the  mound  called  Beth-haran.  in  the  plain 
east  of  the  Jordan,  opiio.site  Jericho  on  the 
southeast.  This  mound  must  be  distinguished 
from  Tell  er-Rameh.  3  miles  farther  up  the 
wady  to  the  east,  the  site  of  Betharamphtha, 
where  Herod  had  a  palace  (Antiq.  xviii.  2, 1 ; 
War  ii.  4,  2  ;  9,  1). 

Beth-hog'lah,  in  A.  V.  once  Beth-hogla 
[house  of  the  jiartridge]. 

A  village  of  Benjamin  on  the  boundary 
line  between  that  tribe  and  Judah,  and  near 
the  river  Jordan  (Josh.  xv.  (j  ;  xviii.  19,  21). 
The  name  and  site  are  found  at  'Ain  Ilajlah, 
4  miles  southeast  of  Jericho. 


Beth-ho'ron  [house  of  hollowness]. 

Twin  towns  of  l-^phi-aim,  IJ  miles  a])art, 
but  with  a  difi'erence  of  (iOO  feet  in  altitude, 
on  the  boundary  between  Kphraim  and  Ben- 
jannn,  built  by  a  woman  of  I^phraim  called 
Slierah  (Josh.  xvi.  3,  .5;  xviii.  1.3;  1  t'liron. 
vii.  24).  One  of  them  was  assigned  as  residence 
to  the  Levites  of  the  family  of  Kohath  (Josh. 
xxi.  22;  1  Chron.  vi.  <)8).  The  towns  lay  in 
a  mountain  pass,  on  the  ancient  highway  be- 
tween Jerusalem  and  the  ])lain,  12  Roman 
miles  northwest  of  the  cajjital.  They  cim- 
trolled  the  pass,  and  were  fortified  by  Solo- 
mon (2  Chron.  viii.  .")l  :  but  especially  did  the 
walls  of  the  upper  town  engage  military  at- 
tention, for  it  occupied  the  more  strategic 
position  (1  Kin.  ix.  17;  1  Mac.  ix.  50;  cp. 
Judith  iv.  4).  U])  aud  down,  past  these 
towns,  repeatedly  surged  the  tide  of  war. 
The  Amorites  tied  down  this  pass  before 
Joshua  (Josh.  x.  10  seq.).  The  Philistines 
ascended  it  to  make  war  with  Saul  (1  Sam. 
xiii.  18).  Judas  ISIaccabteus  fought  two  bat- 
tles here  (1  Mac.  iii.  15  seq. ;  vii.  39  seq.),  and 
the  army  of  Cestius  Gallus,  governor  of  Syria, 
was  almost  annihilated  here  by  the  Jews 
(War  ii.  19,  8).  The  towns  still  exist  under 
the  names  Beit  'Ur  et-Tahta  and  el-F6ka. 

Beth-jesh'i-motli,  in  A.  V.  once  Beth- 
jes'i-moth  [house  of  the  wastes], 

A  town  east  of  the  Jordan,  near  Pisgah 
and  the  Dead  Sea  (Josh.  xii.  3 :  xiii.  20;  War 
iv.  7,  6).  When  the  Israelites  encamped  at 
Shittim,  it  formed  the  southern  limit  of  the 
camp  (Num.  xxxiii.  49).  It  was  10  Roman 
miles  southeast  of  Jericho.  Direction  and 
distance  indicate  'Ain  es-Suwcmeh,  and  this 
name  seems  an  echo  of  Jeshimoth.  It  was 
assigned  to  the  Reubenites,  but  in  the  time 
of  Ezekiel  was  in  the  hands  of  the  Moabites 
(Josh.  xiii.  20;   Ezek.  xxv.  9). 

Beth-le-aph'rah.    See  Aphrah. 

Beth-leb'a-oth  [house  of  lionesses]. 

A  town  in  the  south  of  Judah,  assigned  to 
the  Simeonites  (Josh.  xv.  32;  xix.  6)  ;  see 
Beth-piki.     Not  identified. 

Bethle-hem  [house  of  bread]. 

1.  A  town  in  the  hill  covfctry  of  Judah, 
originally  called  Ephrath  ;  hence,  to  distin- 
guish it  from  a  jdace  of  the  same  name  iu 
Zebulun,  called  also  Bethlehem-judah  aud 
Bethlehem-ephrathah  (Gen.  xxxv.  19  ;  Judg. 
xvii.  7;  Mic.  v.  2).  Bethlehem  is  not  men- 
tioned among  the  cities  assigned  to  Judah 
(Josh.  XV. ;  see,  however,  ver.  .59,  Septuagint). 
But  as  a  village  it  existed  as  early  as  the  time 
of  Jacob,  Rachel  died  and  was  buried  in  its 
vicinity  (Gen.  xxxv.  16,  19;  xlviii.  7).  Its 
citizens  were  hospitable  to  the  Levites  (Judg. 
xvii.  7;  xix.  1).  A  branch  of  Caleb's  family 
settled  in  the  town  and  attained  to  great  in- 
fluence (1  Chron.  ii.  51,  .54;  cp.  Ruth.  iv.20). 
It  was  the  residence  of  Boaz,  of  Ruth  (i.  19; 
iv,  9-11),  doubtless  of  Obed  (iv.  21,  22).  and 
of  Jesse,  the  father  of  David  (Ruth  iv.  11. 
17  ;  1  Sam.  xvi.  1,  4).     As  the  birthplace  aud 


Beth-maacah 


86 


Bethsaida 


ancestral  home  of  Dtivid,  it  was  the  city  of 
Davitl  (Jjiike  ii.  11).  It  was  a  walled  town 
as  early  as  the  time  of  David.  It  fell  tem- 
porarily into  the  hands  of  the  Philistines  ("2 
Sam.  xxiii.  14,  15).  Kehohoam  strengthened 
its  fortifications  (2  Chron.  xi.  (J).  Bethlehem- 
ites  returned  from  captivity  with  Zerul)l)al)el 
(Kzra  ii.  21  ;  Neh.  vii.  2())."  It  was  looked  to 
as  tlie  place  where  the  Messiah  should  he 
horn  (Mic.  v.  2:  Mat.  ii.  5),  and  accordingly 
when  the  fullness  of  time  had  come  Jesus  be- 
came incarnate  at  Hetlilehem.  In  its  vicinity 
tlie  annunciation  to  the  she])herds  took  i)lace 
(Luke  ii.  1-2(1).  Thither  the  Magi  went  to 
Siilute  the  newborn  babe,  and  it  was  the  in- 
fants of  Bethlehem  who  were  murdered  by 
Herod  to  make  sure  that  among  them  he  had 
cut  off  the  future  king  (Mat.  ii.  1-18).  There 
has  never  been  any  doubt  as  to  its  site.  It  is 
5  miles  soutli  of  .Ternsalem.  at  the  modern 
village  of  Beit  Lalun,  on  the  east  and  north- 
east slope  of  a  long  ridge,  which  to  the  west 
is  higher  than  the  village.  The  town  has 
several  gates.  The  houses  are  mostly  small, 
but  well  built.  The  inhabitants,  who  may 
be  4000  or  more,  are  mostly  Christians  be- 
longing to  the  Greek  Church.  There  are  in 
the  vicinity  vineyards,  orchards  of  fig  trees, 
and  olive  trees.  The  fields,  though  stony, 
produce  grain  abundantly,  and  at  harvest 
gleaning  may  be  seen  as  it  was  in  the  days 
of  Euth.  A  little  east  of  the  town  is  the 
church  built  by  Helena,  the  mother  of  Con- 
stautine,  over  the  cave  said  to  be  the  stable 
in  which  the  nativity  took  place. .  Half  a 
mile  to  the  north  of  the  town  is  the  tradi- 
tional tomb  of  Rachel.  On  the  southern  side 
of  the  town  is  a  valley  running  to  the  Dead 
Sea,  while  almost  at  the  walls  on  the  east  a 
valley  begins  which  joins  the  wady  es-Surar  or 
vale  of  Sorek,  and  near  by  is  also  an  upper 
branch  of  the  wady  es-Sunt  or  vale  of  Elah 
(cp.  1  Sam.  xvii.  2). 

2.  A  town  with  dejjendent  villages  within 
the  territory  of  Zebulnn  (.Tosh.  xix.  15).  It 
seems  to  have  been  this  Bethlehem  which 
gave  birth  to  the  judge  Ibzan  (.Judg.  xii. 
8-10:  cp.  11).  It  is  believed  to  have  been  on 
the  site  of  the  modern  Beit  Lahm,  a  small 
and  wretched  village  7  miles  northwest  of 
Nazareth. 

Beth-ma'a-cah,  in  A.  V.  Beth-maachah 
[house  of  jMaacali]. 

A  town  near  the  foot  of  mount  Hermon 
(2  Sam.  XX.  14, 15).  See  Abel-beth-maac.vh. 

Beth-mar'ca-botli  [house  of  the  chariots]. 

A  town  of  the  Simeonites  (Josh.  xix.  5;  1 
Chron.  iv.  :!1).  Exact  site  unknown.  Per- 
haps ]\Iadmannah  was  a  chariot  station,  and 
was  spoken  of  by  this  name  (Josh.  xv.  81). 

Beth-me'on.     See  Baal-meon. 

Beth-mer'hak  [house  of  removal]. 

Prolmbly  oidy  a  house  beside  the  brook 
Kidron,  between  Jerusalem  and  the  mount 
of  Olives  (2  Sam.  xv.  17,  R.  V.).    The  margin 


renders  it  the  Far  House ;  the  A.  V.,  a  place 
that  was  far  off. 

Beth-nim'rah  [house  of  limpid  fresh 
water]. 

A  town  in  the  Jordan  valley  east  of  the 
river,  assigned  to  Gad  and  rebuilt  by  that 
tribe  (Num.  xxxii.  'M  ;  Josh.  xiii.  27).  Euse- 
bius  and  Jerome  locate  it  5  Roman  miles  to 
the  north  of  Livias,  now  Tell  er-Rameh.  At 
tlie  ])lace  tlius  indicated  ruins  bear  the  name 
Ninirin.  They  lie  amidst  rich,  well-watered 
pastmx^  land. 

Beth-palet.     See  Beth-pelet. 

Beth-paz'zez  [house  of  dispersion]. 

A  town  within  the  territory  of  Issachar 
(Josh.  xix.  21).     Exact  site  unknown. 

Beth-pe'let ;  in  A.  V.  Beth-phelet  and 
Beth-palet  [hou.se  of  escape]. 

A  town  in  the  most  southerly  part  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  27  ;  Neh.  xi.  2<J).  Exact  site  un- 
known. 

Beth-pe'or  [house  of  Peor]. 

A  town  near  Pisgah.  In  the  valley  opposite 
to  it  the  Israelites  had  their  main  encamp- 
ment, elsewhere  referred  to  as  in  the  moun- 
tains of  Abarim,  when  their  army  was  war- 
ring with  Sihon  and  Og  (cp.  Dent  iii.  29;  iv. 
46 ;  with  Num.  xxi.  20  ;  xxiii.  28 ;  xxxiii. 
47-49).  In  this  valley  Moses  was  afterwards 
buried  (Deut.  xxxiv.  6).  The  town  was  as- 
signed to  the  Eeubenites  (Josh.  xiii.  20).  Ac- 
cording to  Eusebius,  it  lay  6  Roman  miles 
above,  that  is  in  the  mountains  east  of,  Livias, 
now  Tell  er-Rameh. 

Beth'pha-ge  [house  of  figs]. 

A  village  near  Bethany,  on  or  near  the 
road  from  Jericho  to  Jerusalem  (Mark  xi.  1 ; 
Luke  xix.  29).  It  probably  stood  between 
Bethany  and  Jerusalem,  not  far  from  the 
descent  of  the  mount  of  Olives  (Mat.  xxi.  1 ; 
John  xii.  1.  12,  14).  The  site  has  not  been 
satisfactorily  identified. 

Beth-phelet.    See  Beth-pelet. 
Beth-ra'pha  [house  of  Rapha,  house  of  a 

giant]. 

A  family  of  Judah,  or  a  town  whose  inhabi- 
tants beloliged  to  that  tribe  (1  Chron.  iv.  12). 

Beth-re'hob  [house  of  a  street]. 

A  town  in  the  north  of  Palestine,  by  the 
valley  of  the  upper  Jordan  (Num.  xiii.  21, 
where  it  is  called  simi)ly  Rehob ;  Judg.  xviii. 
28).  It  was  inhabited  by  Syrians,  who  joined 
the  Ammonites  in  a  great  war  with  David  (2 
Sam.  X.  (5).  Robinson  doubtfully  located  it 
at  the  modern  fortress  of  Ilunin  command- 
ing the  plain  of  Huleh.  in  which  Dan  was 
situated  ;   hut  the  location  is  improbable. 

Beth-sa'i-da  [house  of  hunting  or  fishing]. 

A  town  on  the  lake  of  Gennesaret,  near 
the  Jordan,  rebuilt  l)y  Pliilip  the  teti-arch, 
and  named  by  him  Julias  in  honor  of  the 
daughter  of  the  emperor  Augustus  (Antiq. 
xviii.  2.  1:  Life  72).  To  this  town,  which 
was  on  the  oilier  side  of  the  sea  (actually  at 


Beth-shean 


87 


Beth-shemesh 


the  northern  end).  Jesus  witlidrew  on  re- 
ceiving news  of  the  murder  of  John  the  Bap- 
tist (Luke  ix.  10;  v\).  Mat.  xiv.  13;  John 
vi.  1).  (ioiiifi  forth  to  a  de.sert  grassy  ]>hice, 
ai)|ian  iitly  ahoiit  :i  niih'S  down  tlu-  eastern 
side  of  the  lake,  lie  was  luUowcil  hy  the  mul- 
titude. In  the  evening  he  miraculously  fed 
tiiem.  The  (li.seijiles  then  entered  into  a  boat 
to  ))recede  him  "  unto  the  other  side  to  [or 
toward]  Kcthsaida  "  (Mark  vi.  J."),  H.  V.).  Dur- 
ing tlie  evening  and  night,  the  diseiplos  were 
in  the  niidsl  of  the  sea  distre.ssed  in  rowing, 
fur  tlie  wind  was  contrary  unto  them.  Jesus 
lame  walking  on  the  sta,  and  was  taken  into 
the  boat.  And  when  they  liad  crossed  over 
they  came  to  the  laixl  uiilo  (Jennesiiret  (ver. 
53).  Do  the.se  statements,  taken  in  connec- 
tion with  .John's  mention  of  "  liethsaida  of 
Galilee"  (xii.  •Jl),  imply  another  Heth.saida? 
Notable  scholars,  like  Robinson,  think  so.  and 
locate  it.  among  other  places,  at  'Ain  et-Tabi- 
ghah,  al)out  '.i  miles  .southwest  of  the  mouth 
of  the  .Jordan.  Hut  the  existence  of  two  towns 
of  the  same  name  on  the  same  lake,  and  at  most 
only  a  few  miles  apart,  is  so  imjiroliable  that 
the  words  of  the  evangelists  must  be  subjected 
to  careful  scrutiny  to  learn  whether  they  re- 
quire this  a,ssumi)tion  ;  and  1.  The  ultimate 
destination  of  the  disciples  was  Capernaum 
(John  vi.  17)  ;  but  it  was  determined  that 
they  should  sail  "toward  Bethsaida,"  keep- 
ing nearer  the  shore  than  the  direct  course 
to  ('ai>ernaum  would  require  (Thomson).  2. 
Even  if  tlu'ir  purijose  was  to  make  a  stop  at 
Beth.saida,  it  was  i>ro])er  to  sjjcak  of  going 
"  to  the  other  side  to  Bethsaida,"  for  Josejihus 
Uses  a  similar  expression  for  jtroceeding  by 
boat  from  Tiberias  '.>i  miles  to  Tariclu  ie.  He 
"siiiled  over  to  Taricheie"  (Life  .">!(,  quoted 
by  (i.  A.  Smith).  3.  Philip  was  of  Beth.saida 
of  (Jalilec  (John  xii.  21).  Thomson  suggests 
that  any  city  built  at  the  mouth  of  the  nar- 
row Joidan,  as  Bet lisaida-.lulias  admittedly 
was,  would  almost  iK'ce.ssarily  have  part  of 
its  houses  or  a  suburb  on  the  west  bank  of 
the  river,  which  would  be  in  Galilee.  Peter, 
Andrew,  and  Philiii,  were  born  there  and  were 
Galilicans.  Thomson  furtln'r  suggi'sts  that 
probably  the  wliole  city  on  both  banks  of 
the  river  was  ordinarily  attached  to  Galilee. 
Geo.  Adam  Smith  allirms  that  '"the  jirovince 
of  (»alile(!  ran  right  round  the  lake.''  His 
oj)inion  is  based  on  Joscphus"  mention  of  a 
certain  .ludas,  who  belonged  to  (Jamala  in 
(iaulonitis.  as  a  Galilsean  (War  ii.  s,  1  with 
Antiq.  xviii.  1,  1). 

Beth-she'an,  or,  contracted.  Beth'-shan 
[house  of  ijuiet  or  restful  security]. 

A  city  sjdendidly  situated  on  the  brow  of 
a  hill  just  wliere  the  vallev  of  Jezreel  drops 
•town  :!(M)  feet  to  the  level  of  the  .I.irdan.  In 
addition  tn  enjoying  the  security  aH'orded  l)y 
the  natural  strength  of  the  city,  its  inhabi- 
tants early  rendered  themselves  formidable 
by  the  use  of  war  chariots  of  iron  (Josh, 
xvii.    KJi.      Beth-shean,   with    its   dependent 


towns,  fell  within  the  area  of  Is.sachar,  but 
was  given  to  the  Mana.ssites  (Josh.  xvii.  11; 
1  C'hron.  vii.  2!>).  They  failed,  however,  to 
drive  out  the  t'anaanites.  but  were  strong 
enough  to  make  them  pay  tribute  (Josli.  xvii. 
12-1(1:  Judg.  i.  27,  2.-').  After  the  battle  of 
tiilboa,  the  Philistines  fastened  the  l)odies  of 
Saul  and  his  sous  to  the  wall  of  Beth-shean 
(1  Sam.  xxxi.  1()-13;  2  Sam.  xxi.  12-14).  In 
the  Greek  jieriod  it  was  sometimes  called 
Nyssa,  but  its  common  name  in  Greek  and 
Latin  literature  is  Scytlio]»)lis.  It  bore  this 
name  as  early  as  the  time  of  Judas  Maccaba-us. 
In  several  instances  Scythoj)olis  is  written 
2/cu9u)i'  TToAis,  city  of  the  Scythians  (Judg.  i.  27, 
Septuagint;  .Jiidith  iii.  1();  2  .Mac.  xii.  2!t)  ; 
and  it  has  been  supposed  that  a  renniant  of 
the  Scythian  hordes  settled  here,  who  are 
said  to  have  advanced  through  Palestine 
against  Egyi)t  in  the  latter  half  of  the  seventh 
century  before  Christ  (Herod,  i.  103.  10.^; 
Pliny,  hist.  nat.  v.  l(i).  Tlie  name  Scythopolis 
may,  however,  be  the  echo  of  some  Semitic 
word.  In  the  lirst  century  A.  D.  the  ])oi>ula- 
tion  of  the  citv  was  prcdoniinantlv  gentile 
(2  Mac.  xii.  30';  War  ii.  18,  1,  3,  4  ;  Life  6), 
and  tlie  Jews  consetiuently  sacked  it  during 
the  war  with  the  liomans.  The  citizens  re- 
taliated by  massacring  the  Jewish  residents. 
Jo.sephus  says  that  it  was  the  largest  of  the 
ten  cities  called  Decapolis,  apparently  disre- 
garding Damascus,  po.ssibly  because  the  city 
on  the  Abanah  was  not  at  this  moment  a  •.neni- 
ber  of  the  league  (War  iii.  9,  7).  It  was  the 
only  oue  of  the  ten  cities  that  lay  west  of  the 
Jordan.  It  continued  to  figure  in  history 
as  late  as  the  crusades.  Though  the  name 
Scythopolis  lasted  for  centuries,  it  did  not 
ultiniatidy  take  root,  and  the  Arab  village 
which  now  marks  its  site  is  called  Beisau. 
Extensive  ruins  of  the  city  still  remain,  which 
date  largely  from  the  Greco-Roman  i)eriod. 
Its  walls  must  have  been  between  2  aiul  3 
miles  round.  The  city  was  divided  into  three 
parts  by  two  streams  flowing  through  deep 
ravines.  The  sontlierii  .section  contains  he 
modern  village  and  hip))odronu'  (race  course), 
a  theater,  with  a  ruined  mosiiue,  and  part  of 
the  ancient  city  walls.  The  central  section, 
is  almost  surrounded  by  the  two  streams,  and 
includes  the  present  mound  or  tell,  which 
rises  about  200  ft-et  high,  with  sides  nearly 
l)erpeii<liculai'.  and  at  its  toji  traces  of  the 
thick  wall  which  once  enclosed  the  suinniit. 
The  northerly  one  has  a  church,  tombs,  and 
fort.  The  ])rincii)al  edifices  were  built  of 
black  basalt,  the  region  around  being  vol- 
canic. 

Beth-she'mesh  [house  of  the  sun]. 

1.  A  tnwM  of  the  lowland,  in  the  vale  of 
Sorek,  now  <alled  Ain  Shenis.  The  name 
suggests  that  it  was  once  a  seat  of  the  Canaan- 
ite  worshi))  of  the  sun.  It  was  allotted  to 
Judah,  and  lay  on  the  assigned  boundary 
line  (.Tosh.  xv.  10);  but  as  this  tribe  found 
itself  iiossessetl  of  more  territory  than  neces- 


Beth-shemite 


88 


Bezek 


sary  (xix.  9),  it  was  transferred  with  several 

other  towns  to  Diin  (41,wlierethesynoiiymoiis 
iiaiiii'  IrsluMiicsli  is  usi'd).  Tlu'  bauitcs  did 
not  ot'cuiiy  it;  and  when  jji-ovision  was  made 
for  the  tribe  of  Levi,  it  was  given  to  the 
priests  the  sons  of  Aaron,  and  reckoned  as 
set  apart  from  the  tribe  of  Judah  (xxi.  IG, 
cp.  y  ;  1  Ciiron.  vi.  5!)).  Of  course,  after  the 
formation  of  the  kingdom  it  was  within 
Judah  (2  Kin.  xiv.  11).  When  the  ark  was 
sent  back  from  the  Philistine  country  on  a 
new  cart  drawn  by  two  mik-h  kine  without 
human  guidance,  the  animals  took  the  way 
to  Betli-shemesh.  The  townspeople,  profanely 
looking  into  the  ark,  were  struck  by  a  plague 
which  wa.s  fatal  to  seventy  of  their  number 
( Antiq.  vi.  1,  -4).  After  the  words  seventy  men 
there  is  tiie  strange  insertion  in  the  Hebrew 
text,  rendered  suspicious  by  the  absence  of  the 
conjunction,  of  the  further  words  fifty  thou- 
sand men  (1  Sam.  vi.  1-21,  R.  V.).  One  of  Solo- 
mon's twelve  purveyors  drew  supplies  of 
food  from  the  town  and  district  (1  Kin.  iv. 
7,  9).  It  was  the  .scene  of  a  battle  between 
Amaziah,  king  of  Judah,  and  Joash,  king  of 
Israel,  in  which  the  former  was  defeated  (2 
Kin.  xiv.  11 ;  2  Chron.  xxv.  21),  and  it  was 
taken  by  the  Philistines  during  the  reign  of 
Ahaz  (xxviii.  18). 

2.  A  town  on  the  boundary  of  Issachar,  be- 
tween Tabor  and  the  Jordan  (Josh.  xix.  22). 
Not  identified. 

3.  A  fenced  city  of  the  tribe  of  Naphtali, 
from  which,  however,  the  Canaanites  were 
not  driven  (Josh.  xix.  38 ;  Judg.  i.  33).  Not 
identified.  Possibly  the  town  of  this  name, 
already  mentioned  as  on  the  boundary  of 
Issachar,  is  intended. 

4.  An  Egyptian  city  where  the  sun  was 
worshiped  ( jer.  xliii.  13) ;  doubtless  On. 

Beth-she'mite. 

A  native  of  Beth-shemesh  (1  Sam.  vi.  14, 
18). 

Beth-sMt'tah  [house  of  the  acacia]. 

A  town  between  tlie  valley  of  Jezreel  and 
Zererah  in  the  Jordan  valley  (Judg.  vii.  22, 
E.  v.).  The  fact  that  it  is  coupled  with 
Zererah,  and  not  with  Beth-shean,  excludes 
its  identification  with  Shutta. 

Beth-su'ra.     See  Beth-zur. 

Beth-tap'pu-ah  [house  of  apples  or  similar 
fruit]. 

A  town  in  the  hill  country  of  Judah  (Josh. 
XV.  53),  the  modern  village  of  Tufluh,  about 
4  miles  west  of  Hebron  (cp.  1  Chron.  ii.  43). 

Be-thu'el  [perhaps  abode  of  God]. 

1.  Son  of  Nahor  by  his  wife  Milcah.  He 
was  the  father  of  Laban  and  Rcbekah,  and 
nephew  of  Abraham  (Gen.  xxii.  20,  22,  23 ; 
xxiv.  15,  29;  xxv.  20;  xxviii.  2,  5). 

2.  A  town  of  the  Simeonites  (1  Chron.  iv. 
30;  in  Jo.sh.  xix.  4  Bethul).  David  sent 
thither  part  of  the  recaptured  sjioil  of  Ziklag 
(1  Sam.  XXX.  27).  In  tliis  latter  jiassage  it  is 
called  Bethel,  a  modified  form  of  the  name, 
more  suggestive  to  the  Hebrew  ear.  It  seems 


to  be  the  Chcsil  of  Josh.  xv.  30.  Not  identi- 
fied. Possibly  the  small  village  of  Beit  Aula, 
()'  miles  northwest  of  Hebron. 

Be'thul.     See  Bkthuel  2. 

Beth-zach-a-ri'as. 

A  town  (1  Mac.  vi.  32,  33),  70  strides  or  8 
miles  from  Bethsura  (.Xntiij.  xii.  9,  4).  It  is 
identified  with  the  modern  Beit  Zakariya,  9 
Roman  miles  by  road  north  of  Bethsura. 

Beth'-ziur,  in  Maccabees  Bethsvira  [house 
of  a  rock]. 

A  town  in  the  hill  country  of  Judah  (Josh. 
XV.  58).  It  was  fortified  by  Rehoboam  (2 
Cliron.  xi.  7).  In  Nehemiah's  time  half  of 
its  district  was  subject  to  .V/.bnk  (Neh.iii.  l(i). 
In  the  Greek  i)eriod  the  name  was  written 
Bethsura.  and  it  was  important  as  a  frontier 
town  toward  Idumtea.  Here  Judas  Macca- 
bajus  gained  a  great  victory  over  the  Syrian 
general  Lysias  (1  Mac.  iv.  29 ;  2  Mac.  xi.  5 ; 
xiii.  19,  22).  The  patriot  leader  afterwards 
fortified  it  (1  Mac.  iv.  61 ;  vi.  7, 2G,  31).  Want 
of  food  compelled  the  garrison  to  surrender 
it  to  the  Syrians  (49,  50).  Its  defenses  were 
strengthened  by  Bacchides  (ix.  52),  but  it  was 
recaptured  by  Simon  (xi.  65,  66 ;  xiv.  7)  and 
refortified  (33).  The  name  lingers  in  the 
ruins  Beit  Siir,  4  miles  to  the  north  of  He- 
bron. 

Bet'o-nim  [pistachio-nuts]. 

A  town  of  Gad  (Josh.  xiii.  26).  Not  prop- 
erly identified. 

Beu'lah  [married]. 

A  name  prophetically  applied  to  the  once 
forsaken  land  of  Palestine  when  it  was  re- 
stored to  God's  favor  and  repeopled  after  the 
captivity  (Is.  Ixii.  4). 

Be'zai. 

Founder  of  a  family,  some  of  whom  re- 
turned from  Babylon  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra 
ii.  17  ;  Neh.  vii.  23).  A  representative  of  the 
family  signed  the  covenant  of  fidelity  to  Je- 
hovah (Neh.  X.  18). 

Be'zal-el,  in  A.  V.  Be-zal'e-el  [in  the 
shadow  (('.  e.  under  the  protection)  of  God]. 

1.  A  man  of  Judah,  family  of  Hezron, 
house  of  Caleb,  and  a  grandson  of  Hur  (1 
Chron.  ii.  20) ;  a  skillful  artificer  raised  up 
of  God  and  appointed  to  work  in  gold,  silver, 
copper,  in  the  .setting  of  precious  stones,  and 
the  carving  of  wood  for  the  furnishing  of  the 
tabernacle  (Ex.  xxxi.  1-11;  xxxv.  30-35). 

2.  A  son  of  Pahath-moab,  induced  by  Ezra 
to  put  away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  30). 

Be'zek  [dissemination,  sowing,  plantation]. 

A  town  evidently  in  centi-al  Palestine,  not 
a  great  distance  from  Jabesh-gilead  (1  Sam. 
xi.  S.  11).  Twin  villages  of  this  name  ex- 
isted in  Eusebius'  time  17  Roman  miles  fnnn 
Shechem  toward  Beth-shean.  fonder  iden- 
tifies the  site  with  the  ruin  Ibzik,  13  miles 
nortlu'ast  of  Sbeclunn.  With  this  town  may 
be  identified  Bezek  mentioned  in  .ludg.  i.  4 
seq..  on  the  assumption  that  Adoni-bezek  ad- 
vanced southward  with   his  forces  to  unite 


Bezer 


cS9 


Bible 


with  the  southern  Canaanites,  was  met  and  ' 
repulsed  l>y  Jiidiih  and  Simeon,  and  jinrsued  ' 
til  liis  (-uiiital. 

Be'zer  [{johl  or  silver  ore]. 

1.  An  Asherite,  sou  of  Zopliah  (1  Chron. 
vii.  ;57).  I 

•-'.  A  city  in  the  wilderness,  on  the  plateau  j 
wiliiin  the  territory  of  Koulicn.  It  was  given 
to  the  Levites,  and  was  one  of  the  cities  of 
refuse  (Dent.  iv.  4:5;  Josh.  xx.  8;  xxi.  'M;  1 
Mac.  V.  2(j).  It  afterwards  came  into  the 
pos.ses.sion  of  Moai),  and  Mesha,  king  of  Moah, 
fortilied  it  (Moahite  Stone  27).   Not  identified. 

Be'zeth. 

A  i)l:n-e  not  far  from  Jerusalem,  where 
Bacchides  jiitehed  his  camp  (1  Mac.  vii.  19), 
the  village  of  15eth-zetho  or  Berzetho  (Antiii. 
xii.  l(t,  2),  doulitless  IJezetha,  the  northern 
siiliiirb  of  Jerusalem.     See  Jkkusalem  II.  3. 

Bi'ble  [(Jreek  BUilln.  books,  ecclesiastical 
Uitin  lUhliii].  It  is  believed  tliat  the  Greek 
word  UiliHii  was  first  ajiplied  to  tlii'  sacred 
books  by  John  (.'hrysof,toni,  patriarch  of  Con- 
stantinople from  A.  1).  398  to  404. 

Etymologically  viewed,  the  Bible  means 
"the  Books, "  and  that  no  (lualifying  adjec- 
tive stands  before  thi'  noun  implies  that  these 
writings  were  regarded  by  those  who  used 
the  term  as  forming  a  class  by  themselves 
and  as  superior  to  all  other  literary  produc- 
tions. They  are  unitiuidy  and  preeminently 
the  books.  The  .same  view  is  suggested  by 
t)ie  etymology  of  the  word  Scripture  and 
Scriptures,  and  the  fact  is  rendered  all  the 
more  significant  that  both  terms  occur  fre- 
(juentlv  with  this  implied  meaning  in  the 
N.  T.  "(Mat.  xxi.  4J :  Acts.  viii.  32).  The 
term  Bible  is  absent  from  the  sacred  page; 
it  is  of  ecclesiastical  origin.  The  i>lural  term 
Biblia  marks  the  important  fact  that  the 
Bible  is  not  a  single  book,  but  a  great  many. 
The  words  Bible  and  Scrii)ture,  on  the  other 
hand,  being  both  in  the  singular  number,  em- 
l>hasi/.e  the  fact  that,  under  the  diversity  of 
human  authorship,  tlu're  lies  a  wonderful 
unity,  pointing  to  the  operation  of  one  direct- 
ing Mind,  which  acted  during  more  than  a 
thousand  consecutive  years  wlieii  these  writ- 
ings were  being  jirod  need.  The  claims  t<i(li  vine 
authority  made  by  Scripture  are  investigated 
by  the  science  of  Apologetics.  The  word  is 
used  in  a  (ireek  rather  tlian  in  an  English 
sense,  and  is,  tlierefon-,  liable  to  be  misun- 
derstood. It  is  relateil  that  when  (ieorge  III. 
was  told  that  I'.islio])  Watson  had  jiublished 
an  Aiiutufiy  for  the  Jlihic,  he  drily  remarked 
that  he  did"  mit  kn<.w  before  that  the  Bible 
re<|uired  an  a]iology.  The  bisho])  used  the 
Word  "  .\])(>lo>,'y  "  like  the  (ireek  (iimhiijiii, 
to  mean  defense;  and  the  .'Science  of  Apolo- 
getics defenilx  the  Bible.  A  second  science  is 
that  of  Biblical  Criticism.  This  is  divided 
into   lliirher  Criticism,    which    in(|uires   into 

the  origin  an<l  cbara<I(r  of  tiie  several  1 ks, 

and  si-eks  to  detiTudne  liy  wlioui.  under  what 
circumstances,  and    with    what   disign  they 


were  written ;  and  Lower  or  Textual  Criticism, 
which  seeks,  by  the  aid  of  the  ancient  manu- 
scri|>tsand  versions,  to  bring  the  text  of  these 
books  to  the  highest  practicable  lev(d  of  ac- 
curacy. Cp.  ArocuYi'UA,  C.\N(>x.  The  science 
of  Hermeneutics  investigates  tlie  prineijiles 
of  interpretation,  while  Exegi'sisa]i]>lies  them. 
The  contents  id'  the  liibie  are  tluii  methodi- 
cally arranged.  It  will  be  found  when  this 
is  done  that  they  touch  geography,  history, 
science,  philosoiihy,  ethics — in  fact,  nearly 
every  department  of  human  thought.  FurtluT, 
Bil)lieal  Theology  investigates  the  doctrines 
of  the  Bible  in  tlieir  historical  devi'lopment, 
and  Dogmatic  or  Systematic  Theology  seeks  to 
arrange  the  doctrines  into  the  system  which 
is  contained  in  Scri|iture,  slu)w  their  relation 
to  each  other  and  to  other  truths,  and  to  state 
them  with  i)recision.  The  Bible  is  naturally 
divided  into  the  Old  and  the  New  Testa- 
ments or  covenants.  The  O.  T.  was  written 
in  Hebrew,  excejit  a  few  versi's  in  Aramaic, 
and  the  N.  T.  in  Creek.  For  the  several  books 
of  the  t).  T.  and  N.  T.,  see  the  articles  which 
bear  their  names;  and  for  the  versions  of  the 
Scripture  into  other  tongues,  see  Samari- 
tan, Skptiagint,  Ykrsions,  and  Vi'i.(;ate. 
Each  of  the  sacred  books  on  its  original  pub- 
lication came  forth  as  a  more  or  less  con- 
tinuous roll,  with  no  division  into  cha])ters  or 
verses.  To  find  a  passage  under  these  circum- 
stances was  difticult  ;  to  till  another  where  to 
find  it  was  far  from  easy.  Hence  efforts  at 
sonu'  sort  of  division  and  classification  began 
early  to  be  made  ;  then  imi)rovenu'nts  were 
introduced,  till  the  i)rocess  of  develoimient 
ended  in  our  ju'esent  system  of  cha])ti'rs  and 
verses.  The  credit  of  the  division  into  chap- 
ters is  generally  given  to  cardinal  Hugo,  who 
lived  in  the  thirteenth  ei'Utury;  that  into 
verses  was  api)arently  borrowed  from  the 
Jewish  Masorites  of  the  ninth  century.  The 
l)re.sent  division  into  chapters  and  verses  was 
first  adojited  in  its  entirety  in  the  (Jeneva 
N.  T.,  published  in  l.')17,  and  the  (ieneva 
Bible,  in  l.")(i(l.  They  are  of  great  convenience, 
but  are  not  jierfect.  Regarding  chai)ters, 
there  is  an  impi'rfection  in  drawing  the  line 
between  the  i.  and  ii.  of  tJenesis  at  tlu'  ]ilace 
where  the  sejiaration  is  now  made.  (ien.  i. 
should  also  include  (ien.  ii.  l-:{,  and  chapter 
ii.  begin  at  ii.  4,  where  "God"  is  succeeded 
by  "the  Lokd  God."  Is.  liii.  should  begin 
with  Hi.  l."5.  and  John  vii.  should  take  in  also 
viii.  1.  Begarding  the  verses,  they  are  ah.so- 
lulely  indisjiensable  for  the  i)uri>ose  of  refer- 
ence, but  they  should  he  ignored  when  one  is 
following  the  thread  of  an  argument  or  of  a 
narrative.  Tlu'  K.  \.  enables  one  to  do  this 
easily,  giving  as  it  does  less  jironnnence  to 
the  division  into  verses;  hut  the  danger  of 
inaccuracy  as  to  numbers  is  diminished  by 
quoting  from' the  A.  V.,  where  the  verses  are 
separated.  The  Bible  in  whole  or  in  jiart  has 
been  ]iriuted  in  more  than  three  hundred  lan- 
guages or  dialects.  It  would  not  be  a  great  ex- 
aggeration were  one,  referring  to  the  inspired 


Bichri 


90 


Birsha 


writers  of  the  Bible,  to  adopt  the  language 
of  the  psalmist,  meant  originally  for  the 
silent  theological  teaching  of  tlie  starry  sky: 
''Their  lino  is  gone  out  through  all  the  earth, 
and  their  words  to  the  end  of  the  world  (Ps. 
xix.  4). 

Bicti'ri  [youthful]. 

Father  of  the  rebel  Sheba  (2  Sam.  xx.  1). 

Bid'kar. 

A  cajitain  under  Jehu  {2  Kin.  ix.  :2.5). 

Big'tha. 

A  chiuiiln'ilain  who  ministered  in  the  pres- 
ence of  Xerxes  (Kslh.  i.  10). 

Big'than  or  Big'tha-na  [Persian  and  San- 
scrit ]iiiiiii(li'ni(i.  gift  of  fortune]. 

A  chamhcrlain,  keeper  of  the  palace  door, 
who  conspired  against  king  Xerxes  (Esth.  ii. 
21 ;  vi.  2). 

Big'vai. 

1.  One  of  the  leaders  of  the  exiles  who  re- 
turned from  Babylon  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra 
ii.  2). 

2.  Founder  of  a  fiimily,  of  wlii('li  some  2000 
returned  from  Babylon  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra 
ii.  14  ;  Nell.  vii.  19),  and  .several  score  after- 
wards with  Ezra  (Ezra  viii.  14). 

Bil'dad. 

A  Shuhite,  one  of  Job's  friends  (Job  ii.  11), 
who  made  three  speeches  to  the  patriarch 
(viii.,  xviii.,  xxv.). 

Bil'e-am  [perhaps  greed,  consumption,  de- 
struction]. 

A  town  of  Manasseh,  west  of  the  Jordan, 
which  was  assigned  to  the  Levites  of  the 
family  of  Kohath  (1  Chron.  vi.  70)  ;  see 
Ibleam.  In  its  stead  Gath-rimmon  appears 
in  the  present  Hebrew  text  of  Josh.  xxi.  25. 
This  latter  name  has  probably  been  errone- 
ously copied  from  the  preceding  verse.  The 
Septnagint  (Vat.  and  Alex.)  lends  confirma- 
tidu  td  this  view. 

Bil'gah  [cheerful]. 

1.  A  descendant  of  Aaron.  His  family  had 
grown  to  a  father's  house  in  the  time  of  David, 
and  was  made  the  fifteenth  course  of  the 
priests  (1  Chron.  xxiv.  1,  6,  14). 

2.  A  chief  of  the  priests,  perhaps  repre- 
senting the  ])riestly  course  of  this  name,  who 
returned  from  Babylon  with  Zerubbabel  (Neb. 
xii.  5,  7).  In  the  next  generation  a  father's 
liouse  among  the  priests  bore  this  name  (ver. 
18)  ;  cp.  BiLGAi. 

Bil'gai  [cheerful]. 

One  of  the  priests  who,  doubtless  in  behalf 
of  a  father's  house,  sealed  the  covenant  in 
the  days  of  Nehemiah  (Neh.  x.  8) ;  cp.  under 
the  similar  name  Bii,g.\h. 

Bil'liah  [perhaps  bashfuluess]. 

1.  Kacliel's  niai<lservaut,  wIki,  at  her  mis- 
tress'desire,  became  one  of  .Facijb's  secondary 
wives.  She  was  the  mother  of  Dan  and  Naph- 
tali  (Gen.  xxx.  1-8  ;  1  Chron.  vii.  13).  Ulti- 
mately she  committed  sin  with  Eeuben  (Gen. 
xxxv.  22). 


2.  A  Simeonite  town  (1  Chron.  iv.  29).  See 
Baai.ah. 

Bil'han  [i)erhaps  bashful]. 

1.  A  llorite,  son  of  Ezer  (Gen.  xxxvi.  27). 

2.  A  Benjamite,  family  of  Jediael,  and 
himself  the  ancestor  of  several  fathers'  houses 
(1  Chron.  vii.  10). 

Bil'slian. 

One  of  the  twelve  chief  men  who  returned 
from  liabylun  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra  ii.  2; 
Neh.  vii.  7). 

Bim'lial. 

An  Asherite,  family  of  Beriah,  house  of 
Japhlet  (1  Chi-ou.  vii.  33). 

Bin'e-a. 

A  son  of  Moza,  a  descendant  of  Jonathan, 
Saul's  son  (1  Chron.  viii.  37;  ix.  43). 

Bin'nu-i  [l)uilt]. 

1.  The  head  of  a  family,  of  which  Si'veral 
hundred  returned  from  the  cai)tivity.  His 
name  is  al.so  pronounced  Bani  (Ezra  ii.  10 ; 
Neh.  vii.  15). 

2.  A  sou  of  Pahath-moab,  induced  by  Ezra 
to  put  away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  30). 

3.  A  Levite  who  went  from  Babylon  with 
Zerubbabel  (Neh.  xii.  S).     He  was  a  son  of 

1  Henadad  (x.  9).  His  son  was  one  who  re- 
ceived the  silver  and  gold  brought  from 
Babylon  to  the  temple  by  Ezra  (Ezra  viii. 33), 
and  his  family  was  represented  at  the  build- 
ing of  the  wall  (Neh.  iii.  24),  and  its  repi-e- 
sentative  sealed  the  covenant  (x.  9). 

Birds. 

The  Hebrews  classed  as  birds  all  animals 
which  fly,  including  the  bat  and  winged  in- 
sects. Tristram  enumerates  348  species  of 
birds  as  either  indigenous  or  visitants  to  Pales- 
tine. Of  these  271  belong  to  the  Pala'arctic 
zone  of  Sclater — that  to  which  most  of  the 
European  birds  belong  ;  40  to  the  Ethiojjian, 
and  7  to  the  Indian  zone ;  while  30,  as  far  as 
is  known,  are  peculiar  to  I'alestine  itself. 
The  Ethiopian  and  Indian  types  are  almost 
exclusively  confined  to  the  Dead  Sea  basin, 
but  it  is  so  depressed  beneath  the  level  of  the 
ocean  that  it  is  really  a  small  tropical  region 
located  in  the  midst  of  the  temiierate  zone. 
In  the  Mosaic  law  twenty  or  twenty-one  birds 
and,  in  the  case  of  four  of  them,  their  kind 
are  expressly  named  as  unclean  (Lev.  xi.  13- 
19  ;  Deut.  xiV.  11-20).  The  flesh  and  the  eggs 
of  all  clean  birds  were  eaten  (ci>.  Is.  x.  14  :  Fjuke 
xi.  12),  but  the  only  birds  used  for  Siicrifice 
were  turtle  doves  and  young  pigeons  (Lev.  i. 
14).  Doves  were  domesticated  (Is.  Ix.  8).  and 
later,  chickens.  The  cock  is  mentioned  (Mat. 
xxvi.  34),  and  the  hen  (sxiii.  37;  Luke  xiii. 
34).  Wild  fowl  were  hunted,  among  other 
ways,  by  decoy  birds  (Ecclus.  xi.  30),  with 
snares  (Amos  iii.  5),  and  with  nets  (Prov.  i. 
17).  The  migration  of  birds  is  referred  to 
(Jer.  viii.  7). 

Bir'sha. 

A  king  of  Gomorrah  who  was  defeated  by 


Birthday 


91 


Bithynia 


Chedorlaomerand  his  confederates  (Geu.  xiv. 
2,  8,  10). 

Birtli'day. 

Till'  l)irtli  of  :i  child,  especially  of  a  son, 
was  a  filail  occasi(»ii,aiKl  was  often  celebratod 
Iiy  a  feast  (Jer.  xx.  lo;  Antiii.  xii.  4,  7).  Tlic 
anniversjiry  of  one's  i)irtli  was  cele))rated  by 
the  l'];;yi>tians  and  I'l'i-sians  ((len.  xl.  20; 
Herod,  "i.  !.■«).  Jlerod  the  tetrarch  kept  the 
anniversiiry  of  either  iiis  hirth  or  his  acces- 
sion, it  is  (iel)ated  wliich  (Mat.  xiv.  G). 

Birth 'right. 

A  certain  ri;,'ht  or  ])ri\ilef;c  considered  to 
helon;;  to  the  lirsthorn  son  in  a  family,  and 
wliicli  is  not  sliared  hy  liis  younger  hrolhers. 
The  eldest  son  ordinarily  succi'cded  to  his 
father's  rank  and  jiosition,  as  head  of  the 
family  or  trii)e,  and  as  rejjrescntative  of  it.s 
jp re ro-iia fives.  He  also  inherited  a  double 
]iorlion  of  his  father's  jn'operty,  a  ri^ht  guar- 
anteed to  the  lirsthorn  oven  when  liis  mother 
was  the  le.ss  loved  of  two  wives  (Dent.  xxi. 
17  ;  cj).  2  Kill.  ii.  9).  A  birlhriiiht  niifiht  be 
•sold  to  a  voiin;;er  brother,  as  Esau  sidd  his 
birthri},'ht'to  .Jacob  (Gen.  xxv.  29,  34;  Heb. 
xii.  It!).  H  niif^'ht  also  be  forfeited  on  account 
of  mi.^condiict  (1  t'hron.  v.  1). 

Bir'za-ith,  in  A.  V.  Bir'za-vlth  [openinjis, 
W()niid>].  The  form  in  U.  \.  is  the  tradi- 
tional readinj;,  tliat  in  A.  V.  rejpresents  the 
con.sonants  of  tlie  present  text. 

An  .Vsherite,  laiuily  of  Malchiel  (1  Chron. 

vii.  :n). 

Bish'lam  [son  of  peace]. 

.V  I'ersian  official  who  joined  in  the  coni- 
jilaint  to  .\rtaxerxes  that  the  Jews  were  re- 
l)iiildini:  .lerusalem  ( K/.ra  iv.  7). 

Bisb'op  [a  corruption  of  I>atin  epi.scopxs. 
GreiJi  eitishopos.  an  overseer]. 

The  ( ireek  word  is  used  in  the  Sejjtuauint  for 
an  ollicial  overseer,  whether  civil  or  religious, 
as  Elea/.ar  the  j)riest  (\um.  iv.  Ki).  and  offi- 
cers of  the  army  (xxxi.  14).  In  the  N.  T.  the 
Word  occurs  first  in  the  exhortation  of  I'aul  to 
the  elders  or,  as  in  the  niar,i;in,  jiresbyters  of 
the  ciiurch  at  Ephesus,  when  lie  said.  "Take 
heed  unto  yourselves,  and  to  all  the  Hock,  in 
the  which'the  Holy  Ghost  hath  made  you 
bishoi)S, "  or,  as  in  the  margin,  "overseers" 
(.\cts  XX.  17,  28,  R.  v.).  Here  and  elsewliere 
Paul  iilentities  elders,  ])resbyters.  and  bisliops 
(Tit.  i.  't  7l.  The  terms  are  dilfereut  desig- 
natiiiiis  for  the  iiuMimbeut  of  the  same  office. 
I''Jsewhere  he  distintruishes  simply  between 
bishop  and  deacon  (I'liil.  i.  1  :  1  Tim.  iii.  1-8). 
l'et«T,  iisinj;  the  verb  cpiskopro,  exliorts  the 
elders  to  tend  the  (lock  of  God,  "exercisiuK 
the  oversi;;lit,  not  of  constraint,  but  will- 
iiijily  "  (I  I'et.  V.  2,  H.  v.).  In  the  church  of 
the  N.  T.  the  duties  of  tlie  bishoji  were  to 
«are  for  tlie  Hock  of  (4od  (Acts  xx.  28;  1  Pet. 
V.  2l.  He  was  the  shepherd,  bearing  rule 
and  w:it<liing  in  behalf  of  souls,  ailiiiouish- 
iiig.  encouraging,  and  supporting  (1  Tlies.  v. 
14;  Hi'b.  xiii.  17),  and  some  among  tlieiii  la- 


bored in  the  word  and  in  teaching  (1  Tim.  v. 
17).  His  qualifications  are  enumerated  in  1 
Tim.  iii.  1-7  and  Tit.  i.7-!'.  .V  !>luiality  of  them 
existed  in  the  church  at  l'liilip](i,  as  in  that 
of  Ephesus  (L'hil.  i.  1 )  ;  and  the  college  of 
jiresbyter-bishops  ordained  by  the  laying  on 
of  hands  (1  Tim.  iv.  14).  In  the  church  at 
Jerusalem  the  elders  and  ajiostles  consulted 
together,  and  the  decision  of  the  council  was 
given  in  the  name  of  the  aiiostles  and  eldei's 
(Acts  XV.  6,  22;  xvi.  4  ;  xxi.  18) ;  see  Elder. 
The  name  is  apjilii'd  figuratively  to  Jesus  (1 
Pet.  ii.  2.")).  A  distinction,  however,  grew  up 
very  early  in  the  Church  between  elder  or 
presbyter  and  bishop.  It  ajijiears  in  the  sec- 
ond century,  bi'ing  mentioned  in  the  ejiistles 
of  Ignatius,  who  died  in  107  ur  IKi.  Accord- 
ing to  the  Koiiian  Catholic  Council  of  Trent 
in  the  sixteenth  century, "'  Bishops,  being  the 
successors  of  the  ajKistles.  are  placed  by  the 
Holy  Ghost  to  govern  the  Church  of  God,  and 
to  be  superiiu'  to  their  jiresbyters  or  jiriest.s." 
Roman  Catholic  oiiinion  assumes  that  the 
apostles  had  a  general  snjiervision  of  the  con- 
gregation, while  the  elders  whom  they  had 
ordained  had  the  local  oversight;  but  as  the 
congregations  increased  in  nunil)er,  the  ajios- 
tles  ordained  assistants  whom  they  appointed 
their  successors,  to  be  overseers  of  the  con- 
gregation in  a  district.  Such  weix*  the  angels 
of  the  seven  churches  (Rev.  i.  20) :  see  Angel. 
High  Anglicans  find  the  institution  imjilied 
in  the  ])osition  of  Jesus'  brother  James  in 
the  church  at  Jerusalem,  in  the  angels  of  the 
seven  churches,  and  in  tlie  work  of  Timothy 
and  Titus.  Paul  did  indeed  exhort  Timothy 
to  tarry  at  Ephesus,  order  jiublic  worshi]).  ex- 
hort and  teach  (1  Tim.  i.  3  11.)  ;  and  Titus, 
whom  Paul  had  before  employed  as  a  mes- 
senger to  tlu^  Corinthians  (2  Cor.  xii.  18),  he 
left  in  Crete  to  set  in  order  things  that  were 
wanting,  and  to  appoint  elders,  called  also 
bishops,  in  every  city  (Tit.  i.  0-7).  But  it  is 
to  be  tioted  that  Timothy  was  in  the  first  in- 
.stance  ordained  by  jiresbytery  (1  Tim.  iv.  14), 
and  there  is  not  a  trace  in  the  N.  T.  of  the 
apostles  a]iiKiinting  any  man  to  succeed  them. 

Bi-tM'ah  [a  daughter,  in  the  sense  of  a 
worshijier,  of  Jehovah]. 

A  daughter  of  Pharaidi  and  wife  of  Mered, 
a  man  of  Jiidah  (1  Chron.  iv.  IS).  Her  name 
indicates  that  she  was  a  convert  to  the  wor- 
ship of  , Jehovah. 

Bith'ron  [cut,  division,  gorge], 

.\  region,  doubtless  a  valley,  muth  of  the 
Jabbok  near  Malianaiui  (2  Sam.  ii.  2S». 

Bi-thyn'i-a. 

.\  country  in  the  northwestern  part  of  .\sia 
Minor,  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Black 
Sea,  on  the  south  by  Phrygia  anil  (ialatia,  on 
the  east  by  Paphlagonia  and  i>art  of  Phrygia, 
and  on  tlie  west  by  Mysia.  But  its  boundaries 
varied  at  dilfereut  times.  It  w.is  colonized 
by  the  Thyni  or  Bithyni  from  Thrace,  in 
Eurcjpe,  who  coiuiiiered  or  drove  out  the  Beb- 
ryces,  its  origin;il  inbabilants.  and  imparted 


Bittern 


Blindness 


to  it  their  own  name  (Herod,  vii.  75).  Under 
the  Persian  eni])iro  it  constituted  a  satrapy. 
Nifonieik's  III.  hfcuifatlied  it  to  the  Uouians 
in  74  B.  c.  i'aul  and  Silas  attempted  to  en- 
ter Bithynia,  but  the  Spirit  suffered  them  not 
(Acts  xvi.  7).  Tlie  j;ospel  was  carried  thitlier 
by  other  means.  Peter  was  able  to  addre.ss 
Christians  of  Bithynia  in  his  tirst  letter  (1  Pet. 
i.  1).  and  at  the  hcf^inninj;  of  tlie  second  cen- 
tury I'liny  the  youni^cr  reported  nunierous 
Christians  there.  Later  still,  in  two  of  its  towns, 
Xiciva  and  Clialcedon,  fjreat  councils  of  the 
Church  were  held.  It  is  a  fertile  country,  in 
which  the  vine  is  larjjely  cultivated.  In 
various  parts,  especially  in  the  chain  of  mount 
01ympus,which  runsalonj;  its  southern  bound- 
ary, there  are  forests  of  oak,  interspersed  with 
beech  trees,  chestnuts,  and  walnuts. 

Bit'tern. 

The  rendering  in  A.  V.  of  the  Hebrew  word 
Kipputl,  the  one  contracting  or  rolling  itself 
together;  an  animal  frequenting  ruins  (Is. 
xiv.  23;  xxxiv.  11).  whicli  ascended  to  the 
top  of  ruined  dooi-s  or  to  window  sills,  and 
thence  made  its  voice  heard  (Zepli.  ii.  14). 
The  bittern  {Botnurus  stellari.s)  is  a  long- 
necked  and  long-legged  wading  bird,  habit- 
ually frequenting  pools  of  water,  but  not 
likely  to  be  heard  giving  voice  from  a  ruined 
window.  The  E.  V.  considers  the  animal  to 
be  the  porcupine,  while  Tristram  identifies  it 
as  probably  the  Scops  Owl  (Scops  gin),  a  mi- 
grant in  Palestine  for  the  summer  months, 
breeding  in  the  walls  of  old  ruins  and  in  hol- 
low trees. 

Bi-tu'men. 

Mineral  pitch.  There  are  three  varieties 
of  it:  (1)  Earthy  bitumen;  (2)  elastic  bitu- 
men, elaterite  or  mineral  caoutchouc ;  (3) 
compact  bitumen  or  asphalt,  asphaltum,  or 
Jew's  pitch.  In  its  appearance  it  resembles 
common  pitch.  It  sinks  in  water,  is  easily 
melted,  is  very  inflammable,  and  when  set 
on  fire  burns  with  a  red  smoky  flame.  It  is 
produced  in  the  chemistry  of  nature  by  the 
enclosure  of  vegetable  matter  in  the  crust  of 
the  earth,  so  that  it  is  in  immediate  contact 
with  water,  while  atmospheric  air  is  quite 
shut  out.  There  is  a  pittdi  lake  in  Trinidad. 
Bitumen  or  asphalt  exists  at  or  near  the  Dead 
Sea.  called,  in  consequence,  by  the  Greeks 
and  Romans,  Lake  Asphaltites.  It  is  found 
also  at  Hit,  on  the  Euphrates,  above  Babylon, 
and  in  other  places.  Bitumen  was  the  slime 
with  which  the  bricks  used  for  the  erection 
of  the  tower  of  Babel  were  cemented  (Gen. 
xi.  3).  The  .slime  pits  in  which  the  defeated 
kings  of  Sodom  and  Gomorrah  fell  were  bitu- 
men pits  (xiv.  10). 

Biz'i-o-thi'ah,  in  A.  V.  Biz-joth'jah  [con- 
tempt of  Jehovah]. 

A  town  in  the  most  southerly  porticm  of 
Judah  (Josh.  xv.  28).  The  text  is  suspicious. 
Almost  the  same  consonants  would  mean  "  its 
daughters  or  suburbs"  (Septuagint,  cp.  Neh. 
xi.  27). 


Biz'tba. 

A  chamberlain  at  the  court  of  Xerxes  (Esth. 
i.  10). 
Blain. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  '''ba''bu'uth, 
pustules.  It  signifies  a  bleb,  a  bubble  of  mat- 
ter, a  blister  full  of  serum  arising  upon  the 
skin.  It  would,now  probably  be  ranked  un- 
der the  skin  disease  called  pemphigus.  Blaius 
accompanied  l)v  boils  is  the  disease  which  con- 
stituted the  sixth  of  the  ten  plagues  of  Egypt 
(Ex.  ix.  H-11). 

Blas'phe-my. 

Defamatory  or  other  wicked  language  di- 
rected against  God  (Ps.  Ixxiv.  10-18  ;  Is.  lii. 
.5;  Eev.  xvi.  1),  11,  21).  Under  the  Mosaic 
law  it  was  jiunished  by  stoning  (J^ev.  xxiv. 
16).  The  charge  of  blasphemy  was  falsely 
brought  against  Nabotli  (1  Kin.  xxi.  10-13), 
Stephen  (Acts  vi.  11),  and  our  Lord  (Mat.  ix. 
3 ;  xxvi.  65,  66:  John  x.  36). 

Blasphemy  against  the  Holy  Ghost  con- 
sisted in  attributing  the  miracles  of  Christ, 
which  were  wrought  by  the  Spirit  of  God,  to 
Satanic  power  (Mat.  xii.  22-32 ;  Mark  iii. 
22-30). 

Blas'tus  [a  sprout  or  shoot,  a  sucker]. 

A  palace  functionary  who  had  charge  of 
Herod  Agrippa's  bedchamber  (Acts  xii.  20). 

Bless. 

The  three  leading  meanings  whicli  the  verb 
bless  has  in  Scripture  are  : 

1.  To  bestow  divine  favor  and  confer  di- 
vine benefits  (Gen.  i.  22 ;  ii.  3  ;  ix.  1-7). 

2.  To  adore  God  for  his  goodness  and  re- 
turn thanks  (Ps.  ciii.  1 ;  and  Mat.  xxvi.  26; 
Mark  xiv.  22  with  Luke  xxii.  19  and  1  Cor. 
xi.  24). 

3.  To  invoke  God's  favor  on  a  person  (Gen. 
xxvii.  4,  27-29;  1  Chron.  xvi.  2  :  Ps.  cxsix. 
8),  including  salutation  and  even  the  ordi- 
nary greeting,  "Peace  be  to  you"  (1  Sam. 
XXV.  5,  6,  14 ;  2  Kin.  iv.  29). 

Blessing. 

Any  advantage  conferred  or  wished  for. 
Specially — 

1.  Favors,  advantages,  conferred  by  God, 
and  bringing  pleasure  or  happiness  in  their 
train  (Gen.  xxxix.  5  :  Deut.  xxviii.  8  ;  Prov. 
X.  22,  etc.). 

2.  The  invocation  of  God's  favor  upon  a 
person  (Gen.  xxvii.  12). 

3.  A  present,  a  token  of  good  will  (Gen 
xxxiii.  11 ;  Josh.  xv.  19  ;  2  Kin.  v.  15). 

Blind'ness. 

Blindness  is  extremely  prevalent  in  the 
east.  Its  main  causes  are  smallpox,  and  es- 
pecially ophthalmia,  aggravated  by  peculiar 
conditions,  such  as  the  perpetual  glare  of  the 
sun,  the  ((uantity  of  fine  dust  in  the  air,  and 
flies.  Children  are  also  sometimes  born  blind 
(John  ix.  1).  Consequently  blind  beggars  are 
frequent  (Mat.  ix.  27;  xii.  22 ;  xx.  30;  xxi. 
14).  Total  or  partial  blindness  may  result 
from  old  age  (Gen.  xxvii.  1 ;  1  Sam.  iv.  15 ; 


Blood 


93 


BoU 


1  Kin.  xiv.  4).  The  eyes  of  captives  taken 
in  war  were  freciiicntly  i>ut  out  by  barbarous 
victors,  as  l>y  thi'  Aiiiiiiiniitcs,  IMiilislines.  As- 
syrians, and  Habyloiiiaiis  (Jiiilg.  xvi.  "Jl :  1 
Sam.  xi.  2;  2  Kin.  xxv.  7).  In  a  few  in- 
stiinces  men  were  miraeulously  smitten  with 
temporary  blindness  ((Jen.  xix.  11  ;  "J  Kin.  vi. 
1S--J-J  :  Acts  ix.  !) ;  xiii.  11).  The  Mosaic  law 
inculcated  the  exercise  of  humanity  toward 
the  blind  (Lev.  xix.  11 ;  Deut.  xxvii.  LS). 


As.-;yriun  Kinj,'  picrcin'.,'  the  Eyi.s  ol'  Cai)tives. 

Blood. 

The  vital  fluid  circuhitinj;  throufih  the 
body,  and  conveyed  by  a  .system  of  deep- 
seated  arteries  from  the  heart  to  the  extrem- 
ities, and  by  a  system  of  superficial  veins 
back  av'ain  to  the  heart.  Arterial  blood  is 
florid  re(l,  while  venous  lilood  is  of  a  dark 
puri)le  or  niodena  hue.  The  life  is  in  the 
blood  (Lev.  xvii.  11,  II)  ;  or  the  blood  is  the 
life  (Deut.  xii.  2'.>),  thoUfih  not  exclusively 
(I's.  civ.  .SO).  The  lilood  re]ireseiitcd  the  life, 
and  so  sacred  is  life  bel'ore  God  that  the  blood 
of  nnirdered  Abel  could  be  described  as  cry- 
ing to  (iod  from  tlie  ground  for  vi-ngeance 
((ien.  iv.  10);  and  imnu'diately  after  the 
flood  the  eating  of  the  blood  of  the  lower 
animals  was  forbidden,  although  theirslaugh- 
ter  f(tr  food  was  authorized  (ix.  15,  4 ;  Acts  xv. 
20,  2tt).  and  the  law  was  laid  down,  "Whoso 
sheddeth  man's  blood,  by  man  shall  his  blood 
be  shed"  ((ieu.  ix.  (i).  The  loss  of  lifi'  is  the 
penalty  for  sin,  and  its  typical  vicari(»us  sur- 
render was  necessary  to  reini.ssion  (Heb.  ix. 
2"-.*),  and  so,  under  the  Mosaic  law,  the  blood  of 
animals  was  used  in  all  otferings  for  sin,  and 
tlie  bldud  of  beasts  killed  on  the  hunt  or 
slaughtered  for  food  was  poured  out  and  cov- 
ered with  earth,  because  withheld  by  God 
from  luan's  consumption  and  reserved  for 
jiurposesof  atonement  (Lev.  xvii.  10-1 1 ;  Deut. 
xii.  1."..  Ki).  Tlie  "blood  of  .lesus,"  the  "blood 
of  Christ,"  the  "blood  of  .lesus  Christ,"  or 
"the  blood  of  the  Lamb."  are  flgurative  ex- 
pressions for  his  atoning  death  (1  Cor.  x.  Ki  ; 
Kph.  ii.  i:{ ;  Heb.  ix.  14  ;  x.  lit ;  1  I'et.  i.  2,  lit ; 
1  .lohii  i.  7:   Kev.  vii.  14;  xii.  11). 

For  revenger,  or  rather  avt'iiger,  ot'  blood, 
see  AvKNdKK. 


Blood'y  Flux.  See  Dysentery. 
Blood'y  Sweat.    .See  Sweat. 

Bo-a-ner'ges  [sons  of  tumult  or  thunder]. 

A  name  given  by  .Jesus  to  James  and  John 
on  account  of  their  impetuosity  (Mark  iii.  17; 
cj).  Luke  ix.  54,  .5.5). 

Boar. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  fP'zii-,  when 
it  refers  to  wild  swine,  and  esi>ecially  to  the 
male  of  wild  swine  (I's.  Ixxx.  i:5).  When  the 
reference  is  to  the  domesticated  animal,  it  is 
rendered  swine.  The  wild  boar  is  three  or 
more  feet  long,  not  counting  the  tail.  The 
canine  tei'tli  project  beyond  tlu'  upper  lip, 
constituting  formidable  tusks,  with  which  it 
seeks  to  rip  uii  its  assailants.  The  female  is 
smaller  than  the  male,  and  has  smaller  tusks. 
The  animal  is  still  found  in  Palestine,  espe- 
cially in  the  ravines  east  of  the  .Jordan,  in 
the  valley  near  Jericho,  in  the  swanijis  of  the 
waters  of  Merom,  on  Tabor,  Lebanon,  and 
Carniel,  and  in  the  plain  of  Sharon. 

Bo'az,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Bo'oz  [commonly 
interpreted  as  meaning  "In  him  is  strength," 
but  both  s]iellingand  accentuation  are  against 
this  explanation]. 

1.  A  wealthy  and  honorable  Bethlehemite, 
kinsman  to  the  huHl)and  of  Kuth  the  Moab- 
itess.  He  respected  the  memory  of  the  dead 
by  marrying  Ruth  after  the  decease  of  her 
husband,  and  became  ancestor  of  David  and 
of  Christ  (Kuth  ii.-iv. ;  Mat.  i.  5).  Late  .Jew- 
ish tradition,  destitute  of  all  probability,  iden- 
tifies him  with  the  .judge  Il)zan. 

2.  One  of  two  pillars,  that  on  the  left,  .set 
up  in  the  porch  of  Solomon's  temple  (1  Kin. 
vii.  15-22). 

Boch'e-ru  [firstborn]. 

A  son  of  Azel  and  a  descendant  of  Jona- 
than, .Saul's  son  (1  Chron.  viii.  38). 

Bo'cblm  [weepers]. 

A  jilace  near  Gilgal,  where  the  Israelites 
repented  and  wejtt  under  the  rebuke  of  the 
angel  of  the  Lord  for  their  disobedience  of 
God's  commands  (Judg.  ii.  1-5).  Its  exact 
site  is  unknown. 

Bo'han  [thumb]. 

1.  A  son  of  Heii))en  (Josh.  xv.  6;  xviii.  17). 

2.  The  stone  of  Uohan  was  a  place  on  the 
boundary  between  .Tudah  and  l^en.jamin.  not 
a  great  distance  from  the  Jordan  (Josh.  xv. 
() ;  xviii.  17).     Exact  site  unknown. 

BoU. 

An  inflamed  ulcer.  It  was  inflicted  along 
with  blains  as  the  sixth  ]>lague  of  Egypt  (Ex. 
ix.  H-11  ;  cp.  Deut.  xxviii.  27,  :55V  It  was  a 
l)roniinent  symiitom  in  leprosy  (Lev.  xiii.  18- 
20).  It  constituted  the  main  feature  of  Heze- 
kiali's  disease,  which  brought  liis  life  into 
imminent  danger  (2  Kin.  xx.  7  ;  Is.  xxxviii. 
21).  Job  was  smitten  by  .Satan  with  boils 
from  head  to  foot  (.Job  ii.  7).  Ordinary  boils 
are  eonnnon.  in  tlie  warmer  jiarts  of  the  Ivist, 
during  the  rainyseason.  Tlieyan-  uu-iuhtly. 


Bolster 


94 


Borrow 


but  are  not  (langenms.  One  tyi)e  of  boil, 
however,  the  earlmiule,  arisiiiji  from  poisoned 
bk)od  and  eating;  away  tlie  tlesli  like  an  ulcer, 
may  terminate  the  life.  This  was  i)rohai>ly 
Hezekiah's  disease.  The  applieation  of  a 
])oiiltice  of  tius  would  do  it  good,  but  the 
rapid  cure  was  due  to  God. 

Bol'ster. 

The  usual  Hebrew  word  which  is  rendered 
bolster  or  pillow  means  simply  at  the  head, 
and  the  (ireek  word  rendered  pillow  in  A.  V. 
does  ni)t  necessarily  mean  a  cushion  for  tiie 
head.  .Jacob,  sleeping  in  the  open  field,  took 
a  stone  to  sup])ort  his  head  (Gen.  xxviii.  11, 
18).  Jesus  probably  i)laced  the  leather  cushion 
of  the  steersman's  seat  under  his  head  when 
he  lay  down  to  sleep  in  the  stern  of  the  Ijoat 
(Mark  iv.  38).  Jlicbal  put  some  article  of 
goats'  hair  at  the  head  of  the  teraphim  which 
she  laid  in  the  bed  to  deceive  the  messengers 
who  were  sent  to  take  David.  She  did  this 
perhaps  to  give  the  apiiearance  of  human 
hair  or  of  a  covering  laid  over  the  sleeper 
(1  Sam.  xix.  13). 

Bon'net. 

Originally  a  head  dress  for  men  (Ezek.  xliv. 
18),  a  sense  which  the  word  still  retains  in 
Scotland.  Then  it  was  applied  to  a  head  dress 
for  women  (Is.  iii.  20).  The  R.  V.  renders  it 
head  tires  and  tires  (q.  v.). 

Book. 

Documents  were  early  inscribed  on  clay  or 
graven  on  stone.  Skin  or  parchment  and 
papyrus  came  into  use  at  an  early  period  also. 
When  written  on  skin,  a  long  document  took 
the  form  of  a  roll  with  writiiag  on  one  or 
both  of  its  sides.  Of  this  type  of  book  there 
is  a  memorial  in  the  word  volume,  Latin 
volumen,  properly,  something  rolled  up  (Ps. 
xl.  7;  Jer.  xxxvi.  2:  Ezek.  ii.  9).  Books  are 
first  mentioned  as  written  by  the  Hebrews 
after  the  sojourn  in  Egypt,  where  written 
literature  had  existed  for  centuries  (Ex.  xvii. 
14).  The  39  books  of  the  O.  T.  and  the  27 
of  the  N.  T.,  which  constitute  the  canon  of 
Scripture,  do  not  represent  the  entire  literary 
activity  of  the  Hebrews  during  the  time  em- 
braced by  the  canon.  There  were,  for  exam- 
ple, the  books  of  the  Apocrypha.  Later  there 
were  memoirs  of  Jesus  (Luke  i.  1).  In  the 
O.  T.  period  there  were  two  poetical  books  at 
least,  the  Book  of  the  Wars  of  Jehovah  and 
the  Book  of  Jashar  (Num.  xxi.  11  ;  Josh.  x. 
13).  The  events  of  the  reigns  of  David  and 
Solomon  were  recorded  in  the  History  of 
Samuel  the  Seer,  the  History  of  Nathan  the 
Prophet,  the  History  of  Gad  tiie  Seer  (1  Chron. 
xxix.  29;  2  Chron.  ix.  2it),  and  also  in  the 
Chronicles  of  King  David,  which  apparently 
mark  the  beginning  of  the  custom  of  keep- 
ing royal  annals  (1  Chnm.  xxvii.  24).  The 
reigns  of  Solomon  and  Jeroboam  found  record 
ni  tiie  Visions  of  Iddo  the  Seer  (2  Chron.  ix. 
29),  and  Rehoboam's  reign  in  the  History  of 
Shemaiah  the  Prophet  and  in  the  History  of 
Iddo  the  Seer  (xii.  15).     The  Chronicles  of  the 


Kings  of  Israel  and  the  Chroni(des  of  the 
Kings  of  Judali  recorded  the  history  of  the 
two  kingdoms  from  the  time  of  Hehoboam  and 
.lerobuam,  until  as  late  as  the  reign  of  Jehoia- 
kim  (1  Kin.  xiv.  19, 29; 2 Kin.  xxiv..") :  2Chrou. 
xxxvi.  t^)  ;  see  Kings.  In  addition  to  these 
works,  there  was  quite  a  library  in  existence 
at  the  time  when  the  books  of  Chronicles  were 
written,  consisting  largely  of  monograjihs, 
of  which  not  a  few  titles  are  cited  (2  Chron. 
ix.  29;  xiii.  22;  xx.  34;  xxiv.  27;  xxvi.  22; 
xxxii.  32;  xxxiii.  18,  19;  xxxv.  25;  see  also 
Prov.  XXV.  1 ;  1  Kin.  iv.  32,  33). 

Booth. 

A  rude  habitati<in  designed  in  most  cases 
for  a  longer  occu])ation  than  a  tent,  but  not 
for  permanence  like  a  house.  It  was  often 
formed  with  branches  of  trees.  Jacob  made 
booths  at  Shechem  for  his  cattle,  the  place 
in  consequence  being  afterwards  called  Suc- 
coth  (Gen.  xxxiii.  17).  The  keeper  of  a  vine- 
yard occui>ied  a  booth  (Jol)  xxvii.  IS;  Is.  i.  8, 
E.  V. ),  which  during  the  vintage  sheltered  the 
owner  and  his  friends.  The  Israelites  were 
required  to  form  booths  of  branches  of  trees, 
palm  leaves,  etc.,  and  dwell  in  them  for  seven 
days  at  the  feast  of  tabernacles.  The  l)ooths 
at  this  harvest  festival  were  a  reminder  of  the 
vintage  life  ;  but  with  this  recollection  there 
was  also  to  be  associated  the  memory  of  their 
deliverance  from  Egypt,  when  they  sojourned 
in  the  wilderness  without  permanent  habita- 
tion (Lev.  xxiii.  39-43;  Neb.  viii.  14). 

Boo'ty. 

The  ]iluuder  of  a  conquered  district  or 
tow-n.  It  consisted  of  everything  of  value — 
household  goods,  gold,  silver,  cattle,  and  cap- 
tives to  be  used  as  slaves  (Gen.  xiv.  11,  12, 
16  ;  Num.  xxxi.  9,  26-52  ;  Josh.  vii.  21).  At 
the  conquest  of  Canaan  the  Israelites  were 
required  to  slay  everything  that  breathed 
and  to  destroy  all  idols  and  places  of  idola- 
trous worship,  but  in  foreign  conquests  they 
were  l)idden  to  slay  the  men  only,  and  were 
authorized  to  take  the  remaining  spoil  (Num. 
xxxiii.  52;  Dent.  xx.  14-1()).  Exceptions  were 
occasionally  made  when  everything  was  de- 
voted, the  living  to  destruction,  the  goods  to 
the  treasury  of  the  sanctuary,  or  when  a  cer- 
tain portion  of  the  spoil  was  dedicated  to  the 
Lord  (Num.  xxxi.  26-47  ;  Josii.  vi.  19 ;  1  Sam. 
XV.  2,  3).  David  made  a  law  that  the  trooj>s 
detailed  to  guard  the  baggage  should  share 
equally  with  those  who  engaged  in  the  battle 
(1  Sam.  XXX.  23-25). 

Bo'oz.     See  Boaz. 

Bor'row. 

To  ask  in  loan.  Did  tne  Israelites,  when 
the  Egyptians  urged  them  to  leave  the  conn- 
try,  borrow  goods  from  the  Egyjitians  or  ob- 
tain them  as  gifts?  The  word  rendered  bor- 
row in  A.  V.  of  Ex.  iii.  22;  xi.  2;  xii.  .35, 
means  simply  ask  (R.  V.)  or  request,  whether 
the  object  desired  was  to  be  returned  (2  Kin. 
vi.  .5)  or  not  (Judg.  v.  25;  viii.  24) ;  and  the 
word  translated  lend  (Ex.  xii.  36,  A.  V.)  is  a 


Boscath 


95 


Bozrah 


form  of  the  same  verb,  and  means  to  grant  a 
ntiiust  or  let  one  have  wliat  one  asks  (K-  V. ; 
v\>.  1  Siiiii.  i.  -J.s). 

Bos'cath.     See  Uozkatu. 

Bo'sor. 

1.  A  low  II  of  Gilead,  Gilead  beiugiloiihlless 
used  in  a  broad  sense  (1  Mae.  v.  26,  36) ;  per- 
haps lie/.er  in  the  ibruier  territory  of  Keubeu 
(Josh.  .\x.  .SI. 

•-'.  See  BkoR. 

Bos'o-ra. 

A  town  of  Gilead  (1  Mac.  v.  26,  28),  either 
Boznih  in  Edom  or  Bostra  in  llauran. 

Botch. 

Ilic  rendering  in  A.V.ofDeut.  xxviii.27, 35 
of  t  lu-  Hebrew  word  elsewhere  translated  boil. 

Bot'tle. 

1.  A  hollow  vessel  of  leather,  or  the  hollow 
hide  of  an  animal,  used  for  holding  liciuids 
(Jobxxxii.  li);  Mai.  ix.  17).  See  under  Butter. 


Skin  Bottles. 

2.  A  small  vessel  of  earthenware  formed  by 
potters,  and  which  waseai)able  of  being  broken 
(Jer.  xi.x.  1,  10,  11).  If  anygla.ss  bottle  is  re- 
ferred to  iu  Scriiiture.  it  was  probably  a  small 
la(  lir>  iiiatory  for  holding  tears  (Ps.  Ivi.  8). 

Bow. 

A  weapon  used  for  shooting  arrows  (2  Kin. 


35;  Job  XX.  24),  with  a  cord  stretched  be- 
tween its  two  ends  (Ps.  xi.  2).  and  was  held 
in  tile  left  liand  (  Kzek.  xxxi.x.  .■!!.  It  was  used 
botii  in  hunting  and  war  ((ien.  xxvii.  3; 
xlviii.  22).  Its  use  was  general  among  the 
nations  of  anticiuity  (1  Sam.  xxxi.  3  ;  1  Kin. 
xxii.  31 ;  Jer.  xlvi.  9;  xlix.  .3.")).  There  were 
arclii'rs  among  tiic  soldiers  of  Kciibcn.  (lad, 
the  half  tribe  of  Manasseh,  Ephraini.  and  es- 
pecially Benjamin  il  C'hron.  v.  18:  2  C'hron. 
xiv.  8;  Ps.  Ixxviii.  9).  The  bow  was  carried 
by  ollict-rs  and  soldiers  on  foot,  in  chariots,  or 
on  lic)rs<l>ack  (2  Kin.  ix.  21).  Tiie  archers 
carried  the  little  shield  and  a  sword  (1  Sam. 
xviii,  4;  1  C'hron.  v.  18:  2  Chron,  xiv.  8), 
and  with  the  slingers  constituted  the  light- 
armed  troops. 

The  arrows  were  of  cane  or  i)olished  wood, 
and  were  carried  in  a  quiver  (Lam.  iii.  13; 
Is.  xlix.  2;  Ezek.  xxxix.  9).  Their  heads 
were  made  of  iron,  coi)i>er,  or  stone,  and  were 
sometimes  poisoned  (Job  vi.  4). 

Bowl.     See  B.vsin. 

Box. 

1.  A  small  case  or  vessel  with  a  cover.  In 
Scripture  times  they  were  used  to  hold  oil, 
ointment,  etc.  (2  Kin.  ix.  1  ;  Mat.  xxvi.  7). 

2.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  T''nsh- 
shih-,  nu'aniiig  a  straight  tree.  Boatseats  were 
made  of  it  (Ezek.  xxvii.  6,  K.  V.).  With  the 
fir  tree  and  the  i)ine  tree  it  constituted  the 
glory  of  Lebanon  (Is.  Ix.  13  ;  on  K.  V.  margin 
of  Is.  xli.  19  cyi>ress).  The  species  of  box 
which  grows  on  Lebanon  is  Buxnt'  luiitiifolia, 
a  small  evergreen  tree  atxiut  20  feet  high. 

Bo'zez  [shining]. 

Of  two  crags  near  Gibeah,  the  northern- 
most, in  front  of  Michmash  (1  Sam.  xiv.  4,  5). 
It  overlooked  the  Wady  Suweinit. 

Boz'kath,  in  A.  V.  once  Bos'cath  [elevated, 
stony  ground]. 

A  town  in  the  extreme  south  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  39).  Josiah's  maternal  grandfather, 
Adaiah,  was  of  the  place  (2  Kin.  xxii.  1)- 
Exact  site  unknown. 

Boz'rah  [an  enclosure,  a  sheepfold]. 


How  used  in  Ituillc  hctwcin  .\ssyriiuis  aud  llicir  Foes 

vi. ','2  :   1   Cluipii.   xii.  2).      It  was  made   of  a 
iitri[»  of  elastic  wood  or  metal   (2  Sam.  xxii. 


1.  .An  imi)ortant  city  of  Edom  ((ien.  xxxvi. 
33;  1    Gbron.   i.    II;  Is.    xxxiv.  6;   Ixiii.   1). 


Bracelet 


96 


Bread 


Amos  predicted  that  its  palaees  should  he 
destroyed  (Amos  i.  I'J)  ;  and  Jeremiah  fore- 
told its  utter  destruction  (Jer.  xlix.  IIJ,  'J'J). 
It  was  iKtted  for  its  sheep  (Mic.  ii.  li).  Hurck- 
hardt  and  Kobinson  located  it  at  el-l}useira, 
a  village  of  some  fifty  houses,  about  18  miles 
southeast  of  the  Dead  Sea.  This  identifica- 
tion is  generally  accei)ted. 

2.  A  city  of  Moab  mentioned  with  Kerioth, 
Beth-meon,  Dihon,  and  other  towns  of  the 
idatcan  (.ler.  xlviii.  24)  ;  probably  the  same 
iis  Re/.cr  (in  Septuagint,  Bosor). 

Bracelet. 

An  ornament  for  the  wrist  or  for  the  arm, 
worn  by  both  sexes  (Ezek.  xvi.  11).  One  was 
put  on  Rebekah's  wrist  by  Abraham's  servant 
(Gen.  xxiv.  22).  Bracelets  were  given  by  the 
Israelites  in  the  wilderness  to  furnish  gold  or 
silver  for  the  construction  of  the  vessels  of 


Egyptian  Bracelets. 

the  tabernacle  (Num.  xxxi.  50).  Saul  wore 
one,  unless  what  he  had  on  was  rather  an 
armlet  (2  Sam.  i.  10).  For  bracelet  in  A.  V.  in 
Gen.  xxxviii.  18,  25,  E.  V.  substitutes  cord  ; 
in  Ex.  XXXV.  22,  brooches ;  and  in  Is.  iii.  19, 
on  the  margin,  chains. 

Bram'ble. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  word  'Atad 
in  .Tudg.  ix.  14,  1.5.  The  plant  is  named  from 
its  tirmness.  The  R.  V.  renders  it  on  the 
margin  by  thorn,  and  both  versions  so  trans- 
late the  word  in  Ps.  Iviii.  9.  It  is  doubtless  a 
variety  of  Rhamnus.  The  Septuagint  and  Vul- 
gate render  it  by  Rhamnus.  This  thorn  is 
quite  common  in  the  warmer  parts  of  Pales- 
tine, especially  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Dead 
Sea  (cp.  Gen.  1.  10),  in  the  Jordan  valley,  and 
about  the  Sea  of  Galilee.  It  is  also  found  at 
Jerusalem.  The  Rhamnus  is  still  called  by  the 
Arabs  \(iad  or  nahk,  applying  the  name  not 
only  to  Christ's  Thorn  (Zizyphus  spina  Christi), 
which  takes  its  name  from  the  tradition  that 
the  crown  placed  on  Christ's  head  was  made 
from  its  twigs,  but  apparently  also  to  Rham- 
vus  pnliurus. 

Branch. 

A  title  applied  to  the  Messiah  as  the  off- 
spring of  David  (Jer.  xxiii.  5 ;  xxxiii.  15  : 
Zech.  iii.  8;  vi.  12). 

Brass. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  word  N'ho- 
■iheth  and  the  Greek  Chalkos.  The  margin  of 
the  R.  v.,  however,  at  Gen.  iv.  22  gives  cop- 
per ;is  a  constant  alternative.  Copper  was 
smelted  from  the  ore  dug  from  the  ground 
(Deut.  viii.  9 ;  Job  xxviii.  2).    Traces  of  an- 


cient copper  works  exist  in  Lebanon  and  in 
Edom.  It  was  obtained  notably  in  the  penin- 
sula of  Sinai,  in  Cyi>rus,  and  in  Meshech  and 
Tubal  (Ezek.  xxvii.  115).  Brass  is  an  alloy  of 
copper  with  from  2M  to  34  per  cent.  <jf  zinc. 
Unless  accidentally  as.sociated  with  cahunine, 
it  does  not  occur  in  nature,  but  is  an  artificial 
product.  The  assertion  used  to  be  made  that 
it  was  not  known  till  it  was  accidentally 
formed  by  the  running  together  of  different 
melted  metals  when  Corinth  was  burned.  14(j 
B.  v.,  by  the  consul  .Mumniius.  But  ves.sels 
of  brass  have  been  found  of  much  higher  an- 
tiquity in  Egyptian  tombs.  Bronze  is  another 
artificial  product  from  copper,  being  an  alloy 
of  copper  and  tin.  From  copper  and  its  alloys 
utensils  were  made :  pots,  shovels,  basins, 
pans,  spoons,  snuffers  (Ex.  xxxviii.  3;  Lev. 
vi.  28 ;  Num.  xvi.  39 ;  Jer.  Iii.  18) ;  armor, 
also,  such  as  helmets,  coats  of  mail,  greaves, 
shields,  spear  points,  and  even  bows  (2  Sam. 
xxi.  16;  xxii.  35,  R.Y. ;  2Chron.  xii.  10) ;  fetters 
also,  mirrors,  city  gates,  musical  instruments, 
idols,  and  in  later  times  coins  (Ex.  xxxviii. 
8 ;  2  Kin.  xxv.  7,  13;  Is.  xlv.  2 ;  Mat.  x.  9  ; 
1  Cor.  xiii.  1 ;  Rev.  ix.  20).  Where  casting  is 
spoken  of,  the  metal  was  bronze.  Thus  were 
made  the  plating  and  railing  for  the  altar, 
the  lavers  and  the  sea  with  its  pedestal  of 
oxen,  and  two  magnificent  pillars  for  the 
temple  (1  Kin.  vii.  41-46;  2  Chron.  iv.  1-17). 

Bra'zen  Ser'pent. 

The  figure  of  a  .serpent,  made  of  metal,  and 
erected  by  Moses  on  a  pole  in  the  wilderness, 
that  the  Israelites  who  were  bitten  by  fiery 
serpents  might  look  at  it  with  faith  in  God's 
promise  to  heal  those  who  looked  (Num.  xxi. 
8,  9).  In  after  years  the  Israelites  began  to 
use  it  as  an  idol,  and  Hezekiah  had  it  broken 
in  pieces,  contemptuously  calling  it  N'hushtan, 
that  is  to  say,  only  a  piece  of  brass  (2  Kin. 
xviii.  4).  Jesus  in  foretelling  his  crucifixion 
explained  its  spiritual  significance  by  com- 
paring it  with  the  rearing  of  ilie  brazen  ser- 
pent (John  iii.  14,  15). 

Bread. 

The  bread  in  use  among  the  Israelites  con- 
sisted generally  of  small  flat  cakes  of  wheaten 
flour  or,  among  the  poor,  of  barley  flour 
The  grain  was  ground  daily  in  a  hand  mill, 
and  fresh  bread  baked  everyday.  When  this 
bread  was  to  be  eaten  at  once,  it  was  often 
unleavened  (Gen.  xix.  3;  1  Sam.  xxviii.  24 1, 
but  the  art  of  making  leavened  bread  was 
also  understood  (Mat.  xiii.  33).  The  show- 
bread  which  was  edible  after  eight  days  was 
evidently  leavened.  The  flour  was  made  into 
a  paste  or  dough  by  mixing  with  water,  and 
might  be  leavened  some  time  after  mixing; 
for  example,  at  th(>  first  passover  the  dough 
was  already  mixed  in  the  troughs,  but  not 
yet  leavened  when  the  order  came  to  march 
(Ex.  xii.  34). 

The  oven  used  by  private  families  was  a 
portable  jar  in  which,  after  it  had  been  heated, 
the  loaves  were  laid  or  were  stuck  against  the 


Breastplate 


y? 


Brick 


sides,  the  cakes  baked  iu  this  later  fasbiou 
Wiun  very  thin. 

Ik'sides  tlie  lnvad  ));iki(l  in  tlie  oven  (Lev. 
ii.  l),  i-iiki'S  :ils()  wi'if  baked  on  a  sliKbtly 
concave  pan  j>nt  over  a  (ire,  these  bcinji  sonu-- 
thin;^  like  jiancakes  (Lev.  ii.  .">).  JJrt'ad  was 
also  baked  on  tlie  heated  hearth  or  on  any 
iiot  stones  alter  tlie  ashes  were  swept  aside  (1 
Kin.  xi.\.  (i).  Tiiis  kind  was  niatle  especially 
w  lien  food  was  wanted  in  a  hurry  ((Jen.  .wiii. 
<)i.  'I'lic  Hedouiu  at  lucseiit  coinnioiily  bake 
iiy  plaeinj,'  their  loaves  in  a  hole  in  the  ground 


distinguished  leader  of  the  Jerusalem  church 
(Acts  xii.  17  ;  xv.  13;  (lal.  ii.  ill,  and  was  the 
autlior  of  the  ejiistie  which  goes  by  his  name. 
In  wliat  sense  tlie>'  were  Cli list's  "  lirethreu  " 
has  been  much  dispiiled.  in  very  early  times 
they  were  regarded  as  the  ciiildren  of  Jo.seiih 
by  a  former  marriage.  The  disapiiearance  of 
Joseph  from  the  gospels  suggests  that  he  had 
died,  and  may  have  been  much  older  than 
Mary,  and  may  have  lieen  previously  mar- 
ried. This  view  is  a  ])ossil)le  one.  but,  in 
view    of    Mat.    i.    'J.")    and    Luke    ii.    7,    not 


&i^^(B)  (^i) 


Egyptian  Bakers. 


■which  has  jireviously  held  a  fire  and  then 
been  cleared  out.  The  hole  is  carefuUj-  cov- 
ered and  the  bread  allowed  tobakt-  all  night. 
This  method  was  ])robably  well  known  to  the 
Israelites.  Baking  was  ordinarily  doije  by 
the  women  ((4en.  xviii.  (J:  1  Sam.  viii.  1:5; 
Lev.  xxvi.  2(i;  but  Judg.  vi.  19),  and  in  large 
households  by  the  slaves,  but  in  the  cities 
there  were  also  bakers  who  sold  bread  (.Ter. 
xxxvii.'il  :  c]).  Ilos.  vii.  4.  (i).  In  the  second 
«hai)ler  of  Leviticus  is  given  a  list  of  the 
dillerent  kinds  of  bread  which  were  accepta- 
ble as  ofl'erings.  In  some  places  the  word  is 
ajijilied  to  all  kinds  of  food  (Luke  xi.  3). 

Breast'plate. 

1.  .\  saen  (1  article  of  dress  worn  by  the 
Jewisii  liigh  priest  {Ex.  xxviii.  1,5-30).     See 

Hl(iH   I'KIKST. 

"i.  Armor  designed  to  protect  the  body  in 
battle  (I{ev.  ix.  fl) :  see  .\kmoi!.  Figuratively. 
rii;liteousni'SS  (Is.  lix.  17:  l]ph.  vi.  11;  Wisd. 
V.  l!ii.  or  faith  and  love,  constitute  a  .sjiiritual 
brea>tl.late  11  Thes.  V.  S). 

Breth'ren  of  the  Lord. 

Their  names  are  given  in  the  gospels  as 
James,  Josejdi  or  Joses.  Simon,  and  Judas 
(Mat.  xiii.  .">.  H.  V.  ;  Mark  vi.  :!).  They  ap- 
piar  in  coiiiiiany  with  Mary  (Mat.  xii.  17-r)0  ; 
Mark  iii.  .■51-:').") ;  Luke  viii.  1!»  211,  moved  to 
<'a])ernaum  with  her  and  Jesus  and  the  lat- 
t<'r's  disci]iles  at  the  beginning  of  Christ's 
ministry  (.lohn  ii.  12),  i)Ut  are  said  not  to 
have  believed  in  .b^sus  even  toward  the  close 
of  ills  life  (,Iohn  vii.  4,  .'')).  After  the  resur- 
rection, however,  they  are  found  nnit<'d  with 
tlie  discij)les  (Acts  i.  14),  and  are  afterwards 
mentioned  as  Ciiristian  workei-s  (1  for.  ix.,'}). 
One  of  tiiem,  James  ((lal.   i.   19),  became  a 


probable.  In  the  fourth  century  Jerome 
proposed  another  view  ;  viz.,  that  they  were 
Christ's  cousins  on  his  mother's  side,  the 
children  of  Al]>hivus  (or  Clojias)  and  Mary's 
sister  of  the  same  nani(>.  This  is  inferred 
mainly  from  a  combination  of  Mark  xv.  40 
and  John  xix.  2r,  (the  latter  being  thought 
to  m(>ntion  but  three  women),  and  from 
the  identity  of  the  names  Alpha'us  and 
Cloi>as.  On  this  view  one  (James  the  son  of 
AlphiFUs)  and  ])erha]is  more  (Simon  and 
Judas)  of  the  apostles  were  Christ's  brethren. 
Hut  the  apostles  are  distinguished  from  his 
brethren  ;  the  latter  did  not  believe  in  him, 
and  it  is  unlikely  tliat  two  sisters  had  the 
same  name.  Another  very  old  view  was  that 
they  were  cousins  on  Josej)h's  side,  and  some 
have  even  sup])osed  they  were  the  children 
of  the  widow  of  Josei)h's  brother  (I)eut.  xxv. 
.')-10).  Rut  all  these  theories  ajiiiear  to  have 
originated  from  a  wish  to  maintain  the  i)er- 
petiial  virginity  of  Mary.  That  they  were 
the  children  of  Joseph  and  Mary,  born  after 
Jesus,  is  the  natural  view,  and  that  Mary  had 
other  children  is  imidied  in  Mat.  i.  2.'> :  Luke 
ii.  7.  This  view  exjilaiiis  al.so  the  constant 
association  of  "the  brethren"  with  Mary. 

G.  T.  P. 

Brick. 

\  nuiss  of  clay  tempered,  made  rectangular 
in  shajie,  and  hardened  either  by  burning  in 
a  kiln  ((Jen.  xi.  .'!)  or  by  drying  in  the  sun 
(Herod,  ii.  131)).  They  were  of  cours<' sun-dried 
when  the  clay  was  mixed  with  straw  (l"x.  v.  7). 
Roth  bricks  and  tiles  are  often  found  stamped 
with  names  and  inscriptions,  from  which  wo 
have  derived  much  of  our  knowledge  of 
those  ancient  times,  as  well  as  from  the  tab- 


Brickkiln 


98 


Bullock 


lets  of  burnt  clay  specially  prepared  as  docu- 
luents  in  a  similar  way  (cp.  Ezek.  iv.  1).  For 
illustration  of  hriekniaking,  see  EcjyI'T. 


.i.*r 


^  -V  , 


''in.,      >:t/   — t:  t.  -     x' -v       nr<, 


.•i 


Brick  bearing  Name  and  Inscription  of 
Nebuchadnezzar. 

Brick'kiln. 

A  kiln  for  enclosing  bricks  while  they  are 
being  burned  (2  Sam.  xii.  31  and  Nah.  iii. 
14,  where  R.  V.  margin  translates  brickmould  ; 
Jer.  xliii.  9,  in  E.  V.  brickwork). 

Bri'er. 

The  rendering  of  six  distinct  Hebrew  words 
and  of  one  Greek  word. 

1.  Barhin  (Judg.  viii.  7,  16) ;  perhaps,  as 
etymology  suggests,  so  named  because  it 
grows  in  stony  ground. 

2.  Shamir,  bristling,  prickly  (Is.  ix.  18 ;  x. 
17  ;  xxvii.  4  ;  xxxii.  13),  such  as  springs  up 
in  abandoned  vineyards  (v.  6 ;  vii.  23). 

3.  S'n-pad  (Is.  Iv.  13).  Septuagiut  and  Vul- 
gate render  it  nettle. 

4.  Sarah,  refractory  (Ezek.  ii.  6). 

5.  Sillon  (Ezek.  xxviii.  24:  in  ii.  6  rendered 
thorn). 

6.  Hedek  (Mic.  vii.  4),  used  in  hedges  (Prov. 
XV.  19,  where  it  is  rendered  thorn).  The  cor- 
responding word  in  Arabic  means  the  Egg- 
l)lant,  Mad-aj)ple,  Jew's-appleor  Brinjal  {Sola- 
num  melongena),  one  variety  of  which  is  thorny. 
It  is  a  native  of  India  and,  it  is  believed,  of 
Arabia.  It  is  of  the  same  genus  as  the  potato, 
but  the  edible  part  is  the  fruit,  which  is  much 
used  in  curries  in  the  East. 

7.  Greek  Akantha,  a  thorn  or  a  prickly 
plant  or  thorny  tree  (Heb.  vi.  8,  A.  V.). 

Brig'an-dine. 

A  name  for  a  coat  of  mail,  composed  of 
light  thin-jointed  scales,  or  of  thin  i)liant 
plate  armor  (,Ier.  xlvi.  4  ;  Ii.  3).  The  R.  V. 
substitutes  coat  of  mail. 

Brim'stone. 

Sulphur  (Gen.  xix.  24;  Dent.  xxix.  23). 

Brook. 

A  small  perennial  stream,  as  the  Kishon 
(1  Kin.  xviii.40)  and  the  Jabbok  (Gen.  xxxii. 
23,  A.  v.).  Generally,  however,  in  Scripture 
the  word  is  used  for  a  stream  which  flows  in 
the  rainy,  winter  season,  but  is  dry  in  sum- 


mer, as  the  brook  of  Egypt  (Num.  xxxiv.  n, 
E.  V. ;  see  Rivkr),  the  Zered  (Dent.  ii.  13), 
and  the  Kidron  (2  Sam.  xv.  23  ;  John  xviii.  1, 
H.  V.I. 

Broom. 

A  niiicli-brauched  bush, with  twiggy,  nearly 
leafless,  branches,  and  clusters  of  pinkisli- 
whiti-  flowers,  which  grows  in  the  .Jordan 
valley  and  Arabia,  and  is  common  iu  the 
peninsula  of  Sinai  (.lob  xxx.  4  ;  1  Kin.  xix. 
4).  Its  large  root  stalk  is  made  into  charcoal 
(I's.  cxx.  4).  In  the  text  of  the  last  two  pas- 
sages in  the  E.  V.,  and  in  all  the  three  in  the 
A.  v.,  it  is  rendered  junijjer,  but  the  He- 
brew word  corresponds  to  the  still  existing 
Arabic  name  for  Rctnnxi,  broom. 

Broth'er. 

1.  A  kinsman  born  of  the  same  jiarents  as 
the  perstin  to  whom  he  is  brother  (Gen.  xxvii. 
6),  or  at  least  of  the  same  father  (xxviii.  2)  or 
the  same  mother  (Judg.  viii.  19). 

2.  A  man  of  the  same  near  ancestry  (as  a 
nephew.  Gen.  xiv.  16),  or  of  the  same  race  or 
of  a  kindred  nation  (Dent,  xxiii.  7 ;  Neh.  v. 
7  ;  Jer.  xxxiv.  9). 

3.  An  ally  ( Amos  i.  9)  or  co-religionist  (Acts 
ix.  17 ;  1  Cor.  vi.  6  ;  2  Cor.  ii.  13)  ;  often  in  the 
plural  applied  to  Christian  disciples  (Mat. 
xxiii.  8 ;  Eom.  i.  13). 

4.  One  of  the  male  sex  greatly  beloved  or 
politely  addressed  by  the  person  who  calls 
him  brother  (2  Sam.  i.  26 ;  1  Kin.  xx.  32). 

5.  Any  man  whatever,  the  common  broth- 
erhood of  the  human  race  being  recognized 
(Gen.  ix.  5;  Mat.  v.  22;  xviii.  35). 

Buckler.    See  Armor. 

Buk'ki  [abbreviation  of  Bukkiah]. 

1.  Prince  of  the  tribe  of  Dan  and  member 
of  the  commission  for  allotting  the  land  (Num. 
xxxiv.  22). 

2.  A  descendant  of  Aaron,  in  the  high- 
priestly  line  of  Phinehas  (1  Chron.  vi.  5,  51 ; 
Ezra  vii.  4). 

Buk-ki'ah  [devastation  sent  by  Jehovah]. 

A  Levite,  son  of  Heman,  and  head  of  the 
sixth  of  the  twenty-four  companies  of  twelve 
musicians  each  which  David  appointed  for 
the  service  of  the  sanctuary  (1  Chron.  xxv. 
4,  13). 

Bui  [growth]. 

The  eighth  month  of  the  Jewish  year  (1 
Kin.  vi.  38).     See  Year. 

Bull. 

The  male  of  the  species  called  by  natural- 
ists Bos  taurus  (Job.  xxi.  10;  Ps.  Ixviii.  30; 
Is.  xxxiv.  7;  Jer.  Hi.  20);  see  Ox.  A  par- 
ticularly strong  and  fierce  breed  of  bulls  ex- 
isted in  Bashan  (Ps.  xxii.  12). 

The  word  To',  rendered  wild  ox  and  wild 
bull  in  A.  V.  (Dent.  xiv.  5  ;  Is.  Ii.  20),  is  trans- 
lated in  E.  V.  by  antelojje  {q.  v.). 

Bull'ock. 

A  young  bull,  though  the  Hebrew  word  is 
used  once  of  an  animal  seven  years  old  (Judg. 
vi.  25).  Bullocks  were  used  as  draught  animals 


Bulrush 


99 


Cabul 


}ieariii«  ;i    yoke   (.hr.    xxxi.  18,  A.  V.),  and 
were  larjicly  otliTod  in  sacrifice  (Ex.  xxix. 
1  :   1  Clin.n/xxix.  •21). 
Bul'rusli  [bull,  I.  e.  a  larj^c,  rusli]. 

1.  Ilclinw  dome'  (Ex.  ii.  3;  Is.  xviii.  2, 
A.  V.I :  iia])yni.s  (4.  v.). 

2.  lli'hriw  \Aiiinon.  The  etymolofiy  sufr- 
pcsts  that  it  f^rows  in  swanijis  :  and  it  is  a  low 
j.lant  (Is.  ix.  14;  xix.  l.")).  t...\vs  tlic  head 
(Iviii.  .■>!,  and  was  twisted  into  rojies  (Jol)  xli. 
2,  1\.  \'.  niarjjin). 

Bu'nab  [iirudence]. 

A  descendant  of  Jiidah  through  Jerahmeel 
(1  Chnin.  ii.  2.")). 
Bun'nl  [built,  erected]. 

1.  .\  Levite  who  lived  before  the  exile 
(Neh.  xi.  ].")). 

2.  A  Levite,  contemporary  of  Neheniiah 
(Xeh.  ix.  4). 

.!.   Kc]>resentative  of  a  family  or  father's 
house  who  sealed  the  covcuaut  (Xeh.  x.  15). 
Bur'den. 

1.  .\  heavy  load  to  be  borne  ;  used  in  a  lite- 
ral (u- a  ti^Mirative  sense  (Ex.  xxiii.  5;  Num. 
xi.  11.  etc.). 

2.  An  utterance  or  prophecy,  in  almost 
every  instance  denouncing  heavy  judgment 
on  a  ]place  or  people  (Is.  xiv.  2S ;  xv.  1 ;  Ezek. 
xii.  1(1:   IIos.  viii.  10;  Nah.  i.  1). 

Bur'i-al. 

Inlernieiit,  the  committal  of  a  corji.se  to 
the  ground,  or  its  disposal  in  another  rev- 
erential way.  When  a  (leath  occnrreil  friends, 
especially  women,  hurrieil  to  the  house  and 
made  loud  lamentation  (Mark  v.  38).  Mourn- 
ers were  even  hired  (,Ter.  ix.  17).  The  body 
was  washed  (.\(ts  ix.  .'57),  and  wraiiped  in  a 
cloth  or  closely  bound  in  bands  (Mat.  xxvii. 
")!•:  .John  xi.  44).  The  wealthy  added  sjiices 
and  perfumes  (.lohn  xii.  7;  xix.  3(1)  or  burned 
fragniut  materials  (.Ter.  xxxiv.  v>).  The  body 
was  carrie<l  ui)on  a  bier  to  the  grave  (2  Sam. 
iii.  .'Jl  ;  Luke  vii.  14).  Burial  was  generally 
iu  a  cave  or  in  a  si'pulcher  scooped  horizon- 
tally in  the  rock  (Oen.  xxv.  9, 10  ;  Mat.  xxvii. 
Goi.     See  MoiKNiN'G  and  SEPfUHEK. 

Burnt  Of'fer-ing.    See  Offerings. 

Burnt  Sac'ri-flce,  the  same  as  burnt  offer- 
inu.     See  Offerinos. 

Bush. 

1.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  f^'nch  and 
<;ri-ek  IIiiIds.  a  thorny  bush  (Luke  vi.  44). 
which  Moses  saw  burning  and  tVom  which 
.lehovah  spoke  (Ex.  iii.  2,  3;  Dent,  x.xxiii. 
Ill;  Mark  xii.  2(i).  Tristram  believes  it  to 
have  l)een  the  .Irnciii  rem  or  uilotioi,  the 
Kvyptian  thorn.  It  is  a  withered-looking 
thorny  tree.  12  feet  liigh.  with  bipinnate 
leaves  and  white  flowers.  It  grows  through- 
out a  large  ]>art  of  ,\frica,  also  in  the  Sinai 
reiiinsiila.  an<l,  in  ralestine,  on  the  shores 
of  the  I  )ead  Sea.  It  yields  the  trum  arabic  of 
(•(iiunierce,  which  naturally  exudes  in  a  nearly 
lluid  state  from  the  trunk  and  branches,  har- 
dening on  expo.sure  to  the  air. 


2.  Hebrew  Siah  (Joh.  xxx.  4,  7;  and  Gen. 
ii.  ."),  where  it  is  rendered  jilant);  a  shrub 
large  enoiigh  to  afford  some  shade  itien.  xxi. 
15,  where  it  is  renilered  shrub). 

3.  Hebri'W  \ah"hil  (Is.  vii.  19),  rendered  in 
the  text  of  K.  V.  by  pasture,  and  on  the  mar- 
gin of  the  A.  V.  by  commendable  trees. 

Bush'el. 

The  rendering  of  the  Greek  Modios,  a  dry 
nu'asure  c<nitaining  more  than  two  gallons 
(Mat.  V.  15 ;  Mark  iv.  21).     See  Me.\sike. 

But'ler.     See  (Ti-nEARER. 

But'ter. 

In  Scrijiture.  curdled  milk  or  curds  ((ten. 
xviii.  6;  I)eut.  xxxii.  14;  I'rov.  xxx.  33 ;  Is. 
vii.  15,  22).  On  margin  of  K.  V.  of  Ls.  vii.  15 
the  translation  is  curds.  Tliomson  says  that 
neither  the  ancient  tior  the  modern  Orientals 
have  made  butter  in  our  sense  of  the  word. 
The  butter  given  to  Sisera  by  .Tael  was  sour 
milk,  called  in  .Arabic  Ichfii.  The  butter,  so 
called,  of  I'rov.  xxx.  33  is  a  jiroduction  made 
in  this  way.  A  bottle  fornu'(l  bystripjiing  oil' 
the  entire  skin  of  a  yoinig  buffalo  is  tilled 
with  milk  and  then  perseveringly  kneaded 
or  shaken  by  women.  Then  tlie  ciuitents  are 
taken  out,  boiled  or  melted,  and  put  into 
bottles  of  goats'  skins.  In  winter  it  resem- 
bles candied  houev,  and  in  summer  is  mere 
oil. 

Buz  [contempt]. 

1.  .\n  -VraniR'an  tribe,  descended  from  a 
son  of  Xahor  (Gen.  xxii.  20,  21),  and  jiroba- 
bly  dwelling  in  .Teremiah's  time  near  Dedan 
and  Tenia  in  .\rabia  (Jer.  xxv.  23). 

2.  A  Gadite,  founder  of  a  tribal  family  or 
house  (1  C'hron.  v.  14). 

Bu'zi  [descendant  of  Buz]. 

Father  of  the  priest  and  prophet  Ezekiel 
(Ezek.  i.  3). 

Buz  'ite. 

One  belonging  to  the  Arabian  tribe  of  Bua 
(Job.  xxxii.  2). 


C. 


Cab,  in  E.  V.  Kab  [a  hollow  ves.sel]. 

A  Hebrew  measure  of  caiiacity  for  dry  ar- 
ticles (2  Kin.  vi.  2.-)).  It  held,  accordiiig  to 
Kabhinical  tradition,  the  sixth  part  of  a  seah 
or  one  hundred  and  eightieth  part  of  a  homer. 

Cab'bon  [a  cak(>.  or  ])erhaps  a  bindin;;]. 

A  village  of  ,Tudah  in  the  lowland  (.Josh. 
XV.  40).  l'erhai>s  identical  with  Machbenah 
(1  Chron.  ii.  49).  The  radical  letters  are  the 
.suue  and  the  location  is  suitable. 

Ca'bul  [perhaps,  fettered  land  ;  i)roverbial 
for  hard,  dry  laiul  which  ])ro(luces  no  fruit]. 

1.  A  town  of  Asher  (.Tosh.  xix.  27:  IJfe 
43,  45).  It  is  still  known  as  Kabfil,  a  village 
9  miles  east-southeast  of  .Acre. 

2.  .A  district  of  (ialilee,  that  is,  of  the  north- 
ern part  of  the  territory  of  Xiiphtali,  for  the 


Caesar 


100 


Caesar 


most  part  inhabited  by  jk-oi)1c'  other  than  Is- 
raelites (Is.  ix.  1).  It  contained  twenty  towns, 
whii'h  Solomon  jirescnted  to  llirani,  kinj,'  of 
Tyre,  in  retnrn  tor  scrviies  rendered  in  eon- 
uection  with  the  huildin;;  of  the  teniide. 
Hiram  was  displea.sed  with  the  fjift,  and 
therefore  called  the  region  Cabul  (1  Kin.  ix. 
13  i.  Hiram  thus  api)arently  rejected  the 
l)roircreil  conii)en.sati()n  as  inadequate,  and 
returned  tlie  district  to  Solomon,  who  thcre- 
U})on  fortified  the  cities  thus  put  ba(-k  on  his 
hands,  and  caused  Israelites  to  dwell  in  them 
(2  Chron.  viii.  2  ;  Antiq.  viii.  5,  3). 

Cse'sar. 

The  family  name  of  a  branch  of  the  Julian 
house  or  clan  in  Eome.  According  to  Pliny 
(7,  9),  the  first  wdio  bore  the  name  was  .so 
called  qnod  aeso  mordix  matris  utero  natiis 
fni'rit.  Though  it  is  traceable  from  501  B.  c, 
it  did  not  gain  extensive  celebrity  till  it  was 
borne  by  C'aius  .Julius  Csesar,  who  ranks  with 
Alexander  the  ( Ireat  and  Napoleon  as  one  of 
the  three  most  remarkable  conquerors  the 
civilized  world  has  produced.  On  the  assas- 
sination of  Julius  ('a?sar,  44  B.  c,  his  will  re- 
quested his  grandnephew  Octavius,  after- 
w^ards  the  emperor  Augustus,  to  assume  the 
name  of  Cwsar.  Tiberius,  who  succeeded 
Augustus,  and  Caligula,  Claudius,  and  Nero, 
who  followed  in  succession,  were  all  entitled 
by  relationship  to  the  great  dictator  to  bear 
the  family  name  ;  the  seven  succeeding  em- 
perors— Galba,  Otho.  Vitellius,  Vespasian, 
Titus,  Domitian,  and  Nerva — assumed  it,  so 
that  it  is  customary  to  speak  of  the  twelve 
Caesars.  From  having  been  the  name  of  one 
mighty  conqueror,  and  then  of  a  series  of 
emperors,  the  name  Cfesar  became  the  type 
or  symbol  of  the  civil  power  in  general,  and 
it  is  continually  nsed  in  this  sense  in  discus- 
sions as  to  the  relative  domains  of  civil  and 
ecclesiastical  rulers  (cp.  Mat.  xxii.  17,  21 ; 
Mark  xii.  14,  16,  17;  Luke  xx.  22,  24,  25). 

The  name  Cfesar  is  applied  in  the  N.  T.  to : 

1.  Au-gus'tus  C^'sar,  the  first  Eomau 
emperor  (Luke  ii.  1).  In  4.3  B.  c.  he  was 
named  one  of  the  second  triumvirate,  Marc 
Antony  and  Lepidus  being  the  other  two. 
Lepidus  was  found  incompetent  and  forced 
to  retire  ;  and  after  the  defeat  of  Antony 
at  Actium  in  31  B.  c.  Augustus  was  sole 
ruler  of  the  Roman  world,  and  was  given 
the  title  of  emi)eror.  It  was  in  consequence 
of  a  decree  of  Augustus  that  Joseph  and 
Mary  went  to  Bethlehem  to  l)e  taxed,  at  the 
time  of  Clirist's  birth.  Although  Augustus 
was  not  fond  of  the  Jews,  he  favored  them 
from  ])olicy,  and  caused  sacrifices  to  be  made 
daily  in  the  temi)le  at  Jernsah^ni  at  his  ex- 
])cnsc.  He  was  friendly  to  Herod,  recogniz- 
ing that  in  him  he  hail  a  valuable  ally. 
Ca?sarea  Phili))pi  and  Ciesarea  by  the  Sea 
were  built  in  his  honor  liy  Herod.  Augustus 
died  A.  T>.  l4,  in  the  sixty-seventh  year  of  his 
age. 

2.  Ti-be'ki-us  C^e'sar,  the  second  Roman 


emperor  (Mat.  xxii.  17;  Mark  xii.  14;  Luke 
iii.  1  ;  XX.  21.  22;  John  xix.  12),  born  42  B.  c, 
was  the  adopte-d  son.  also  stepson  and  son-in- 
law,  of  Augustus.  He  was  of  a  morose  and 
gloomy  temper,  and  sjii'nt  a  large  part  of  his 
reign  in  voluntary  exile  on  the  island  of 
Capri.   During  his  reign  Judaea  was  governed 


Bust  of  Tiberius. 

by  Valerius  Gratus  and  Pontius  Pilatus.  At 
one  time  he  banished  the  Jews  from  Rome, 
but  later  recalled  the  edict,  and  gave  them 
redress  for  the  severity  of  the  provincial 
governors.  Tiberias,  on  the  sea  of  Galilee, 
was  built  in  his  honor  by  Herod  Antipas.  His 
death  was  hastened  by  the  hand  of  Caligula, 
A.  D.  37.     See  p.  134,  years  12-37. 


Coin  with  Head  of  Claudius. 

3.  Clau'di-Vs,  the  fnurth  Roman  emperor. 
He  was  a  weak,  vacillating  man.  a  ne]ihew 
of  Tiberius.     He  was  made  emperor  almost 


Caesar 


101 


Csesarea 


ajrainst  his  will,  and  left  the  real  power  in 
the  hands  of  unprinfi]ik'd  favorites.  IIiTod 
A>;ri|il)a  I.  had  Ix'cn  in  Konic,  and  liad  as- 
sisted in  liis  coronation,  and  in  consecinencr; 
was  niven  tlie  whole  of  I'alcstiiu'  as  a  mark 
of  favor.  In  the  he^inning  of  his  reiyn 
Chuidins  favored  the  .lews,  and  reinstated 
tiie  Alexandrian  Jews  in  their  former  i)rivi- 
Unes,  lint  later  he  hanished  all  Jews  from 
lionie  (Acts  .wiii.  "J),  lie  died  A.  1).  'A,  in  the 
I'ourteenth  year  of  his  reij^n. 

4.  Nk'ko,  the  tilth  Roman  emjieror  (Acts 
XXV.  12,  -Jl  ;  xxvi.  :{:2 :  Phil.  iv.  -JJ).  He  was 
the  ado|iteil  son  of  his  predecessor  Claiidins, 
and  secured  his  own  iiosition  by  poisoninj;  Ids 
stepbrother  IJritanniciis.  Nero  was  a  mon- 
ster of  lust  and  cruelty,  thon{,'h,  jierhaps,  his 
crimes  have  been  oxajifrerated.  In  the  tenth 
year  of  his  reijjn,  a.  d.  M.  a  great  fire  broke 
ont  at  Konn-,  in  large  measure  destroying 
three  of  tlu'  fourteen  districts  into  which  the 
city  was  divided.  The  emjieror  was  believed, 
api)arently  on  iusullicient  evidence,  to  have 


f  Nero. 


been  him.self  the  incendiary,  and  was  in  con- 
sefpience  in  danger  of  his  life.  To  screen 
himself,  he  falsely  accused  the  Christians  of 
having  cansi'd  the  fire,  and  \nit  many  of 
them  to  cruel  deaths,  tradition  adding  that 
both  I'aul  and  I'eter  were  among  the  suffer- 
ers. Nero  is  tile  "lion"  of  "J  Tim.  iv.  17. 
Fintliug  that  he  was  deserted  by  his  troojis, 
an<l  that  he  would  soon  l)e  put  to  death,  he 
anticipated  bis  fate.  Like  Saul,  be  attempted 
.suicide,  and,  failing,  indui'ed  oni'  of  his  snp- 
p<irters  to  coiniilete  file  act  of  slaughter.  He 
died  A.  I).  fiS,  in  tbi'  thirty-second  year  of  his 
age  and  the  fourt«'enth  of  bis  reign. 

Tl'rrs,  son  of  Vesiiasian,  and  tenth  Koman 
emperor.  In  a.  d.  (i(i  \'es]iasian  was  sent  to 
Palestine  to  (jUell  a  revolt  »d'  the  .h'ws,  and 
Titus  accompanied  him.  In  (ii),  when  ^'es- 
jiasian  bnrriecl  from  .luda-a  to  Uonn'  Insecure 
the  inijierial  ollice  for  bimsilf,  lie  left  Titus 
in  command  of  the  army,  and  Titus  con- 
du<'ted  the  siege  of  .lern.silem  in  \.  I).  70 
(War  iii.  1,  :j-vii.  li,  1)  ;  see  Jerusalem  II.  3. 


Coin  with  Head  of  Titus. 


Titus  became  emperor  in  79  ;  and  died  in  81, 
in  tile  fortieth  year  of  his  age. 

Caes-a-re'a  [[lertaining  to  f'a-sar]. 

A  city  on  the  coast  of  Palestine,  about  23 
milessouth  of  mount  t'armel.  It  was  built  by 
Herod  the  Great,  on  the  site  of  a  town  called 
Strato's  Tower.  Twelve  years,  from  25  to  13 
B.  c,  were  spent  in  its  erection.  A  sea  mole 
was  built  of  stones  .')0  feet  long,  18  broad,  and 
9  deep.  It  was  200  feet  wide,  stood  in  20 
fathoms  of  water,  and  enclosed  a  harbor  as 
large  as  that  at  Athens.  The  entrance  to  the 
artificial  jiort  was  on  the  north,  where  there 
was  a  tower.  The  city  was  provided  with  a 
temple,  a  theater,  and  an  amphitheater,  and 
had  a  conijileto  system  of  drainage.  Herod 
named  the  jilace  Ca-sarea.  after  his  patron 
Augustus  t'tesar  (Antiq.  xv.  SI,  (i ;  War  i.  21,  ">, 
secj.).  It  was  sometimes  called  Ciesarea  of 
Palestine,  or  Ca^sarea  by  the  Sea,  to  distin- 
guish it  from  Ca'sarea  I'hilipjii.  It  became 
the  Koman  capital  of  Palestine.  The  gospel 
was  carried  thither  by  Philip  the  evangelist, 
who  made  it  his  residence  (Acts  viii.  40;  xxi. 
8).  When  Paul,  soon  after  his  conversion, 
was  in  danger  of  being  murdered  by  the 
.li'Ws  of  .Terusalem,  his  Christian  brethren 
brought  him  down  to  Ca-sarea,  wlient'e  he 
sailed  to  his  birthjilace, Tarsus,  in  Asia  Minor 
(ix.  :{()).  It  was  at  Ciesiirea  that  the  Roman 
centurion  Cornelius  lived,  to  whom  Peter 
jireached  Christ,  ami  that  the  calling  of  the 
gentiles  took  jilace  (x.  1.  24  ;  xi.  11).  Herod 
Agrippa  died  at  Ca'sarea  in  a.  D.  44  (Actsxii. 
1!».  2'.i ;  Antiq.  xix.  s,  2).  Paul  twice  revisited 
the  city,  and  found  a  church  existing  (Acts 
xviii.  22  :  xxi.  8.  1(>).  He  wasafterwards  taken 
thither  as  a  prisoner  ( xxiii.  2.'i,  .'5.'}),  and  it 
was  tliere  that  his  trial  before  Festus  and 
Agrippa  fo(.k  ])lace  (xxv.  1-4.  fi-13).  Th(? 
jioimlation  of  the  city  was  nnxed,  ami  race 
jealousies  existed  to  such  an  extent  that  in 
the  reign  of  Nero  flu'  Syrians  made  a  whole- 
sale uiassjicre  of  the  .lews,  commencing  the 


Caesarea  Philippj 


102 


Caiaphas 


troubles  which  culminated  in  a.  t>.  70  in  the 
destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  Titus  (War  ii.  18, 
1).  In  the  second  century  A.  D.  Ca'sarea  be- 
came the  residence  of  a  bislio]),  who  down  to 
451  was  inetroi)olitan  of  I'ahestina  I'rima. 
lu  195  a  council  was  held  there.  A  Chris- 
tian school  was  established  in  the  city,  in 
which  Orifien  taught  and  Ahere  Eusebius, 
afterwards  liislioji  of  Ca-sarea,  was  educated. 
In  54^  tlu-  Ji'Ws  and  Samaritans  Joined  in 
assaulting;  the  Christians,  lu  ()38  the  city 
was  cajitured  by  the  Mohammedans.  In 
110"J  it  was  taken  l)y  the  crusaders,  led  by 
Baldwin  I.  Saladin  retook  it  from  them  in 
1189  ;  the  crusaders  recovered  it  in  1191,  but 
lost  it  to  the  sultan  Bibars  in  12(J5. 

The  existing  ruins  are  of  two  periods. 
There  is,  first,  a  Roman  town  with  walls, 
containing  a  theater,  a  hippodrome  (race- 
course), a  mole,  a  temple,  and  aqueducts; 
then,  secondly,  there  is  the  Crusading  town 
with  walls,  a  castle,  a  cathedral,  a  smaller 
church,  and  a  harbor.  The  Roman  wall  ex- 
tends 4800  feet  from  north  to  south,  and  2700 
from  east  to  west.  The  harbor  measures  540 
feet  across.  A  reef  running  into  the  sea  is 
probably  the  old  mole.  Caesarea  is  still  called 
Kaisarieh. 


Tiberius  Csesar  (Antiq.  xviii.  2,  1 ;  War  ii. 
9,  1).  Jesus  and  his  diseii)les  visited  it  at 
le.ast  once,  and  it  was  there  that  the  remark- 
able conversiition  took  jilace  between  him  and 
I'eter  arising  out  of  the  question  "  Who  do 
men  say  that  I  am?"  (Mat.  xvi.  13  ;  Mark 
viii.27).  Agri]ipa  11.  still  further  embellished 
it,  and  changi^i  the  name  to  Neronias,  to 
coniplinu'ut  the  emjieror  \ero  ;  but  on  the 
emjjeror's  death  the  name  sjieedily  lapsed 
(Antiq.  XX.  9,  4).  After  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem  Titus  exhibited  gladiatorial  shows 
in  this  town  also,  one  i)art  of  the  si)ectacle 
being  Jewisli  ca])tives  thrown  to  the  wild 
beasts,  or  (■om])elled  to  encounter  each  other 
in  deadly  warfare  (War  vii.  2,  1  ;  3,  1).  Part 
of  its  fortilicaticms  still  remain,  and  there  are 
Greek  inscriptions  on  the  adjacent  rocks. 
The  town  has  dwindled  to  a  small  village 
called  Banias,  an  alteration  of  its  early  name 
Paneas. 

Cage. 

A  box  or  basket,  Hebrew  K'hih,  in  which 
birds  were  kept,  especially  for  pur])oses  of 
decoy  (.Ter.  v.  27 ;  Ecclus.  xi.  30).  Sen- 
naclu-rib  boasts  of  having  shut  up  Hezekiah 
iu  Jerusalem  like  a  bird  in  a  cage. 


Rums  ol  (.lUbiirLd  1  hilippi. 


Cses-a-re'a  Phi-lip'pl  [Caesarea  of  Philip, 
iu  distinction  from  Cfcsarea  of  Palestine]. 

A  city  at  the  foot  of  mount  Hermon,  at  the 
main  source  of  the  Jordan,  and  iu  the  angle 
of  a  small  plain,  with  hills  on  all  sides  of  it 
except  on  the  west.  It  has  sometimes  been 
identified  with  the  O.  T.  Dan,  but  was  more 
probably  Baal-gad,  The  worship  of  the  Ro- 
man god  Pan  long  jirevailed  in  the  locality ; 
and  Herod  the  Great  having  built  a  temple 
of  fine  7narl)le  near  the  sacred  sjiot,  tlie  place 
was  called  Paneas  (Anti(|.  xv.  10,  3i,  The 
tovv'u  was  afterwards  enlarged  and  adorned 
by  Pliilij)  the  tetrarch.  and  its  name  altered 
to  Ca'sarea  in  honor  of  the  Roman  emperor 


Ca'ia-phas  [depressicm], 

Joseph  Caiaj)has,  who  was  appointed  to  the 
high  priesthood  not  earlier  than  A,  d.  18  by  Va- 
lerius Grains,  the  Roman  procurator  and  im- 
mediate predecessor  of  Pontius  Pilate  (Antiq. 
xviii.  2,  2).  Caiaphas  and  his  father-in-law 
Annas  (John  xviii.  13)  were  high  priests  when 
John  the  Baptist  connnenced  his  ministry 
(Luke  iii.  2).  Caiajduis  projiosed  the  death 
of  Jesus,  and,  speaking  of  its  import  more 
significantly  than  he  was  aware,  said  :  "  It  is 
tx)>edicnt  for  us,  that  one  man  should  die  for 
the  peojile,  and  that  the  wholi'  nation  i)erish 
not"  (John  xi.  49-53;  xviii.  14).  At  his  ]ial- 
ace  the  council  of  chief  priests,  scribes,  and 


Cain 


103 


Caleb 


elders  was  lield  to  devise  measures  lor  the 
arrest  of  (tur  J^ord  (Mat.  xxvi.  3-5).  When 
Jesus  was  ai>i)rclion(U'd,  he  was  taken  first  to 
tlic  palace  of  Annas,  wiut  .sent  liiiii  hound  to 
C'aiai'lias  (.Idlin  xviii.  \H),  whence  he  was  led 
next  to  the  jinetorinni  of  Pilate  (:.'^).  Deeply 
responsihle  lor  the, judicial  nnirder  of  the  in- 
nocent prisoner,  Caiaphas  afterwards  took 
jiart  in  the  trial  of  I'eter  and  .John  I  Acts  i  v.  (i). 
In  A.  I).  ',H')  lie  was  deiiosed  hy  \'ilellins,  the 
Koman  jiresidenl  of  Syria  (Antiii.  xviii.  4, '2). 
Cain  [fahrication,  forj;ed  instrument, smith]. 

1.  riie  lirsthorn  son  of  Adam,  hy  fallinj;  an 
ajiriculturist.  He  hmufjht  of  the  fruits  of 
tlie  jiround  an  otleriuf;  to  (iod,  an  implied 
acknowiedgment  of  t;ratitU(le  to  (iod  for  the 
jiroduce  of  the  eartii.  Ihit  Cain  was  at  iieart 
a  wicked  man,  and  his  otferin;,'  was  rejected. 
Then  his  ciiaracter  was  revealed.  He  showed 
envy  and  anger,  refused  the  exhortation  to 
strive  against  sin,  committed  murder,  denied 
his  guilt  ;  and  when  judgment  was  i)ro- 
nounced.  gave  no  evidence  of  reinnlance  for 
his  sin,  hut  only  of  fear  of  tlie  punisiiment. 
Sent  into  exile,  he  lived  in  the  land  of  Nod, 
eastward  of  Ivlen.  He  had  a  wife,  one  of  the 
unnamed  daughters  or  granddaughters  of 
Adam.  In  early  ages  no  im])ropriety  existed 
or  was  felt  in  such  a  marriage  {v\>.  Gen.  xi. 
27,  2!);  XX.  12).  In  his  exile  Cain  huilt  a 
fortified  handet.  and  liecame  the  jirogenitor 
of  a  race  whicii  made  considerahle  i)rogress 
in  the  mechanical  arts  (Gen.  iv.  1-25;  1  John 
iii.  12:  Jude  11). 

2.  The  iirogenitor  of  the  Kenites.  See  K.\iN. 
:{.  A   village  in   the  mountains  of  Judah 

(Josh.    XV.  57).     I)oul)tfully    located   at   the 
ruin  Yukin,  3  miles  southeast  of  Hehron. 

Cal'nan,  in  A.  V.  once  Kenan  (1  Chron.  i. 
2),  asalwavs  in  R.  V.  of  ().  T. 

1.  Son  of  Enos  (Gen.  v.  y-14  ;  1  Chron.  i.  2  ; 
Luke  iii.  37,  3S). 

2.  Son  of  Arphaxad,  and  father  of  Shelah 
(Luke  iii.  'At;.  U.  V.).  The  corresjionding 
genealogy  of  (Jen.  xi.  12  has  no  Cainau  ;  the 
Septuagint,  however,  lias,  and  it  was  from  the 
Sei)tuagint  that  Luke  (juotes. 

Ca'lah. 

A  city  of  Assyria,  huilt  hy  Ximrod  or  hy 
peo])le  from  his  country,  .nnd  forming  part  id' 
that  complex  of  cities  which  collectively  were 
called  liy  the  Heljrews  that  great  cit.v  (Gen. 
X.  11,  12;  cj).  Jon.  i.  2).  Aecording  to  Ashur- 
na.sirpal  (ahout  HS.")-8(>0  B.  r.)  it  was  huilt  or 
relluilt,  endiellished.  and  fortified  hy  Shal- 
m.iiieser.  who  reigned  about  l.'JOO  n.r.  Kaily 
in  the  ninth  century  I!,  c.  it  had  fallen  into 
decay,  hut  was  restored  hy  Ashurnasir])al, 
who  erected  a  ])alace  and  made  the  city  the 
|il:ice  of  royal  residence.  Calah  remained 
llie  favorite  dwelling  |ilM<'e  of  the  .\ssyriaii 
kings  for  more  than  one  hundred  and  lifty 
years.  Its  ruiii.s,  now  called  Nimrud,  lie 
ahont  20  miles  .south  of  Nineveh. 

Cal'a-mus  [(Jreek  kulamos,  a  reed,  a  cane]. 

The  nnderingof  tlie  Hehrew  lytieh  bonem, 


reed  of  fragrance,  and  Kuneh.  cane,  reed, 
when  an  odorous  variety  is  intended.  The 
]ilant  was  sweet  smelling  (Song.  iv.  14),  a  con- 
stituent of  the  anointing  oil  (Ex.  xxx.  23), 
and  used  in  connection  with  sacrifice  (Is. 
xliii.  21  and  Jer.  vi.  20,  margin  of  K.  V.).  It 
was  hroiight  from  a  far  country  (Jer.  vi.  20). 
The  Tyriaiis  obtained  it  apparently  from 
Javan,  the  regions  of  western  Asia  Elinor 
and  (ireece  (Ezek.  xxvii.  1ft).  What  came 
from  Euro]ie  was  jirobably  the  Acorns  ailtitnns, 
or  common  Sweet  Sedge  of  England,  an  en- 
dogenous plant,  with  a  spadix  and  sj)athe, 
akin  to  the  Aroids,  but  belonging  to  the  al- 
lied order  of  the  Oroufiuccie  or  Orontiads. 
The  rhizome  or  underground  stem  is  aro- 
matic. If  an  Indian  plant  is  i>ermissible, 
then  the  calamus  was  probaldy  the  Andro- 
puijun  cnliimvs  aromath-ns,  a  genuine  grass, 
which,  like  its  near  ally,  the  Lemon  Grass, 
A.  srhn:nanthHs,  is  highly  scented. 

Cal'col,  in  A.  V.  once  Cbalcol  [sustenance, 

maintenance]. 

One  of  three  sons  of  Mahol,  each  of  whom 
was  celel)rated  for  wisdom  (1  Kiu.  iv.  31  ;  1 
Chron.  ii.  (J). 

Cal'dron.    See  Pot. 
Ca'leb. 

1.  Son  of  Hezron,  and  brother  of  Jerahmeel 
(1  Chron.  ii.  IS,  42).  A  variant  form  of  the 
name  is  Chelubai  (ver.  !i).  In  tribal  registra- 
tion, his  posterity  constituted  a  subdivision 
of  the  house  of  Hezron,  family  of  Perez,  tribe 
of  Judah  (1  Sam.  xxv.  3  ;  1  Chron.  ii.  .3,  R.  V., 
seq.).  Among  his  more  immediate  descend- 
ants were  Hur,  Aaron's  associate,  and  Hur's 
grandson,  the  skilled  artificer  Bezalel  (1 
Chron.  ii.  19,  R.  V.,  seq.). 

2.  Son  of  Jephunneh  the  Keuizzite  and  an 
elder  brother  of  Othniel  (Num.  xxxii.  12,  R. 
V. ;  Josh.  XV.  17  ;  1  Chron.  iv.  15.  cji.  13).  He 
was  till'  head  of  a  father's  house  of  the  tribe 
of  Judah  ;  was  one  of  the  twelve  men  sent 
to  spy  out  the  land  of  Canaan  :  and  one  of 
the  two  nu'iiibers  of  this  commission  who 
kept  their  faith  in  Jehovah,  and  fort.v  years 
later  jiarticijiated  in  the  comiuest  of  Canaan 
(Num.  xiii.  1,  3,  (J;  xiv.  C,  24,  3S;  Josh.  xiv. 
(j,  14  :  1  JIac.  ii.  56).  He  was  85  years  old 
when  tlie  con(|iiest  was  completed  (Josh.  xiv. 
7,  1(1).  He  was  one  of  tho.se  ai>pointed  by 
Moses  belore  the  con(|Uest  to  ]iortion  out  tlie 
land  by  lot,  and  he  rei>resented.as  before,  the 
tribe  of  Judah  (Num.  xxxiv.  Ifi).  He  received 
as  his  own  jiortion  tlu-  town  of  Hebron  (,Iosh. 
xiv.  14),  from  wlii(di  he  i'X|>clled  the  .Vnakim 
by  whom  it  had  been  jireviously  occui)ie<l 
(xv.  13.  14):  see  Hkhkox.  He  had  also  to 
do  with  till'  taking  of  the  adjacent  town  of 
Kiijath-sepher,  or  Debir  (l.">-i!)).  The  .south 
of  Caleb  mentioned  in  1  .Sam.  xxx.  14  was 
jirobably  the  south  of  the  Hebron  district  or 
the  vicinity  of  Debir. 

In  1  Ch"r<.n.  ii.  lit  (cj..  lit.  42.  4(i)  Achsah, 
the  well-known  daughter  of  Caleb  the  spy,  is 
registered  as  daughter  or  <le.scendant  of  Caleb 


Caleb-ephrathah 


104 


Calvary 


the  brother  of  Jerahuicel.  Ti>  judge  from 
this  rcjiister,  Caleb  Ibe  son  of  J('|ihiiiiinh 
and  father  of  Achsiih  was  deseeiKh'd  fmiu 
tlie  ehler  Caleb,  and  perhaps  his  eoneubiue 
Maacali,  and  lienee  through  llezron  and 
I'eri'Z  from  .ludah.  There  are  many  details 
tdbeaccdiintid  fur.  and  the  ordinary  dilliculty 
of  interpretinij;  an  aneient  Hebrew  genealogy 
is  in  this  case  greatly  increased  by  the  imper- 
fect state  of  the  text  in  1  Clirou.  ii.  and  iv. 
The  general  explanation  jirobably  is  that  a 
member  (if  the  tribe  of  Kenizzites  liecanie 
idenlilied  with  the  Israelites  ))y  taking  ser- 
vice with  Judah  l)efore  the  Israelites  went 
into  Egyjit,  and  lui  or  his  descendant  married 
a  woman  descended  from  Judah  throngh 
Perez.  V;irious  modifications  of  this  general 
theory  are  possible.  All  genealogical  and  his- 
torical references,  and  the  peculiarities  of 
the  register  are  satisfied  by  the  assumption 
that  shortly  before  the  exodus  Jephunneh 
the  Kenizzite  married  a  woman  of  the  house- 
hold of  Caleb  the  l)rother  of  Jerahmeel,  and 
by  her  had  a  firstborn  son  to  whom  was  given 
the  family  name  Caleb.  This  youth  inherited 
the  prerogatives  of  the  family,  and  in  time 
became  head  of  the  house  and  a  chief  of 
Judah.  Jephunneh  the  Kenizzite  took  a 
second  wife,  by  whom  he  had  Othniel  and 
Seraiah.  Hence  they  are  called  sons  of  Kenez 
or  Kenizzites,  and  are  enrolled  loosely  with 
the  tribe  of  Judah,  and  reckoned  like  Je- 
phunneh as  Kenizzites. 

Ca'leb-eph'ra-tliah,  in  A.V.  Caleb-eph'ra- 
tah. 

The  community  formed  by  the  descendants 
of  Caleb  and  his  wife  Ephrath  (1  Chron.  ii. 
19,  24).  The  Septuagint  had  a  slightly  differ- 
ent text.  If  the  present  Hebrew  text  is  cor- 
rect, and  the  genealogy  is  here  dealing  strictly 
with  persons,  then  Hezron,  the  father  of 
Caleb,  late  in  life  married  a  grand-daughter 
of  Manasseh.  Their  descendants  were  after- 
wards reckoned  through  the  ancestress  with 
the  tribe  of  Manasseh,  but  in  this  register 
they  are  included  with  Hezron's  descendants 
through  Caleb  and  Ephrath.  In  this  con- 
nection it  is  recorded  that  Hezron  died  in 
Caleb-ephrathah  ;  that  is,  either  in  that  part 
of  Goshen  where  the  branch  of  his  family 
known  as  Calel)-epbrath  resided,  or  in  Pal- 
estine, whither  Caleb  had  gone  back  from 
Egypt. 

Calf. 

A  young  bull  or  cow.  Bos  taurus.  Calves 
were  killcnl  for  food  (Gen.  xviii.  7)  and  for 
Siicrifice  ( Heb.  ix.  12,  19).  Aaron  made  a 
golden  calf  that  tlu^  peojile  might  worship 
Jehovah  under  this  form  (Ex.  xxxii.  1).  He 
seems  to  have  borrowed  the  idea  from  the 
calf  worship  of  Egypt,  where  the  Israelites 
had  often  seen  the  inhabitants  adore  the  bull 
Ajiis.  On  the  division  of  the  kingdom  Jero- 
boam instituted  the  calf  worship  anew,  set- 
ting up  two  calves,  one  at  Hethel  and  one  at 
Dau  (1  Kin.  xii.  29).     He,  too,  had  seen  the 


Ajiis  worshijied  in  Egyi)t  while  he  was  a 
refugee  at  the  court  of  Shishak  (1  Kin.  xi. 
40).  but   he  was  infliieni'cd   tnoi-e  bv  the  de- 


Image  of  Apis,  the  Sacred  Bull  of  Egypt. 

sire  to  adhere  to  ancient  traditions,  for  in 
recommending  the  calves  he  quoted  the  words 
of  Ex.  xxxii.  4. 

Cal'neli. 

A  city  of  Babylonia,  belonging  to  the  king- 
dom of  Nimrod  (Gen.  x.  10).  A  town  of  this 
name  is  also  mentioned  by  Amos  (Amos  vi.  2). 
Not  identified.  Jerusalem  Talmud,  Eusebius, 
Jerome,  indicate  Ctesiphon  east  of  the  Tigris. 
Friedrich  Delitzsch  has  suggested  Kulunu. 

Cal'no. 

A  city,  probably  in  northern  Syria,  which 
the  Assyrians  cited  as  an  example  of  the 
futility  of  offering  resistance  to  Assyria  (Is. 
X.  9). 

Cal'va-ry  [skull]. 

A  place  close  to  Jerusalem,  but  outside  the 
city  walls,  where  Christ  was  crucified,  and  in 
the  vicinity  of  which  he  was  buried  (Mat. 
xxviii.  11;  John  xix.  IT,  20,  41:  Heb.  xiii. 
11-13).  It  appears  to  have  been  a  conspicu- 
ous spot  (Mark  xv.  40;  Luke  xxiii.  49),  and 
was  perhaps  near  a  highway  (Mat.  xxvii.  39). 
The  name  is  derived  from  the  Latin  ailruria, 
more  rarely  calcarinin,  a  skull  (Luke  xxiii. 
33),  corresponding  to  the  Aramaic  (iolgotha 
(Mat.  xxvii.  33 ;  Mark  xv.  22 ;  John  xix.  17, 
41).  Jerome  supi>osed  that  tlie  name  arose 
from  uncovered  or  unburied  skulls;  others 
have  thought  rather  of  a  jilaee  of  execution. 
The  common  exiilanation  is  that  the  name 
was  due  to  the  cranial  slnqie  of  the  rock  or 
hillock,  although  the  expression  mount  Cal- 
vary is  modern. 

The  (|uestion  of  the  site  of  the  crucifixion 
is  involved  with  that  of  the  location  of  the 
sepulcher.  The  theory  advanced  by  Fergus- 
son,  that  the  tomb  was  in  the  rock  under  the 
dome  of  the  Mi)S(|Ue  of  Omar,  has  not  ob- 
tained favor.  Two  sites  contend  for  aecejit- 
ance:  1.  The  church  of  the  Holy  .Seimlcher, 
within  the  walls  of  the  modern  city.  2.  The 
hill  in  which  is  Jeremiah's  grotto,  about  250 


Camel 


105 


Camp 


yards  northeast  of  the  Damascus  tmt'i.  The 
ohunli  of  the  Holy  Scpiilchor  has  aiuiciit 
tradition  in  its  favor.  Eusebiiis,  horn  iu 
t'ii-saria  alioiit  A.  D.  "JtM,  is  tia-  i-arlicst  his- 
torian who  •iivcs  any  inlunnation  on  the  snli- 
jeet.  He  states  tlial  impious  men  had  cov- 
ered the  sejiulcher  witli  earth  and  l)iiilt  a 
temjile  to  tiie  t;o(Uless  Venus  over  it.  and  that 
the  phice  liad  louj;  lieen  jiiven  over  to  foru'et- 
fuhiess  and  ol)livion.  Constantine  erected  a 
church  wliere  the  temple  of  N'enus  stood,  and 
the  site  i>f  Constantine's  biiihlinn  is  occupied 
by  tlie  present  church  <if  tiie  Holy  .S-pulciier. 
Is  this  church  on  uround  that  was  outside  the 
second  wail?  This  (juestion  can  be  decided 
only  by  costly  excavation  to  delermiuu  the 
course  of  the  second  wall. 

The  theory  that  the  hill  above  Jeremiah's 
jjrolto  marks  the  site  of  Calvary  is  at  present 
in  the  ascendant.  It  was  sujrjiested  by  i)Ut> 
Thenius  some  thirty  or  forty  years  a}io,  and 
has  been  adopted  or  indejieiulenlly  reached 
by  other  scholars,  and  jrreatly  elaborated. 
This  location  unquestionably  satisfies  all  the 
conditions  of  the  lU'oblem.  The  hill  in  which 
is  Jeremiah's  ^rrotto  admittedly  rises  beyond 
the  course  of  the  second  wall.  The  rounded 
summit  of  the  hill,  and  the  two  hollow  cave 
entrances  beneath,  jiresent  a  striking  resem- 
blance to  a  skull,  perhaps  that  of  an  animal 
rather  than  a  man.  Its  commanding  i)osition 
rentiers  it  visible  from  a  distance.  Near  it 
was  the  great  highway  to  the  north.  In  the 
neighborhood  are  gardens  and  rock-hewn 
tombs. 

Cam'el  [borrowed  from  Semitic  finmnl]. 

The  one-humiied  camel,  which  runs  into 
two  well  marked  varieties,  the  camel  proji- 
erly  so  called,  which  is  a  slow-going  draught 
animal  ("J  Kin.  viii.  Jii.  aiul  the  dromedary, 
which  is  swift  of  foot  (cp.  Is.  Ixvi.  •,'(!.  margin 
of  K.  V.I.  The  two-humiied  Bactrian  camel 
may  be  referred  to  in  Tobit  ix.  :i.  The  camel 
has  been  called  the  shij)  of  the  desert,  and 
its  whole  organization   tits  it  to  cross  sandy 


cloven  hoof,  the  foot  is  enveloj)ed  in  a  hard- 
ened .skin,  enclosing  the  cusliion-like  soh-.s, 
which  can  be  sjiread  out  sidewise  so  as  to 
ailapt  it  to  walk,  willioul  sinking  deeply,  over 
soft  and  yielding  sand.  Another  ada]itation 
is  tliat  in  the  walls  of  the  paunch  or  lirst 
stomach  there  are  two  collections  of  water 
cells  on  which  the  animal  can  draw  when  no 
other  water  is  iirocurable.  Vet  anolheradapta- 
tion  is  its  ability  to  sub>isl  on  the  ])oorest 
food.  Even  the  huniii  is  anotlu-r  adaptation. 
It  is  a  storehouse  of  food,  and  becomes  larger 
or  smaller  according  as  the  animal  is  in  good 
or  in  bad  condition.  The  camel  is  stui>i(l,  ill- 
tem]>ered.  and  sometimes  vindictive;  but  its 
passive  obedience  and  power  of  endurance 
render  it  very  valuable.  It  is  not  now  any- 
where found  wild,  nor  has  it  been  known 
wild  in  historical  times.  Abraham  and  Jacob 
had  camels  (Gen.  xii.  l(i ;  xxx.  4;i).  and  so 
had  later  non)ads  in  the  south  of  Palestine 
(1  Sam.  xxvii.  9  ;  "J  Chron.  xiv.  l.'i).  The  Ish- 
maelites  wiio  l)ouglit  .Iosei)h  also  had  camels 
(Gen.  xx.wii.  25).  The  camel  was  not,  how- 
ever, so  much  at  home  in  Palestine,  which  is  a 
hilly  country,  as  in  the  Aral)ian  and  the  Afri- 
can desert-s  (Ex.  ix.:j;  Judg.  vi. .") :  1  Kin.x.2; 
1  Ihron.  V.  lb-21).  But  it  is  still  bred  abund- 
antly on  the  plains  of  Moab  and  in  the  south 
of  Juda'a.  The  milk  was  used  (cp.  Gen. 
xxxii.  l.")i,  but  the  animal  was  ceremonially 
unclean  (Lev.  .xi.  4).  From  its  hair  a  coarse 
cloth  was  woven,  which  was  sometimes  made 
into  clothing  (Mat.  iii.  4)  and  used  for  tents. 
The  burden  was  borne  on  the  hump  (Is.  xxx. 
(J).  When  the  camel  is  ridden,  a  saddle  is 
commonly  used,  and  sometimes  a  palaiaiuin 
(cp.  Gen.  xxxi.  '.'A).  The  Arabs  commonly 
deck  their  camels'  necks  with  ornaments  (cp. 
Judg.  viii.  21,  26). 
Ca'mon.     See  K.vmon. 

Camp. 

The  station  of  an  army  or  other  hody  of  peo- 
ple, where  temjiorary  structures  are  erected 
for  their  acconnnodation  (Ex.  xiv.  Ill;  1  .^im. 
iv.  .5;  xvii.  4;  2  Kin.  vii.  7).  Strict  regula- 
tions were  i>rescribed  for  the  army  of  Isniel 
in  order  to  secure  cleanliness  in  their  camj) 

Camp  of  Dan 

in7lud,n„ 


Camp 
Ephritim     5 

£phru,m.' 

Bvnjamtn 


oi^ 


Camf> 
Judah 

Issacbar. 
Zriu/cJl 


Camp  ofKeubcn 

fdtvben,  Sunion.GtMd. 


wastes.  It  is  a  ruminating  animal,  but  be- 
longs to  that  abernint  jiortion  of  tiie  Knmi- 
iiiiiilid    in   which,    in    place  of   the    ordinary 


(Deut.  xxiii.  St-14).  The  arrangement  of  the 
cami>  of  the  migrating  Hebrew  nation,  which 
was  ad<ipted  for  the  journey  through  the 
wilderness,  is  de.scribed  in  Num.  i.  47-ii.  :{4  ; 
iii.   14-:i!»  ;    cp.   x.   11 -2S,  and  see  Shittim. 


Camphire 


106 


Canaan 


It  was,  of  course,  absolutely  repular  only 
■H-lieii  tlif  iifuiilc  were  eiicaiiiijed  on  a  broad, 
level  jilaiu.  For  the  encampments  of  Israel 
during  the  journey  tlmtugh  the  wilderness, 

see  WlI-DKKNKSS  OF  THK  VVANDEKING. 

Cam'pMre  [ohl  form  of  English  Camphor; 
Greek  l:(ij)hoHr<i.  Arabic  kafiir;  ail  from 
Malay  Luptir,  chalk]. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  word  Kopher 
in  Song  1.  1-4;  iv.  13.  The  K.  V.  renders  it 
lienna. 

Ca'na  [place  of  reeds]. 

A  village,  more  fully  named  Caua  of  Gali- 
lee, the  scene  of  our  Lord's  first  recorded 
miracle,  the  transformation  of  water  into 
wine  (John  ii.  1,  11 ;  iv.  46).  Nathanael  the 
apostle  was  of  Cana  (xxi.  2).  Possibly  the 
words  "  of  Galilee  "  are  added  to  this  Caua  to 
•distinguish  it  from  another  in  Ccelesyria 
(Antiq.  XV.  5,  1).  Josephus  also  mentions 
Cana  of  Galilee  (Life  16,  71).  The  tradi- 
tional site  of  the  N.  T.  Cana  is  at  Kefr  Kenna, 
a  village  about  3?  miles  northeast  of  Nazareth, 
ou  the  road  to  Tiberias.  Eobinson  advocated 
the  view,  held  by  some  inquirers  in  the 
Crusading  period,  that  Cana  of  Galilee  was 
at  Kaua-el-Jelil,  which  is  the  old  name 
scarcely  changed,  about  8  miles  north  by 
east  of  Nazareth.  It  is  a  misei'able  village 
on  a  nearly  isolated  hill,  but  has  many  an- 
cient cisterns  in  its  vicinity.  The  Palestine 
explorers,  who  call  the  place  Khurbet  Kana, 
revert  t(j  the  traditional  view. 

Ca'naan,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  twice  Cha'naan 
[low,  lowland]. 

1.  Son  of  Ham  and  grandson  of  Noah ;  or 
better,  the  desceudants  of  Ham  who  occupied 
Canaan  and  took  their  name  from  that  coun- 
try, and  in  whom  the  low  traits  manifested  by 
their  ])r<)genitor  were  strongly  marked  (Gen. 
X.  6. 15  ;  Hos.  xii.  7,  margin).  The  continuance 
of  Ham's  character  in  a  branch  of  his  descend- 
ants bad  been  prophesied  by  Noah,  and  the 
■consequence  of  yielding  to  the  bestial  im- 
pulses had  been  foi-etold  (Gen.  ix.  18-27).  In 
this  passage  the  progenitor  of  the  Canaanites 
is  called  Canaan  proleptically  by  a  late  trans- 
mitter of  the  venerable  prophecy.  Wishing 
to  indicate  the  forefather  of  the  Canaanites 
among  the  sons  of  Ham,  the  narrator  gives 
to  their  ancestor  the  name  borne  by  his  de- 
scendants, and  by  which  he  had  come  to  be 
familiarly  known,  irrespective  of  the  ques- 
tion whether  it  was  his  personal  name  or  not. 

2.  A  name  probably  given  at  first  only  to 
the  low-lying  coast  line  of  Palestine  to  dis- 
tinguish it  from  the  neighboring  hill  country 
(Num.  xiii.  2!);  Josh.  xi.  3).  Afterwards  the 
name  Canaan  was  extended  first  to  the  Jor- 
dan valley,  and  then  to  the  whole  of  Pales- 
tine west  of  the  river,  and  became  one  of  the 
most  common  designations  of  the  country  in- 
habited by  the  Helirews.  though  what  they 
occupied  was  really  the  highland  portion  of 
Palestine  and  the  Jordan  valley,  with  little 
of  the  coast  line  (Gen.  xi.  31 ;  Num.  xiii.  ■2). 


The  language  of  Canaan  after  the  conquest 
of  the  country  by  the  Israelites  was  Hebrew, 
the  speech  irf  the  pe(ji)le  of  God  (Is.  xix.  18.). 

The  Hebrews  conquered  Canaan  under  tlie 
leadership  (if  .fosliua  after  I  he  death  of  .Moses. 
The  plan  of  the  canijiaign  included  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  fixed  camp  at  (nilgai.  The  site 
was  on  the  east  of  Jericho,  in  the  plain  (Josli. 
iv.  lit;  V.  10).  From  it  tlie  Israelites  iieiit  up 
to  Ai  and  Gibeon  ( vii.  3  :  viii.  1,  3  ;  x. !)).  The 
advantages  of  this  location  for  the  canqi  of 
Israel  were  great.  At  Gilgal  Joshua  had  no 
enemies  in  his  rear,  bad  water  in  abundance 
for  the  i)eople,  could  draw  supplies  fro!n  the 
two  tribes  and  a  half  which  had  settled  in 
the  country  east  of  the  .Ionian,  and  had  a 
safe  place  for  hoarding  simil.  The  charac- 
teristic objects  in  this  camp  were  the  taber- 
nacle (Josh.  vi.24;cp.  ix.23;xviii.  1 ;  xxii.  19) ; 
the  ark  (iii.  17;  vi.  11,  etc.  ;  vii.  6) ;  the  altar 
(ix.  27  ;  cp.  xxii.  19,  28,  29) ;  Eleazar  the  priest 
(xiv.  1 ;  cp.  6),  besides  other  priests  (vi.  6.  12, 
etc. ;  viii.  33) ;  twelve  stones  which  had  been 
taken  out  of  the  bed  of  the  Jordan  and  set 
up  as  a  memorial  of  the  passage  of  the  river 
(iv.  20).  Joshua's  plan  further  included  a 
preliminary  canijiaign  for  the  overthrow  of 
the  enemies  which  threatened  the  camp.  He 
took  Jericho,  the  outpost  of  Canaan,  the  mis- 
tress of  the  valley.  Then  he  marched  into 
the  mountain,  directly  to  the  west,  and  over- 
threw Ai.  This  town  lay  at  the  head  of  the 
valley  which  emerged  o])posite  Gilgal,  and 
from  it  troops  might  be  poured  down  against 
the  camp.  After  this  preliminary  campaign 
he  fulfilled  the  injunction  of  Moses  to  erect 
an  altar  on  Ebal  (Josh.  viii.  30-35 ;  Deut. 
xxvii.).  According  to  Josephus,  this  solem- 
nity was  performed  after  the  conquest  of  the 
entire  countrj'  (Antiq.  v.  1,  19).  At  this 
juncture  ambassadors  from  the  town  of 
Gibeon  ai)iteared,  with  whom  Joshua  made  a 
treaty  without  asking  counsel  of  the  Lord. 
It  was  an  unfortunate  step,  as  will  be  shown 
presently.  Having  obtained  secure  foothold 
in  the  country,  Joshua  proceeded  to  conquer 
Canaan  in  two  campaigns.  The  alliance  of 
the  five  kings  determined  the  southern  expe- 
dition (Josh.  X.).  The  king  of  Jerusalem 
summoned  the  kings  of  Hebron,  I.,achish, 
Eglon,  and  .Tarmuth  to  war  against  (libeon  ; 
and  Joshua  was  obliged  to  help  those  with 
whom  he  was  in  treaty.  The  five  kiiigs  were 
routed,  and  fied  down  the  jiass  of  Beth-boron. 
Following  up  the  victory.  JiKsbua  cajjtured 
Makkedah,  in  or  hard  by  the  maritime  plain, 
and  iiitched  a  temporary  camp  there  :  took 
Libnah,  which  was  likewise  in  the  plain; 
Lachish,  where  the  king  of  Gezer  also  was 
defeated  ;  Eglon.  where  another  temiiorary 
camp  was  fixed  ;  and  Hebron.  From  Hebron 
he  turned  and  smote  Debir,  in  the  hill  coun- 
try. Thus  the  entire  region  included  be- 
tween Gibeon,  Gaza,  and  Kadesh-barnea  was 
smitten,  and  Joshua  returned  to  (Tilgal. 

It  was  during  this  campaign   that  Joshua 
bade  the  sun  to  stand  still.     This  event  oc- 


Canaan 


107 


Canaan 


currt'd  during  a  miracle  period  ;  see  Miracle. 

It  followed  tiie  iiiinu'le  of  the  Jordan  allow- 
iuK  a  iias.sa}<e  for  tlie  Israelites.  IJiit  it  is  cited 
from  the  iiook  of  Jasliar,  wliich  coMtaiucd 
poems  a('ciiiii|ianied  l)y  reinarks  in  pro.se.  If 
X.  1"J-1.'>  are  (jiioti'd  from  tliis  hook,  the  (iiie.s- 
tion  arises  whether  the  passage  should  not  he 
interpreted  on  tlu^  i)rinciples  of  poi'trv,  and 
undi'rstoixl  to  mean  that  Josluia  ajiostro- 
l)hi/.ed  the  sun  and  moon  for  their  ell'ict 
upon  the  army,  not  to  work  a  miracli',  antl 
that  before  the  lijiiit  of  day  failed  the  i)eople 
liad  avenjied  themselves  of  their  enemies. 

llavinj;  con{|Uered  the  central  re;;ion  and 
tlif  south,  .loshua  (Utermined  as  a  matter  of 
<xpc(liency,  or  under  com  pulsion  of  the  north- 
trn  confederacy,  to  neglect  tiie  inconsidera- 
hh-  towns  on  the  coast  north  of  the  Philistine 
country,  and  to  strike  at  the  poi>ulous  and 
powerful  nortli  (Josh.  xi.).  With  this  end  in 
view,  he  undertook  a  northern  campaign. 
The  king  of  Uazor  was  head  of  a  coufed- 
•eracy  of  petty  monarchs.  and  on  hearing  of 
the  Israelitish  victories  in  the  south  he  sum- 
moned tiie  remaining  kings  of  the  country 
to  a  united  attem])t  to  crush  Josluia.  The 
allied  armies  met  at  the  waters  of  Mcrom. 
Jo.shua  had  reached  the  same  neighborhood, 
and  he  attacked  them.  He  routed  them.jjur- 
sued  the  fugitives  as  far  as  Sidon  toward  the 
northwest  and  eastward  to  iSIi/.pch.  He  then 
returned,  and  cajitured  and  destroyed  the 
town  of  Ila/orand  the  cajiitals  of  the  other 
petty  kingdoms  which  had  been  in  alliance. 
By  these  campaigns  the  power  of  the  Canaan- 
ites  to  resist  was  l)roken.  In  xi.  l(i-xii.  24  a 
summary  of  the  conciuest  is  given. 

The  time  occupied  in  the  con(juest  of  Ca- 
naan was  long,  because  not  a  city  made  jieace 
with  Israel  save  the  five  cities  of  the  Gibeon- 
itcs  (xi.  IS.  1!»).  It  may  be  calculated  with  a 
•considerable  degree  of  accuracy.  l''rom  the 
sending  fortii  of  the  spies  in  the  sec<iiid  year 
(cp.  Num.  X.  11  ;  xiii.  20;  Deut.  i.  2)  to  the 
time  of  assigning  the  recoiuiuest  of  Hebron 
to  Caleb  when  tlie  land  was  al)out  to  b(^  dis- 
tributed was  f.Iosh.  xiv.  7,  10)  l.">  years:  from 
the  sending  forth  of  the  spies  to  the  crossing 
of  the  Zered  was  (Deut.  ii.  14)  :^^f  years; 
leaving  for  the  coiKiucst  of  the  country,  both 
east  and  west  of  the.Iordan.  about*) or 7 years. 
From  this  is  to  be  deducted  the  time  con- 
sumed in  the  coiKiiiest  of  tlie  eastern  coun- 
try and  by  the  events  at  Siiittim.  The  death 
<if  .\aroii  (Num.  xxxiii.  '.if<)  occurred  in  the 
4(ttli  year,  .~>tli  month,  1st  day.  and  the  cross- 
ing oi"  .Ionian  (.bish.  iv.  l!l)  in  1st  month,  KItli 
<lay  ;  leaving  for  the  con(|Ucstof  the  country 
of  Silion  and  ()g,  and  for  the  events  at  Siiit- 
tim, nearly  K  mouths,  it  days,  of  which  period 
the  events  at  .Sjiittim  occujiied  about  two 
months  (cp.  Deut.  i.  ."{.  4.  witii  Josh.  iv.  19; 
Deut.  xx.xiv.  S;  Jo.sh.  ii.  22,  etc.  ;  Ant.  iv.  H, 
4!i  and  iv.  H,  1),  leaving  for  the  comiiiest  of 
wi'stern  Palestine  .'j  or  (i  years.  Josephus  as- 
signs ."»  years  to  this  comiuest  (Antiq.  v.  1, 19). 

Three  political   blunders  were  committed 


by  Joshua  :  his  making  a  treaty  with  the 
(iibeonites;  allowing  the  Jebusites  to  hold 
Jerusalem;  and  failure  to  dispossess  the 
Philistines  and  control  the  country  to  the 
sea.  A  study  of  the  map  will  show  that,  as 
a  result  of  these  mistakes,  Judah  and  Simeon 
were  isolated  from  the  rest  of  the  nation. 
The  main  road  from  Judah  to  the  north  was 
commanded  by  the  .leliusite  stroiigliold  at 
.Ii'rusalcm,  and  was  skirted  for  10  miles  on 
the  west  by  the  settlements  of  the  (iibeonites. 
Between  Jerusalem  and  Jericho  on  the  east 
was  a  tract  of  wild,  rocky,  uninhabited  moun- 
tain land  crossed  east  and  west  by  impas.salile 
gorges.  From  .leriisalem  to  the  Mediterranean 
Sea  a  strip  of  country  stritcJied,  which  was 
occujiied  by  foreigners  :  lirst  (iibeonites,  next 
Canaanites  in  Dan,  then  Philistines  as  far  as 
the  sea.  The  coiiseciiieiices  of  tills  isolation 
of  Judah  and  Simeon  were  serious,  distinctly 
allecting  the  course  of  history  in  the  years 
that  followed. 

Was  the  extermination  of  the  Canaanites 
by  tlie  Israelites  a  justifiable  act?  The  mere 
matter  of  their  dispossessing  the  ( 'anaanites 
presents  no  moral  ditlicullics.  This  procedure 
accorded  with  the  spirit  of  the  age.  The  Is- 
raeliti's  doubtless  had  as  much  right  to  Ca- 
naan as  bad  the  inhabitants  whom  they  drove 
out.  They  desjioiled  despoilers.  Nor  does 
the  manner  of  warfare  present  moral  diffi- 
culties, for  the  conduct  of  the  Hebrews  in 
war  comjiarcs  favorably  with  the  practices 
of  the  time.  Judged  by  the  staiwlards  of 
their  own  age,  they  were  not  bloodthirsty  or 
cruel.  The  Assyrians  ha  VI' iiictured  their  own 
wars.  It  was  not  infreijiu'iit  for  them  to  de- 
cajiitate  the  inhaliitants  of  capturi'd  cities, 
and  jiile  the  heads  in  heaiis;  to  crucify  or 
impale  jirisoners,  pierce  their  eyeballs  with  a 
sjiear,  or  flay  them  alivi'.  In  the  battles  of 
Israel  with  the  Canaanites  there  is  record  of 
death,  but  not  of  torture.  The  moral  dilH- 
eulty  connected  with  the  extermination  of 
tlie  Canaanites  is  that  (lod  commanded  it. 
(iod's  character  is  involved.  But  it  is  to  be 
remembered  that  (bid  ha<l  a  twofold  end  in 
view  in  the  utter  extermination  by  death  and 
expulsion  which  he  c<muuanded.  It  was 
jiunitivo  (tieii.  xv.  Ifi;  Lev.  xviii.  2.^ ;  Deut. 
ix.  'A,  4;  xviii.  12)  and  jireventive  (Ex.  xxiii. 
:U-.T5;  xxxiv.  12  Ki,  Deut.  vii.  2-4).  It  was 
to  iiunish  the  Canaanites  for  their  outrageous 
wickedness,  and  to  i»revent  them  from  con- 
taminating the  people  of  (lod.  It  is  not  as- 
serted that  the  Canaanites  weresinners  above 
all  men  that  ever  lived.  Their  iiersuiial  morals 
were  i>erha|is  not  worse  than  those  of  otlier 
licathen  as  described  in  Honi.  i.  The  Canaan- 
ites were  idolaters,  they  indulged  in  shame- 
ful and  abominalile  vice,  they  went  beyond 
otlu>r  nations  in  lu'acticing  human  sacritice. 
It  is  ajiiiointed  unto  all  men  to  die.  (bid 
holds  nations  as  well  as  individuals  resjionsi- 
l)le,  and  deals  with  them  accordingly.  He 
doomed  the  nations  of  Canaan  to  extermina- 
tion as  a  punishment  for  their  wickedness. 


Canaan 


108 


Canaanite 


and  to  prevent  them  from  scducins;  the  iie<>i)le 
of  (lod.  He  had  extormiiiatetl  tlic  wicked 
race  of  men  in  tlie  (hiys  of  Noali  by  tiie 
Hood  :  he  had  s\vei)t  away  the  ini(iiiitoiis 
cities  of  tlie  i)lain  t)y  an  eniiition,  it  wouhl 
seem,  of  hurning  naphtha;  lie  had  over- 
thrown I'liaraoh  and  his  host  in  the  lied 
8ea  ;  he  had  destroyed  Korah  and  his  rebel- 
lious crew  by  an  eartlniuake  and  by  fire. 
Now,  instead  of  nsinj;  the  forces  of  nature  to 
effect  his  punitory  ends,  he  employed  the 
Israelites  as  the  ministers  of  his  justice;  as 
the  i>ublic  executioner,  employed  by  the  civil 
tribunal,  is  the  minister  of  human  justice. 
This  truth  was  taught  to  the  Israelites.  They 
were  informed  that  they  were  the  instru- 
ments of  divine  justice.  For  these  reasons 
the  extermination  of  the  Canaanites  by  the 
Israelites  was  just;  the  employment  of  the 
Israelites  for  the  purpose  was  right ;  and  in 
connection  with  the  righteous  judgment  was 
an  intention  to  benefit  the  world.  The  fail- 
ure of  the  Israelites  to  carry  out  God's  com- 
ma ud  fully  was  one  of  the  great  blunders 
which  they  committed,  as  well  as  a  sin,  and 
it  resulted  in  lasting  injury  to  the  nation. 

The  distribution  of  the  conquered  territory 
on  the  west  of  the  Jordan  was  made  partly  at 
Gilgal  and  partly  at  Shiloh,  whither  the  taber- 
nacle was  removed  (Josh.  xiv.  1,  2,  6-xviii.  1, 
2).  It  was  conducted  by  Eleazar  the  priest, 
Joshua,  and  ten  heads  of  fathers'  houses  (x  vii. 
4  ;  cp.  Num.  xxxiv.  17,  18),  and  was  made  by 
lot  (Josh,  xviii.  6).  The  law  to  govern  the  dis- 
tribution had  already  been  enacted  ;  namely, 
to  the  more  numerous  a  larger  inheritance, 
and  wheresoever  the  lot  falleth  to  any  man 
(Num.  xxvi.52-56 ;  xxxiii.  54).  The  rabbis  state 
that  two  urns  were  used  ;  in  one  were  placed 
tickets  with  the  names  of  the  tribes,  and  in 
the  other  were  tickets  with  the  names  of  the 
districts.  A  tril)e  was  drawn  and  the  district 
which  it  should  possess.  The  size  of  the  ter- 
ritory was  then  determined  by  the  populous- 
ne.ss  of  the  tribe.  Probably,  however,  the 
commission  selected  a  district  without  nar- 
rowly defining  its  boundaries,  and  merely  de- 
termined by  lot  what  tribe  should  possess  it; 
for — 1.  Compare  the  form  of  the  question  in 
Judg.  i.  1.  2.  This  theory  satisfies  Num. 
xxxiii.  54.  3.  Compare  Jo.sh.  xviii.  1-10, 
where  the  land  is  first  described  in  seven  por- 
tions, and  Joshua  then  cast  lots  for  the  tribes. 
4.  This  theory  also  satisfies  Josh.  xix.  1,  etc., 
where  it  is  stated  that  at  the  final  allot- 
ment the  second  lot  came  out  for  Simeon,  the 
third  for  Zebulun,  etc.  5.  The  districts  were 
assigned  for  occupation,  iu)t  as  though  de- 
termined by  lot,  but  in  regular  order,  build- 
ing up  the  nation  comjiactlyas  the  allotment 
l)roceeded,and  notlea])ing  hither  and  thither. 
6.  Much  was  evidently  left  to  the  discretion 
of  the  su]iervisors.  Caleb  nuist  have  Hebron 
wlutber  the  lot  of  the  main  body  of  the  tribe 
of  .ludah  allowed  them  to  .settle  in  that  neigh- 
borhood or  not.  Jacob's  last  wishes  would  be 
observed  so  far  as  the  lot  permitted   ((ieu. 


xlix.),  though  the  lot  did  not  permit  Zebuhiu 
to  po.sse.ss  the  seacoast,  but  his  possession  was 
doubtless  adjusted  as  nearly  as  possible  to  the 
patriarch's  desire.  Mistakes  were  nuide  and 
rectified.  Before  the  allotment  was  com- 
pleted— and  it  was  not  carried  out  in  a  day 
or  a  week — Judah  reported  that  it  had  lieeu 
granted  too  nnudi  territory.  The  surplus  was 
accordingly  added  to  the  undistributed  do- 
main. The  children  of  Joseph,  on  the  otiier 
hand,  informed  Joshua  that  they  had  re- 
ceived too  little  land,  and  they  asked  and  re- 
ceived more.  It  was  intended,  in  accordance 
with  Jacol)'s  wish,  that  Ephraini  and  Manas- 
seh  sliould  dwell  side  by  side ;  hence  the  lot 
was  not  cast  for  them  separately,  but  for  them 
unitedly  as  the  children  of  Jose|ih  (Josh.  xvi. 
1,  4).  In  this  manner  the  nation  was  com- 
pactly built  up,  the  territory  which  lay  near- 
est the  camp  being  distributed  first. 

1.  Southern  hill  coun-    To    Judah,  4th  son  of 

try.  Leali. 

2.  Central  hill  countrv.    Tr)  .Joseph,  firstborn  of 

Kachel. 

3.  Intervening         hill    To  Benjamin,  2d  son  of 

country.  Rachel. 

4.  Part  of  the  surplus    To  .Simeon,  2d  son  of 

of  the  southern  hill        Leah, 
country  which  Ju- 
dah gave  back. 
5,0.  Territory  bounding  ("To  Zebulon,  6th  son  of 
central  hill  country^     Leah, 
on  the  north.  iJTo  Issacbar,  5th  sou  of 

Leah. 

7.  Adjoining  seacoast.      To  Asher,   2d    son    of 

Leah's  maid. 

8.  Territory    north    of    To  Naphtali,  'Jd  son  of 

Issacbar  and  Zebu-        Kachel's  maid. 
Ion. 

9.  Remaining    part    of    To  Dan,  1st  son  of  Ka- 

Judah's  surplus.  ehel's  maid. 

Reuben,  firstborn  of  Leah,  Gad,  son  of 
Leah's  maid,  and  half  tribe  of  Manasseh, 
descendant  of  Rachel,  had  obtained  lands 
east  of  the  Jordan.  These  with  I^evi,  sou  of 
Leah,  did  not  participate  in  the  distribution. 

Ca'naan-ite. 

1.  An  inhal)itant  of  Canaan,  especially  one 
of  Hamitic  blood,  although  persons  and  tribes 
incorporated  with  the  descendants  of  Ham  in 
this  region  acquired  the  name.  According  as 
the  geographical  designation  Canaan  is  used 
in  its  broader  or  its  narrower  sense,  the  word 
Canaanite  has  a  broader  or  narrower  signifi- 
cation. In  the  narrow  sense,  the  Canaanites 
■were  the  people  of  the  coast  and  valleys 
(Gen.  XV.  21 ;  Josh.  ix.  1).  In  the  broad 
sense,  they  were  the  tribes  enumerated  in 
Gen.  X.  15-1'J.  The  Canaanites  were  doomed 
to  destruction  on  acc(nint  of  their  sins  (Deut. 
XX.  17).  But  the  Israelites  to  a  certain  I'X- 
tent  failed  to  carry  out  the  injunction.  They 
in  numy  cases  contented  themselves  wiih 
putting  the  Canaanite  inhabitants  to  tribute 
(Judg.  i.  27-l5(>).  Solomon  levied  on  them  a 
tribute  of  bondservice  ;  in  other  words,  made 
them  iH-rform  forced  labor  (1  Kin.  ix.  20.  21). 
The   Canaanites   eventually   devoted    them- 


Canaanitess 


109 


Cane 


selves  extonsh'ely  to  trade,  and  their  name 
hecaiiie  syiiimyiiions  witli  trader  (Is.  \.\iii.  N). 

2.  A  nieiiil)er  of  a  Jewish  palriolic  i>arty. 
See  ('an.\n.i:.vn. 

Ca'naan-i'tess. 

A  Woman  of  Canaan  (1  Chron.  ii.  'i). 

Ca-na-nae'an,  in  A.  \'.  Canaanite  [translit- 
oralioii  of  the  Aramaic  wonl  kiui'iiu,  y.eall. 

A  memherofa  Jewish  iiatriotic  party,  which 
was  also  known  l)y  liie  synonymous  (ireek 
name  Zealot  (q.  v.).  Simon  the  apostle  Ijore 
this  epithet  to  distinguish  him  from  Simon 
I'etcr  (Mat.  x.  4;  cp.  Luke  vi.  15,  K.  V.). 

Can'da-ce. 

A  nuein  of  Kthio])ia,  /.  c,  i)rol)ably  of 
Meroe,  in  southern  Nubia.  A  eunuch  of 
great  authority  at  her  court,  when  returning 
home  from  a  visit  to  Jerusalem,  wIumc  lie  had 
gone  to  worsliiji,  was  converted  to  ( 'iiri>tian- 
ity  through  the  instrumentality  of  Philip  the 
evangelist  (Acts  viii.  26-;iy).  '  Straho,  Dion 
(assiiis,  and  Pliny,  all  concur  in  stating  that 
Menu'  in  the  first  century  of  the  Christian 
era  was  governi'd  by  a  succession  of  queens, 
each  called  Candace. 

Candle.    See  L.vmp. 


solid  gold,  and  it  supported  seven  lamps.  It 
stoo<l  on  the  soiitli  side  of  the  sanctuary  (Ex. 
XXV.  :il-l(J;  xl.  -Jl;  Lev.  xxiv.  xi  li.  Pure 
olive  oil  was  used  in  the  lamps,  and  the  light 
burned  from  evening  to  morning  (Ex.  xxvii. 
20.  21  ;  XXX.  7,  b  ;  1  Sam.  iii.  '.'>).  According  to 
.loseiilius.  three  of  the  lamps  v.ere  allowed  to 
iinrn  by  day  (.\ntiq.  iii.s, :!).  This  continuous 
i)urning  ajijiarently  symbolized  the  uninter- 
rupted worship,  even  by  night,  and  the  unceas- 
ing emi.ssion  of  ligiit  by  the  peojih'  of  ( !od  (cp. 
Zech.  iv.).  For  the  tiniple  Solomon  made  ten 
candlesticks,  live  for  the  right  and  live  for  the 
left  of  the  oracle  (1  Kin.  vii.49;  2  Chron.  iv. 
7).  They  were  carried  away  to  Babylon  (Jer. 
Iii.  1!)).  Zerubl)al)el  returned  to  the  earlier  ar- 
rangement, and  had  but  a  single  candlestick  ; 
this  was  carried  off  by  Antiochus  Epiphaues 
(1  Mae.  i.  21).  Being  rejilaced  (iv.  49),  it  con- 
tinued till  the  capture  of  .Jenhsaleni  by  Titus, 
when  it  was  carried  off  to  Konie,  figured  in 
Titus"  triumph,  and  was  sculptured  on  bis 
arch  (War  vii.  5,  5). 

Cane  [from  Hebrew  kaneh,  a  reed]. 
The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  word  Knueh 
in  Is.  xliii.  24  and  Jer.  vi.  20.     In  both  places 


The  Peven-brnnched  Candlestick  of  Herod's  Temple.    (Prom  the  Arch  of  Titus.) 


Can'dle-stick. 

A  stand  for  a  candle.  That  in  the  taber- 
nacle was  for  lami)s.  It  consisted  of  a  base 
and  a  shaft  with  six  branches,  beaten  out  of 


on  the  margin  of  the  R.  V.  it  is  rendered 
calamus,  and  so  it  is  elsewhere  translated  in 
both  versions,  where  a  s]H>cilic  odorous  cane 
is  intended. 


Caukerworm 


110 


Canon 


Can'ker-worm. 

TIk'  niuli  riiiL;  of  the  Hebrew  Yelek  in  Joel 
ami  Nuhuiii,  and  also  in  K.  V.  of  Ps.  cv.  M 
and  Jer.  li.  '^7.  In  the  two  latter  passages  A. 
V.  has  caterpillar.  It  is  a  winged  insect  (Nah. 
iii.  ](>.  K.  v.),  rough  (Jer.  li.  27),  and  very  de- 
structive to  growing  crops.  As  it  is  men- 
tioned with  tlie  typical  locust  (Joel  i.  4  ;  Nah. 
iii.  15),  which  it  resembles  also  iu  the  num- 
bers in  which  it  api)ears  (Joel  ii.  2o),  it  is  prob- 
ably a  locust  of  some  species  or  iu  some  stage 
of  develojimeut. 

Can'neh. 

A  ])lace.  evidently  in  Mesojxjtamia,  per- 
haps the  same  as  Calneh  (Ezek.  xxvii.  23). 

Can'on  [reed,  cane]. 

The  meaning  of  the  word  was  extended  to 
denote  :  (1)  any  straight  rod  or  bar,  such  as  a 
rod  or  level  used  by  masons  in  building ;  (2) 
figuratively,  anything  which  .serves  to  regu- 
late or  determine  other  things,  especially 
classical  books  ;  a  guide  or  model  (Gal.  vi. 
16  ;  Phil.  iii.  16)  ;  (3)  a  type  of  Christian  doc- 
trine, the  orthodox  as  opposed  to  the  hetero- 
dox ;  (4)  the  Scriptures  viewed  as  a  rule  of 
faith  and  conduct.  The  word  is  Greek.  It 
was  first  used  in  this  fourth  sense  by  the 
early  fathers,  but  the  idea  denoted  was  an- 
cient. A  book  entitled  to  a  place  iu  the  Bible 
is  called  a  canonical  book,  one  not  so  entitled 
an  uncanonical  book,  and  the  title  itself 
canonicity. 

Thk  Old  Testament  Canox.  Authorita- 
tive literature  grew  up  by  degrees  and  was 
carefully  preserved.  The  ten  commandments, 
written  on  tables  of  stone,  were  deposited  iu 
the  ark  (Ex.  xl.  20).  The  book  of  the  law, 
written  by  Moses,  was  put  by  the  side  of  the 
ark  (Deut.  xxxi.  24-26).  Joshua  added  to 
the  collection  what  he  wrote  (Josh.  xxiv.  26). 
Samuel  wrote  the  manner  of  the  kingdom  in 
a  book,  and  laid  it  up  before  the  Lord  (1  Sam. 
X.  25).  In  the  days  of  Josiali  the  book  of  the 
law  of  the  Lord,  the  well  known  book,  was 
found  in  the  temple  and  recognized  by  king, 
priests,  prophets,  and  people,  as  authorita- 
tive and  ancient  (2  Kin.  xxii.  8-20).  Copies 
of  the  law  were  made  (Deut.  xvii.  18-20). 
Prophets  committed  their  words  to  writing 
(p.  (1.  Jer.  XXX  vi.  .32).  and  they  were  acquainted 
with  each  other's  writings  and  (juoted  them  as 
authority  (Is.  ii.  2-4  with  Mic.  iv.  1-3).  The 
law  and  the  words  of  the  i)rophets  were 
recognized  as  authoritative,  inspired  by  the 
Spirit  of  God,  and  jealously  guarded  by  Je- 
hovah (Zech.  i.  4  ;  vii.  7,  12). 

The  law  of  Moses,  C(miy)rising  the  five  books 
of  Moses,  circulated  as  a  distinct  portion  of 
the  sacred  literature  in  the  time  of  Ezra.  It 
was  in  Ezni's  hand  (Ezra  vii.  14),  and  he  was 
a  ready  scribe  in  it  (6,  11).  At  the  request 
of  the  peojile,  he  read  the  book  ])ublicly  to 
them  (Nell.  viii.  1,  ,'>,  8).  About  this  time  also, 
before  the  schism  between  tlie  Jews  and 
Samaritans  had  become  final,  the  Pentateuch 
was  taken  to  Samaria.     The  arrangement  of 


the  minor  prophets  into  a  group  of  twelve  is 
attested  l)y  .lesus,  son  of  Sirach,  as  in  vogue 
by  tlie  yeiir  20(1  H.  v.  (Ecchis.  xlix.  10|.  His 
language  further  suggests  the  great  grouji  of 
books — Jo.shua,  Judges,  Samuel,  Kings, Isaiah, 
Jeremiah.  Ezekiel,  and  the  Twelve  (xlvi.- 
xlix.)— which  constitute  the  second  division 
of  tiie  Hebrew  canon.  The  existi'ucc  of  the 
threefold  division  of  all  the  Scriptures  into 
"the  law,  the  prophets,  and  the  others  that 
have  followed  in  their  ste])s,"  or  "the  law, 
the  projjhets,  and  the  other  book.s,''  or,  "the 
law,  the  prophecies,  and  the  re.st  of  the 
books,"  is  attested  as  early  as  the  year  132 
B.  c,  and  the  existence  of  a  Greek  version 
of  them  at  the  same  time ;  for  the  grandson 
of  Jesus,  son  of  Sirach,  states  these  things 
(Ecclus.  prologue).  Eeference  is  made  iu  a 
passage  which  dates  from  about  100  B.  c.  to 
"the  sacred  books  which  are  now  in  our 
hands"  (1  Mac.  xii.  9).  Philo  Judseus,  who 
was  born  at  Alexandria  in  20  B.  c.  and  died 
there  in  the  reign  of  Claudius,  had  the  ])res- 
ent  canon,  and  quotes  from  nearly  all  the 
books  while  he  cites  nothing  from  the  Apoc- 
rypha. 

The  N.  T.  refers  to  "the  Scriptures'"  as 
a  body  of  authoritative  writings  (Mat.  xxi. 
42;  xxvi.  .56;  Mark  xiv.  49;  John  x.  35  ;  2 
Tim.  iii.  16),  as  holy  (Rom.  i.  2 ;  2  Tim.  iii. 
15),  and  as  the  oracles  of  God  (Rom.  iii.  2; 
Heb.  V.  12 ;  1  Pet.  iv.  11)  ;  mentions  a  three- 
fold divi-sion  into  "  the  law  of  Mo.ses,  and  the 
prophets,  and  the  psalms  "  (Luke  xxiv.  44);  and 
quotes  from  or  refers  to  all  the  books  except 
Obadiah  and  Nahum,  Ezra  and  Nehemiali, 
Esther,  Song  of  Songs,  and  Ecclesiastes.  Jo- 
sephus,  a  contemporary  of  the  apostle  Paul, 
writing  about  a.  d.  100,  and  speaking  for 
his  nation,  says:  "We  have  but  twenty- 
two  [books],  containing  the  history  of  all 
time,  books  that  are  justly  believed  in," 
or,  according  to  the  usual  reading,  "be- 
lieved to  be  divine,''  and  he  speaks  in  the 
strongest  terms  of  the  exclusive  authority 
of  these  writings,  continuing:  "From  the 
days  of  Artaxerxes  to  our  own  times  every 
event  has  indeed  been  recorded ;  but  these 
recent  records  have  not  been  deemed  worthy 
of  equal  credit  with  those  which  preceded 
them,  on  account  of  the  failure  of  the  exact 
succession  of  the  prophets.  There  is  practical 
proof  of  the  sjiirit  in  which  we  treat  our 
Scriptures;  for  although  so  great  an  interval 
of  time  has  now  ])assed,  not  a  soul  has  ven- 
tured either  to  add  or  to  remove  or  to  alter  a 
syllable,  and  it  is  the  instinct  of  every  Jew, 
from  the  day  of  his  birth,  to  consider  these 
Scrijitures  as  the  teaching  of  God,  and  to 
abide  by  them  and.  if  need  be,  cheerfully  to 
lay  down  his  life  in  their  behalf"  (against 
Apion,  i.  8).  Josephus  states  the  contents  of 
Scripture  under  three  heads:  (1)  "Five  be- 
long to  Moses,  which  contain  his  laws  and 
the  traditions  of  the  origin  of  mankind  till 
his  death."  (2)  "From  the  death  of  Moses 
to  Ai'taxerxes  the  prophets  who  were  after 


Canon 


HI 


Canon 


Moses  wrote  dowu  what  was  done  in  their 
time  in  thirteen  books."  Jiiseiihus  l"ollowed 
the  iirraujr«inent  of  the  Se]>tuaf.'int  iirohalily, 
ami  tlie  emnui-ratiuii  ofthe  AU'xandrians.  The 
liiirtecii  hiMiks  are  iiinlialily  .lushiia,  .IinlKes 
witii  iiiitli.  Saiimel.  Kin;;s,  ('liruiiicies,  Ezra 
with  Neheniiali,  Esther,  .Inl),  Daniel,  Isaiah, 
•h'reniiali  witli  Lamentations,  Ezekiel,  the 
Twelve  Elinor  I'roiihets.  t;5)  "The  remain- 
iu'fi  lour  hooks  contain  hymns  to  (iod  and 
lireeejits  for  the  conduct  of  lunnan  life." 
These  were  donhtless  I'siilms.  Song  of  Songs, 
I'roverhs,  Ecclesiastes. 

So  far  facts.  There  was  also  a  tradition 
current  that  the  caimn  was  arranged  in  the 
time  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah.  .losephus,  as 
already  cited,  e.xpresscs  the  universal  helief 
of  his  countrymen  that  no  books  liad  been 
added  since  the  time  of  Artaxerxes — that  is, 
since  the  time  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah.  An 
extravagant  legend  of  the  latter  part  of  the 
tirst  century  of  the  Christian  era  (2  Esd.  xiv.) 
grew  out  of  the  current  tradition  that  Ezra 
restored  the  law  and  even  the  entire  O.  T. 
(21,  22,  40).  of  which  the  temjile  cojiies  had 
been  lost.  It  attests  that  the  Jews  of  Pales- 
tine in  that  age  reckoned  the  canonical  books 
at  twenty-four  (24  -  70  =  94  :  vers.  44-4t),  R. 
v.).  A  jiassage  of  doubtful  date  and  authen- 
ticity, perhaps  penned  about  ItiO  b.  c.  (2  Mac. 
ii.  l."5i,  alludes  to  Nehemiah's  activity  in  con- 
nection with  the  second  and  third  ilivisions 
of  the  canon.  Irena-us  transmits  the  tradi- 
tion thus:  "After  the  sacred  writings  had 
been  destroyed  in  the  exile  under  Nebuchad- 
nezzar, when  the  .Tews  after  seventy  years 
had  returned  t(»  their  own  country,  Me  in  the 
days  of  Artaxerxes  insjiired  Ezra  the  priest, 
(if  the  tribe  of  Levi,  to  rearrange  all  the 
words  of  the  prophets  who  had  gone  before, 
ami  to  restore  to  the  iieipjile  the  legislation  of 
Moses."  Elias  Levita.  writing  in  l.^.'JS,  states 
the  belief  of  his  ]ieo]ile  in  lliis  wise:  "In 
Ezra's  time  the  twenty-four  botiks  were  not 
yet  united  in  a  single  volume.  Ezra  and  his 
associates  united  them  together  and  divided 
them  into  three  parts,  the  law,  the  projihets, 
and  the  hagioKrajiha."  This  tradition  con- 
tains truth.  Whether  it  can  be  aecejited  in 
every  jiarticular  de])ends  on  the  settlement 
ofthe  date  when  certain  books  were  written, 
such  as  Nehemiah  aii<l  (  hronii'les. 

The  Pentateuch  as  the  work  of  Moses,  and 
as  embodying  the  fundamental  law  of  the 
nation,  formed  one  division  of  the  canon,  and 
with  cliroiiolojiical  litness  occupied  the  first 
)ilace  in  the  collection.  To  thi'  second  di- 
vision books  written  by  the  projihets  were 
assigned,  as  the  name  and  largely  the  con- 
tents indicate.  The  books  were  eight  in  num- 
ber— Joshua.  Ju(lf;es,  .Samuel,  and  Kings, 
which  lame  to  be  known  as  the  former 
prophets,  and  Is;iiah,  Jereniiali,  Ezekiel,  and 
the  Twelve,  which  were  calleil  the  later 
prophets.  Eor  Joshua,  regarded  as  a  ])ro]ihet, 
see  Ecclus.  xlvi.  1.  The  nucleus  ofthe  third 
division  consisted   of  sections  of   the  books 


of  P.salms  and  Proverbs.  They  had  two 
chanicteristics — they  were  jioetry,  and  their 
authors  were  not  orticial  proi>hets.  Tliey  at- 
tracted to  themselves  all  other  similar  au- 
thoritative literature.  The  prayer  of  .Moses 
(Ps.  xc),  though  written  by  a  prophet,  was 
placed  in  this  division  of  Scripture  because 
it  is  poetry.  So,  too.  Lamentations,  though 
written  by  a  jirophet.  yet  being  poetry,  like- 
wise found  iilace  in  the  third  division  nf  the 
Hebrew  canon.  An  additional  reason  ex- 
isted for  separating  it  from  .Jeremiah.  It 
was  read  on  the  anniversary  of  the  destruc- 
tion of  both  temjiles.  and  hence  was  put  with 
four  other  short  books  which  were  read  ot» 
four  other  anniversarii's.  Song.  Wuth.  Ecde- 
sia.stes,  and  Esther.  They  constitute  the  five 
rolls  or  Megilh)th.  The  book  of  Daniel  was 
placed  here  because  written  by  a  man  who, 
although  gifted  with  prophecy,  was  not  by 
office  a  jirophet.  In  all  probability  Chroni- 
cles was  written,  not  by  a  i)rophet.  but  by  a 
priest ;  hence  it  belonged  in  the  third  di- 
vision of  the  canon.  The  mere  fact  of  its 
late  authorship  does  not  account  for  its  jilace 
in  this  division,  for  books  and  sections  of 
hooks  in  this  division  were  in  existence  be- 
fore Zechariah  and  Malaclii,  which  were  put 
in  the  second  division.  It  is  jiroper  to  add 
that  while  the  contents  of  the  several  di- 
visions of  the  canon  were  fixed,  the  order  of 
the  books  in  the  third  division  varied  from 
time  to  time  :  and  even  in  the  second  division 
the  Talmud  kiu'W  Isaiah  as  standing  between 
Ezekiel  and  the  Minor  Projihets.  This  oi'der 
ofthe  four  prophetical  books  i. Jeremiah,  Eze- 
kiel, Isaiah,  and  Minor  Proi)liets),  was  evi- 
dently determined  by  .size,  the  largest  being 
placed  first.  As  late  as  the  close  of  the  tirst 
century  .\.  d.,  the  right  of  several  books  of 
the  third  division  to  remain  in  the  canon  was 
discus.sed.  The  books  wi're  in  the  canon,  none 
questioned  that.  The  discussions  concerned 
the  contents  of  the  hooks  and  ditiiculties  in 
reconciling  them  with  other  books;  but  the 
debates  were  jirobably  mere  intellectual  dis- 
]>lays.  There  was  no  intention  of  removing 
any  book  from  the  canon,  but  rather  the  i)ur- 
pose  to  establish  its  right  to  the  place  it  al- 
ready oecujiied.  .1.  D.  D. 

Canon  of  tiik  Nkw  Tkstamknt.  The 
apostolic  church  received  from  the  Jewish 
the  belief  in  a  written  rule  of  faith.  Christ 
himself  confirmi'd  this  belief  liy  ai)pi'aling 
to  the  O.  T.  as  the  written  word  of  (iod  (r.  (j. 
Jolin  v.  :57-47  :  Mat.  v.  17.  IS  ;  Mark  xii.  86, 
.'57  ;  Luke  xvi.  TM),  and  by  instructing  his  dis- 
ciples out  of  it  (Luke  xxiv.  4"))  ;  andtheajtos- 
tles  habitually  refer  to  the  O.  T.  as  authori- 
tative (e.  n.  Rom.  iii.  2,  21  ;  1  Cor.  iv.  (i ;  Rom. 
XV.  4;  2  Tim.  iii.  1.V17:  2  Pet.  i.  21).  In 
the  next  place,  the  ai>ostles  claimed  for  their 
own  teaching,  oral  and  written,  like  aiithor- 
itv  with  the  <).  T.  (1  Cor.  ii.  7-13;  xiv.  37:  1 
T'he.s.s.  ii.  i:{;  Rev.  i.  3).  and  directed  the  juib- 
lic  reading  of  their  epistles  (1  Thess.  v.  27; 
Col.  iv.  K;,  17;  2  The-ss.  ii.  ir^;    2  Pet.  i.  15; 


Canon 


112 


Capernaum 


iii.  1,  2),  while  revelations,  jjiven  to  the 
church  throufih  insiiired  jiroiihets,  were  cou- 
sidered  to  form,  with  aiiostolic  iii.st ruction, 
the  foundation  of  the  church  lEi>h.  ii.  20). 
It  was  therefore  hoth  natural  and  rij;ht  that 
the  X.  T.  literature  should  he  addi-d  to  the 
Old.  and  thus  the  written  canon  of  faith  he 
enlarged.  In  the  N.  T.  itself  we  may  see 
this  beginuing  to  be  done  (I  Tim.  v.  18; 
2  Pet.  iii.  1,  2,  1(5),  and  in  the  generations 
which  followed  the  ajiostles,  the  writings 
which  were  known  t(j  have  apostolic  au- 
thority were  gradually  collected  into  the 
second  half  of  the  church's  canon,  and  final- 
ly called  the  New  Testament.  For,  from  the 
beginning,  the  proof  that  a  book  had  a  right 
to  a  place  in  the  canon  was  its  apoatoliciti/.  by 
which  was  meant  that  it  was  bequeathed  to 
the  church  with  apostolic  sanction,  having 
either  been  written  bj'  an  apostle  or  else 
guaranteed  by  one  as  authoritative.  This, 
as  we  have  said,  was  the  apostolic  doctrine ; 
and  evidence  is  abundant  that,  in  the  second 
and  third  centuries,  this  was  the  principle  ou 
which  the  N.  T.  collection  was  made.  The 
complete  collection,  however,  was  formed 
slowly  for  various  reasons.  At  first  certain 
hooks  were  known  only  iu  some  churches  to 
be  apostolic,  and  it  was  not  until  the  whole 
body  of  believers  throughout  the  Eoman  em- 
pire was  united  in  one  ecclesiastical  con- 
sciousness that  all  the  books,  which  in  the 
several  parts  of  the  church  were  known  to 
be  apostolic,  were  universally  accepted.  The 
process  of  collection  also  did  not  at  first  have 
the  incentive  which  it  afterwards  received 
through  the  rise  of  heresy  and  of  spurious 
writings  claiming  apostolic  authority.  But, 
while  the  process  of  collection  was  slow,  the 
books  which  in  any  church  were  accepted 
were  regarded  as  canonical  because  apostolic. 
The  teac^hing  of  the  apostles  was  the  rule  of 
faith.  Their  works  were  read  in  public  wor- 
ship. Early  in  the  second  century  we  find 
them  directly  called  Scripture  (Ep.  of  Poly- 
carp  12;  Ep.  of  Barnabas  4).  The  books  by 
Mark  and  Luke  were  received  because  stamp- 
ed with  the  authority  of  Peter  and  Paul. 
Even  commentaries  began  to  be  made  upon 
them,  and  their  statements  and  phraseology 
saturate  the  literature  of  the  post-apostolic 
age.  Then,  as  to  the  extent  and  rapidity 
with  which  the  collection  itself  was  made, 
the  following  facts  are  the  most  noteworthy. 
The  four  gospels  were  everywhere  received 
from  the  l)eginniug  of  the  second  century, 
while  2  Pet  iii.  1(>  shows  that  its  readers 
were  already  familiar  with  a  collection  of 
Paul's  epistles.  Very  early  we  find  the 
phrases  "gospel"  and  "apostles"  used  to  de- 
scribe the  two  parts  of  the  new  collection.  The 
evidence  of  the  canonicity  of  The  Acts  like- 
wise carries  us  back  to  the  fir.st  half  of  the 
second  century.  Some  books  indeed  were 
disputed  in  some  sections  of  the  church,  but 
this  only  shows  that  their  final  acci'ptance 
was  based  ou  sufficient  evidence.     Finally  it 


appears  that  the  Syrian  church  iu  the  second 
century  received  all  our  N.  T.  except  Rev., 
.lude,  2  Pet.,  2  and  Ii  John ;  the  Komau 
church,  all  except  Heb.,  Epp.  of  I'et.,  Jas., 
3  John;  the  North  African,  all  excejjt  Heb., 
2  Pet.,  and  perhaps  James.  These  collections, 
however,  only  contained  the  books  formally 
received  in  the  resjjective  churches,  and  do 
not  prove  that  no  other  apostolic  books  were 
known.  The  remainder  were  in  fact  univer- 
sall.v  accepted  in  the  course  of  the  third  cen- 
tury, though  <litference  of  opinion  existeil 
about  Some;  and,  when  the  age  of  councils 
came,  our  present  N.  T.  canon  appears  in  the 
lists  as  the  accepted  one.  In  the  fourth  cen- 
tury ten  fathers  and  two  councils  have  left 
lists  of  can(jni(al  b(joks.  Of  these  three  omit 
Kevelatiun,  against  which  prejudice  existed 
in  some  quarters,  though  earlier  testimony  to 
it  is  abundant.  The  rest  give  the  N.  T.  as 
we  have  it. 

In  view  of  these  facts  it  should  he  noted  : 
(1)  That  while  the  collection  of  the  N.  T.  into 
one  volume  was  slow,  the  belief  iu  a  written 
rule  of  faith  was  primitive  and  apostolic. 
The  history  of  the  formation  of  the  collec- 
tion should  not  be  thought  to  give  the  ri.se 
into  authority  of  a  written  rule  of  faith.  It 
only  shows  the  stages  by  which  the  books 
rightly  belonging  to  the  canon  were  recog- 
nized and  brought  together.  (2)  Diflcrences 
of  opinion  and  usage,  as  to  what  books  were 
canonical,  and  as  to  the  degree  of  certainty 
with  which  a  book  could  be  received,  appear 
in  the  writers  and  churches  even  of  the  sec- 
ond century.  This  fact,  however,  again  only 
marks  the  stages  by  which  the  evidence  for 
the  books  was  gradually  accepted  by  the 
church  as  a  whole,  and  the  carefulness  of 
the  primitive  Christians  in  receiving  hooks 
as  apostolic.  In  like  manner  the  occasional 
acceptance  of  spurious  writings  was  corrected 
in  due  time.  (3)  The  proof  on  which  ire 
should  accept  the  several  X.  T.  books  as 
canonical  is  historical  evidence.  As  to  this, 
the  judgment  of  the  early  church  that  our 
twenty-seven  books  are  apostolic  is  entitled 
to  acceptance  unless  it  can  be  proved  false. 
We  should  not,  however,  receive  them  merely 
l)ecause  ecclesiastical  councils  decreed  them 
canonical ;  nor,  ou  the  other  hand,  becau.se 
of  their  contents.  The  question  is  one  of 
historical  evidence  alone.  (4)  Finally,  we 
note  that  the  name  cditun  is  not  known  to 
have  l)een  applied  to  the  collection  of  sacred 
books  until  the  fourth  century.  But  while 
this  term,  now  universal,  was  not  at  first 
used,  the  thing  denoted  by  it — viz.  that  the 
sacred  boi>ks  were  the  rule  of  faith — was,  as 
we  have  seen,  an  ajKLStolic  doctrine. 

G.  T.  P. 

Can'ti-cles.     See  Soxg  of  Solomon. 

Ca-per'na-um  [village  of  Nahum  or  of 
consolation]. 

A  town  ou  the  northwestern  shore  of  the 
sea  of  Galilee,  near  or  on  the  boundary  be- 


Capernaum 


113 


Gapharsalama 


twcon  Zcl)iiliiii  and  Xaiilitali  (Mat.  iv.  13-16  ; 
(p.  lAikr  iv.  ."il  ;  .luliii  vi.  17.  ~'l).  At  an 
I'arly  luTiml  of  niir  LdhI's  uiiiiistry  bo  re- 
iiiovod  thither  IVoui  Nazareth,  and  so  con- 
tinually made  it  the  headiiuaiters  of  his 
itiiRTant  ministry  that  it  came  to  he  called 
his  own  city  (.Mat.  ix.  1;  c]).  .Mark  ii.  1). 
It  was  there  that  he  healed  the  centurion's 
jialsied  servant  (Mat.  viii.  5-1:$;  Luke  vii. 
1-101,  Peter's  wife's  mother  when  slic  was 
lirostrate  with  fever  (Mat.  viii.  14-17:  Mark 
i.  -'9-:31;  Luke  iv.  :W,  :«t).  one  of  the  do- 
moniaes  (Mark  i.  "Jl-'iS ;  Luke  iv.  ;il-:57), 
a  man  alHieted  hy  palsy  borne  of  four 
I.Mark  ii.  1-13;  cp."  Mat.  \x.  1-H),  a  noble- 
man's servant  (.lohn  iv.  U!-.")!),  with  quite  a 
luimlier  of  otlier  diseased  peoi)le  (Mat.  viii. 
Hi  17;  Mark  i.  32-31;  Luke  iv.  23,  40,  41). 
The  discourse    recorded    in   John    vi.  24-71, 


Genne.saret,  he  says :  "  It  is  also  watered  by 
a  fountain.  Tlie  peo])le  of  tin-  country  call 
it  Capharnaum.  Some  have  thoufjht  it  to  be 
a  vein  of  the  Nile,  because  it  jiroduced  the 
coracin  fish,  as  well  as  that  lake  does  which 
is  near  to  Alexandria  "  (War  iii.  1(1,  .'^). 

Two  spots  contend  for  the  distinction  of 
beinji  the  site  of  ('ai>ernaum.  They  are  about 
2i  miles  apart.  The  more  northerly  is  called 
Tell  Hum,  and  the  more sotitherly  Klian  Min- 
yeh  or  Minia.  Kobinson  decided  in  favor  of 
Khan  Minyeh.  Conder  takes  the  same  view. 
But  the  pn'valent  oiiiuion  favors  Tell  Uum. 
Caper  represents  the  Hebrew  word  for  vil- 
hifiP,  and  mijiht  well  be  su))plauted  by  the 
Arabic  Tell,  mound,  when  the  i)lace  became 
a  ruin.  J  linn  in  Arabic  means  "a  herd  of 
camels;"  if  Hebri'W,  it  is  iirobably  part  of 
the  word  Nalium.    It  is  in  favor  of  Ti'll  Hum 


Tell  Hum. 


which  followed  on  the  feedinj;  of  the  5000, 
with  many  other  addresses,  was  delivered  in 
the  syuaj;o;;ue  at  Capernaum  or  elsewhere  in 
the  town  (Mark  ix.  33-r)()).  It  was  at  Caper- 
naum also  that  .Testis  called  to  the  ai)ostleship 
Matthew  or  Li'vi,  as  he  was  sittinii  at  the 
rfcei])t  of  custom  (Mat.  ix.  i)-13:  Mark  ii. 
11-17;  Luke  v.  27  32 ;  cp.  Mat.  xvii.  21).  It 
mi^bt  liave  been  exiiected  that  a  jilace  .so 
specially  favored  would  make  i)ro])er  use  of 
its  privile<ies.  It  did  the  (i)iposite.  and  its 
ruin  was  jiredictcd  by.Iesus  liecanse  iil' its  im- 
penitence (Mat.  xi.  2:5,  21;  Luke  x.  1.")). 

Capernaum  is  not  mentioned  in  the  O.  T., 
•iml  perhaps  did  not  arise  till  after  the  caji- 
ti\ily.  .liisepbus  was  cari-ie<l  with  bruised 
wrist  from  near  .hilias  Miot  far  from  the  spot 
where  the  . Jordan  enters  the  sea  of  (Jalilee) 
into  a  villaue  named  Ci'idiarnome  or  Caper- 
uaun»  (Life  72).  Describing  the  phiin  of 
8 


that  there  are  extensive  ruins  of  an  ancient 
city  iiiled  alont;  t)ie  sb<ire,  and  for  at  least 
MM)  feet  Up  the  hill.  The  houses  nui.st  nearly 
all  have  been  of  black  basalt,  while  the  ruins 
of  a  synagogue,  either  that  in  which  .lesus 
]>reached  or  its  successor,  are  of  marble,  or 
of  tine  limestone  (luarried  in  the  mouutaius 
northwest  of  the  locality. 

Caph. 

The  eleventh  letter  of  the  Hebrew  alphabet. 
English  K  comes  from  the  same  .source:  but 
C  and,  especially  befoiH' e  and  i.  or  when  linal, 
Ch  are  emi)loyed  as  its  reiMcseiitalive  in  an- 
glicized Hebrew  names.  Cajih  stands  at  the 
head  of  the  eleventh  section  of  I's.  cxix.,  in 
which  section  each  verse  begins  with  this 
letter  in  the  original.     See  Hkth. 

Capli-ar-sal'a-ma  [village  of  Salem]. 

A  town  (1  Mac.  vii.  31  ;  Antiq,  xii.  10,  4), 
perhaps  the  later  Carva.salim,  near  fiamleh. 


Caphenatha 


114 


Captivity 


Ca-phen'a-tha.    See  Ciiaphenatha. 
Caph'tor. 

All  isle  or  scacoast,  from  which  tho  Philis- 
tiiu'sorifiiiially  cauu'  (.Icr.  xlvii.  I;  Ainosix.  7). 
Tho  I'hilistiiU's  as  a  wliolc  wito  Ciicicthitcs. 
that  is,  proliably  Cretans  (1  Sam.  xxx.  14; 
Ezi'k.  XXV.  Ki;  Zeph.  ii.  5),  and  Caplitor  was 
]H'rhaps  the  island  Crete.  However,  an  E{;yp- 
tiaii  Home  in  the  delta  b(»re  the  name  Ka- 
pet-lior.  This  word  may  be  the  original  of 
Caphtor.  If  so,  the  ancestors  of  the  Philis- 
tines went  thence  to  Crete  and  hiter  to  Philis- 
tia.  or  tliey  went  thitlier  from  Crete  and  ulti- 
mately to  Philistia. 

Caph'to-rim ;  in  A.  V.  once  CapMorims 
and  oiue  Caphthorim. 

A  trilie  descended  from  the  Egyptians  (Gen. 
X.  14 :  1  Chron.  i.  12),  and  inhaliitiug  Caphtor 
(Dent.  ii.  2:5). 

Cap-pa-do'ci-a. 

A  highland  imivince  of  Asia  Minor,  hoimd- 
eil  on  the  north  by  Pontns,  on  the  south  by 
Ciiicia,  on  the  east  by  Syria  and  Lesser  Ar- 
menia, and  on  the  west  by  Lycaonia.  It  pro- 
duced excellent  wheat  and  horses,  l)ut  was 
regarded  as  a  region  of  uncultivated  minds 
and  immoral  practices.  Worshipers  from  Cap- 
padocia  were  present  at  the  feast  of  Pente- 
cost, rendered  memorable  by  the  descent  of 
the  Holy  Spirit  (Acts  ii.  9).  Some  of  the  Dis- 
persion to  whom  Peter  addressed  his  first 
epistle  sojourned  in  Cappadocia  (1  Pet.  i.  1). 

Cap'tain. 

As  a  military  title,  captain  is  generally  in 
O.  T.  the  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  word  Sar. 
It  is  a  broad  designation  for  an  official, 
whether  he  be  the  commander-in-chief  of 
the  army  (Gen.  xxi.  22;  Judg.  iv.  2;  1  Sam. 
xiv.  50  ;  2  Sam.  x.  1(3),  or  the  commander  of 
a  division  of  the  army  (2  Sam.  xviii.  2  with 
5),  or  part  of  a  division  (1  Kin.  xvi.  9)  ;  an 
officer  over  1000  men  or  100  men  or  50  men 
(Num.  xxxi.  14,  48;  1  Sam.  viii.  12;  xvii.  18; 
xviii.  13 ;  xxii.  7  ;  2  Sam.  xviii.  1 ;  2  Kin.  i.  9  ; 
Is.  iii.  3)  ;  the  commander  of  the  king's  body 
guard  (Gen.  xxxvii.  3G :  and  2  Kin.  xxv.  8; 
Dan.  ii.  14,  where  the  word  is  Rah),  or  of  a 
])ost  of  sentries  (Jer.  xxxvii.  13,  in  Hebrew 
Bd'al).  The  word  rendered  captain  in  A.  V. 
of  Num.  ii.  is  Nam\  and  denotes  a  tribal 
prince.  Kmin  is  thrice  rendered  captain  in 
A.  V.  (Josh.  x.  24;  Judg.  xi.  (\.  11),  where  it 
refers  to  leaders  of  the  host ;  but  the  word  is 
a  general  term  for  one  with  whom  decision 
rests,  and  it  is  applied  to  civil  rulers  (Is.  i. 
10;  iii.  fi,  7;  Mic.  iii.  1,  9),  whose  duties  in- 
cluded that  of  judging  (Prov.  vi.  7;  xxv.  15, 
K.  V.  margin). 

In  N.  T.  the  chief  captain  was  a  chiliarchox, 
a  term  which  originally  denoted  the  com- 
mander of  1000  men,  but  was  used  broadly 
for  the  commandant  of  a  garrison,  and  as  the 
e(|uivaleiit  of  the  Koiiiaii  military  tribune 
(.John  xviii.  12,  R.  V.  margin).  He  was  one  of 
tht  general  officers  of  a  legion,  and  higher  in 
rank  than  a  centurion  (Acts  xxi.  31,  32,  K.  V. 


margin;  xxii.  25).  The  captain  of  the  guard  at 
Rome  (Acts  xxviii.  Iti.  A.  V.l  was  a  strdtoprd- 
archos,  or  commander  of  a  legion,  in  this  par- 
ticular instance  the  chief  otlicer  of  the  legion 
known  as  the  pra'torian  guard  (R.  V.  margin). 
The  cai>taiii  of  the  temjile  was  not  a  military 
officer,  but  the  comiuaiider  of  the  guard  of 
Levites  who  kept  watch  at  the  temple  (Acts 
iv.  1;  v.  24;  2  Mac.  iii.  4;  Antiii.  xx.  0,  2; 
War  vi.  5,  3).  Under  him  were  subordinate 
officers  of  the  several  divisions  of  the  guanl 
(Luke  xxii.  4,  52). 

Cap-tiv'i-ty. 

The  state  of  being  in  bondage  to  enemies, 
especially  in  a  foreign  land.  In  ().  T.  times 
the  Assyrians  introduced,  and  the  Babylon- 
ians adopted,  the  practice  of  making  a  whole- 
sale deportation  of  at  least  the  leading  men 
belonging  to  each  country  which  they  con- 
quered, and  locating  them  in  districts  where 
they  would  be  removed  from  familiar  asso- 
ciations and  patriotic  memories,  and  would 
be  under  the  eye  of  the  central  government. 
Deportation  was  generally  resorted  to  as  an 
extreme  measure  when  other  means  failed. 
The  stronger  state  was  usually  content  with 
imposing  tribute.  The  withholding  of  the 
customary  tribute  was  treated  as  rebellion, 
and  was  punished  by  a  military  invasion  and 
pillage  of  the  country.  If  these  harsh  meas- 
ures proved  ineflective,  resort  was  had  to  de- 
portation. 

Two  principal  captivities  are  mentioned  iu 
the  Bible  : 

I.  The  Captivity  of  the  Ten  Tribes. 
As  early  as  842  B.  c.  Jehu  paid  tribute  to 
Shalnianeser,  king  of  Assyria.  About  803 
Ramiuannivari  reports  receiving  tribute  from 
the  Israelites.  But  it  was  not  until  the  reign 
of  Tiglath-pileser,  745-727,  that  the  Assyrians 
began  emptying  the  land  of  the  ten  tribes  of 
its  inhabitants.  That  king  received  tribute 
from  Menahem.  In  the  reign  of  Pekah  he 
captured  cities  of  Naphtali  and  carried  oil' 
the  inhabitants  to  Assyria  (2  Kin.  xv.  29). 
He  overran  the  country  east  of  the  Jordan 
and  deported  the  Eeubenites.  Gadites,  and 
half  tribe  of  Manasseh  to  Mesopotamia  (1 
Chron.  v.  26).  By  his  connivance  also  Pekah 
was  eventually  slain  and  Hoshea  placed  on 
the  throne.  His  successor  Shalmaueser  be- 
sieged Samaria,  the  city  was  taken  in  the 
accession  year  of  Sargon,  722  B.  c,  and  a 
large  number  of  the  inhabitants  were  trans- 
ported to  Mesopotamia  and  Media  (2  Kin. 
xvii.  5,  6),  and  the  rest  were  jilaced  undei 
tribute.  This  remnant,  in  alliance  with 
Hamath  and  Damascus,  jn-eseiitly  attemjited 
to  throw  otl"  the  Assyrian  yoke  ;  l)iit  Sargon 
crushed  the  rebidlion  and  began  introducing 
foreigners  into  Samaria,  a  process  which  his 
successors  continued  until  a  new  and  hetero- 
geneous i)eople  occupied  the  toriiier  territory 
of  the  ten  tribes.  Some  of  the  Israelites 
eventually  returned  to  .lerusaltm  (Luke  ii. 
3()),  but  most  of  them  remained  in  the  couu- 


Carbuncle 


115 


Carmel 


tries  whitluT  tluy  liad  bi-t-n  carried,  ])re- 
si'rviiij;  tiieir  racial  distiiictioiis,  continuing 
tlicir  rclijiloiis  oliservaiices,  and  visitinj;  .lerii- 
salcia  tidiii  time  to  time  (Acts  ii.  !•;  xxvi.  7). 
II.  Till-:  ('Ai'TiviTV  t)F  Ji'DAH.  Senna- 
cherib lias  recorded  that  he  removed  -JdO.dOO 
cajitives  from  .liidah  (cp.  2  Kin.  .wiii.  i:j). 
ISiil  hy  the  cajitivily  of  .Indali  is  meant  tlie 
deportation  of  the  iieojile  to  HaKylonia.  Ju- 
dah's  eajitivity  was  jiredieted  a  century  and 
a  half  before  its  occnri-ence  (Is.  vi.  11.  12;  xi. 
Iv.').  and  Babylonia  as  the  jdace  was  foretold 
by  Micah  (iv.  10)  and  I.saiah  (xi.  11  ;  xxxix. 
G).  The  iirophet  .leremiah  announced  that 
it  should  continue  sevi'iity  years  (Jer.  xxv. 
1.  11,  12).  It  was  ellectedby  Nebucliadncz- 
zar.  In  GO'i  n.  c,  in  the  third  or  fourth  year 
of  .lehoiakim,  according  to  the  method  of 
reckoniu;;  which  one  adopts,  he  c;inie  unto 
.Jerusalem,  took  the  ves.sels  of  the  temjjlc  to 
Kabylon,  and  carried  oil'  certain  of  the  .seed 
royal  as  cajjtives  (2  Chron.  xxxvi.  2-7  ;  Dim. 
i.  1-15).  Seven  years  later  be  carried  oil"  .le- 
hoiachin.  the  kinjj's  mother,  wives,  and  chief 
otlicers,  7000  men  of  mijjht  and  1000  artisans 
(2  Kin.  xxiv.  15.  Ifj).  Eleven  years  later  his 
army  burned  the  temi)le,  destroyed  Jerusa- 
lem, and  carried  od"  the  residue  of  the  people, 
leaving  only  the  i)oorest  of  the  land  to  be 
vine(lres,sers  and  husbandmen  (2  Kin.  xxv. 
2-21).  Five  years  after  the  destruction  of 
the  city,  another  batch  was  deported  to  Baby- 
lonia {.Ter.  lii.  30).  In  their  exile  the  Jews 
enjoyed  many  privileges.  They  were  per- 
mitted to  build  and  occupy  houses,  keej)  ser- 
vants, and  euLcage  in  business  (Jer.  x.kI.x. 
~}-~  ;  Ezra  ii.  ((.")),  and  there  was  nothing  to 
hinder  them  from  rising  to  the  highest  posi- 
tions in  the  state  (Dan.  ii.  48;  Xeh.  i.  11). 
Their  ]u-ii'sts  and  teacdiers  were  with  them 
(Jer.  xxix.  1  ;  lOzra  i.  5),  and  they  had  the 
instructions  and  encouragement  of  Ezekiel 
(Ezek.  i.  1).  In  o3!)  n.  v.  Danitl  understood 
by  the  books  that  the  cajjtivity Vas  to  last 
for  sevi'Uty  years,  and.  as  the  time  was  ilraw- 
in;;  to  a  close,  liegan  to  su]i]>licatt'  (iod  for  the 
restoration  of  divine  favor  to  his  people  (Dan. 
ix.  2).  In  ■")3'S  Cyrus  Lssued  a  di'cree  author- 
izing the  .lews  to  return  to  the  land  of  their 
fathers  and  rebuild  the  tem]ile  (Ezra  i.  1-1), 
when  aliout  i:;.(iOO  of  them  emliraced  theoj)- 
liortunity  lii.  (II).  .Many,  however,  preferred 
to  remain  in  Babylonia  and  the  east,  and  with 
the  Israelites  in  Mesopotamia  ami  Media 
formed  jiart  of  what  became  known  as  the 
Diaspora  (Zech.  vi.  lU;  Acts  ii.  51)-     See  Dis- 

ri.lISKiN. 

Car'bun-cle. 

1.  Till'  niidcriug  of  Hebrew  Ilanlilh  and 
Ildi-'kiilli.  shining  like  lightnintc.  It  denotes 
a  gem  (Ezek.  xxviii.  K!i,  and  was  the  third 
sloiie  in  the  first  row  in  the  high  priest's 
breastplate  (Ex.  xxviii.  17).  In  both  cases 
llif  margin  of  the  1{.  V.,  following  the  .Sei>tua- 
uint.  Ibf  N'nlgate,  and  Josephus,  makes  it  an 
emerald. 


2.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  ^Ekdah, 
blaze,  si)arkle.  It  denotes  a  precious  stone 
(I.s.  liv.  12). 

According  to  Dana  three  distinct  minerals 
are  called  l)y  I'liny  carbuncles.  They  are  the 
garnet,  the  ruby  sjiinel,  and  the  sa)>phire. 
The  garnet  si)eeially  included  under  I'liuy's 
earbuncles  is  the  precious  or  Oriental  garnet 
or  almandine.  It  is  of  a  tine  deej)  trans- 
parent color  ;  the  best  are  from  I'egu.  The 
ruby  sjjinel  is  a  spinel  of  a  clear  red  or  red- 
dish c(dor,  transpai'ent  or  translucent.  For 
the  sapphire,  see  the  article. 

Car'cas. 

(.hie  of  seven  chamlierlains  who  served  in 
the  presence  of  king  Ahasuerus  (Esth.  i.  10). 

Car'che-niish,  in  A.  V.  once  Charcliemish 
(2  ('hniii.  x.KXv.  20). 

The  eastern  capital  of  the  Hittit<'S.  west  of 
the  Euphrates,  at  a  ford  of  the  river,  and 
north  of  the  confluence  with  the  Sa.jur.  Ad- 
mirably situated  for  commercial  jiurposes,  it 
became  ver.v  wealthy.  The  Assyrian  king, 
Ashurnasir{ial  (S.'^.")  to  ^(io  n.  c.)  was  about  to 
assault  it,  but  was  bought  oti'  by  the  i)romise 
of  rich  tribute.  In  717  H.  c.  it  was  cajitured 
bySargon.aud  with  il  fell  thi'  Ilittite  emiiire 
(Is.  X.  !M.  riiaraoh-uecho,  king  of  Egyjit.  was 
heavily  defeated  at  (.'archemish  by  Nebuchad- 
nezzar in  ti05  B.  C.  (2  Chron.  xxxv.  20;  Jer. 
xlvi.  2).  Its  site  is  calh-d  Jerabis.  It  is  on 
the  western  bank  of  the  Eujihrates.  midway 
between  Birejik  and  tin-  mouth  of  liie  Sajur, 
about  200  miles  northwest  of  t'ircesium.  An 
artificial  mound  C()vers  ruins.  The  human 
figures  on  the  sculjjtured  blocks  liave  boots 
with  upturned  tips,  which  is  believed  to  settle 
conclusively  that  they  are  of  Hlttite  origin. 

Ca-re'ah.     See  K.\i:e.\ii. 

Ca'ri-a. 

A  country  at  the  southwestern  point  of 
Asia  Minor.  It  was  part  of  the  territory  con- 
quered l)y  the  Romans  from  Antiochus  the 
Great.  The  Konian  senate  l)estowed  it  on 
the  Rbodians.  but  released  it  again  in  l(i8 
n.  c.  It  was  still  a  separate  district  in  139 
B.  c.  (1  Mac.  XV.  23).  but  it  was  finally  incor- 
l)orated  in  the  province  of  Asia. 

Car'ites.     See  C'iikrkthitks. 

Car'mel  [fruitful  field,  garden,  park]. 

1.  A  range  of  bills,  about  8  miles  long,  con- 
nected by  a  chain  of  lower  hills  with  the 
mountainous  region  of  central  Palestine  and 
terminating  in  a  iinuoontory  which, juts  into 
the  Mediterranean  (Jer.  xlvi.  I."'),  and  con- 
stitutes the  southern  Ixiundary  of  tlie  l>ay 
of  Acre.  Near  its  sontheastirn  end  it  is  1742 
feet  high,  a  little  further  onward  it  is  171"), 
and  it  gradually  falls  more  and  more,  till  at 
the  iiorlh western  top,  which  constitutes  the 
])romontory,  it  is  only  ;">(>  fi'et  high.  The 
range  constitutes  the  southwestern  boundary 
of  the  valley  of  Esdnielon,  through  which 
tlie  Kislion  runs,  and  at  one  idace  that  brook 
washes  the  northern  slope  of  Carmel  (1  Kin. 


Car  mi 


116 


Cart 


xviii.  40).  The  summit  of  tlie  raiigo  consists 
of  a  series  of  emiiieuces  witli  tal)le-liiii(ls  on 
their  tops,  sometimes  bare  and  rocky,  and 
sometimes  covered  with  shrubs,  especially  the 
l)rickly  oak  and  {he  juniper.  The  strata  are 
of  liniestiinc,  and  I  in  re  are  cavi's  on  the  sides 
of  the  mountain  chain,  thonjih  not  on  its 
.summit.  The  view  from  its  higher  parts  is 
tine.  It  is  now  called  Jebel  Kurmul.  Car- 
mel  was  on  the  southern  boundary  of  Asher 
•(Josh.  .xi.x.  2()),  within  the  limits  of  that  tribe 
tcp.  -xvii.  11).  On  the  top  of  Carmel  Klijah 
brought  to  a  decisive  issue  the  question  b«- 
tween  Jehovah  and  the  worship  of  Baal  (1 
Kin.  xviii.  17-40),  and  from  the  top  of  the 
same  rangii  his  servant  saw  the  ascent  from 
the  Mediterranean  of  the  little  cloud  like  a 
man's  hand  which  heralded  the  raiu  storm 
and  the  termination  of  the  drought  (41-46). 
Carmel  was  visited  by  Elisha  (2  Kin.  ii.  2."); 
iv.  2.")).  It  is  believed  to  have  been  anciently 
cultivated  to  the  summit,  with  fruit  trees  iu 
orchards  or  gardens,  as  its  name  imports,  and 
as  the  fruitfuluess  ascribed  to  it  indicates 
(Is.  xxxiii.  9  ;  xxxv.  2  ;  Jer.  1.  19).  A  forest, 
probably  consisting  chiefly  of  fruit  trees,  was 
iu  its  midst  (Mic.  vii.  14).  When  iu  Song 
vii.  5  the  lover  says  to  the  object  of  Ids  aft'ec- 
tion,  "  Thine  head  upon  thee  is  like  Carmel," 
he  probably  means  covered  with  luxuriant 
hair,  as  Carmel  is  with  fruit  trees.  Amos 
proi)hesied  :  "  The  top  of  Carmel  shall  wither" 
(i.  2).  There  has  long  been  a  convent  on 
mount  Carmel,  after  which  the  Carmelite 
monks  are  named. 

2.  A  town  in  the  mountainous  part  of  Jn- 
dah  (Josh.  XV.  55 ;  cp.  1  Sam.  xv.  12  ;  xxv.  2). 
The  churlish  Nabal's  possessions  lay  in  the 
vicinity  (1  Sam.  xxv.  2-40).  The  name  is 
still  retained  in  the  modern  Kurmul,  a  ruin 
about  7  miles  south-southeast  of  Hebron. 
From  this  town  one  of  David's  wives  hailed 
(1  Sam.  XXX.  5),  and  also  one  of  his  mighty 
men  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  35). 

Car'mi  [vinedresser]. 

1.  A  son  of  Reuben,  and  founder  of  a  tribal 
family  (Gen.  xlvi.  9  ;  Ex.  vi.  14 ;  Num.  xxvi.  6). 

2.  A  descendant  of  Judah  and  father  of 
Aclian  (Josh.  vii.  1;  1  Chrou.  ii.  6,  7). 

Car'na-im.    See  Ashtkroth-karnaim. 

Car'pen-ter. 

The  lirst  mention  of  carpentry  in  the  Bible 
as  a  distinct  occupation  is  on  occasion  of  car- 
penters being  brought  from  Tyre  to  build 
David  a  iialace  (2  Sam.  v.  11).  Among  car- 
penter's tools  were  the  axe,  saw  (Is.  x.  15), 
raeasui-ing  line,  plane,  compass  (xliv.  13), 
iron  nails,  hammers  (.Ter.  x.  4  ;  1  Chron.  xxii. 
3).  .Iosci)h,  husband  of  Mary,  was  a  carpen- 
ter (.Mat.  xiii.  55),  and  Jesus  in  his  youth 
worked  at  the  same  calling  (Mark  vi.  3). 

Car'pus  [the  wrist]. 

A  resident  at  Troas,  with  whom  Paul  left 
his  cloak,  for  which  he  afterwards  scut  (2 
Tim.  iv.  13). 


Car'riage. 

That  which  is  carried  ;  baggage  (1  Sam. 
xvii.  22 ;  Is.  x.  28  ;  1  Mac.  ix.  3.5.  .39  ;  Acts  xxi. 
15),  heavy  matters  or  goods  (Judg.  xviii.  21), 
a  burden  (Is.  xlvi.  1).  The  i>lace  of  the  car- 
riage (1  Sam.  xvii.  20;  xxvi.  5,  7,  A.  V.  mar- 
gin) was  till'  eiu'losure  formed  by  the  carts 
which  were  used  to  transjjort  goods  for  tlie 
army,  and  which  were  drawn  up  in  a  circle 
around  the  camp.  In  all  passages  K.  V.  has 
aliandoncd  this  obsolete  sense  of  carriage  aud 
substituted  the  apjiropriate  nu)dern  word. 

Car'she-na  [i)erhapsi)illageof  war.  spoiler]. 

One  of  the  seviMi  leading  princes  of  Persia 
at  the  court  of  king  Ahasuerus  (Esth.  i.  14). 

Cart. 

A  wheeled  vehicle  em])loyed  in  peaceful  oc- 
cupations, aud  distinguished  from  the  chariot, 
which  was  used  for  state  aud  war.  It  was 
made  of  wood  (1  Sam.  vi.  14),  was  either  cov- 
ered or  uncovered  (Num.  vii.  3,  where  the 
Hebrew  word  is  rendered  wagon),  was  drawu 
by  cattle  (vii.  7 ;  1  Sam.  vi.  7 ;  2  Sam.  vi. 
(i),  though  horses  occasionally  dragged  the 
threshing  cart,  it  would  seem  (Is.  xxviii.  28), 
aud  was  used  in  threshing  in  lieu  of  a  sledge 
(Is.  xxviii.  27),  for  transporting  goods  (2  Sam. 
vi.  3),  hauling  grain  (Amos  ii.  13).  and  con- 
veying persons  (Gen.xlv.  19,  rendered  wag- 


Ancient  Egyptian  Cart. 

on).  In  Egypt  a  cart  was  used  like  that 
which  is  now  employed  universally  in  west- 
ern  Asia,   with  two  wheels  of   solid   wood. 


Cart  with  Captive  Women  of  Lachish. 

Asiatic  carts,  including  the  one  iu  which 
Jewish  captive  women  of  Lachish  are  riding 
on  sacks  of  grain,  are  rei)resented  in  As- 
syrian bas-reliefs  as  having  two  wheels  with 
eight,  six,  or  four  sjiokes  eadi  and  drawn  by 


Carving 


117 


Caterpillar 


oxen.    They  are  also  depicted  as  dravvu  by 

iiiiili'S,  or  tiy  two  men. 

Carv'ing. 

Tin-  iirt  ol"  c-uttiiiK  IfttiTS,  iiii;ij;es,  or  oriia- 
nu-ntal  (U'sijiiis  in  wood,  .stone,  ivory,  or 
otlu'r  material.  Hezaleel,  a  man  of  .Iiulali, 
and  Aholial),  a  Danite,  were  fjil'ted  for  tlii.s 
work,  and  wroii^dil  the  earvinj;  for  the  taber- 
naele  (E.\.  xxxi.  17  ;  .\xxv.  liU-l!.")).  There  was 
carved  work  iiu  Solomon's  temple — flowers, 
palm  trees,  and  elierubim  (1  Kin.  vi.  lb,  '29) ; 
in  that  of  Zeriil)l)al)el  (l*s.  Ixxiv.  (J),  and  in 
the  superior  kind  of  domestic  architecture 
(Trov.  vii.  Ki). 

Case'ment. 

A  s;ish  which  moves  on  a  hinge  ;  or  jiart  of 
a  window,  made  mctvahle  by  a  hinjie,  so  that 
it  may  be  opened  while  the  rest  of  the  win- 
dow remains  sliiit  (I'rov.  vii.  (!,  A.  V.).  Eut 
in  .Jiidj;.  V.  •i.'-;  and  in  H.  V.  of  txttli  i>assages 
the  Ili'hrew  woril  is  rendered  lattice. 

Ca-8iph'i-a. 

A  i)lace  not  far  from  the  route  between 
Babylon  and  Jerusalem,  an<l  in  or  near  Baby- 
lonia (Ezra  viii.  17). 

Cas'lu-him. 

A  jieopie  descended  from  the  Ef;yptians  (or 
Iiossil)iy  only  conquered  and  incorporated 
with  tliem).  and  standiu;;  soniewliere  in  the 
ancestral  line  of  the  I'hilistines  ((ien.  x.  11  ; 
1  Chron.  i.  12).  Api)arently  they  were  the 
immediate  ancestors  of  tlii'  I'liilistines.  Per- 
haps they  were  tlie  inhabitants  of  Casiotis.  a 
district  on  tlie  .Mediti'rranean  Sea  exti'ud- 
ini;  from  tlie  eastern  mouth  of  the  Nile  to 
riiilistia. 

Cas'phor. 

A  fortified  town  east  of  the  Jordan,  caj)- 
tnred  by  Judas  .Maccabanis  (1  Mac.  v.  M,  3(i). 
In  the  latter  verse  A.  V.  gives  the  name  as 
Casphon.  Josephus  calls  it  Casphoma  (Antiq. 
xii.  8,  ;{). 

Cas'sia. 

1.  Tlie  rendering  of  tlie  Hebrew  word  Kid- 
(hih  (Ezek.  xxvii.  1!)).  It  denotes  an  aromatic 
Wood,  and  was  an  ingreditnt  of  tlie  anoint- 
in-;  oil  (Ex.  XXX.  'Jll.  The  translation  cassia 
is  sup]iorled  by  the  Syriac  version,  the  Tar- 
gum,  and  the  Vulgate.  If  correct,  the  word 
jiroliably  denotes  a  sjtecies  of  the  wood.  On 
tlie  margin  R.  V.  has  costiis.  The  (hstiig  of 
tlie  ancients  was  discovered  by  Falconer  to 
be  a  coni]iosit<'  plant  with  purple  llowersnow 
<alled  .i/ilotdjis  litiijiit.  growing  in  Casiimere 
from  S(KM)  to  (MKM)  feet  aliove  the  sea  level. 
It  is  exported  to  various  count rit's,  the  valua- 
ble part  iieing  I  lie  root.  The  Chinese  l)urn  it 
in  their  tem))les  for  incense. 

•J.  The  rendering  of  I  hi'  Hebrew  word 
K'.^i'uh.  It  is  fragrant  (I's.  xlv.  S).  C"as.sia 
bark  is  derived  from  various  species  of  Cin- 

tKiiiioiniiiii.      .See  ( 'IN.VAMON'. 

Cas'ta-net. 

In  the  pliinil  the  renilering  of  tlw  Helu'cw 
il'n(i'itii''iiii,  moving  to  and  fro  cj  Sam.  vi.  5, 


R.  v.),  a  musical  instrument  which  David  and 
his  subjects  played.  The  margin,  following 
the  \'u!gate,  has  sistra,and  tlie  A.  \' .  cornets. 
Castanets  are  a  [lair  of  small  spoon-shaiied 
cymbals  fastened  to  the  thumb  and  beaten 
together  by  the  middle  finger.  The  word 
castanets  is  derived  from  custtinvd.  a  chest- 
nut, two  of  these  fruits  being  anciently  at- 
tached to  the  fingers  and  beaten  together. 
Castanets  were  emjiloyed  in  tireece  and  liome 
as  an  accomiianiment  to  liynms  in  honor  of 
the  goddess  Artemis  or  Diana. 

Cas'tle. 

.\  fortified  building  or  stronghold  (Prov. 
xviii.  1!)).  David  t<iok  tlie  .bbiisite  cattle 
and  converteil  it  into  liis  resideiici- ;  and  it 
was  afterwards  called  the  city  of  David  (1 
Chron.  xi.  .">,  7).  Jelioshaiihat  built  castles  in 
the  cities  of  Judali  (2  Chron.  xvii.  12;  mar- 
gin of  A.  V.  jialaces),  and  .lotliam  in  its  forests 
(xxvii.  4).  The  habitations  of  the  desci'iid- 
ants  of  Aaron  (1  Chron.  vi.  54),  and  probably 
those  of  the  Ishmai'lite  chieftains  and  of  the 
]\li(lianites((;eu.  xxv.  Ki;  Num.  xxxi.  Id),  were 
iMicaiiipments  (K.  V.I  and  not  castles  (A.  V.). 

The  castle  which  Nehemiah  erected  was  ]ire- 
sumably  succeeded  by  the  stronghold  event- 
ually known  as  Antonia,  and  in  which  Paul 
was  confined  at  Jerusalem.  See  Antoni.\, 
Tower  of. 

Cas'tor  and  Pol'lux. 

Two  (ircek  and  K'oiiian  divinities,  born  of 
the  same  mother,  Leda,  Init  by  diflerent  fa- 
thers. Castor's  father  was  Tyndareus,  a  Spar- 
tan king,  while  that  of  Pollux  was  Zeus,  the 
(ireek  su]U'enie  god.  By  another  account, 
however,  Castor  was  also  the  son  of  Zeus. 
Castor  was  a  great  chariotter  and  horse-mas- 
ter, who  was  eventually  kilk'd  in  a  tight. 
Pollux  was  a  highly  distinguished  ])Ugilist. 
His  father  Zeus  offered  him  immortality,  but 
hi'  begged  to  be  allowed  to  share  it  day  and 
day  about  with  the  deceased  Castor.  The 
reijuest  was  granted,  and  both  brothers  were 
worshiped,  especially  at  Sparta,  under  the 
name  of  the  Dioscuri,  or  sons  of  Zeus.  They 
were  regarded  as  the  sjiecial  protectors  of  dis- 
tressed mariners.  The  Alexandrian  vessel  in 
which  Paul  sailed  from  Melita  to  I'nteoli  had 
for  its  sign  or  figurehead  Dioskouroi.  This 
the  R.  V.  renders  The  Twin  Brothersand  the 
A.  v.,  with  more  latitude.  Castor  and  Pollux 
(Acts  xxviii.  11).  The  constellation  (Jeniini 
(the  Twins)  is  called  after  the  affectionate 
brothers,  and  its  two  leading  stars  are  named 
Castor  anil  Pollux. 

Cat'er-pil-lar. 

The  rendering  of  tlie  Hebrew  word  JJnx'il, 
devourer.  It  is  associated  with  the  locust, 
and  is  a  destroyer  of  vegetation  (1  Kin.  viii. 
37  ;  2  Chron.  vi.  28;  Ps.  Ixxviii.  Iti;  Is.  xxxiii. 
4  ;  Joel  i.  4  ;  ii.  25).  Probably  a  sjiecies  of 
locust,  or  the  common  migratory  locust  in 
one  stage  of  development  (c|i.  Joel  i.  t  ;  ii.  25, 
margin  of  K.  \.).  l'\ir  Ps.  cv.  34  and  Jer.  Ii. 
27  of  .\.  v..  see  Canki;i{W<i|{m. 


Cattle 


118 


Census 


Cat 'tie. 

A  cdininehensivp  term  used  in  the  O.  T. 
for  domestic  animals,  larjte  and  small,  for 
camels,  horses,  sheep,  goats,  oxen,  and  asses 
(Gen.  .\iii.  2;  x.wi.  i:i,  14;  xxx.  32,  A.  V. ; 
xxxi.  S,  !l,  38,  41  ;  xlvii.  lG-18). 

Cau'da.    See  Cl.vid.'V. 

Caul. 

1.  A  net  worn  over  the  hair  l>y  Hehrew  wo- 
men (Is.  iii.  18) ;  rendered  networks  on  the 
marjjin  of  both  the  Iv.  V.  and  the  A.  V. 

2.  Tlie  h'sser  omentum,  a  layer  of  the  inner 
lining  of  the  eavity  of  the  belly,  partly  en- 
veloping the  liver,  as  the  greater  omentum 
does  the  stomach  (Ex.  xxix.  13,  22;  Lev.  iii. 
4,  10,  15). 

Cave. 

A  hollow  place  or  cavern  in  the  side  of  a 
liill  or  in  any  similar  situation.  Caves  tend 
to  occur  in  all  clitfs  which  are  now  or  have 
at  any  former  time  been  washed  by  sea  waves ; 
they  are,  however,  most  numerous  and  largest 
in  limestone  countries,  of  which  Palestine  is 
one.  Caves  served  as  dwellings  for  the 
aborigines  of  mount  Seir,  as  the  name  Horite 
indicates  (Gen.  xxxvi.  20).  Even  in  later 
times  they  were  used  as  temporary  abodes, 
as  by  Lot  and  his  daughters  after  the  de- 
struction of  Sodom  (xix.  30),  and  by  Elijah 
(1  Kin.  xix.  9).  They  were  natural  tombs, 
and  were  constantly  employed  for  burial  pur- 
po.ses ;  for  example,  the  cave  of  Machpelah 
(Gen.  xxiii.  1-20 ;  xlix.  29)  and  the  tomb  of 
Lazarus  (.John  xi.  38).  In  times  of  war  and 
oppression  they  atforded  a  place  of  refuge 
(Judg.  vi.  2 ;  i  Sam.  xiii.  6 ;  xxiv.  3-10 ;  1 
Mac.  i.  53;  2  Mac.  vi.  11),  the  most  noted 
being  the  eaves  at  Makkedah  (Josh.  x.  16-27) 
and  Adullam  (1  Sam.  xxii.  1 ;  2  Sam.  xxiii. 
13). 

Ce'dar. 

A  famous  tree  of  Lebanon  (1  Kin.  v.  fi),  tall 
and  stately  (Is.  ii.  13;  Ezek.  xvii.  22;  xxxi. 
3).  It  furnished  a  timber  much  prized  in 
the  construction  of  jjalaces  and  temples  (2 
Sam.  V.  11  ;  1  Kin.  v.  5,  6;  vii.  1-12;  Ezra 
iii.  7).  From  it  i)illars,  beams,  and  jjlanks 
were  cut  (1  Kin.  vi.  9,  10,  18;  vii.  2,  7) ;  idols 
were  hewn  (Is.  xliv.  14);  masts  were  made 
for  ships  (Ezek.  xxvii.  5).  It  is  fragrant 
(Song  iv.  11 ;  Hos.  xiv.  7),  and  it  was  used  in 
ceremonial  purifications  (Lev.  xiv.  4  ;  Num. 
xix.  6).  The  tree  is  evidently  the  Cedar  of 
Lebanon  (Abies  cednis  or  Ctilnis  libani),  is 
called  'erez  in  Hebrew,  and  bears  the  same 
name  in  Arabic,  namely  'arz.  It  is  a  large 
tree  of  dome-sha])e(l  form,  with  long,  sjiread- 
ing,  contorted  branches,  evergreen  leaves, 
and  cones  3  to  5  inches  long.  It  is  wild  on 
mount  Taurus  as  well  as  in  Lebanon.  The 
little  grove  of  trees  on  the  latter  range  gen- 
erally visited  by  travelers  was  long  believed 
to  be  the  only  one  ;  but  othei-s  have  now  been 
discovered  on  iho  back  of  tlu>  mountain.  It 
is  doubtful  whether  the  Deodar  of  the  Hima- 
laya mountains  is  really  a  distinct  species. 


Ce'dron.     See  Kidron. 
Cel-o-syr'i-a.     Sic  Ccki.ksvima. 

Cen'ohre-se,  in  A.  V.  Cenchrea  [millet]. 

The  eastern  of  the  two  jMjrts  of  Corinth, 
that  which  gave  access  to  the  Archipelago. 
It  was  about  9  miles  from  the  city.  It  was 
visited  by  Paul  (.Vets  xviii.  Ix)  ;  and  it  i)os- 
sessed  a  Christian  church,  of  which  Phebe 
was  a  servant  or  deaconess  (Kom.  xvi.  1).  Tlie 
village  of  Kikries  marks  the  site  and  pre- 
serves the  old  name  a  little  changed. 

Cen-de-bse'us,  in  A.  V.  Cendebeus. 

A  general  ])la(((l  in  connuaud  of  the  sea- 
coast  of  Ju(hea  by  Antiochiis  \1I.  (1  Mac. 
XV.  38).  He  was  nnited  by  Judas  and  John, 
sons  of  Simon  Maccabajus  (xvi.  1-10). 

Cen'ser. 

A  vessel  for  holding  incense  whilst  it  is 
being  burned  (Num.  xvi.  G,  7, 39).  Theeensers 
of  the  tabernacle  were  of  brass  (Lev.  xvi.  12  ; 
cp.  Ex.  xxvii.  3,  firei)ans)  ;  those  of  the  tem- 
ple were  of  gold  (1  Kin.  vii.  50 ;  2  Chron.  iv. 
22 ;  Heb.  ix.  4).  The  censers  of  the  book  of 
Eevelation  (viii.  3,  5)  were  also  of  gold. 

Cen'sus. 

An  enumeration  and  registration  of  a  peo- 
ple, conveniently  made  among  the  Hebrews 
according  to  tribe,  family,  and  house  (Num. 
i.  18),  and  in  the  wilderness  probably  based 
on  the  reports  of  the  officers  over  thousands, 
hundreds,  fifties,  and  tens  (Ex.  xviii.  25;  cp. 
round  numbers,  Num.  i.  21,23,  etc.).  Besides 
enumerations  of  classes  of  the  people,  like 
that  of  the  firstborn  (Num.  iii.  43),  a  formal 
census  of  all  the  Israelites  of  military  age  is 
recorded  in  the  O.  T.  as  having  been  taken  on 
three  di  tie  rent  occasions.  The  first  was  taken 
at  mount  Sinai  in  the  second  month  of  the 
.second  year  after  they  had  left  Egypt  (Num. 
i).  Omitting  the  Levites  (47-54),  there  were 
of  males  above  20  years  of  age,  and  capable 
of  bearing  arms,  603. .5.50  (45-47  ;  xi.  21 ).  The 
records  of  those  who  had  recently  paid  tribute 
were  probably  used  in  making  up  the  lists 
(Ex.  xxxviii.  26).  The  Levites  from  one 
month  old  and  upward  were  counted  se]ia- 
rately,  and  numbered  22,000  (Num.  iii.  39). 
The  second  census  was  taken  38  years  later 
at  the  camp  at  Shittim  in  the  Moabite  coun- 
try at  the  close  of  the  forty  years'  wandering. 
The  number  of  men  had  altered  but  slightly, 
and  now  was  f)01,730  (Num.  xxvi.  1-51),  Le- 
vites 23,000  (xxvi.  62).  The  third  census  w.as 
made  by  order  of  David,  who  found  that  there 
were  of  fighting  men  in  Israel  800,000,  in 
Judah  .500,000  (2  Sam.  xxiv.  1-9;  cp.  1  Chron. 
xxi.  1-6).  About  the  .same  time  the  Levites, 
from  30  years  old  and  upward,  numbered 
38,000  (1  Chron.  xxiii.  3).  An  enumeration 
was  mad(^  of  the  exiles  who  returned  to  Jeru- 
salem from  liabylonia  with  Zeruhbabel  (Ezra 
ii.),  and  an  enrollment  was  ordered  by  the 
emi)eror  Augustus  for  the  Eoman  empire 
shortly  before  the  birth  of  Christ  (Luke  ii. 
1 ;  see  Quikinius). 


Centurion 


119 


Chaldea 


Cen-tu'ri-on  [from  Kitiu  centum,  one  bun- 

dml]. 

An  .illio  T  ill  tlio  Kmiiaii  ariiiy  (Acts  xxi. 
32  •  xxii.  ■-?(>),  wlici  :it  lirst  coiuiiiaiKlctl  100 
solilifi-s  iiiid  aftorwanls  alH.iit  that  iiiimhcr 
((•11.  xxiii.  2:i).  Two  arc  iiitntioiud  t>y  name 
ill  tlic  N.  T. :  Coini'lius,  statiouril  at  ('ii-siiiva, 
tiinniL'h  wlidiii  it  was  undo  evident  that  the 


Roman  Centurion. 

Iluly  Sjiirit  is  niven  to  gentile  believers  not 
less'tlian  to  Jewisb  (Acts  x.),  and  Julius,  who 
cunductecl  Paul  and  otlier  jirisoners  to  Rome 
and  treated  Paul  kindly  (Acts  xxvii.  1,  :?, 
•i:'>i.  Twif  centurions,  besides  ("ortitdius,  be- 
lieved—mie  at  Capernaum  (>rat.  viii.  5-13), 
the  other  at  the  cross  (xxvii.  51). 

Ce'pbas  [Aramaic,  rock  orstcme]. 

An  aiijiellation  given  bv  .Testis  to  tbe  apos- 
tle Simon  i.Iolm  i.  V2  ;  1  Cor.  i.  V2:  iii.  ^'i:  ix. 
.">;  XV.  .")•.  <;ai.  ii.  i'l  :  from  it  liis  liest-known 
name  Pet<r,  wliidi  is  the  (ireek  e<iuivalent  of 
('<|>lias.  aroM'. 

Chal-ced'o-ny  [from  ('hulkrilon.  Kutlrdmi, 
a  town  ill  A>ia  .Minor  where  the  mineral  was 
found  J. 


A  precious  stone,  the  third  foundation  of  the 
wallofthe  New.Ierusaleni  (Rev.xxi.l9|.  C'hal- 
cedonv  used  to  be  regarded  as  a  distinct  s)>ecies 
of  siliceous  I  llinty)  mineral.  l)Ut  is  now  reduced 
to  a  variety  of  the  .speiies  (luartz.  It  is  hard, 
its  largest  ingredient  being  silica.  It  is  of  a 
waxy  luster,  and  therefore  much  duller  than 
typical  quartz.  It  is  white-gray,  brown,  blue, 
etc.  It  is  not  iierfectly  crystallized, 
but  often  coats  crystals  of  (juartz.  It 
occurs  massive,  in  veins,  in  nodules 
of  botryoidal  form  (i.  e.  resembling  a 
eliister'  of  grapes),  or  in  stalactites. 
Tliis  stone,  however,  did  not  receive 
thf  name  chalcedony,  it  is  l)elieved> 
until  tlie  Middle  Ages,  so  that  John, 
it  would  seem,  had  a  ditl'ereiit  stone 
of  Chalcedon  in  mind,  perhaps  the 
Chalcedonian  emerald  or  the  L'hal- 
( ((Ionian  jasi)er  which  are  mentioned 
l.y  Pliny  (:57,  If  and  :57). 
Chal'col.     See  Calcol. 

Chal-de'a  [akin  to  Hebrew  Kas- 
iliiii.  and  jHihaiis  meaning  land  of  the 
coiKHurors  or  of  the  Ciishlanders]. 

( )riginally  the  .southern  jtortion  of 
Bal)ylonia.at  the  head  of  the  Persian 
(iulf.  hut   the    designation   was  ulti- 
inatelv  extended  to  the  whole  of  the 
alluvial   plain  stretching  from  above 
Hit  to  the  gulf.    In  the  southern  por- 
tion were  situated  Ur  and  Erech  ;  in 
the    northern    part    P.abylon,   Cutha, 
Sippara.     There  were  other  cities  in 
the  country  which  are  not  mentioned 
in  the  Scriptures  or  are  not  identified. 
There  is  no  evidence  that  the  term 
Chaldea  included  the  plateau  to  the 
north,    in    whole    or    in    part.      The 
theory  that  it  did  is  ultimately  based 
on    the    identification    of    the    river 
Chebar.  which  was  in  the  land  of  the 
Chaldeans  (Kzek.  i.  :5).with  the  river 
of  Jlesoiiotamia  (•alle<l  by  the  (ireeks 
(  hahoras.   P.iit  this  identificatiim  can- 
not lie  maintained,  for  the  Hebrews 
distinguished  the  two  rivers  by  names 
radically  ditlerent,  K^bar  and  Habor. 
the  jiresencc  of  people  called   Chal- 
v...w..^    .11    the  mountains  of  Kurdistan  dur- 
ing  the   retreat  of  the  ten  thousand  under 
Xenophon    (Anabasis  iv.    :'..    l.  etc.).  and  of 
others  in  Pontus  mentioned  by  Stnibo  l.>4!») 
has  been  urged  as  proof  that  the  prnnitive 
liome  of  the  Chaldeans  was  in  Armenia.   That 
theory  seems   now  to  be  abandoned;  partly 
doubtless    because,    although     the    Kurdish 
mountains   and   adjacent   country  were   re- 
peatedly tnn-ersed  by  the  armies  of  As.syna 
during  a  period  of  seven   hundred  years,  be- 
ginning in  the  fourteenth  century  n.  c  and 
the  geographical   notices    in    the    records  of 
these  milifcirvexpeditionsare  full  and  minute, 
yet  there  is  no  report  of  the  Assyrians  having 
found  a  jieople  or  (Country  called  Kaldii  in  all 
that   region.      If  the  people  called  Ciialdeans 


Again, 
deans 


Chaldean 


120 


Chariot 


by  the  classical  writers  referred  toare  properly 
named,  and  have  any  connection  with  the 
Chaldeans  of  tlio  sonth,  tliey  are  late  ininii- 
graiits,  reliis  ]>erlia]).s  of  tiie  iiiii)erial  army 
of  IJabyloiiia,  rather  than  the  original  stock. 
Chal-de'an,  in  N.  T.  Chaldsean. 

1.  A  iiativeor  iiihahitant  of  (haldea.  Chal- 
deans are  nientioncd  in  the  literature  of 
Babylonia  anil  Assyria  in  documents  of  the 
ninth  century  n.  v.,  as  already  established 
oTi  the  shores  of  tlu'  Persian  ^rulf  and  having 
Hit-yakin  for  their  cai)ital.  Under  Merodach- 
baladan  they  comiuered  Habylonia,  and  later 
gave  their  name  to  the  whole  of  that  country. 
Job  speaks  of  their  predatory  bands  (i.  17), 
Isaiah  mentions  their  mai'itime  tendencies 
(xliii.  14),  and  Ezekiel  describes  their  luxury 
and  display  (xxiii.  15). 

2.  One  of  the  priests  of  Bel-marduk  at 
Babylon  (Herod,  i.  181,  183),  who  were  es- 
teemed as  possessors  of  wisdom  (Dan.  i.  4; 
ii.  2,  4). 

Chal-dees'. 

A  variant  form  of  Chaldeans  used  in  the 
expression  Ur  of  the  Chaldees  (Gen.  xi.  31 ; 
Neh.  ix.  7),  and  also  sometimes  iu  A.  V.  when 
there  is  no  mention  of  Ur  (2  Kin.  xxiv.  2 ; 
XXV.  4,  10,  13,  25,  26 ;  2  Chrou.  xxxvi.  17 ;  Is. 
xiii.  19). 

Chalk'stone. 

A  stone  taken  from  the  limestone  rocks 
which  constitute  a  marked  feature  of  Pales- 
tine (Is.  xxvii.  9). 

Chal'pM,  in  A.  V.  Calphi. 

Father  of  Judas,  one  of  the  two  captains 
who  stood  by  Jonathan  Maccabteus  at  Hazt)r 
(1  Mac.  xi.  70). 

Cham'ber-lain. 

Oue  who  looks  after  the  private  chambers 
of  a  palace  or  mansion  ;  as  Blastus,  who  was 
over  Herod's  bedchamber  (Acts  xii.  20)  ;  or 
one  who  has  charge  of  the  treasure  chamber, 
as  Erastus,  the  treasurer  of  the  city  of  Corinth 
(Eom.  xvi.  23,  A.  V.  ;  in  R.  V.  treasurer).  In 
the  O.  T.  the  word  rendered  chamberlain  sig- 
nifies eunuch,  and  is  often  translated  so ;  see 
Eunuch. 

Cha-me'le-on  [the  ground  lion]. 

A  reptile  which  belongs  to  the  same  order 
as  lizards,  but,  according  to  the  present  classi- 
fication, not  to  the  same  group.  The  name  is 
found  in  Lev.  xi.  30.  In  R.  V.  it  is  the  ren- 
dering of  the  Hebrew  Tiutihemeth,  breathing, 
inflation  (in  A.  V.  mole),  whereas  in  A.  V.  it 
represents  the  Hebrew  word  Kodh  (in  R.  V. 
land  crocodile ;  see  Lizard).  The  lungs  of 
the  lizard  are  very  large  and,  when  ex- 
panded, render  it  semi-trans])arent.  Its  eye- 
balls protrude  from  the  head,  and  arc  iude- 
jicudent  in  llieir  action,  so  tbat  it  can  turn 
oi>(^  eye  up  and  the  other  down,  or  look  in 
ditierent  directions  and  at  ditiereut  objects  at 
the  same  time.  It  has  also  the  faculty  of 
changing  its  hue  in  accordance  with  the  color 
of  the   objects  about  it   or  with  its  temper 


when  disturbed.  This  power  is  due  to  the 
presence  of  clear  or  pigment-bearing  cells  in 
the  skin,  their  contractions  and  dilatations 
being  controlled  by  the  nervous  system.  It 
lives  iu  trees.  Its  feet  are  fitted  for  use  as 
hands  and  its  tail  is  jireheusile,  .so  that  it  is 
able  to  cling  to  the  branches.  It  feeds  upon 
insects  which  it  captures  by  means  of  its  long 
tongue  covered  at  the  end  with  a  viscous  sub- 
stance. 

Cham'ols. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Zemer,  leaper. 
The  animal  is  runnuant.  (I)eut.  xiv.  5).  It 
is  not  the  real  chamois,  which  is  a  native  of 
the  European  mountains  from  the  Pj-renees 
to  the  Caucasus,  but  does  not  occur  in  Pales- 
tine. 

Cham-paign'  [open  country]  (Deut.  xi.  30, 
A.  v.).     See  Auabah. 

Cha'naan.    See  Canaan. 

Cha-phen'a-tha,  iu  A.  V.  Caphenatha. 

Apparently  a  portion  of  the  eastern  wall 
of  Jerusalem,  perhaps  one  of  the  towers  or 
other  mural  fortifications  (1  Mac.  xii.  37),  and 
possibly  even  the  tower  that  stood  out  from 
the  upper  house  of  the  king  (Neh.  iii.  25). 

Chap'i-ter. 

The  capital,  i.  e.  the  head  or  uppermost 
part  of  a  column,  pillar,  or  pilaster  (1  Kin. 
vii.  16).  It  can  be  varied  in  form  and  orna- 
mentation, according  to  the  order  of  archi- 
tecture used  in  the  building  (Ex.  xxxvi.  38; 
xxxviii.  17,  19;  1  Kin.  vii.  19,  2U). 

Chap 'man. 

Originally  a  merchant ;  then  a  mere  ped- 
lar (2  Chron.  ix.  14). 

Char'a-sMm  [craftsmen],  in  R.  V.  Ge-har- 
ashim  [valley  of  craftsmen]. 

A  valley  in  Judah  (1  Chron.  iv.  14),  in- 
habited after  the  exile  by  the  trilie  of  Ben- 
jamin (Neh.  xi.  35).  Conder  suggests  the 
ruin  Hirsha  as  an  echo  of  the  name,  on  the 
.slope  of  a  wady  1|  miles  southeast  of  Ayalon 
and  11  miles  west-northwest  of  Jerusalem. 

Char'che-mish.    See  Carchemish. 

Char'ger. 

A  large  dish  or  platter.  The  name  is  ap- 
propriately used  in  the  English  version  for 
the  dish  on  which  the  head  of  John  the  Bap- 
tist was  brought  to  Herodias'  daughter  (Mat. 
xiv.  8),  and  for  the  silver  dislies  of  130 
shekels'  weight  presented  by  the  tribal  jirinces 
at  the  dedication  of  the  altar  (Num.  vii.  13). 
The  Hebrew  word  rendered  charger  in  the 
last  passiige  denotes  the  golden  dishes  which 
stood  on  the  table  of  .showbread  (Ex.  xxvi. 
29 ;  Num.  iv.  7). 

Char'i-ot. 

.\  two-wlu>eled  vehicle,  of  various  forms, 
drawn  by  horses  (2  Sam.  viii.  4),  and  used 
for  military  (Ex.  xiv.  9 ;  1  Sam.  xiii.  5),  state 
(Gen.  xii.  43 ;  2  Sam.  xv.  1 ;  1  Kin.  i.  5),  and 
private  purposes  (Gen.  xlvi.  29  ;  2  Kin.  v.  9; 
Acts  viii.  28).    The  bed  was  open  behind,  and 


Charity 


li'l 


Chemarim 


rested  <m  tlu;  axle  without  sjiriiigs.  The 
wlieels  were  not  ehiuisy,  but  consisted  of 
felloes,  spokes,  and  naves,  and  were  often 
of  metal  (1  Kin.  vii.  .'ilii.  Chariots  were  hut 
])oorly  adaj*ted  to  (he  hills  of  Palestine,  and 
were  not  mueh  used,  but  they  were  eouinion 
anions  the  C'anaanites  in  the  valley  (Josh, 
xvii.  1(1;  Jud^;.  iv.  ,"{),  and  among  the  Egyji- 
tians  (Is.  xxxi.  1),  Ethiopians  (2  t'hron.  xvi. 
b),  Syriaus  ()i  Kiu.  v.  9),  Hittites  CJ  Kin.  vii. 


Royal  .\ssyrian  Chariot. 

6),  and  As.syrians  (Xah.  ii.  3,  1 :  iii.  2).  The 
war  chariots  couimonly  carried  a  driver  (2 
Chron.  xviii.  '.i'.i),  and  occasionally  a  shield- 
bearer,  besides  the  warrior  himself.  Probalily 
among  the  Hebrews  a  third  jierson,  perhajis 
shieldbearer,  sometimes  occupied  the  chariot 
(2  Kin.  ix.  25).  Tlie  war  chariot  was  at  times 
constructed  of  iron  or  covered  with  iron 
plates  I. Tosh.  xvii.  IC,  IS  ;  Judg.  i.  I'J:  iv.  3). 
The  Persians  armed  the  axles  and  sometimes 
the  tongue  with  scythes.  Cruel  chariots  of 
this  sort  were  seen  in  Palestine  in  the  .Seleuci- 
dan  period  (2  Mac.  xiii.  2).  A  four-wheeled 
vehicle  may  be  intended  in  Kev.  xviii.  13. 
See  :i<lditi()iial  illustration  under  Bow. 

Char'i-ty. 

Love,  often  manifested  by  almsgiving.  The 
charity  described  in  1  Cor.  xiii.  is  not  alms- 
giving, as  is  evident  from  ver.  3;  it  is  love, 
charity  in  tlie  l)road  sense,  love  toward  all. 
It  is  so  rendered  liy  the  H.  V. 

Char'ran.     See  Hakan. 

Che'bar. 

.\  river  in  the  land  of  the  Chaldeans,  on 
tlie  banks  of  which  some  of  the  .Fewish  ex- 
iles, including  the  i)r<>]ibet  E/.ekiel,  were  .set- 
tled. It  was  there  that  tlie  iiro])het  -Siiw  sev- 
eral of  his  visions  (Kzck.  i.  1.  3;  iii.  1.5,  2.'? ;  x. 
15.  2(i|.  It  is  not  the  river  called  by  the  (ireeks 
Chabonis,  which  rises  !U'ar  Xisibis  in  up])er 
.Mesopotamia,  and  falls  into  the  Euphrates 
:il  Circcsiuiu,  for  the  Hclirew  name  of  this 
river  was  I  labor.  The  Chebar  was  doubtles.s 
a  I'.abyliiiii.iu  canal.  These  streams  were 
known  by  llic  name  iiiir,  river. 

Ched-or-la'o-mer  [Klamite.  servant  of  the 
god  Eagamar]. 

A  king  of  IClam.  who  eviilently  held  the 
sovereignty  over  Bal)ylonia.     In  tlie  days  of 


Abraham,  in  alliance  with  Amraphel.  king  of 
Shinar,  Arioch,  king  of  EUasar,  and  Tidal, 
king  of  Goiim,  he  made  an  expedition  to  the 
west  and  subjugated  the  country  ab(jut  the 
Dead  Sea.  The  peojile  of  the  plain  served 
liim  twelve  years  and  then  revolted.  The 
next  year  Chedorhumier  came  with  his  allies 
and  smote  the  region  east  of  the  .Jordan  from 
IJashan  southward,  the  land  of  ImIoui  to  the 
head  of  tiie  Ked  Sea.  the  country  afterwards 
inhabited  by  the  Amulekites,  and  the  pkin 
about  the  Dead  Sea.  This  connuest  gave 
him  control  of  the  caravan  routes  from 
Araiiia  past  tlu^  head  of  the  Red  Sea  to 
Egypt,  Canaan,  and  the  north.  I!ut  he 
carrii'd  olf  Lot  from  Sodom.  This  in- 
duced Abraham  to  lead  his  numerous 
servants  and  his  allied  chieftains  to  the 
pursuit.  They  fell  ujion  Chedorlaomer 
by  night  at  Dan,  put  him  and  his  fol- 
lowers to  flight,  and  recovered  the  captives 
and  thespoil  ((Jen.  xiv.  l-l(i).  Much  light 
has  l)eeii  thrown  on  this  narrative  by  the 
cuneiform  inscriptionson  the  Assyiianand 
P.a  by  Ionian  monuments.  Kudu  man  liundi, 
king  of  IClam.  )iluii(lered  thecity  of  Erech 
in  Babylonia  about  2285  B.  c.  Later  the 
sovereignty  over  Babylonia  was  exercised  in 
succession  by  the  Elamite  king.s  Simtishil- 
hak  and  his  son  Kudurmaluig.  The  latter 
appears  to  have  ruled  over  Canaan  also,  and 
he  was  not  the  first  I'abyloniau  king  by  any 
means  who  had  been  master  in  the  far  west. 
His  sou  was  Eriaku.  king  of  Larsa,  jirobably 
Arioch,  king  of  EUasar.  Chedorlaomer's 
name,  in  its  native  form  Kudurlagamar, 
proves  that  he  was  an  Elamite,  and  his  as- 
sociation with  Arioch  and  the  extent  of  liis 
sway,  strongly  indicate  that  he  was  a  mem- 
ber of  this  dynasty  and  a  successor  of  Kudur- 
mabug. 

Cheese. 

The  curd  of  milk,  coagulated,  .sejiarated 
from  tlu'  whey,  and  jiressed  (Job  x.  Id  ;  cp. 
1  Sam.  xvii.  18  ;  2  Sam.  xvii.  2'J).  .\  valley 
at  Jerusalem  bore  the  name  Cheesemongers 
(War  v.  4,  1). 

Che'lal  [consummation,  completion]. 
A  son  of  Pahath-nioab,  whom  Ezra  induced 
to  divorce  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  30). 

Che'lub  [wicker  basket ;  bird's  cage]. 

1.  A  brother  of  Shuah.  wlio.se  lineage  is  not 
traci'd  ))ut  who  was  entitled  to  registry  iu  the 
tribe  of  .Indah  (1  Chron  iv.  11). 

2.  The  father  of  David's  officer  over  the 
cultivators  (1  Chi-on.  xxvii.  2(i). 

Che-lu'bai.     See  Caleb  1. 

Chel'u-hi,  in  A.  V.  Chel'luh. 

A  son  of  Baiii,  whom  Ezra  induced  to  di- 
vorce his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  .'15). 

Chem'a-rim,  in  text  of  .\.  V.  Chemarims. 

Priests  of  the  high  places  (2  Kin.  xxiii.  5, 
margin  I,  of  the  calves  at  Bethel  (Uos.  x.  5, 
margin),  and  of  liiuil  (Zeph.  i.  4). 


Chemosh 


122 


Cherub 


Che'inosli  [i>i-()l)al)ly  sulxlucr]. 

Thf  lidd  ..f  tlic  Moaliitcs  (Num.  xxi.  29; 
Jcr.  xlviii.  Iti ;  Muabite  Stuiie  3),  worsliiped  in 
the  same  inauiier  as  was  Moleeli,  by  the  sac- 
ritiee  of  children  as  burnt  oH'erinfjs  (2  Kin. 
iii.  27).  His  iileiitity  with  Molech  a|)iiears 
further  from  Jndj;.  xi.  21,  where  tlie  ;;i'd  of 
the  Ammonites,  wlio  was  Molecli  (1  Kin.  xi, 
7),  is  caUed  C'liemosh.  Solomon  erected  a 
hijih  place  for  him  near  Jerusalem  (1  Kin.  xi. 
7),  which  was  afterwards  defiled  by  Josiah  (2 
Kin.  .xxiii.  13). 

Cbe-na'a-nah  [feminine  of  Canaan]. 

1.  A  Benjamite.  family  of  Jediael  (1  Chron. 
vii.  10). 

2.  The  father  of  the  false  prophet  Zedekiah 
who  deluded  Ahab  (1  Kin.  xxii.  11 ;  2  Chron. 
xviii.  10). 

Chen'a-ni  [firm]. 

A  Levite  who  assisted  in  In'inging  the  re- 
turned exiles  to  such  a  frame  of  mind  that 
they  agreed  to  enter  into  a  covenant  to  wor- 
ship Jehovah  (Neh.  ix.  4). 

Chen-a-ni'ah  [Jehovah  is  firm]. 

A  chief  of  the  Levites  in  David's  reign,  of 
the  house  of  Izhar.  who  was  appointed  super- 
intendent of  the  outward  business,  such  as 
judging  (1  Chi'on.  xxvi.  29),  and  the  trans- 
portation of  the  ark  (xv.  22,  27,  margin  ;  in 
text,  song). 

Che-pliar-am'mo-ni,  in  A.  V.  Che-phar- 
ha-am'mo-nai  [village  of  the  Ammonite]. 

A  village  of  Benjamin  (Josh,  xviii.  24). 
Site  unknown. 

Che-pM'rah  [village]. 

A  city  of  the  Gibeonites  (Josh.  ix.  17),  al- 
lotted to  the  Benjamites  (xviii.  26).  It  con- 
tinued to  exist  after  the  captivity  (Ezi-a  ii. 
25  :  Neh.  vii.  29).  Its  site  is  the  ruin  Kef  ireh, 
8  miles  west-northwest  of  Jerusalem. 

Che'ran  [possibly  cither  or  lute]. 

A  Horite,  a  son  of  Dishon  (Gen.  xxxvi.  26  ; 
1  Chron.  i.  41). 

Cher'etli-ites,  in  A.  V.  once  Cherethims 
[probably  Cretans] . 

A  nation  or  trilie  inhabiting  the  Philistine 
country  or  its  southern  portion  (1  Sam.  xxx. 
14  ;  Ez'ek.  xxv.  16  ;  Zeph.  ii.  5,  6).  They  may 
be  identical  with  the  Philistines  who  came 
from  Cajditor  (q.  v.),  or  may  represent  a  di- 
rect emigration  from  Crete.  Some  of  them 
were  members  of  David's  bodyguard  (2  Sam. 
viii.  18  with  xxiii.  23;  xv.  18).  In  three 
places  the  name  Carite  aiii)ears  in  their  stead 
(2  Sam.  XX.  23;  2  Kin.  xi,  4,  19,  both  R.  V.). 
It  has  been  suggested  that  this  name  preserves 
the  memory  of  Carian  inhabitants  of  Crete, 
alluded  to  by  classical  writers. 

Che'rith  [cut,  gorge]. 

.\.  l>rook  In'fore  Jordan,  by  which  Elijah 
sojourned  (1  Kin.  xvii.  3,  5).  Whether  east 
or  west  of  the  .Jordan  is  uncertain. 

Cher'ub,  plural  Cher'u-blm ;  in  A.  V. 
Cherubims. 

1.  Guardians  placed  east  of  the  garden  of 


Eden  to  prevent  tlie  ai>i)roacli  of  our  first  iia- 
renls  to  the  tree  of  lite  after  their  exitulsion 
from  the  garden  (Gen.  iii.  21j.  When  the  ark 
was  constructed  for  the  tabernacle,  cherubim 
wrought  of  gold  were  placed  facing  each 
other,  one  at  each  side  ot  tlie  mercy  seat, 
overshadowing  it  with  their  wings  (Ex.  xxv. 
18-20;  xxxvii.  7-9).  They  symbolized  the 
presence  and  unai)pr()acliabilily  (jf  Jehovah, 
whose  glory  was  manifested  ))etween  them 
(Lev.  xvi.  2),  who  thus  dwelt  in  the  midst  of 
his  people,  and  was  present  in  the  tabernacle 
to  receive  worship  (Ex.  xxv.  22;  Lev.  i.  1). 
Frecpient  reference  is  made  to  Jehovah  dwell- 
ing between  the  cherubim  (Num.  vii.  89 ;  1 
Sam.  iv.  4  ;  2  Sam.  vi.  2  ;  2  Kin.  xix.  l.'j ;  Ps. 
Ixxx.  1;  xcix.  1;  Is.  xxxvii.  Ki).  Cherubim 
were  also  embroidered  on  the  hangings  of  the 
tabernacle  (Ex.  xxvi.  1).  For  the  grander 
temple  Solomon  had  two  gigantic  cherubs 
made.  The  height  was  ten  cubits,  or  about 
fifteen  feet,  and  the  expansion  of  their 
wings  as  many  more.  They  were  of  olive 
wood,  and  were  overlaid  with  g(dd  (1  Kin.vi. 
23-28;  viii.  7:  2  Chron.  iii.  10-13;  v.  7,  8; 
Heb.  ix.  5).  Cherubs,  with  ])alm  trees  and 
open  flowers,  were  also  carved  all  round  the 
walls  of  the  tcm]>le  (1  Kin.  vi.  29).  In  a 
poem  David  represented  Jehovah  as  riding 
upon  a  cherub  and  flying  (2  Sam.  xxii.  11; 
Ps.  xviii.  10).  Ezekiel  had  a  vision  of  cherubs 
by  the  river  Chebar.  Each  had  four  faces 
and  four  wings  (Ezek.  x.  1-22  ;  cp.  ix.  3),  and 
since  they  seem  to  be  identical  with  the 
four  living  creatures  previously  seen  by  the 
prophet,  these  four  faces  were  those  of  a  man, 
a  lion,  an  ox,  and  an  eagle  (cp.  i.  5-12  with 
X.  20,  21).  They  carried  the  throne  of  Jeho- 
vah (i.  26-28 ;  ix.  3).  Finally  the  apostle  John 
in  the  apocalypse  describes  four  living  crea- 
tures, who  had  faces  like  those  of  the  same 
four  animals  (Rev.  iv.  6  9). 

It  is  possible,  though  not  yet  proven,  that 
the  Assyrians  had  acquaintance  with  the 
same  idea.  Their  winged,  man-headed  l>ulls 
have  a  certain  external  physical  resemblance 
to  cherubim  as  sometimes  described  in  the 
Hebrew  Scriptures  ;  and  they  jierformed  the 
same  function,  being  placed  at  the  entrance 
of  palaces  and  temples  where  majesty  dwelt. 
It  is  especially  premature,  however,  to  assert 
that  the  hulls  of  Assyria  bore  a  name  similar 
to  that  of  tlie  Hebrew  cherubim. 

The  varying  foi'nis  assumed  by  the  cherubim 
in  art  and  poetic  imagery  show  that  they 
were  symbols.  But  symbols  of  what?  The 
flaming  sword  (Gen.  iii.  24).  and  the  dark- 
ness under  Him  who  did  ride  u])on  a  cherul) 
and  flew  niton  the  wings  of  the  wind  ( Ps. 
xviii.  10),  have  been  cited  as  the  main  sup- 
port of  the  theory  that  the  cherub  is  in  ulti- 
mate analysis  the  storm  cloud.  It  is  true 
that  the  cherubim  might  rejiresent  some 
power  of  nature,  or  all  the  ])owers  of  nature, 
as  the  servants  of  .Jehovah  and  guardians  of 
his  abode.  But  the  bil)lical  writers  represent 
the  cherubim,  symbolically  at  least,  as  aui- 


Chesalon 


123 


Chorazin 


niato  l)eiiij;s  with  the  intellijiencc  of  man, 
tht;  stri'ii;;tli  of  tlie  ox,  tlio  courage  of  tlie 
lion,  and  tlie  frei'  niotitjii  of  the  eagle  through 
the  air.  The  facts  at  ]>reseut  obtainable  in- 
ilicate  an  order  of  angels. 

'J.  A  jilace  in  Habylonia,  from  which  cer- 
tain ]K'rsons  came  who  could  not  prove  their 
Isnielite  descent  (Kzra  ii.  .'>!»;  Neh.  vii.  til), 
yituatioii  unknown.     Pronounced  kr'riih. 

Ches'a-lon  [trust,  hope]. 

A  town  on  the  i>oundary  line  of  Judah,  on 
mount  .Icarim  (.losii.  xv.  l(ii.  commonly  iden- 
titled  with  the  village  of  Kesla,  10  miles  west 
of  .IiTusalem. 

Che'sed  [jjerhaps  the  noun  from  which 
Kdxdim,  Chaldeans,  is  derived]. 

A  son  of  Nahor  by  his  wife  Milcah  (Gen. 
xxii.  '22). 

Che'sil  [a  fool]. 

A  village  in  the  most  southerly  region  of 
•ludali  (,Ici>h.  XV.  ;{(•)  ;  apparently  called  also 
ISeiliul  and  Ik'thuel. 

Chesfnut.    See  Plank. 

Che-sul'loth  [trusts,  or  perhaps  the  loius 
or  slopes]. 

A  town  on  the  l)oundary  line  of  Issachar 
(Josh.  xix.  lN),prol)ably  the  same  as  C'hisloth- 
tabor  (q.  v.). 

Cheth,  in  II.  V.  Hetb. 

The  ciiilith  Itttt  T  of  the  Hebrew  alphabet. 
i;ngli>li  II,  which  (le\clope(l  out  of  the  same 
t)riginal,  and  Ch,  though  neither  is i)r(mounced 
with  tiie  guttural  sound  of  cheth,  represent 
it  in  anglicized  Hebrew  names,  as  Haran, 
Chezib.  It  staiuls  at  the  beginning  of  the 
eighth  .section  of  Ps.  cxix.  in  several  versions, 
in  which  section  ea<-li  verso  begins  with  this 
letter. 

Che'zib.     Sec  Achzib. 

Chl'don  [a  javelin]. 

A  name  for  the  threshing  floor  at  which 
I'zza  was  struck  dead  for  touching  the  ark 
(1  (hron.  xiii.  !M.  In  2  Sam.  vi.  6  called 
Nachiiu.  The  dillcrcuce  of  name  has  not 
bccM  satisfactorily  exi)lained.  Exact  site  un- 
known. 

CMl'e-ab. 

l)a\id's  second  son,  born  at  Hebron.  His 
mother  was  Abigail  (2  Sam.  iii.  3).  He  is 
called  in  1  Chron.  iii.  1  Daniel. 

Chll'l-on  [a  wasting  away]. 

The  vouniicr  son  of  Elimelech  and  Naomi 
(Uulli  i,  -J.  .-.I. 

Chll'mad. 

A  ])iace  wiiicli  traded  with  Tyre,  mentioned 
in  connection  with  Sheba  and  Asshur  (Ezek. 
XX vii.  "J-'Si. 

Cbini'liain  [longing]. 

The  son  of  Parzillai  the  Oileadite.  When 
the  fatherwas  invited  by  David  to.Ierusilem, 
and  declined  tlie  iionor  on  account  of  his  ad- 
vanced age,  Chimham  was  sent  in  liis  jilacc 
(2  .Sam.  xix.  .37,  ;W).     He  seems  to  have  set- 


tled in  the  vicinity  of  Hethlehem  and  erected 
a  caravansary   (Jer.  xli.  17). 

Chin'ne-reth  and  CMnneroth,  in  A.  \.  once 
Cinnerotli  d  Kin.  xv.  2(J)  [lute,  haqi]. 

1.  A  fortilied  city  of  Naplitali  (.Josh.  xix. 
3.");  v\i.  also  Deut.  iii.  17). 

2.  The  region  around  thecity  of  Chinnereth 
(1  Kin.  XV.  20;  cj).  akso  Josh.  xi.  2),  com- 
moiilv  identified  with  the  plaiu  of  Geuuesaret 
(Mal.'xiv.  :54). 

3.  The  sheet  of  water  adjacent  to  the  forti- 
fied city  and  region  of  (hinnereth  (Num. 
xxxiv.  11:  Josh.  xii.  :5 ;  xiii.  27;  1  Kin.  xv. 
20).  In  later  times  known  as  the  lake  of 
(iennesaret  (Luke  v.  1)  and  sea  of  Galilee  or 
Tiberias  (.John  vi.  1). 

Chi'os. 

An  island,  now  called  Scio  or  Chio,  in  the 
Greek  Archipelago,  at  the  entrance  of  the 
Gulf  of  Smyrna.  It  has  Lesbos  on  the  north 
and  Samos  on  the  south.  It  is  ab(jut  32  miles 
long  from  north  to  south.  LS  broad  from  east 
to  we.st,  and  has  an  area  of  about  400  square 
miles.  Paul's  vessel  jiassed  it  ou  his  last  voy- 
age to  Palestine  (Acts  xx.  15). 

Chis'lev,  in  A.  V.  Chisleu. 
The  ninth  month  of  the  Hebrew  j'ear  (Neh. 
i.  1:  Zech.  vii.  1 ;  1  Mac.  i.  54).     See  Year. 

CMs'lon  [trust,  hope]. 
Father  of  the  prince  of  Benjamin  iu  the 
time  of  Moses  (Num.  xxxiv.  21). 

CMs'loth-ta'bor  [the  Hanks  of  Tabor  or 
the  tru>t  of  Tabiprj. 

A  town  at  the  lower  ]iart  of  mount  Tabor, 
on  the  boundary  line  of  Zebuluu  (Josh.  xix. 
12)  :  )U-obably  the  same  as  Chesulloth.  a  town 
on  the  border  of  Issachar  (ver.  18).  The  two 
names  are  radically  identical ;  they  ditl'er 
merely  in  the  vocalization,  and  this  difter- 
ence  of  ])ronunciation  is  not  supported  by 
the  Se])tuagint.  Eusel)ius  menti<ins  a  vil- 
lage Cliasiilus  in  the  plain  near  mount  Tabor. 
Tlic  i)lace  is  commonly  identified  with  the 
modern  village  of  Iksal  or  Ksal,  which  stands 
on  a  rocky  eminence  west  of  Tabor. 

Chitli'lisli,  in  A.  ^'.  Kithlish. 

A  village  ill   the  lowland  of  Judah  (Josh. 

XV.    10 1. 

CMt'tim.     See  Kittim. 

Cbi'un. 

.\  word  occurring  but  once  in  the  Hebrew 
Piliie,  in  Anu)S.  v.  2<i,  and  of  doubtful  mean- 
ing. It  is  probably  the  planet  Saturn,  known 
to  the  Syrians  as  Kewan  or  Kaivan,  and  which 
was  lookeil  upon  as  unproiiitious. 

Chlo'e  [the  first  .shoot  of  green  gras.s]. 

A  Christian  woman,  apparently  of  Corinth 
(1  Cor.  i.  11). 

Chor-a'shan.     .s^e  Ash.\n. 

Cho-ra'zin. 

A  town  mentioned  along  with  Rethsaida 
and  Capernaum,  and  probably,  like  theui, 
uear  the  sea  of  Galilee.     Like  tlie  two  other 


Chozeba 


124 


Chronicles,  Books  of  the 


]ilaccs,  t'horazin  had  at  times  been  the  seene 
ol"  the  Saviour's  jireaehiiig  ami  beiu-licent 
miracles;  Imt  it  tailed  to  turn  its  spiritual 
jirivileges  to  account,  and  was  doomed  to 
snller  the  penalty  of  its  neglect  (Mat.  xi.  21; 
Luke  X.  i;{).  Eusebius,  in  the  lourth  cen- 
tury, said  that  it  was  2  lionian  niiii-s  from 
Capernaum.  In  1842  the  Rev.  (i.  Williams 
bidieved  that  he  had  found  it  at  Kcrazeh, 
about  2i   miles  north  of   Tell   Hum.     The 


name  was  lirst  given  at  Antioch,  about  a.  u. 
4.'i,  and  ap])arently  by  foes  rather  than  friends 
(Acts  xi.  '^(i).  Though  destined  ultimately  to 
become  universal,  yet  it  took  root  so  slowly 
that  it  is  found  only  twice  again  in  the  X.  T., 
once  in  the  mouth  of  Agrippa  II.,  when  Paul 
preached  rei)entance  and  remission  of  sins- 
through  .lesus  and  testilied  to  the  resurrec- 
tion of  Christ  (Acts  xxvi.  Iti,  23,  2t?),  and 
once  in  a  letter  from  Peter  to  comfort  the 


Kerflzeh,  Site  of  Chorazin. 


identification  is  now  generally  accejited.  It 
is  a  little  inland,  in  a  side  valley  branching 
off  from  another  one  which  goes  down  to  the 
lake.  The  spot  is  marked  by  extensive  ruins, 
including  a  synagogue. 

Cho-ze'ba.     See  Cozeba. 

Christ  [(ireck,  anointed]. 

The  Anointed  One.  a  title  corresponding  to 
the  Hebrew  name  Messiah,  which  denoted 
the  anointed  king  of  Israel,  and,  after  Saul's 
reign,  the  royal  son  of  David.  The  term  was 
borrowed  from  the  Scptiiagint,  specially  from 
Ps.  ii.  2  ;  Dan.  ix.  25.  When  used  in  the  N. 
T.  it  generally  has  the  word  the  prefixed,  and 
means  the  Messiah  of  ().  T.  pro])hecy  (Mat. 
xvi.  1(5,  20  ;  xxvi.  (V.i :  Mark  viii.  29  ;  Luke  iii. 
l.T  ;  John  i.  41).  Sometimes  the  is  omitti'd 
(Mat.  xxvi.  68;  John  iv.  25). 

Christ,  though  really  used  in  the  iirimary 
sense,  is  so  constantly  apjiendcd  (o. lesus.  the 
distinctive  jiersonal  nainr  of  our  Lord,  given 
from  his  birth,  as  virtually  to  constitute  part 
of  the  proper  name  (John  i.  17  ;  Acts  xi.  17  ; 
Rom.  i.  1  ;  V.  1  ;  Philemon  1,  etc.). 

Chris 'tian. 

A  follower  of  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ.     The 


faithful  whose  adherence  to  Christ  brought 
persecution  ui>on  them  (1  Pet.  iv.  16). 

Chron'i-cles,  Books  of  the. 

Two  historical  books  of  the  O.  T.  They 
are  evidently  the  work  of  a  single  author, 
for  they  have  unity  of  ])lan  and  purpose,  and 
are  incomjJete  if  one  is  sundered  from  the 
other.  In  fact  they  actually  formed  one  book 
in  the  old  Hebrew  canon.  The  Septuagint 
translators  divided  them  into  two,  and  this 
division  was  finally  admitted  into  ])rinted 
editions  of  the  Hebrew  canon.  The  Hebrew 
name  of  the  books  is  "  Acts  of  the  Days,"  i.  e. 
of  the  Times.  The  Seiituagint  calls  them 
Pdraleipomena,  or  things  left  over.  The  title 
is  unfortunate,  since  it  incorrectly  implies 
that  the  book  was  intended  as  a  supplement, 
whereas  it  has  an  independent  aim.  The 
name  Chronicles  is  derived  from  the  title 
Chnmieon  ai)plied  to  these  writings  by  Jerome, 
who  descrii)es  them  as  "a  chronicle  of  the 
whole  of  sacred  history." 

The  work  naturally  divides  itself  into  two 
parts:  1.  The  genealogies.  es])ecially  of  .ludah, 
Benjamin,  and  Levi,  from  the  creation  to  the 
return  from  the  Babylonian  exile  (1  Chron.. 


Chronicles,  Books  of  the 


125 


Chronology 


i.-viii.).  with  ;i  register  of  tlioso  who,  prob- 
al)ly  l)efon;  the  exile,  dwelt  in  ■lenisaleiii  (ix. 
l-;>li.  The  triinsitioii  to  part  .second  is  af- 
t'Di-ded  hy  means  iif  the  fjenealofjy  and  death 
of  Saul  and  Jonathan  (ix.  .'Jj-x.  i4).  2.  His- 
tory of  the  Israelites,  more  esi)e<'ially  of 
Judah,  from  the  accession  of  David  to  the 
ri-mrii  from  the  IJabylouian  exile  lxi.-2 
C'liron.  xxxvi.). 

The  aliriipt  conclusion  of  the  work,  and 
the  identity  of  its  dosinj;  verses  with  the 
o|ieninjj  verses  of  Kzra,  have  been  thought 
to  indicate  that  C'lir(fnicles  and  Ezra  were 
originally  one  continuous  history.  Hut  these 
verses  are  a  ijUotation  either  in  both  Chroni- 
cle.s  and  Ezra  fn»m  the  same  state  document, 
or,  more  probably,  in  one  l)o()k  from  the 
other.  The  bociks  them.selves  iu'ver  ccjusti- 
tuted  one  work.  They  are  entirely  dilferent 
in  ]ilan,  and  ancient  tradition  ucvt'r  reckoned 
them  as  one.  They  may,  however,  have  had 
one  and  the  same  author. 

The  first  datum  which  bears  on  the  (jues- 
tion  as  t"  when  the  work  was  coniiiosed  is 
fi)UU<l  in  tlie;;euealogies.  The  line  of  David  is 
lirou^ilit  diiwn  to  a  date  later  than  any  other. 
'J'lie  >;nuidchildren  of  Zerubbabcl  are  men- 
tinned  il  (bron.  iii.  iy-21),  consequently  the 
Work  cannnt  have  been  conii)osed  a  };reat 
while  before  the  time  of  Ezra.  It  is,  how- 
ever, frequently  allirmed  that  yet  later  de- 
scendants of  Zerubbabel  are  registered,  even 
the  sixth  generation  after  liim  (•J1--J1).  But 
there  is  not  the  shadow  of  jiroof  that  the 
families  enumerated  in  verse  "21,  latter  ]tart, 
were  descendants  of  Ilananiah.  son  of  Zerub- 
babel. Their  descent  and  that  of  Shecaniah, 
whose  ))osterity  is  given  at  considerable 
length  (21-2J).  are  not  indicated.  The  i)he- 
uomenoii  of  unattached  families  is  of  com- 
mon occurrence  in  tliese  genealogies,  and, 
when  the  text  is  not  at  fault,  indicates  that 
the  family  thus  loosely  catalogued  )>elonged 
to  the  clan  or  tribe  with  which  it  is  registered, 
though  its  connection  is  not  traced.  The 
four  families  enumerate<l  in  verse  21  be- 
longed to  the  lineage  of  David,  and  were  col- 
lateral with  the  royal  line  wliich  descended 
through  Ilananiah.  son  of  Zerubbabel.  The 
other  indications  likewise  ])oiiit  to  the  time 
of  Ezra.  The  atiinunt  cdiitributed  toward 
the  erection  of  the  temi)le  is  stated  in  Per- 
sian coins,  not  in  Greek  (1  C'hron.  xxix.  7. 
R.  V.,darics),  which  indicatt's  that  tlie  Greek 
empire  had  not  su]>plauted  the  I'ersian  when 
the  Work  was  comimseci.  The  designation 
of  the  temi)le  as  "  the  Mirah,"  the  castle  or 
tlie  palace  (1  Chron.  xxix.  1.  1!»),  indicates  a 
time  not  later  than  Nehemiah  :  for  after  his 
time  "the  IJinih ''  ileiioted  not  the  temple, 
but  a  structure  err^ted  by  him  (Neb.  ii.  K; 
vii.  2,  l)oth  K.  v.),  which  came  to  be  distin- 
guished from  the  temple  and  all  other  l)uild- 
ings  as  tlie  castle;  see  Antoma,  Towkk  of. 

.\iicient  opinion  was  that  Chronicles  was 
wriilen  by  Iv/.ni.  This  tradition  cannot  be 
prove. 1.  and  it  is  not  vit.il  that  it   should  he. 


But  there  is  no  valid  objection  to  it ;  and  it 
i.s  strengthened  by  ]ieculiarities  of  language 
common  to  Chronicles  and  Ezra.  These  i)ecu- 
liarities  have  led  most  modern  critics,  even 
when  influenced  by  the  unwarranted  inter- 
l)retation  of  the  genealogy  in  iii.  19-24  to  as- 
sign a  late  date  to  Chronicles,  nevertheless  to 
hold  that  the  two  books  in  their  jjresent  form 
are  from  the  same  hand. 

Chronicles  stands  among  the  Hagiograjiha, 
the  last  division  of  the  Hebrew  canon,  and 
not  among  "  the  prophets.''  This  is  evidence 
that  the  author  was  not  a  projihet ;  see 
Canon.  The  .Masorites,  followed  as  a  rule 
by  8i)anish  manuscripts,  jilaced  Chronicles 
first  in  order  among  the  Hagiograi)ha  and 
inmiediately  before  the  I'siilms.  In  the 
])rinted  editions  of  the  Ilelirew  Bible,  and 
in  (ierninu  and  l'"rencii  nianuscrijjts,  it  fol- 
lows ICzra-Xehemiah,  and  is  the  last  book  in 
the  division.  This  jiosition  it  ])robably  oc- 
cuiiied  at  the  time  of  Christ,  for  Zechariah  is 
cited  as  the  last  [named]  pro])het  who  suf- 
fered a  violent  death  (Mat.  xxiii.  8.");  Luke 
xi.  51  :  cp.  2  Chron.  xxiv.  20-22). 

Chro-noro-gy. 

Tlu'  nations  of  antiquity  did  not  have  a 
uniform  system  of  chronology;  nor  did  they 
entertain  the  same  notions  and  feel  the  same 
need  of  an  exact  and  unvarying  chronological 
method  as  does  the  modern  world.  The  As- 
syrians and  Babylonians  ai)i)ear  to  have  been 
confident  of  their  ability  to  date  events  of  re- 
mote anticjuity  ;  but.  So  far  as  known,  they  did 
not  have  an  era  serving  as  a  fixed  standard 
from  which  to  reckon  all  occurrences,  but 
named  (>ach  year  after  a  juiblic  ollicial.  and 
kept  a  list  of  these  annual  ejjonyms.  An 
event  having  bei'u  dated  by  the  ei>onyniy  in 
which  it  liai)]iened.  its  ri'moteness  was  readily 
asci'rtained  by  counting  on  the  list  tir  canon 
the  number  of  ei)onynis  that  had  intervened. 
In  Babylonia,  Assyria,  I'alestine.  and  Egypt, 
documents  were  fre(iuently  dated  by  the  reg- 
nal year  of  the  reigning  monarch,  rnfortn- 
nately  tiie  scril)es  did  not  always  reckon  uni- 
fonnly ;  but  tinder  the  same  king  some  re- 
garded the  accession  year  as  the  first  regnal 
year,  while  others  consideri'd  th«'  civil  twelve- 
month which  followed  the  accession  as  the 
first  yt-ar  of  the  reign.  Furthermore,  a  son 
was  not  infrequently  associatetl  with  bis 
father  on  the  throne,  and  some  scribes  treated 
the  first  year  of  association  with  the  father, 
and  others  the  first  year  of  s<ile  reign,  as  the 
first  regnal  year.  'I'he  deficient  sense  of 
chronology,  estimat«'d  by  modern  concci»- 
liims,  is  seen  in  the  fact  tJiat  .Tose]>hus  deter- 
mines the  duration  of  the  kingdom  of  Ismel 
by  simjily  adding  together  the  number  of 
years  that  each  king  ruled,  regardless  of  the 
fact  that  the  reigns  regularly  overlapped  one 
year,  since  the  death  of  a  king  and  the  ac- 
ces.sion  of  his  successor  fell  in  the  same  year, 
and  this  year  was  apt  to  be  reckoned  to  both 
reigus.    Pursuing  this  method,  he  states  that 


Chronology 


126 


Chronology 


the  kingdom  t)f  Israel  lasted  240  years,  7 
mouths,  and  7  days  (Antici.  ix.  14,  1)  ;  yet  by 
other  calculations,  which  he  makes  ou  the 
basis  of  the  reigns  of  the  kings  of  Judah,  he 
implies  that  the  period  was  2(>3  years  (e.  <j. 
Antiq.  x.  d,  5  with  viii.  7,  S  aud  x.  9,  7).  The 
same  lack  of  a  nice  chronological  sense  ap- 
pears in  the  fact  that  Josephus  estimates  the 
number  of  years  that  elajised  from  the  ex- 
odus to  the  founding  of  the  temjile  at  592 
(Antiq.  viii.  3,  1),  at  other  times  at  612  {xx. 
10;  con.  Apion.  ii.  2),  the  Hebrew  writer  at 
480  (1  Kin.  vi.  1),  and  Paul  apparently  at 
about  574  (Acts  xiii.  18-21  and  1  Kin.  ii.  11  ; 
vi.  1).  These  diverse  statements  api>ear  con- 
tradictory to  the  modern  reader  who  lacks 
the  historic  sense  and  cannot  divest  himself 
of  modern  chronological  conceptions ;  but 
they  are  accurate  in  the  sense  in  which  they 
were  intended,  aud  in  which  they  were  un- 
derstood. 

The  era,  as  it  is  used  in  modern  chronology, 
came  into  use  at  a  comparatively  late  date. 
The  exodus  from  Egypt  served  the  Hebrews 
for  a  brief  time  as  a  point  from  which  to 
reckon  (Ex.  xvi.  1  :  Num.  ix.  1 ;  x.  11 ;  xxxiii. 
38).  The  Romans  dated  all  documents  by 
the  name  of  the  consul  in  oilice,  aud  later 
they  added  the  regnal  year  of  the  emperor. 
Their  historians  began  to  date  from  the  foun- 
dation of  the  city,  A.  u.  c,  but  the  custom 
did  not  arise  until  some  centuries  after  the 
event.  Varro's  date  for  the  founding  of  the 
city,  753  B.  c,  is  generally  accepted  as  the 
commencement  of  this  era.  The  Greeks 
reckoned  by  periods  of  four  years  called 
Olympiads.  The  first  began  in  776  B.  C,  the 
year  in  which  Corcebns  was  victor  in  the 
Olympic  games.  The  Syrians  used  the  Se- 
leucidau  era,  beginning  with  October  312 
B.  c.  It  was  used  by  the  Jews  in  Maccabseau 
times  (1  Mac.  i.  10).  The  Mohammedans  date 
from  the  Hegira,  or  flight  of  Mohammed  from 
Mecca,  in  x.  d.  622.  The  Jews  use  a  world's 
era,  dating  from  the  creation,  which  they 
place  in  the  year  3760-61  b.  c.  Christian 
nations  have  adopted  the  birth  of  Christ  as 
an  era.  At  the  beginning  of  the  sixth  cen- 
tury, the  Roman  abbot  Dionysius  in  his 
Easter  tables  counted  from  the  incarnation 
of  the  Lord.  The  abbot  erred  in  his  calcula- 
tion of  the  date  of  Christ's  birth,  but  the 
year  which  he  fixed  upon,  A.  u.  c.  754,  has 
been  accepted  as  the  commencement  of  the 
Christian  era.  The  Christian  era  began,  not 
with  no  year,  but  with  a  fii'st  year.  Events 
which  occurred  within  the  civil  year  which 
included  Christ's  birth  are  dated  in  the  first 
year. 

Dates  were  placed  in  the  margin  of  A.  V. 
in  1701.  They  represent  the  chronological 
scheme  of  Usher,  archbishop  of  Armagh, 
which  he  published  in  his  Anuales  Veteris  ct 
Novi  Testamenfi  in  16.50-54.  His  work  was 
careful  and  scholarly,  and  served  a  useful 
purpose  for  two  centuries  and  a  half.  Hut 
it  is  inaccurate  and  obsolete.     It  gives  only 


one  of  several  possible  arrangements.  It  is 
based  in  critical  points  ou  Usher's  private  in- 
terpretation of  disputed  passages,  in  some  of 
which  he  clearly  erred,  as  has  been  proved  in 
recent  years.  His  system  was  worked  out 
from  the  standpoint  of  modern  chronological 
conceptions,  and  fails  to  do  justice  to  the 
diflerent  notions  which  i)revailed  in  an- 
tiquity. It  was  constructed  witliDiit  the  in- 
valuable aid  of  data  which  have  been  br(jught 
to  light  by  modern  research.  But  although 
Usher's  system  is  obsolete,  it  cannot  as  yet  be 
superseded  by  a  complete  aud  final  scheme. 
A  few  dates  are  fixed,  and  the  chronology  of 
certain  periods  is  established.  Other  dates 
are  still  under  investigation  or  are  awaiting 
disclosure  from  undiscovered  ancient  records. 
Much  is  tentative. 

From  the  Creation  of  the  World  to 
THE  Birth  of  Abrah.\.m. 

The  data  are  furnished  by  the  Hebrew 
records  in  Gen.  v.  1-32  ;  vii.  11 ;  xi.  10-26. 
There  are  several  possible  methods  of  inter- 
preting them,  among  which  may  be  men- 
tioned : 

I.  The  genealogy  was  constructed  by  the 
ancient  writers  in  the  same  manner  that  it 
would  be  framed  by  people  of  the  present 
day. 

Adam  having  lived  130  years,  begat 


Seth,           who  ''         ' 

105 

Enosb,           "     "         ' 

90 

Kenan,          "     "         < 

70 

Mahalalel,    "     "         " 

65 

Jared,            "     "         " 

162 

Enoch,           "     '<         ' 

65 

Methuselah,"     "         ' 

187 

Lamech,        "     "         ' 

182 

Noah,  in  whose 

600th 

year 

the  flood 

From  the  creation  to 

came. 

the  flood. 

1656  years. 

Noah  having  lived  500  years,  begat 

Shem,        who   "         "     100 '    " 
Arpachshad"     "        "      .35      "  " 

Shelah,         "     "         "      30      " 
Eber,  "     "         "      34      " 

Peleg,  "     "         "      30      " 

Ren,  "     "         "      32      "  " 

Serug,  "     "         "      30      " 

Nahor,  "     "         "      29      " 

Terah,  "     "         " 70      " 

Abram,  Nahor,  and 
Haran,  890  years  after  birth 

of  Noah. 
290      "     after     the 

flood. 
1946     "     after     the 

creation. 

The  two  years  of  Gen.  xi.  10  are  added  to 
this  result  by  Usher,  according  to  whom 
Terah  begat  his  sous  1948  years  after  the 
creation.  On  this  interpretaticm  Shem  was 
not  the  eldest  son  of  Noah,  as  is  generally  be- 


Chronology 


127 


Chronology 


lieved,  horn  when  his  father  was  500  years  old 
(Gen.  V.  :W).  But  xi.  lo  has  another  txjilana- 
tion.  Interpreting  the  (hita  of  the  f;eneahi{;y 
as  before,  Noah  having  lived  "lOO  years  hefjat 
Sheni,  who  having  lived  100  yeai-s,  begat 
Arjiaehshad.  Arjiaehshad  was  thus  born  in 
the  (joist  year  of  Noah's  life,  lie  was  l)orn 
in  the  seeond  eivil  year  after  the  Hood  year, 
eounting  it  the  first.  The  flood  year  was  the 
tJOOth  of  Noahs  life  {vii.  (>,  11).  the  flood 
itself  prevailing  during  live  months  of  that 
year.  Noah  lived  '.i'A>  full  years  after  the 
flood  year,  counting  it  the  first  (ix.  "JS).  In 
the  flood  year  he  was  599  years  and  some 
montlis  old.  As  he  lived  350  years  longer,  he 
died  when  he  was  iM!t  years  and  some  months 
old,  in  the  !i.')()th  yearof  his  age  (ix.  :i!l).  There 
are  discrepancies  l)etween  the  Hebrew,  the 
Septiiagint,  and  the  Samaritan  Pentateuch. 
The  Hebrew  text  is  evidently  the  most  ac- 
curate one  witJi  respect  to  dates.  The  8ep- 
tuagint,  |iriiliably  on  the  ground  that  the  long- 
lived  antediluvians  were  not  likely  to  beget 
a  son  while  they  were  less  than  150  years  old, 
took  the  liberty  of  adding  a  century  to  the 
Hebrew  date,  where  it  was  said  that  they 
had  done  so,  as  in  tlie  case  of  Adam,  Scth, 
Euosh,  Kenan,  Mahalalel,  and  Enoch.  The 
minor  variations  are  that  to  J..amech  the 
Alexandrian  text  and  Lncian  assign  ISS + 
565  =  751}  vears ;  and  Lncian  divides  Methu- 
selah's life  into  ](i7  r  802  =  iMi9  year.s.  The 
Samaritan  rentateuch,  on  the  contrary,  ap- 
parently on  the  grciund  tiiat  an  antediluvian 
was  not  likely  to  have,  lived  150  years  with- 
out begetting  his  first  .son,  finding  by  the  He- 
brew text  that  .Tared  did  so  at  1()2,  .Methuse- 
lah at  1^7  (according  to  Lncian  at  It!"),  and 
Lamech  at  IS-i,  cut  the  figures  down  t<i()2,  (17, 
and  5.'j.  This  reduced  the  total  length  of  tluir 
lives,  whereas  the  Sei)tuagint  had  carefully 
balanced  its  additions  to  tlie  first  part  of  the 
lives  by  corres])onding  snl)tractions  from  the 
later  i>art.  so  that  the  total  length  of  each  life 
was  the  same  in  that  version  as  in  the  He- 
brew original,  except  in  the  case  of  Lamech. 
Similarly,  in  the  case  of  the  postdiluvian  ])a- 
triarchs  who  preceded  Abraham,  the  .Septmi- 
gint  hesitates  to  allow  them  to  beget  a  son  till 
they  are  100  years  old.  It  adds  100  years  to 
the  ages  at  which  sons  were  begotten  by 
Arpachshad,  Shelah,  Eber,  Peleg,  Ren,  and 
S4.'riig.  and  50  (.Vlexandrian  manuscriiit  and 
Lucian)to  the  time  of  life  when  Xali<pr  begat 
Terah.  .\fter  Ari)achshad  it  inserts  Kenan, 
and  states  that  he  begat  Shelah  wlien  IHO 
years  old.  The  Samaritan  I'entati'Ucb  allows 
them  to  licLM't  a  son  after  ."0;  and  in  the  case 
of  Arpachshad.  Shelah.  Kber,  Peleg.  lieu,  and 
Serug  adds  100  years  to  the  age  a.ssigned  by 
the  Hebrew  text,  and  50  years  in  the  case  of 
Xahor. 

II.  Many  links  are  omitted.  .\s  in  other 
Ilelirew  genealogies,  each  member  is  said  to 
have  begotten  his  successor,  although  the 
latter  may  l)e  a  grandson  or  even  remoter 
descendant;  as  in  the  royal  genealogy  given 


in  Matthew,  the  three  kings  Ahaziah,  Joash, 
and  Amaziah  are  ])a.s.sed  over  and  .Joram  is 
said  to  have  begotten  I'zziah,  his  great-great- 
grandson  (i.  S,  li.  v.).  Only  i)rominent  mem- 
bers of  the  line  are  enumerated,  or  else,  as  an 
aid  to  memory,  a  definite  number  is  chosen  ; 
in  Matthew  groups  of  twice  seven,  in  Genesis- 
groups  of  ten. 

Adam,  at  the  age  of  130  begat 
Seth,  who  at  the  age  of  105  begat 

Ancestor  of  Ihiosh  or  Knosli  himself. 
Enosh.  at  the  age  of  90  begat 

Ancestor  of  Kenan  or  Kenan  himself. 
Kenan,  at  the  age  of  70  begat 

Ancestor  of  ]\Iahalalel  or  Mahalalel  him- 
self. 

According  to  this  theory,  the  Hebrew  records 
afford  no  basis  for  a  chronology  from  Adam 
to  Abraham.  It  assumes,  further,  that  the 
age  assigned  to  the  patriarchs  is  that  of  their 
natural  life.  Adam  lived  9:j0  years.  This 
extraordinary  longevity  is  accounted  for  by 
the  fact  that  sin,  which  has  a  jihysical  effect 
and  works  disease  and  death,  had  only  lie- 
gun  its  malign  influence  on  the  race,  and  had 
not  reached  its  normal  hereditary  jiower. 
The  balance  between  nian  in  a  sinless  state 
and  man  in  the  condition  of  sinner  had  not 
been  attained. 

III.  The  names  denote  an  individual  and 
his  family  s]ioken  of  collectively  ;  as  Israel 
denotes  a  iiatriarch  and  his  descendants.  Kain 
is  used  for  the  Kenites  (Num.  xxiv.  22,  li.  V.), 
David  for  the  royal  house  (1  Kin.  xii.  16). 
Sometimes  the  family  takes  its  name  from  its 
progenitor  or  later  leading  member  of  the 
tribe;  sometimes  the  name  of  the  tribe  or 
of  the  country  it  inhabits  is  apjilied  to  its 
chief  re])resentative,  as  to-day  men  are  con- 
stantly addressed  by  their  family  name,  ami 
nobles  are  called  by  the  name  of  (heir  duchy 
or  county.  In  (ien.  x.  the  names  in  the  gen- 
ealogy are  sometimes  individuals,  sometimes 
Iieojdes,  sometimes  cities,  sometimes  coun- 
tries: and  in  the  jiedigree  of  Abraham  given 
in  this  chapter  Ariiachshad,  whom  Shem  be- 
gat (x.  221,  is  ai))iarently  a  country  whose  in- 
haliilants  were  descendants  of  Shem.  and  this 
country  jiroduci'd  Shelah.  The  longevity  is 
the  jieriod  during  which  the  family  had 
]irominence  and   leadership. 

Adam,  1 

Familvof  Seth  originated  when  Adam 
was"i:50  years  old  (v.  3).  130 

Adam  and  his  direct  line  were  at  the 
head  of  affairs  for  iCiO  years  (ver.  5), 
when  Ihev  were  su]ier.seded  by 
Family  of  .Keth,  9:;o 

In  Seth.  105  years  after  it  attained 
lu'adshi|i,  the  family  of  Enosh  took 
its  rise  (ver.  (i).  1035- 

After  being  at  the  head  of  affairs  for 
912  years  (ver.  S),  Seth  was  suc- 
ceeded by 


Chronology 


128 


Chronology 


Family  of  Eiiosh,  1842 

Ninety  years  after  Euosh  attaiued  to 
hoadsiiiii  tliere  sjn-ang  from  it  the 
family  of  Kenan  (vcr.  9).  1932 

After  Enosh  liad  held  the  leadership 
81")  years  longer   (.ver.   10),    Euosh 
gave  place  to 
Family  of  Kenan,  2747 

Family  of  Eameeh.  6848 

Family  wliieli  took  its  name  from  Noah 

originated,  7030 

Lamech  is  succeeded  hv 
Fanuly  of  Noah,  "  7625 

Shem,  Ham,  aud  .Japheth  born  about  8125 
Flood,  8225 

Arpaehshad  originates,  8227 

The  race  of  Shem,  as  distinct  from  the 
other  descendants  of  Noah,  become 
preeminent,  8575 

Hence  the  years  from  the  creation  of  Adam 
to  the  Hood  were  S22."),  and  from  Adam  to  the 
death  of  Terah  may  he  11,571.  This  outline 
exhibits  one  ajiplication  of  the  theory;  but 
it  must  be  remembered  that  at  diflerent  points 
in  the  genealogy  various  interpretations  are 
liossible,  which  jiiust  be  subject  to  individual 
preference  until  further  data  come  to  light. 

Fkom  the  Birth  of  Abraham  to  the 
Exodus. 

How  long  after  the  flood  Abraham  was 
born  cannot  be  determined  from  the  biblical 
record,  not  even  by  the  first  method  enume- 
rated above  and  employed  by  Usher  in  inter- 
preting the  geuealogj'  from  Adam  to  Abra- 
ham, for  the  age  of  Terah  at  the  birth  of  Ab- 
raham is  not  so  stated  in  Gen.  xi.  26,  32  as  to  be 
unquestionable  ;  see  Abraham.  According 
to  Usher,  Abraham's  birth  occurred  in  1996 
B.  c.  The  period  from  the  birth  of  Abraham 
to  the  descent  into  Egypt  can  be  measured  : 

Birth  of  Abraham  to 

"     "    Isaac    100  years  (Gen.  xxi.  5). 
"     •'    Jacob    60  years  (Gen.  xxv.  26). 
Jacob's  age  at  de- 
scent into  Egypt    130  years  (Gen.  xlvii.  9). 

290  years. 
The  sojourn  of  the  children  of  Israel  in 
Egypt  was  430  years  (Ex.  xii.  40,  41).  But 
from  what  initial  date  is  this  period  reck- 
oned ?  From  the  covenant  with  Abraham 
(Gen.  XV.),  when  he  was  between  75  and  85 
years  old  (xii.  4  ;  xvi.  3),  as  Usher  and  many 
others  believe,  or  from  the  descent  into 
Egypt '?  Probftbl J-  from  the  latter  event ; 
see  Egypt  III.  3. 

It  is  generally  believed  that  Ramses  II. 
was  the  I'haraoh  of  the  oppression,  and  one 
of  his  successors,  ])robably  Mer-n-])tah  (a  name 
more  familiar  in  the  form  Metie])tah),  was 
the  Pharaoh  of  the  exodus  ;  see  Egypt  III.  8. 
The  date  of  liamses  II.  may  be  ajiproxi- 
mately  fixed  by  the  factthat  Amcn-hete]),  oras 
the  Greeks  ])roiiounced  the  name,  Ameno|)his 
IV.  of  Egypt  was  a  contemporary  of  Ashuru- 


ballit  of  Assyria.  Tiikulti-adar,  fifth  in  descent 
fnnu  Ashuruliallit.  reigned,  according  to  a 
statement  of  Sennacherib,  about  1300  B.  C. 
The  fifth  or  sixth  king  on  the  throne  of  Egypt 
after  Amenojihis  1\'.  was  liamses  II..  an  indi- 
cation that  Ramses  II.  reigned  about  13U()B.  c. 
'i'he  date  of  Meueptah's  reign  was  deter- 
mined in  the  following  manner:  Menophres, 
ai)parently  Menei>tah,  is  the  king  in  whose 
reign  the  Sothic  period  of  1460  years  is  said 
to  have  begun.  According  to  Tlieon  the  as- 
tronomer, the  Sothic  i)eriod  ended  in  A.  D. 
139.  It  began,  therefore,  in  1321  B.  c.  Hence 
Meneptah's  reign  included  the  year  1.321. 
On  the  basis  of  these  calculations  for  the  date 
of  the  reigns  of  Kamses  II.  and  Meuejjtah, 
the  exodus  has  been  provisionally  fixed  at 
about  1320.  This  date  will  be  lowered  about 
forty  years  if  Dr.  Mahler,  astronomer  at 
Vienna,  proves  to  be  correct  in  his  opinion, 
founded  on  astronimiical  data,  that  Kamses 
II.  reigned  from  1348  to  1281  B.  c. 

From  the  Exodus  to  the  Foundation' 
OF  Solomon's  Temple. 

This  interval  was  doubtless  reckoned  as 
twelve  periods  of  forty  years  each  (1  Kin. 
vi.  1),  of  which  the  first  covered  the  sojourn 
in  the  wilderness  (Ex.  xvi.  35  ;  Num.  xiv.  33), 
six  certainly,  and  probably  eight,  were  al- 
lowed for  the  time  of  the  judges  jiroiier,  the 
oppression  and  rest  being  frequently  included 
in  the  statement  (Judg.  iii.  11,  30 — double 
period:  v.  31;  viii.  28;  xiii.  1;  and  prob- 
ably X.  1-4  and  xii.  7-14),  the  high  priest- 
hood of  Eli  counted  as  one  (1  Sam.  iv.  18), 
Saul's  reign  iirobably  as  another  (Acts  xiii. 
21),  while  David's  reign  made  the  twelfth 
(1  Kin.  ii.  11).  But  the  forty  years  are  a 
round  number,  and  not  always  exact.  The 
periods  enumerated  were  sometimes  in  whole 
or  in  part  contemporary  :  see  Judges.  Jejdi- 
thah  speaks  of  the  Israelites  having  occupied 
the  country  about  Heshbon  for  300  years 
(Judg.  xi.  26),  some  seven  periods  of  forty 
years.  Josephus,  reckoning  in  a  dill'erent  man- 
ner, estimates  the  time  from  the  exodus  to  the 
temple  at  592  or  612  years  (Antiq.  viii.  3,  1  ; 
XX.  10),  while  Paul,  according  to  the  received 
text,  refers  to  the  jieriod  of  the  judges  as 
lasting  about  4.50  years  (Acts  xiii.  20).  As 
already  pointed  out,  these  diverse  results  do 
not  contradict  each  other,  although  they  do 
not  agree.  The  variations  are  due  to  the 
diflerent  methods  emi>loyed  in  calculating. 
The  sum  was  not  su]iposed  to  re]U'esent  the 
exact  duration  of  the  period,  as  would  a 
modern  chronological  statement.  The  length 
of  the  period  caniH)t  be  given  in  modern 
terms  until  new  data  come  to  light. 

From  the  Foundation  of  the  Temple  to 
THE  Exile  .\nd  Eeturn. 

The  temjile  was  founded  in  the  fourth  year 
of  Solomon  (1  Kin.  vi.  1).  Solomon  reigned 
fortv  years,  and  was  succeeded  by  Kehoboam, 


I 


Chronology 

ou  wliose  ascension  of  the  tliionc  the  ten 
tribes  revolted.  The  data  ()l)taiiied  from  both 
Hebrew  and  foreifjn  sources  may  be  arranj^ed 
accordinf;  to  tlie  folhtwiiif;  sclieme.  For  dis- 
cussion of  tile  iletails.  see  tile  articles  in  this 
Manual  which  are  devoted  to  the  several 
kiufjs,  and  a  brief  monograph  on  the  chronol- 
ogy l)y  Prof.  Davis  in  tiie  J'nshj/leriini  (util  Re- 
J'unnvd  Iicvicir.  1>JI1.  \)]t.  9S-11  1.  In  general  it 
maybe  ri'marked  that  this  .scheme  recognizes 
the  existence  of  co-reigns.  They  were  com- 
mon in  the  neighboring  monarchies,  and  are 
proven  in  individual  cases  for  the  Hebrews. 
David  when  incajiacitated  by  age  for  goveru- 
nient.  and  in  ilaiiger  of  having  his  throne 
usurjied.  had  Solomon  made  king  (1  Kin.  i.). 
When  I'zziah  was  comiielled  to  seclude  him- 
self becau.se  he  had  become  a  leper,  .lotham 
assumed  the  duties  of  royalty  (2  Kin.  xv.  5). 
The  scheme  further  recognizes  that  among  the 
Hebrews,  as  among  neighboring  nations,  no 
fixed  rule  existed  as  to  whether  the  accession 
year  of  a  king  or  the  civil  year  which  fol- 
lowed should  ))e  counted  as  the  lirst  regnal 
year.  Some  recorders  followed  one  uietliod, 
f)thers  another.  Exam])les  might  be  multi- 
jdied;  one  will  suttice.     In  Ptolemy's  canon 

1  K.  14  :  Jl.        Rehoboam.  1 

2 

■J  ('.  11  :  17.  Tlinc  viar.s'  iiodliness.         'i 

4 
1  K.  14  :  'lis.  Shisliak's  invasion.  5 


1  -1'  Chronology 


(i04,  the  civil  year  following  accession  is 
treated  as  the  first  regnal  year.  So  it  is  by 
Jo.se])hus  als(».  and  likewise  in  the  record 
whence  Jer.  Hi.  2S-3(l  is  taken.  On  the  other 
hand  .U'remiah  himself  and  Daniel  and  Pales- 
tinian writers  of  their  day  generally  num- 
bered the  accession  year  of  Nebuchadnezzar 
his  first  year,  synchronizing  Jehoiakim  4 
with  Nebuchadnezzar  1,  and  Zedekiah  11  with 
Nei)ucha(lnez/.ar  li).  It  will  be  observed, 
finally,  that  two  events,  the  slaughter  of 
Ahaziah  of  Judah  and  .Iidioram  of  Israel  by 
Jehu  and  the  fall  of  Sanuiria.  divide  the  his- 
tory of  tlie  divided  monarchy  into  three 
jieriods,  each  chronologically  complete  in 
itself.  The  dates  of  these  two  events  are 
established.  The  chronology,  therefore,  of 
each  of  these  i)eriods  must  l)e  settled  by 
itself.  Ditliculties  which  arise  in  matters 
of  adjustment  afi'ect  only  their  own  jieriod, 
not  the  others. 

This  scheme  is  not  offered  as  final  in  every 
])articular.  Slightly  ditfereut  arrangements 
of  the  data  are  i)ossil)le  at  several  points;  for 
cxamiile,  in  the  matter  of  Athaliah's  usurpa- 
tion. Such  minor  modifications,  however,  do 
not  allVct  the  chronology  as  a  wliole. 


1    Jeroboam. 
3 

4 
5 
G 


1  K.  14  :  20. 


1  K   1.5:1,2)       .»,„„^ 
._.  (■  j3  .  J  -2 1     Abyam. 

1  K.  I')  :  9, 10.     Asa  ascends  throne 
Isl  regnal  year. 


17 


'  C.  14  :  1. 


2  C.  14  :  9-15. 


2  C.  1.5  :  10 
1.5:19  1, 
10:  1-2/ 


Land  quiet  ten  years. 


War   with    Zerah    be- 
tween years  11  and  14 

Reformation. 
Buys  aid  of  Benhadad 
against  liaasha. 


908 


.   18 

19 

.   20 

21 

1  -'•-   Nadab. 
-  1    Baasha. 


1  Kin.  15  :  2.5. 
1  K.  15:28-33. 


2.'^ 


LXX.  1  K.  16 :  28.    Jchoshaphat  associated. 1 


876 


,  1"'' 


.  Elab. 

.  Ziniri  (7  days). 
Omri. 


2  C.  If. :  12. 


Asa  diseased 


10 

11 
•  is-i 


IK.  16 
1  K.  16 ; 
1  K.  16 : 


10. 15. 

15. 16. 


Omri  prevails  and  reigns  with  un- 
disi)Uted  authority.  1  K.  16  :  22,  23. 


Ahab. 


(LXX  IK.  16:1 
■(     Heb.        do. 


♦The  dates  35  and  36  given  in  these  verses  in  the  Hebrew  text  were  explained  l>y  tlie  older 
commentators  as  reckoned  from  the  commencement  of  the  kingdo)u  of  Judah.  The  inimbers  are 
then  correct.  Modern  iuteri)ri'ters  generallv  reirard  the  Ilelirew  text  as  corrupt.  an<i  read  15  or  2i 
and  16  or  26  for  :f5  and  36  resiiectively.  Tlicy'are  dimbtless  right  in  doing  so  :  for  the  text  of  fliron- 
Icles  has  not  been  transmitte<l  as  carefully  as  it  sliould  have  been,  and  the  phrase  "year  of  A>n  " 
or  other  king  always  refers  to  his  regnal  year,  and  Baasha  was  dead  l>efore  the  35th  and  36th  years 
of  Asa. 

9 


Chronology 


130 


Ckronology 


1  K.  22:  11.  12 


2  K.  8:25.26. 
2  C.  22  : 1. 


Jeboshapbat. 

1st  vr;ir  i.f  sii 


5  41 
iviirii.        1 


^Miiri'ics  his  lirst-Viorn 
.Ii'liiiniiu  to  diiugh-- 
tcr  uf  Ahab. 


Jehorain  associated. 


15  856  19 

10  20 

17 1  21    Ahaziah.  1  K.  22  :  51. 

Allah  iuul  Bciihadail  deR'ated  by 
ShalinaiiestT  near  liaiiuith.  Ob.  5-1. 


:K.  8:  10,17 


2  C.  21 
2  K.  y  : 
2  K.  8 : 

2  K.  11 


18,  19. 
29. 
25, 20. 

;  1-3. 


Jehoram  sole  king. 


2..18 
:5  19 

4  20 

5  21 

1. 


■-'..I..---; 


gorely  diseased,  hence 
Aliaziali  made  regent.  . 
Ahaziah,  king. 
Slain  hy  .lehu. 
Joash,  siilc  surviving  heir 

and  legitimate  king. 
In  eiincealment  fur  six 

years  from  Athaliah, 

who     usurped     the 

power. 


2  K.  11:4;  12:1. 


Placed    on  throne    and 
Athaliah  slain. 


850 


840 


Jehoram. 

War  with  Muab. 


K.  1: 
K.  6 


17:  ;;:1. 
4  seq. 


Shalmaneserat  war  with  Benhadad. 
Shalmaneserat  war  with  Benhadad. 
Benhadad  besieges  Samaria. 

2  K.  G  :  24. 

Shalmaneser  at  war  with  Benhadad. 

Benhadad  murdered  and  succeeded 
by  llazael  between  845-3. 

.TelKjram  slain  by  Jehu. 
Jehu  seizes  the  throne. 

Jehu    and    Ilazael    pay  tribute  to 
Shalmaneser.  III.  K.  5,  No.  6, 40-65. 


.Shalmaneser  at  war 
with  Hazael. 


Obelisk  102. 


2  K.  12  :  6. 


2  Chron.  24  :  25. 
2K.  14:  1. 


Ant.  ix.  9  :  3. 


2K. 
2K. 


2K. 

2K. 

2K. 
2K. 


14  :  19. 
14  :  21. 


14  :  17. 
14  :  19. 


Renewed  attempt  to  re-    23 
pair  temple. 

28 
Hazael    against    Gath 
and  Jerusalem.  When 
he  departs,  he  leaves 
Joash  s(irely  diseased.      37 
Amaziah      aeiMU'lingly         1 
undertakes  the  govern- 
ment. 2 

Joash  slain  and  .\ma-     (40)  3 
ziah  sole  king. 


Defeated  and  his  cap- 
ital taken  by  Je- 
hoash. 


2  K.  15  :  5. 


Becomes  leprous. 


803 


21  1 
3 


(28) 


15 

16 
17 
('(inspired  against.  18 

Uzziah  or  Azariah  pro- 
claimed by  populace.  1 
2 
Amaziah  survives  Je- 

hoash  15  years. 
Amaziah  slain  and  Uz-  (29)  11  .   .    .   . 
ziah  supreme.  12       775 

Builds  Klath  after 

death  of  Amaziah. 
In  special  sense 

"reigns."  


.14 
15 


39 
750      40 


On   account  of  Jehu's  increasing 
U'^e  and  incaiiacity  for  war, 
Jehoahaz  associated."  .Vntiij.  ix.  8,  5, 
and  2  K.  IM  :  in.  correcting  ver.  1. 
Hazael  against  Israel.  2  K.  10  :  32. 

Jehoahaz  alone.  2  K.  10  :  36. 

Hazael    continues    to 
oppress  Israel  all  the 
days  of  Jehoahaz.     2  K.  l.S  :  3,  22. 
Jehoash.  2  K.  Ki :  lo. 


[Bin-addn]-mari,  king  of  Damascus, 
besieged  by  Ramman-nirari. 

jSIoabites  invade  Israel.  2  K.  13  :  '20. 
Jehoasli  victorious  over 
Benhadad.  2  K.  13  :  '2.5. 


Jeroboam  ascends. 
1st  regnal  year. 


2  K.  14  :  -23. 


Ant.  ix.  10,  3. 


Earthquake  hereabouts. 


Chronology 


131 


Clironology 


-  K.  15  ; 

32,33. 

Jotham. 

1  3S> 

2  (39)  1 
3 

.41 

1 

4 

'J 

5 

745 

3 

Abaz  associated. 

9 
10 
11 
12 

13  (50) 

740 

7 
8 
<) 
10 

.     1 

I'/ziiili  (lies  and 

15(52) 

1 

•J  K.  1.-. : 

32. 

.lolliani  succeeds. 

lei 

8     1  • 

•  > 

■J  K.  Hi  : 

1,2. 

Ahaz  ulune. 

9 

733 

3 

10 

11 

12  .  (20)  . 

7r.o  . 

.  1 

r.i 

2 

■2  K.  IS  : 

1,2. 

Hezekiah  ascends. 

14  ...  . 

.  3 

Ant.  ix. 

i:>,  1. 

1st  i\'j:nal  veur. 
.\hii/  dies.' 

15     1    .    . 
10    2 

.  4 
5 

2  K.  IK  : 

'.';       ) 

llczcliiali  sole  king. 

4    .   . 

5 

fi 

Ant.  ix. 

14.  1.  ; 

S 

2  K.  IS  : 

10. 

0.    . 
7 

13 

722    . 
721 

720 
715 

.  9 

2  K.  IS  : 

13;) 

Scnnncherib    in\ 

radcs      1 1 

711 

2C.  32: 

1-S;^ 

Jndiili. 

Is.  36  :  1 

.       ) 

2  K.  20  : 
Ls.  38  :  1 

■i»1 

Ilczckiali  sick. 

15 

713 

J  K.  20: 

12. 

Recci  vi's  t'nil)assy 

from      10 

712 

Iv  M  :  1 

Merodncli-liahu: 

Ian 

abont  this  date. 

Iv  20:  1 

Sargon  against  Ashdod.     17 

711 

IS 

710 

23 


2  K.  IS  :  M  scq. 


K.  21  :  1. 


2  K.  19  :  37. 


J  K.  21  :  19. 


Besieged  by  Senna- 
clieril). 

111. sand  1 

Manasseh  ascends  > 

tlirtine.  ) 
1st  year. 


Carried  in  chains  to 
Itabylon  by  tlie  As- 
syrians, i.robaljly  at 
this  time. 

l>iesand  > 

Amon  ascends  throne.  ) 
1st  year. 


27 
28 
29 

701 
700 
699 

698 

1 

697 
696 

18 

680 

:«) 

668 

5 

048-7 

55 

643 

642 

1 

tvil 

CIO 

Contemporary  with  Jotham. 

1  C  5  :  17. 
Zechariah.  2  K.  l.> :  s. 

Shallum.  i;  K.  15  :  13. 

Menahem  ascends.  2  K.  15  :  17. 

1st  It  t;nal  year. 

I'nl,  /.  <:  Tiglalli-]>ilescr,  ascends 

tiirone  of  Assyria. 
.Vzariah  of  .ludali  mentioned  by 

Tiglatli-pileser  about  tliis  time. 

.Menahcm  pavs  tribute  to  I'nl. 

2  K.  15  :  19. 
PekaMah.  2  K.  15  :  si. 

Pekah.  2  K.  15 :  27.* 

Tiglatli-iiileser  captures  Gaza. 
Tiglath-pileser  against  Damascus. 
"        "  still  against  I'amascus. 
Heceives  tribute  from  .Alia/,. 
Hoshea.  2  K.  15  :  m. 

2  K.  17  :  1. 

Tiglatli-pilescr  succeeded  by  .'^lial- 
nianeser. 

Hcsliea  sciks  an  alliance  witli  So 
Hi   K^'vpt,  2K.  17  :4. 

Fall  of  Samaria. 

1st  year  (.f  Sargon,  who  had  as- 
cended the  tliriine  of  .Assyria  in 
1 1ll li  month  of  the  pri'cedingyear. 

Defeats  .'^ibe,  /.  c.  ^i>,  of  Egypt." 

Assyrian  trooiis  in  .^amaria  and 
.\ labia.    Tribute  from  Egypt. 

Assyrian  troojis  "subjugated  ,ln- 
thdi,"  i)erliaps  under  command 
of  Sennacherib,  probalily  end  of 
71.'>  or  beginning  of  71l'.  Ximr. 
tablet. 

Judali  tributary  to  .Assyria  (Oetag. 

<'yl.    :!2-;55).      .Merodilcli-baladan 

incites       neigliboring       nations 

ai,^ainst  .A.ssyria. 
Sargon  against  Ashdod. 
Sargon  dethrones  Merodach- 

baladan. 
Sennacherib  ascends  throne  of  As- 
syria. 

Against  Ilezckiali  and  Jerusah'm. 


Esarhaddon. 

Keccives  tribute  from  Manasseh 
>>{  .ludab. 

Ashurbanipal. 

('ai)turcs  Babylon  and  dethrones 
its  king,  wild  liad  iiK'ited  peoiiles 
from  I'Uam  tutlu'  >U'<iitirranean 
to  revolt  a;,'ainst  .Assyria.  Ke- 
ct'ives  tribute  from  >binasseh  of 
Judah  [abcjut  M'  (Schrader)]. 


*  I'sher  and  the  c)ldcr  chronologists  assumed  tliat  anarchy  prevailed  for  several  years  between 
th»-  dealii  of  Pekah  and  the  accession  of  Hoshea.  Both  the  Hebrew  ami  tlie  .Assyrian  records,  how- 
<'ver,  clearly  indicate  tlnit  no  interregnum  («-cnrrcd,  but  tliat  Hoshea  slew  I'ekali  and  succeeded 
him  on  thethrone.    For  tlie  twenty  years  assigned  to  the  reign  of  I'ekali,  see  I'kkah. 


Chronology 


132 


Chronology 


2  K.  22  :  1. 


2  C.  34  :  3. 

2  C.  34  :  3. 
Jer.  1 : 1,  2. 


Jer.  25  :  1, 3. 


2  K.  23  :  29. 
2  K.  23  :  31. 
2K  23:3G. 


Jer.  25  :  1 ;  46 
Aut.  X.  6,  1. 


Jer.  36  :  9. 


Ant.  X.  10,  3. 
Dan.  2  : 1. 


2K.  24  :  1. 
Ant.  X.  f.,  1. 


2  K.  24  :  8-12. 
2  C.  36  :  10. 


2  K.  24  :  18. 

Jer.  51 :  59. 

2  K.  25  :  1. 

Jer.  32  :  1. 

2K.  25 

Ant. 

C. 

Ezek.  33  :  21. 


Josiah. 


Seeks  Jehovuh. 

Begins  to  purjce  nation. 
Jefemiali  begins. 


13th  Josiah  to  4th  Je- 
hoiakini  inclusive  = 
23  years. 


Slain  ))>•  Xecho. 
Jeboabaz  kiuj.;  3  months. 
Jehoiakim. 


He  and  Necho  subju- 
gated by  Xebuchad- 
nezzar. 

9th  month,  public  fast. 
Jeremiah's  roll 
burned. 

Two  years  ajter  the  de- 
struction   of    Egypt 
Nebuchadnezzar 
dreams. 

Pays  tribute  to  Neb. 
three  years. 

Yii'Ms  to  Xel). 
JehoiacMn,  3  months. 
Goes  captive  to  Baby- 
lon toward  close  of 
year. 
Zedekiah. 

Visits  Baljylou. 

Jerusalem  besieged. 


r.  6z  .  i. 
K.  25:8,  9;     ■) 
tit.  X.  8,  5;      V 
Apion.  i.  21.) 


Jer.  44  :  30. 


Jer.  52  :  30. 
Ant.  X.  9,  7. 


2  K.  25  :  27. 


2  C.  36  :  22,  23. 

Ezra.  3  :  8. 
C.  Apion  i.  21. 


Tera]>le  burned  in  5th 
month. 

News  reaches  Ezekiel. 

Hophra,  i.  e.  Apries, 
mentioned. 

Captives  carried  to 
Babylon  5th  yr.  after 
destruction  of  Jeru- 
salem =  23d  Neb. 


37th    year   of   Jehoia- 
chiu's  cai)tivity. 

Rebuilding  of  temple 
authorized. 

Rebuilding  begun  in' 
2d  montli,  having  re- 
mained waste  for  50 
years—/,  e.  49  years 
"and  9  months. 


1 

2 

639 
638 

8 

632 

12 
13 
14 
15 

628 
627 
626 
625 

30 
31 

610 
609 

4  . 

608 

607 

606 

.  605 

5 

604 

C  . 

.  603 

COl 


.598 

597 

594 

589 
588 

587 


582 


568 

562 
561 

539 
538 


537 


Nabopolassar. 

Necho.  king  of  Egypt. 

Nebuchadnezzar. 

2d  or  Isl  year. 
3d  or  2d  year. 

4th  year. 

8th  or  7th  year. 


Psammetick  II.  of  Egypt. 

Apries,  king  of  Egypt. 
18th  or  17th  of  Nebuchadnezzar. 

19th  or  ISth  of  Nebuchadnezzar. 


23d  of  Nebuchadnezzar. 


Nebuchadnezzar  invades  Egj'pt  in 
o'th  year  of  his  reign. 

Evil-merodacli. 

1st  year. 

Cyrus  takes  Babylon. 
1st  year. 


2d  year. 


From  the  Ketvkn  from  Exile  to  the  Birth  of  Christ. 


Judaja  under  Persian  rule. 

Zerul)l)ahfl  leads  back  fJ.OiioJt'ws  to  Jerusalem. 
Foundation  of  the  temple  laid,  but  the  work 
is  soon  interrupted. 


Haggai  and  Zechariah  exhort  the  people  to  re- 
sume work  on  the  temple. 

Temple  complete<l  in  l.'th  month  of  6th  year, 
in  the  early  spring 


539 
538 
537 

.529 
.521 
520 


Cyrus  on  throne  of  Babylon. 


Camtoyses. 
Darius  Hystaspis. 


Chronology 


133 


Chronology 


Ezra  leads  back  1755  Jews  to  Jerusalem. 
Nehemiah  sent  by  Artaxerxes  to  Jerusalem  in 

ninnth  Nisan. 
Repair  of  city  wall  begun  on  Scl  (lav  of  5th 

niontli,  and  completed  on  25th  of  Llul,  the 

(>th  mouth. 
Nehemiah  returns  to  the  Persian  court. 


Alexander  the  Great  visits  Jerusalem,  and  is 
met  by  the  high  priest  Jaddua. 


Judaea  annexed  to  Egypt  by  Ptolemy  footer, 
ik-  cMptmis  .liru>al(Ui  :ind  plants  colonies  in 
Alexandria  and  Cvrene. 


After  the  battle  of  Raphia,  'J17  B.  c  Ptolemy 
Philoi)ator.<aeriticis  at  Jerusalem.  Being  pre- 
vt-nted  from  entering  the  holy  of  holies,  he 
attem)its  to  destroy  the  Jews  in  Alexandria. 

Antiochus  takes  Jerusalem. 

Pcopas  recovers  .liid;i  a  for  Kgypt. 
Judaea  annexed  to  Syria,  being  finally  wrested 

by  .Viitiueliurs  fr^im  K-ypt  at  the  battle  of  Paneas. 

The  high  priest  Onias  removed,  and  Jason  of 

the  (ireeian  i)arty  put  in  fiffiee. 
Antiochus  takes  Jerusalem,  massacres  citizens, 

and  defiles  the  temple. 
Antiochus  orders  an   idolatrous  altar  to  be 

erected  on  the  temple  altar  and  heathen 

sacrifices  to  be  offered. 
The  priest  Mattathias  raises  the  standard  of 

revolt. 
The  Maccabees.    Judas  placed  in  command. 
lietVats  liorixiiis. 
Dufeats  Lysias,  and  on  2.5th  Chislev  rededicates 

the  temple. 


Falls  in  battle,  and  is  succeeded  by  Jonathan. 


Jonathan  Maccnbreus  murdered  by  Tryphon, 

an<l  siicceeded  by  .*^imon. 
First  year  of  the  Freedom  of  Jerusalem  and 

of  Simon,  high  priest  and  captain. 

Simon  murdered;    succeeded  by    John  Hyr- 

canns. 
Pomr)ev  takes  Jerusalem. 
Julius  f';esar  apjioints  Antipater  i)roeurator  of 

Judaa. 

Assassination  of  .Vntipater. 
Parthians take .k-rnsaUin  and  place  .\ntigonus, 
the  Maccabce,  on  the  tlirone.    The  Roman 
si-natc.  however,  toward  the  cuil  of  the  year 
aiijioint  Herod  to  lie  kiui;  of  .hula-a. 
Herod   takes  Jerusalem,  slays   .\ntigonus,  the 
last  of  the  Maecabiean  priest-kings,  and  be- 
comes king  of  Juda-a. 


490 
486 
4hO 

■17'.) 
4(15 
45'J-8 
445 


4:54-33 

■l-M 

359 

338 

33f. 

334 
333 
332 

331 
330 
3'.'3 
320 


312 
223 


203 
199 
198 

175 
174 

170 

168 


166 
165 


162 

ICO 

146 


143 


13.S 
135 

63 
47 

44 
43 
40 


Defeated  by  the  Greeks  at  Marathon. 
Xerxes,  called  by  the  Jews  Ahasuerus. 
Persians  victorious  at  Tliermo|jyla',  but 

dct'catcd  at  .^alamis. 
IVrsiauv  dcfi  atc'd  at  Platu  a. 

Artaxerxes  Longimanus. 


Darius  Notlius. 

Ochus. 

Arses  or  An  urns. 

Darius  Codomannus. 

.Vlcxandci-  asciiids  tlirone of  Mnccdon. 

Alexander  victorious  at  the  Granieus. 
"  •'  "  Issus. 


Alexander  defeats  Darius  at  Arbela. 
Darius  assassinated. 
Death  of  Alexander. 


Seleucus  founds  the  kingdom  of  the 

>.-lruri.i;c. 

Antiochus  the  Great. 


Antiochus  Epiphanes. 


Death  of  .Vntiochus  and  accession  of 
Antiochus  Eupator. 
Demetrius  I. 

Alexander  Balas. 

Antiochus  VI.  ascends  the  throne  with 
the  ai.l  of  bis  trciieral  Tryphou.  De- 
metrius II.  his  rival. 


Murder  of  Antiochus. 
Antiochus  VII.  regent  until  128. 

Assassination  of  Jtilius  ("asar. 
Augustus  becomes  Roman  emperor. 


Chrysolite 


134 


Chrysoprase 


Rebuihlintr  "f  the  temple  begun. 
Birth  of  Jesus  Christ.    Olnseof 

or  boKiimiriK  of 
Death  of  Herod  and  division  at'  the  kingdom 

among  lii.s  tliroo  ^sons,  Arclielaus  receiving 

Judieu. 


From  the  Death  of  Herod  to  the  Destruction  of  Jerusalem. 

The  clironology  of  tlie  life  of  Christ  and  of  Paul  is  treated  under  the  respective  articles. 

chronology  of  I'auVs  life  liinges  on  the  date  of  Festus'  appointment  to  tlie  proeuratorship. 

B.  c. 

On  the  death  of  Ilerod  the  Great  his  kingdom  is  4 

divided  aiiiiiiig  his  three  sons:  .Vrchelaus  be- 
comes king  of  .hidica;  llerod  .\ntipas,  tetrarch 
of  Galilee  and  I'eraa;  Philip,  tetrarch  of 
Itiinua  and  Trachonitis.  a.  d. 

Deposition  of  Archehius;   Judfca  and  Samaria  C 

incorporated  witli  the  province  of  Syria,  and 
l)Iaeed  under  procurators.  Coponius  pro- 
curator. 

Marcus  Ambivius  procurator.  1 


The 


Valerius  Gratus  fourth  procurator. 

Pontius  Pilate  procurator. 

Jesus  begins  his  public  ministry  (Luke  iii.  1,  23; 
op.  John  ii.  i!ii)  probably  early  in 

Death  of  l'hili]i  the  tetrarch.  His  tetrarchy  is 
annexed  to  Syria. 

Pontius  Pilati'  (le])osed  by  Vitellius,  governor  of 
Syria,  and  sent  to  Kome. 

Herod  Antipas  attends  Passover  at  Jerusalem; 
Caligula  appnints  Herod  Agrippa  to  be  king 
of  the  tetrarchies  of  Philip  and  Lysanias,  and 
sends  MaruUus  to  be  procurator. 

Herod  .Vntijias  banished  to  Gaul,  and  his  tet- 
rarchy given  to  king  Herod  Agripjia. 

Claudiiis  makes  Herod  Agrippa  king  of  Judrea 
and  Sunuiria. 

Death  of  Herod  Agrippa.  Judsea  again  placed 
under  procurators.  Cuspius  Fadus  procurator. 

Tiberius  .\le.xander,  renegade  Jew  of  Alexan- 
dria, procurator. 

Ventidius  Cumanus  procurator,  probably  jointly 
with  Felix. 

Antonius  Felix  procurator. 


Porcius  Festus  succeeds  Felix;  but  if  the  pro- 
euratorship of  Felix  be  reckoned  from  a.  d.  48, 
it  is  possible  to  date  Festus'  appointment  in  55 
or  56. 

Albinus  procurator. 

Gessius  Floras  procurator. 

Outbreak  of  the  Jewish  war. 


Destruction  of  Jerusalem. 

Chrys'o-lite,  in  .\.  \'.  Chrysolyte  [Greek, 
gold  stonel. 

A  unisilicatc  mineral  consisting  mainly  of 
magnesia  and  silica.  There  are  two  varieties 
of  it,  one  precious,  the  other  coniinon.  The 
former,  wliich  is  transparent  and  of  a  i>ale 
yellowish-green,  is  brought  from  tlie  Ijcvant. 
It  is  disputed  whether  the  chrysolite  of  Pliny 
ami  of  tlie  N.  T.  was  a  gold-colored  chryso- 
lite or  a  tojiaz.     It  constitutes  the  seventh 


or,  as  some  believe,  13.  Tiberius  asso- 
ciated with  Augustus,  receiving  from 
the  senate  an  peri  urn  proconsulare  in  all 
provinces. 

Augustus  dies  Aug.  19th,  and  Tiberius  is 
emperor. 


Tiberius    smothered    March    16th,    and 
Caligula  is  emperor. 


Caligula    assassinated    Jan.    '24th, 
Claudius  becomes  emperor. 


and 


54 
59  or  60 


69 


70 


Claudius  expels  the  Jews  and  sorcerers 

and  astrologers  from  Kome. 
Claudius  dies  of  poison  Oct.  13th,  and 

Nero  becomes  emperor. 


Persecutions  under  Nero  begin. 

Nero  ends  his  life.  Galba  and  OthO 
become  emperors  successively  and  die 
violrnt  (U-atlis. 

Vitellius  obtains  the  empire  and  is 
slain. 

Vespasian  becomes  emperor. 


(Rev. 


foundation  of  the  New  Jerusalem 
20). 

Chrys'o-prase,  in  A.  V.  Chrysoprasus 
[Greek,  golden-green  stone]. 

A  variety  of  clialcedony  of  an  apple-green 
hue,  the  color  being  jiroduced  by  the  pres- 
ence of  oxide  of  nickel.  Its  best-known  lo- 
cality is  in  Silesia.  It  constitutes  the  tenth 
foundation  of  the  New  Jerusalem  (Kev.  xxi. 
20). 


Chub 


135 


Circumcision 


Chub.     See  Cub. 
Chun.     See  Berothai. 

Church  [|iri)l)aljlyfniiii  Greek,  knriakou,  the 
Lonl's  luMisc]. 

The  reiidiiiiifi  in  tlic  X.  T.  of  the  (ireek 
Ekklcsiu,  wliicli  in  the  states  of  Greeec 
meant  the  as,s('nil)ly  of  citizens  summoned 
for  U'fiishitivc  tir  otlicT  iiurjioses  (Acts  xix. 
'.i2.  -11.  renih'i-id  asscnilily).  The  sacred  wri- 
ters use  tlie  word  ekIJrsid  to  denote  an  organ- 
ized community  acknowhdging  the  Lord 
Jesus  Christ  as  their  supreme  ruler,  and 
meeting  statedly  in-  as  opijortunities  ofler  for 
religious  worshiji  (>hit.  xvi.  IS;  xviii.  17; 
Acts  ii.  47;  v.  11;  Eph.  v.  '2:},  25).  As  fol- 
lowers of  .Jesus  arose  in  many  difl'erent  cities, 
the  jtlural  "churches"  hegan  to  he  em- 
ployed, the  Christian  community  in  each 
sei)arate  locality  t)eiiig  considt'red  a  church 
(Acts  ix.  31  ;  xv.  41 ;  lioui.  xvi.  4  ;  1  Cor.  vii. 
17;  1  Tiies.  ii.  14).  Cluirch  is  nowhere  nn- 
cqiiivocally  u.sed  in  the  N.  T.  for  the  huild- 
iiig  in  which  any  particular  Christian  com- 
munity met.  The  Protestant  doctrine  of  the 
church  is  that  the  cluirch  may  exist  without 
a  visil)le  form,  hecause  it  is  hoth  invisihle 
and  visihle.  The  invisihle  church  is  com- 
po.sed  of  all  who  are  i-eally  united  to  Christ 
(1  Cor.  i.  2;  xii.  12,  1."},  27,  2.S  ;  Col.  i.  24:  1 
Pet.  ii.  !>,  10).  It  is  not  an  external  organ- 
ization. Its  memhers  are  known  to  God, 
though  they  cannot  always  he  infallihly  de- 
tected hy  the  human  eye,  and  many  of  them 
are  in  heaven  or  are  yet  to  he  horn.  The 
visihle  church  consists  of  all  who  profess  to 
be  united  to  Christ. 

Tlie  apostles  occupied  a  peculiar  i)osition 
of  authority  (Acts  v.  2  ;  vi.  (5 ;  1  Cor.  xii.  28; 
E])h.  ii.  20 :  2  Pet.  iii.  2)  ;  but  they  were  not 
the  solo  governing  body,  the  elders  or  bishops 
also  exercisi'd  rule  (.\cts  xv.  2,  4,0,22.23; 
1  Tim.  iv.  14  ;  v.  17  :  1  Pet.  v.  1).  The  ollicers 
of  the  local  churches  were  elders  or  bishops 
and  deacons  (.\cts  vi.  3;  xiv.  23;  xx.  17;  1 
Tim.  iii.  1,  8  ;  Titus  i.  5-9).  The  apostles 
sonu'limes  aiijiointed  commissioners  for  spe- 
cial work  ( 1  Tim.  i.  3  :  Titus  i.  5). 

The  public  worship  of  the  church  was  en- 
grafted ujion  the  synagogue  service.  It  con- 
sisted of  ])reacliing  (Mat.  xxviii.  20;  Acts 
XX.  7;  1  Cor.  xiv.  19,  2()-30),  reading  of 
Scripture  (.las.  i.  22;  Col.  iv.  10;  1  Thes.  v. 
27  ;  cp.  Acts  xiii.  15),  prayer  (1  Cor.  xiv.  14, 
Ifi).  singing  (Eph.  v.  19;  Col.  iii.  10;  and  cp. 
the  hymns  F-'iili.  v.  14  ;  1  Tiin.  iii.  10),  admin- 
istnition  of  the  .sacraments  of  ba|)tism  and 
the  Lord's  ."^uiipi'r  (Mat.  xxviii.  19;  Acts  ii. 
41  ;  1  Cor.  xi.  18-.34),  and  almsgiving  (1  Cor. 
xvi.  1,  2).  When  the  s]>iritual  gift  was  pres- 
«'Ut,  tln're  were  als(>pro|iliesyingsand  tongues. 

Chu'shan-rish-a-tha'im.      See    Ci'siian- 

lUSIIATII  AIM. 

Chu'za  [[)erhaps  Animaic  kn:a',  modest,  or 
Herod  the  tetrarch's  steward,  wliose  wife 


Joanna  ministered  to  the    wants  of  Jesus 
(Luke  viii.  3). 

Ci-li'ci-a. 

A  province  of  Asia  Minor,  separated  on 
the  north  by  the  Taurus  mountains  from 
Cappadocia,  Lycaonia,  and  Isauria,  and  on 
tlie  east  by  mount  Amanus  from  .Syria; 
bounded  on  the  .south  by  the  Mediterranean, 
and  on  tlie  west  by  Pamphylia.  It  was  an- 
ciently divided  into  two])ortions,  the  western 
one,  which  wiis  mountainous,  called  the 
liougli,  and  the  eastern  one,  which  was  level, 
the  riain  Cilicia.  The  chief  town  in  the  lat- 
ter was  Tarsus,  the  birthplace  of  St.  Paul 
(Acts  xxi.  39;  xxii.  3;  xxiii.  34).  Cilicia 
formed  ])art  of  the  kingdom  of  .Syria  :  and 
when  in  14H-7  K.  f.  Demetrius  II.  landed  on 
its  shores  and  set  himself  up  for  king  of 
Syria,  the  bulk  of  its  inhabitants  supported 
him  (1  Mac.  xi.  14;  Antic),  xiii.  4.  3).  Jews 
from  Cilicia  (lisi)uted  with  Stei)hen  (Acts  vi. 
9).  The  gos]iel  reached  it  vt-ry  early  (xv. 
23),  planted  api)arently  by  Pauldx.  3(i:  (Jal. 
i.21).  At"terwards,  jiassing  through  it,  hecon- 
lirnu'd  the  churches  wiiich  had  Ijeen  founded 
(Acts  XV.  41).  Subsei|Ueutly  on  his  voyage  as 
a  prisoner  to  Home  he  sailed  over  the  sea  of 
Cilicia  (xxvii.  5). 

Cin'na-mon. 

A  fragrant  wood  (Song  iv.  14  ;  Rev.  xviii.  13). 
It  was  an  ingredient  in  the  sacred  anointing 
oil  used  in  the  consecration  of  Aaron  and  his 
successors  (Ex.  xxx.  23).  It  was  used  in  after 
times  to  ])erfume  beds  (Prov.  vii.  17).  It  is 
the  aromatic  bark  of  a  tree.  Ciuunmiimun)  zey- 
lauicnm,  belonging  to  the  laurel  order,  and 
cultivated  in  Ceylon,  of  which  it  is  a  native. 
The  bark  of  the  tree  yields  an  essential  oil, 
which  is  obtained  from  it  by  distillation.  It 
is  of  a  golden-yellow  color,  has  an  agreeable 
smell,  and  is  used  in  jierfumery.  The  tree 
has  been  groNvn  in  Arabia. 

Cin'ne-roth.    .See  Chinnkkkth. 

Cir-cum-cis'ion  [a  cutting  around]. 

The  initiatory  rite  into  the  covenant  i>riv- 
ileges  of  the  family  of  (iotl  niMescntcd  by 
Abraham  and  his  descendants  through  Isjiac, 
and  the  token  of  the  covenant  ((ien.  xvii.  1- 
10,  21).  As  a  rite  of  the  religion  of  this 
lieojile,  it  was  instituted  by  (iixl  and  en- 
joined upon  .\braham,  who  was  himself 
to  l)e  circumcisfd,  as  were  all  his  male 
children  and  his  male  slaves,  whether  born 
in  his  house  or  bought  with  money.  The 
act  consists  in  ri'moving  the  foreskin,  and  it 
was  performed  on  the  child  by  the  father  of 
the  house  or  .some  other  Israelite,  and  even 
by  the  mother  (Kx.  iv.  25  ;  1  Mac.  i.tJO).  The 
pro]ur  time  to  carry  out  the  rite  was  when 
the  child  was  eight  days  <.ld.  but  those  born 
before  the  institution  nf  the  ordinance  were 
to  be  circumcised  at  any  time  of  life.  Abra- 
ham was  circumcised  when  he  was  90,  and 
Ishmad  when  1,3  ((Jen.  xvii.  11-27).  The  rite 
was  ohstrved  during  the  bondage  in  Egypt, 
but  was  neglected  in  the  wilderness.     Before 


Cis 


136 


City  of  Refuge 


the  entry  iuto  Cauaan,  however,  Joshua  made 
kuives  of  Hint  and  eireunicised  the  people 
(Josh.  V.  2-i)).  By  this  time  metal  was  known, 
but  there  is  a  stronjj;  eunservatism  in  relifjion, 
and  antique  arrangements  tend  to  remain 
after  the  necessity  for  them  has  passed  away  ; 
so  Hint  held  its  own  against  metal  for  cen- 
turies after  the  time  that  the  former  might 
have  been  superseded  (cp.  Ex.  iv.  25).  For- 
eigners who  wished  to  become  members  of 
the  commonwealth  of  Israel  were  required 
to  submit  to  the  rite,  whatever  their  age 
might  be  (Gen.  xxxiv.  14-17,  22;  Ex.  xii. 
48).  Shortly  before  the  Christian  era,  the  con- 
quered Edomites  and  Itnra'aiis  were  by  force 
added  tluis  to  the  .Fewish  nation  (Antiq.  xiii. 
9,  1 ;  11,  3).  Though  there  were  other  circum- 
cised nations  as  well  as  the  Hebrews,  espe- 
cially the  Egyptians  (con.  Apion.  ii.  14 ;  Herod, 
ii.  104),  and  they  as  early  as  3000  B.  c,  yet 
the  Philistines,  the  Phneuicians,  the  Moabites, 
the  Ammonites,  the  Syrians,  the  Assyrians, 
the  Babylonians,  and  various  other  national- 
ities with  whom  the  Jews  were  in  contact 
were  uncircumcised  ;  so  that  the  word  "  un- 
circumcised,"  as  a  term  of  reproach,  meant 
almost  practically  (not  etymologically)  the 
same  as  heathen  (Clen.  xxxiv.  14  ;  Judg.  xiv. 
3 ;  XV.  18 ;  1  Sam.  xvii.  26,  36  ;  xxxi.  4  ;  2 
Sam.  i.  20  ;  1  Chron.  x.  4  ;  Ezek.  xxviii.  10  ; 
xxxi.  18  ;  xxxii.  19-32).  "  The  circumcision," 
on  the  contrary,  used  in  the  N.  T.  meant  the 
Jewish  church  and  nation  (Gal.  ii.  8;  Col, 
iv.  11).  Circumcision  was  an  act  of  religious 
purification  (Herod,  ii.  37),  and  in  its  full  sig- 
nificance betokened  the  putting  away  of  car- 
nal lust  (Col.  ii.  11).  To  circumcise  the  heart 
is  so  to  regenerate  it  that  its  irreligious  ob- 
stinacy will  disappear  (Dent.  x.  16),  and  it 
will  be  able  and  willing  to  love  God  with  all 
its  powers  (xxx.  6).  Circumcision  is  uni- 
versal among  the  Mohammedans  as  well  as 
the  Jews. 

Cis.     See  Kish. 

Cis'tern. 

A  small  artificial  reservoir  dug  in  the  earth 
and  enclosed  by  stone  or  brick  work,  or 
scooped  in  a  rock  to  collect  and  retain  rain 
water  (Deut.  vi.  11  ;  .Ter.  ii.  13).  Cisterns 
were  very  numerous  in  Palestine,  as  the 
populace  was  largely  dependent  upon  rain 
water  (cp.  War  iii.  7,  12,  <and  13  ;  iv.  1,  8). 
In  the  cities  they  were  constructed  on  the 
top  of  the  towers  of  the  city  wall  (War  v.  4, 
3).  They  were  also  excavated  under  the 
houses  and  in  the  courtyards  (cp.  2  Sam. 
xvii.  18 ;  Jer.  xxxviii.  6),  provided  with 
bucket  and  windlass  (Eec.  xii.  6),  and  sup- 
plied with  water  cunducted  to  them  from  the 
roof.  In  the  niien  country  the  mouth  is 
closed  with  a  large  stone  and  fre((uently,  es- 
pecially in  the  wilderness,  is  covered  with 
earth  to  conceal  it. 

Cit'y- 

In  Hebrew  usage,  a  collection  of  permanent 
human  habitations,  whether  few  or  numer- 


ous, especially  if  surrounded  by  a  wall  (Gen. 
iv.  17 ;  xviii.  26  ;  xix.  20 ;  Num.  xiii.  19 ; 
Josh.  iii.  16;  x.  39;  xiii.  17;  Judg.  xx.  l.j ; 
Luke  ii.  4;  xxiii.  51).  Walled  and  unwalled 
cities  are  distinguished  (Deut.  iii.  5;  Esth. 
ix.  19,  Hebrew).  Cities  were  built  on  hills 
(Josh.  xi.  3;  1  Kin.  xvi.  24;  Mat.  v.  14; 
War  iii.  7,  7),  where  the  situation  rendered 
defen.se  easy ;  and  in  fertile  spots,  where 
water  and  .soil  invited  man  to  dwell.  They 
were  usually  fenced  with  high  walls,  gates 
and  bars  (Num.  xiii.  28;  Deut.  iii.  5 ;  Josh, 
ii.  5,  15  ;  vi.  5  ;  Neh.  iii.  3  ;  Acts  ix.  24,  25), 
and  further  defended  by  towers  (Neh.  iii.  1, 
11,  25  ;  War  v.  4,  3).  Walls  of  the  thickness 
of  20  to  .'SO  feet  were  not  unusual.  The  gate 
w'as  a  massive  structure,  with  a  room  over 
the  gateway  (2  Sam.  xviii.  33).  In  time 
of  need  a  guard  was  posted  at  the  gate 
(2.  Kin.  vii.  10  ;  Neh.  xiii.  19),  and  a  watch- 
man was  stationed  on  the  roof  of  gate- 
house or  tower  (2  Sam.  xviii.  24 ;  2  Kin. 
ix.  17  ;  War  v.  6,  3).  In  open  places  at  the 
gate  public  business  was  transacted,  cases 
at  law  adjudicated,  and  markets  held  ((tCu. 
xxiii.  10  ;  Kuth  iv.  1-11 ;  2  Sam.  xv.  2  ;  1  Kin. 
xxii.  10;  2  Kin.  vii.  1;  Neh.  viii.  1).  The 
streets  were  as  a  rule  narrow  (Antiq.  xx.  5, 
3;  War  ii.  14,  9;  15,  5;  v.  8,  1),  but  not 
always  (2  Sam.  xv.  1  ;  1  Kin.  i.  5 ;  Jer.  xvii. 
25) ;  and  some  streets  were  devoted  to  bazaars 
(1  Kin.  XX.  34  ;  Neh.  iii.  31 :  Jer.  xxxvii. 
21). 

Cit'y  of  Da'vid.    See  David,  City  of. 

Cit'y  of  Refuge. 

Six  Levitical  cities  designed  to  shelter  the 
person  who  had  accidentally  committed  man- 
slaughter from  the  pursuit  of  the  avenger 
of  blood  (Num.  xxxv.  9-14;  Ex.  xxi.  13 1  ; 
see  Avenger.  Moses  appointed  the  three 
east  of  the  Jordan  :  Bezer  in  the  territory  of 
Eeuben,  I\anu)th-gilead  in  that  of  Gad,  and 
Golan  in  Bashan  in  the  tribe  of  ^Manasseh 
(Deut.  iv.  41-43).  After  the  conquest  of 
Canaan,  Joshua  and  the  heads  of  the  tribes 
designated  the  three  west  of  the  river,  setting 
apart  Kedesh  in  the  territory  of  Naplitali, 
Shechem  in  Ejihraim,  and  Kirjath-arba,  which 
is  Hebron,  in  the  mountain  of  Judah  (Josh.  xx. 
7).  No  part  of  Palestine  was  far  from  a  city 
of  refuge.  To  the  nearest  the  manslayer  fled. 
He  might  be  overtaken  on  the  way  and  slain 
by  the  avenger;  but  if  he  reached  a  city  of 
refuge  he  was  received  into  it  and  obtained  a 
fair  trial.  If  guilty  of  willful  murder  he  was 
delivered  to  death.  If  he  had  slain  a  fellow 
creature  by  accident  or  in  self-defense,  actual 
or  constructive,  he  was  granted  asylum  in 
the  city.  If  he  left  the  city  before  the  death 
of  the  high  priest  he  did  so  at  his  own  risk. 
On  the  death  of  the  high  priest  he  was  at 
liberty  to  return  to  his  home  and  enjoy  the 
protection  of  the  authorities  (Num.  xxxv.; 
Deut.  xix.;  ,Tosh.  xx.).  The  matter  was  be- 
tween man  and  God  :  and  the  death  of  the 
high  i>rie.st,  who  represented  the  people  be- 


Clauda 


137 


Cloud 


fore  God,  closed  a  period  of  theocratic  life 
(cp.  the  release  at  the  year  of  jubilee). 

Clau'da. 

A  small  island  olf  the  southwest  of  Candia 
or  Crete.  I'aul's  shij)  ran  under  its  lee  when 
caught  by  the  tenii)est  oil'  Crete  (Acts  xxvii. 
1(1).  It  was  also  called  Cauda  (R.  V.  text)  and 
<;aud..s  (Pliny.  Hist.  nat.  iv.  42).  The  Greeks 
still  call  it  Claudanesa,  or  rjaudonesi,  which 
the  Italians  have  curruiiti'd  into  (lozzo. 

Clau'di-a. 

A  Christian  woman  who  joined  Paul  in 
sending  a  salutation  to  Timothy  (2  Tim.  iv. 
21). 

Clau'di-us.     i^ee  C.t::s.\r. 

Clau'di-us  Ly'si-as. 

A  thiliarch  or  commander  of  1000  men, 
who  seems  to  have  been  the  military  triliime 
in  cliargi-  of  the  whole  garrison  at  Jerusalem. 
Each  legion  had  as  its  ollicers  six  such  trib- 
unes. He  resided  in  the  castle  of  Antonia. 
and  sent  soldiers  to  deliver  Paul  from  fanat- 
ical .lewisli  rioters.  Immediately  afterwards 
he  was  on  the  brink  of  committing  the  ille- 
gality and  injustice  of  having  Paul  scourged 
without  iiKiuiring  into  his  nationality.  He 
l)reseiitly  frustrated  a  conspiracy  against  the 
ajiostle  l)y  sending  him  during  the  night  un- 
der a  large  escort  to  Ca-sarea  with  a  letter  to 
Felix,  the  Koman  procurator  (Acts  xxii.  24- 
xxiii.  3.5). 

Clem'ent  [kind,  merciful]. 

A  Cliristiau  who  labored  along  with  Paul, 
aiii)arenlly  at  Philippi  (Pliil.  iv.  3).  He  may 
have  been  the  same  individual  as  the  apos- 
tolic father,  Clement  of  Home. 

Cle'o-pas. 

One  of  the  two  disciples  who  journeyed  to 
an<l  from  Emmaus  on  the  evening  of  the 
Kesurrection  day  (Luke  xxiv.  18).  Appar- 
ently not  the  same  as  Clopas  or  Cleoplias, 
though  some  Cliristian  fathers,  not  of  early 
date,  assumed  the  identity  of  the  two. 

Cle-0-pa'tra. 

A  name  l)onie  by  many  Egyjttian  prin- 
cesses. One  was  daughter  of  Ptolemy  VI. 
and  wife  of  .\lexander  Palasd  Mac.  x.  57, 
.581.  Her  father  afterwards  took  her  from 
Ralas  and  married  her  to  Demetrius  Xicator 
when  he  invatled  Syria  (xi.  12:  Antiii.  xiii. 
4.  7).  l)uring  the  captivity  of  Denu'trius  in 
Parthia.  slie  married  his  brother  Antioclius 
Vll.  (Antiii.  xiii.  7.  1  ;  it,  3;  10.  1).  Slie  had 
two  sons  by  Demetrius;  tlie  elder  slie  mur- 
dered, and  then  riised  to  the  throtie  tlie 
younger.  Antiochus  VIII..  called  (iryjius. 
.\s  be  was  unwilling  to  gratify  lier  ;iml)itious 
designs,  she  attem|ited  to  make  away  with 
him  )>y  otferiug  him  a  cu]i  of  jioison.  but  was 
compelled  to  drink  it  herself.  120  K.  r. 

Clo'pas,  ill  A.  V.  Cle'o-phas.  Sec  .Vi.i'it.BUS. 

Cloth'ing. 

Man  at  first  went  naked  ((ien.  ii.  2.')).  Tlie 
lirst  clothing  consisted  of  the  skins  of  beasts 


(iii.  21 ).  Subse<iuently  tlie  materials  used  for 
clotliiiig  were  wool  (xxxi.  1!);  Ia-v.  xiii.  47; 
Job  xxxi.  20).  linen  (Ex.  ix.  31  ;  Lev.  xvi.  4), 
byssus,  a  fabric  made  of  cotton  or  flax  (Gen. 
xli.  42;  Luke  xvi.  1!»),  silk  (Ezek.  xvi.  10. 
13  ;  Kev.  xviii.  12),  goafs'  hair  (Kev.  vi.  12), 
and  camels'  hair  (.Mat.  iii.  4).  Tin-  cssfntial 
articles  of  the  ajiparel  of  nun  and  women 
were  two  :  1.  An  undergarment  or  tunic,  coni- 
nionly  called  coat,  less  frerjiu-ntly  garment, 
in  the  English  versions.  It  usually  had  short 
sleeves  and  rca<-hfd  nearly  to  the  knees, 
though  a  longer  form  witii  sleeves  of  full 
length  was  in  use  ((Jen.  xxxvii.  3  ;  2  Sam. 
xiii.  IH.  R.  V.  margin).  This  tunic  was  some- 
times woven  witiiout  seam  (John  xix.  2.'{.  24). 
It  was  contined  at  thi-  waist  by  a  girdle. 
2.  An  ujiper  garment  or  mantle  (Ruth  iii.  1.5, 
R.  v.;  1  Kin.  xi.  30;  Acts  ix.  3fti.  a  larRC, 
square  jiiece  of  cloth,  jirovided  with  tas.«el8 
(Num.  XV.  .'W;  Mat.  xxiii.  .5).  It  was  thrown 
over  the  left  shoulder  and  brought  over  or 
under  tlie  riglit  arm.  The  jiendant  ends 
were  called  .skirts  (Hag.  ii.  12;  Zech.  viii.23). 
Tiie  garment  of  hair  worn  by  jirophets  (2 
Kin.  i.  8;  Zech.  xiii.  4)  may  have  consisted 
of  a  sheepskin  or  goatskin  (cp.  Heb.  xi.  37), 
but  was  more  ]irobably  made  of  coarse  cam- 
el's hair  (cp.  JIat.  iii.  4).  An  occasional  gar- 
ment was  worn  bitwecn  the  tunic  and  the 
mantle  by  men  and  women  of  distinction 
and  ofiicially  by  the  high  jiricst  (Lev.  viii.7; 
1  Sam.  ii.  U»;  xviii.  4;  xxiv.  4;  2  .Sam.  xiii. 
IS;  1  Chron.  xv.  27;  Job  i.  20.  margin).  It 
was  a  long  vestment,  with  or  without  sleeves, 
tied  round  with  a  girdle  (.\nti(i.  iii. 7,  4).  The 
girdles,  which  confined  tlie  undergarments  at 
the  waist  to  prevent  them  as  far  as  jiossible 
from  impeding  the  action  of  the  linilis.  were 
made  of  leather,  linen,  or  byssus  I2  Kin.  i.  H; 
Jer.  xiii.  1  :  Ezek.  xvi.  10)  ;  often  elatxtnitely 
wrought  and  richly  decorated  (  Ex.  xxviii. 
39  ;  xxxix.  2!»  :  Daii.  x.  .5  ;  Rev.  i.  13).  The 
sword  was  worn  in  the  girdle  and  money  waa 
carried  there  (Judg.  iii.  Hi;  1  Sam.  xxv. 
13;  Mat.  x.  9,  R.  V.  margin).  When  outside 
of  a  rotmi  they  wore  sjin<lals,  an  imj)erfe<-t 
shoe  consisting  of  a  sole  of  wood  or  leather 
(Ezek.  xvi.  10).  fastemd  to  the  bare  foot  by 
straps  passing  over  the  inste)iand  around  the 
ankle  (Gen.  xiv.  23;  Is.  v.  27:  Acts  xii.  ■<). 
Probably  jieoplc  commonly  went  bareheaded ; 
still  turi)aiis  werr  mi  occasion  worn  by  liotli 
sexes  (Job.  xxix.  II,  K.  V.  margin:  Is.  iii.  20; 
Ezek.  xxiii.  151.  Tin  veil  was  worn  by  women 
in  the  jiresence  of  stningers  (Gen.  xxiv.  (m  ; 
Song  v.  7):  but  it  was  not  uncommon  for  them 
to  go  witli  face  unveiled  (Gtn.  xxiv  1.5;  xxvi. 
8;  Judith  X.  7.  IJ).  P.y  the  .Mosiic  law  a 
man  was  forbidden  to  wear  a  garment  that 
]>ertains  to  a  woman,  and  a  woman  to  wear 
that  belonging  to  a  man  llV-ut.  xxii.  .5;  cp.  1 
Cor.  xi.  <!,  14). 

Cloud. 

As  agents  in  connection  with  rain,  doinls. 
are  the  bearers  of  moisture  (2  .Sam.  xxii.  12; 
Job  xxvi.  8  ;  xxxvii.  11 ;  Ecc.  xi.  3),  and  dis- 


Cnidus 


138 


Colors 


charge  it  upon  tlic  earth  (Judg.  v.  4 ;  Ps. 
Ixxvii.  17).  A  cloud  in  tlie  weist  was  a  har- 
binger of  rain  (1  Kin.  xviii.    14;   Luke  xii. 

54). 

Tlic  Pillar  of  Cldiid  was  a  miraculous  cloud 
takiuji  till-  fonn  of  a  pillar,  which  uu)vcd  in 
front  of  the  Lsraclilcs  in  the  wilderness  to 
indicate  to  them  the  way  along  which  God 
wished  them  to  advance  (E.\.  xiii.  21,  22; 
Nell.  ix.  10).  When  the  evening  was  too  far 
advanced  for  it  to  he  seen,  it  shone  with  light 
as  a  pillar  of  fire.  When  (fod  designed  to 
show  his  ])re.«ence  to  the  Israelites  he  did 
it  in  the  pillar  of  cloud  (Num.  xii.  5  ;  Ueut. 
xxxi.  15).  and  when  he  designed  to  trouhle 
the  Egyptians  he  looked  at  them  with  iios- 
tile  gaze  through  the  pillar  of  cloud  (Ex. 
xiv.  24). 

Cni'dus. 

A  city  of  C'aria,  on  the  southwest  coast  of 
Asia  Minor,  over  against  the  isle  of  Cos,  which 
is  ahout  10  miles  away.  It  was  a  Dorian  col- 
ony. Extensive  ruins  exist  at  the  sjiot,  con- 
taining fine  remains  of  Grecian  architecture. 
A  snuill  island  just  off  the  coast,  now  joined 
to  the  mainland,  constitutes  a  peninsula  called 
Cape  Crio.  Paul's  vessel  passed  near  it  during 
the  voyage  to  Rome  (Acts  xxvii.  7). 

Coal. 

In  Scripture  this  is  not  the  mineral  sub- 
stance coal,  but  charcoal  made  by  burning 
wood.  Hence  we  read  of  coals  of  juniper 
(Ps.  cxx.  4).  It  was  used  to  furnish  warmth 
in  winter  (Is.  xlvii.  14  ;  John  xviii.  18),  for 
culinary  purposes  (Is.  xii  v.  19  ;  .John  xxi.  9), 
and  by  the  smith  (Is.  xliv.  12  ;  liv.  Ifi). 

Coat.    See  Clothing  and  High  Pkiest. 

Coat  of  Mail.     See  Aemor. 

Cock. 

The  male  of  the  well-known  domestic  fowl 
Gallus  domesticus.  It  is  figured  on  the  ancient 
Egyjitian  monuments.  The  cock  is  mentioned 
in  'the  N.  T.  (Mat.  xxvi.  ;}4,  74,  7.")).  Cock- 
crowing,  as  a  portion  of  time,  is  the  third 
watch  of  the  night  (Mark  xiii.  :ir,).  See  Night. 

Cock'a-trice  [Old  French  cocatrice,  a  cor- 
rui)tion  of  Latin  crncodilns,  a  crocodile]. 

A  fabulous  monster,  created  by  the  fancy 
of  Euroi)eans,  and  re])Uted  to  be  hatched  from 
a  cock's  egg  brooded  by  a  serpent.  The  A.  V. 
so  renders  the  Hebrew  word  Siph'oni  (Is. 
xi.  8;  lix.  5;  Jer.  viii.  17),  and  Sepha'  (Is. 
xiv.  29)  ;  but  in  Prov.  xxiii.  .32  it  translates 
the  word  by  adder.  The  K.  V.  everywhere 
alters  it  to  basilisk,  or  in  the  margin  to 
adder. 

Cock'le. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Bo\ihah,  mal- 
odorous plant  (.job  xxxi.  40).  But  the  cockle, 
a  ])lant  which  is  found  in  grain  fields  and 
grows  one  or  two  fi'et  high,  does  not  have  a 
bad  smell.  The  margin  has  noisome  weeds, 
which  is  a  more  exact  rendering. 

Ccel'e-syr'i-a,  in  A.  Y.  Celosyria  [hollow 
Syria]. 


The  valley  l)etwcen  the  Lebanon  and  An- 
ti-Lebanon mountains.  It  is  watered  by  the 
two  streams  Orontes  and  Litany,  which  rise 
in  the  vicinity  of  Baalbek  and  flow  in  ojipo 
site  directions.  The  term  had,  however,  a 
wider  a]iiilication  (1  Mac.  x.  (19).  It  included 
the  westt'ru  side  of  the  Jordan  valley  as  far 
as  Bethshean  (Antiq.  xiii.  13,  2)  and  the  re- 
gion extending  from  Damascus  southward 
through  Trachonitis,  IVra'a,  and  Idunuea  to 
the  borders  of  l^gypt  (cj).  Antii).  i.  11.  .">).  It 
was  distinct  from  Phienicia  (2  Mae.  iii.  .">). 

Col-ho'zeh  [all-seeing  one]. 

Father  of  Shalliin  and  ])erhaps  one  with 
the  father  of  Baruch  (Xeh.  iii.  15;  xi.  5). 

Col'lege. 

A  mistranslation  of  the  Hebrew  word  ^fis•h- 
neh  in  A.  V.  of  2  Kin.  xxii.  ll,  and  2  Chron. 
xxxiv.  22.  The  word  is  correctly  rendered 
"the  second  [])art]  "  in  Zeph.  i.  10.  In  these 
passages  R.  Y.  has  "  the  second  (quarter." 

Col'o-ny. 

A  settlement  of  Roman  citizens  authorized 
by  the  senate,  in  con(|Uered  territory.  The 
decree  of  the  senate  fixed  the  amount  of  laud 
to  be  set  apart  for  the  colony,  the  manner  in 
which  it  was  to  be  distributed,  and  the  bur- 
dens to  be  borne.  Philippi  was  a  colony 
(Acts  xvi.  12). 

Col'ors. 

Colors  are  presented  to  the  eye  by  nature 
(Esth.  i.  6)  and  were  early  imitated.  In 
Babylonia  different  clays  were  employed  to 
produce  orange,  red,  and  yellow  bricks. 
Bricks  of  blue  were  obtained  by  vitrifactiou. 
The  ancient  Egyptians  prepared  colors  from 
various  metallic  and  earthy  substances.  The 
Hebrews  dyed  skins  in  various  colors  (Ex. 
XXV.  5),  and  wove  and  embroidered  cloth  out 
of  threads  of  various  hues  (Ex.  xxvii.  16; 
Judith  X.  21).  A  reddish  purple  dye  (Ex. 
xxvii.  If)  ;  1  Mac.  iv.  2.3  ;  Acts  xvi.  14)  was  ob- 
tained from  the  secretion  of  a  species  of  shell 
fish,  Mtuex  tnoiridns,  found  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean. Blue  (Num.  iv.  7:  Ezek.  xxiii.  (>) 
was  obtained  from  anotlier  shell  fish,  Helix 
ianth'nia.  Scarlet  or  crimson  was  made  from 
an  insei't  (Ex.  xxv.  4;  Is.  i.  18).  They  used 
a  vermilion  pigment  for  decorating  walls, 
beams,  idols,  and  the  like  (Jer.  xxii.  14  ;  Ezek. 
xxiii.  14:  Wisd.  xiii.  14).  In  addition  to 
these  artificial  coloring  matters,  allusion  is 
made  in  the  Bible  to  white  (Gen.  xlix.  12; 
Is.  i.  18),  black,  including  brown  (Gen.  xxx. 
32  ;  Song  i.  (J ;  Mic.  iii.  fJ,  R.  Y.),  red  (Gen. 
xxv.  2.5,  30;  2  Kin.  iii.  22;  Prov.  xxiii.  31), 
reddish  (Lev.  xiii.  19),  sorrel  (Zech.  i.  8  ;  in 
A.  Y.  s]H'ckled  :  margin,  bay),  greenish  (Ps. 
Ixvii.  13;  in  Eng.  vers,  vellow  ;  Lev.  xiii. 
49). 

Symbolism  was  connected  with  colors. 
The  teinidc  of  the  st^ven  lights  at  Borsijipa, 
in  Babylonia,  consisti'd  of  .seven  stages,  each 
colored  in  a  hue  a]ipro])riate  to  the  planet  it 
represented.  Beginning  at  the  lowest  stage, 
the  succession  of  colors  was  black,  orange. 


Colossse 


139  Colossians 


blood-red,  gold,  pale-yellow,  blue,  and  prob- 
ably silver,  iU'cordingwith  tlic  itlaiiets  Saturn, 
Jui)iter,  Mars,  the  sun,  Venns,  Mercury,  and 
tlie  moon.  In  tlie  Seri]iture  wliite  is  llu'  eon- 
staiit  eiul)l('ni  of  jiurity  (Mark  xvi.  ."> ;  Kev. 
iii.  4  ;  xix.  11,  11)  and  .jo.\  (Eec.  ix.  S).  The 
white  horse  signifies  vietory  in  IJev.  vi.  2. 
The  black  horse  is  typieal  of  famine  and 
death  (">,  (Ji.  lied  commonly  typilic's  Ijlood, 
in  which  is  life,  or  war  and  carnage  (1).  Ulue 
is  tile  familiar  color  of  the  sky.  and  iiiirple 
was  worn  by  jirinces  and  the  rich  in  their 
magnificence  (Judg.  viii.  2(i ;  ICsth.  viii.  1.5 ; 
Luke  xvi.  10). 

Co-los'sse,  in  A.  V.  Colosse. 

.\  city  of  s()iitliwesl(  rn  I'hrygia.  in  .\sia 
Minor,  lying  on  the  river  L>ciis  not  far  east 
of  its  contlueiice  witii  the  .Meander.  It  was 
originally  on  the  trade  route  from  west  to 
east  and  was  a  place  of  much  importanci' 
(Herod,  vii.  :50:  Xen.  Anabasis  I.  ii.  (1).  But 
the  road  system  was  cbaugi'd.  and  the  neigh- 
boring cities  of  Laodieea  and  Ilicraiiolis  (('ol. 


Co-los'si-ans.  E-pis'tle  to  the. 

An  epislh'  written  wluii  th.'  ajiostle  I'aul 
was  a  prisoner  (iv.  :;.  M.  Is)  probably  at 
Home  during  the  two  years  of  his  lirst  iin- 
prisonnient  there  (.\cts  xxviii.  :{0,  :n  I,  though 
some  believe  that  it  was  written  from  Casjirea 
(Acts  xxiii.  :5.");  xxiv.  27).  From  Col.  ii.  1  it 
appears  evident  that  he  had  never  himstlf 
lireacbed  at  Colos.-iie  :  and  i.  7  .seems  to  imply 
that  Kpaphras  had  been  the  found«r,  or  at 
least  had  assisted  in  the  establishment  of  the 
C'olossian  church.  The  church  may  h:ive 
been  foiindid  while  Paul  was  laboring  in 
Ephesus  (Acts  xix.  10).  Epaphnis  had  re- 
cently Joined  the  apostle  (i.  S),  and  his  rejiort 
of  the  condition  of  theehiinh  jironipted  the 
writing  of  the  letter.  It  was  .-cut  by  the 
hand  of  a  <'ertain  Tychiciis  (iv.  7,  f*!,  who  was 
al!5o  intrusted  with  the  letter  to  the  Ephe- 
sians  (Ejdi.  vi.  21),  written  at  the  .sjune  time. 
With  him  went  Onesinius  (t'ol.  iv. !»),  who  also 
bore  the  letter  to  riiileiiion.  a  resident  of 
C'olossa-,  whose  slave  Onesimus  had  formerly 


Modern  Colo.ssai. 


ii.  1  ;  iv.  13)  surpas,sed  it  in  ])osition  and 
wealth,  so  that  the  importance  of  Colossie 
declined.  A  (.'hristian  community  grew  up 
at  t'olo.s.'ifE  under  the  ministrations  of  Epa- 
phnis and  later  of  .\rcliippus  (Col.  i.  7;  iv. 
17;  rhile.  2).  Of  this  church  Philemon  was 
an  active  member,  and  also  (Inesiiiiiis  (Col. 
iv.  !>;  I'hile.  2).  The  town  was  iiictiiresiiuely 
situated  in  front  of  mount  Cadmus,  whieli 
ri.ses  in  vast  ])recii)ices  and  is  ilivide<l  by  a 
great  chasm  through  which  the  Lycos  Hows. 
It  was.  however,  like  Laodieea.  famous  for 
its  line  wool,  and  it  relaine<l  municipal  inde- 
pendence under  the  Komans.  In  later  times 
its  location  was  almost  forgotten,  but  modern 
<>xi>lor.ition  has  recovered  the  site,  though 
its  memorials  are  few. 


been.  The  .\rchipiuis  mentioned  in  I'hile. 
2.  i)robably  I'liileiiionV  >on.  is  also  mentioned 
in  Col.  iv.  17.  The  >alutations  which  the 
letter  contains  (iv.  10  17)  indicate  that  while 
Paul  had  not  l.ibored  in  Colo.s.sie  liis  friends 
had,  ami  that  he  himself  was  well  acipiainted 
with  .some  of  the  Colo.-.sians.  In  fact.  Phile- 
mon was  one  of  his  converts  i  Phile.  l!i|.  maile. 
l>erliaps,  in  E|>besus.  Tin- reportfiof  Epa)>hnis 
had  shown  that  the  Colo.ssian  Cbristian>  were 
threateneti  by  false  tea<her>.  who  Menied  to 
have  comliined  ritualistic,  ascetic,  and  sim-cu- 
lative  tendencies.  That  they  were  .lewish 
aiijiears  from  ii.  11,  K!.  Hut  they  wen-  also 
as<«tic  (ii.  1<).  20  2.'{),  a  feature  which  may 
have  come  from  tin-  .Tewish  S4ct  of  F-s««-nes. 
With  this  they  united  a  mystic   plulostiphy 


Conaniah 


140 


Convocation 


(ii.  8),  which  seems  to  have  claimed  superior 
knowledge  of  divine  things  (ii.  IS)  and  to 
havi'  iiitrudiu'i'd  tlic  worship  of  angels  (ii.  18), 
thus  infringing  on  tlu'  all-suftieieucy  and  the 
supremacy  of  Christ.  These  false  teachers, 
therefore,  were  ditlerent  from  the  Judaizers 
whom  Paul  opposed  in  tlic  Ei)istle  to  tlie  (.fa- 
latians.  Tlicy  represent  a  new  form  of  error, 
and  in  certain  resj)ects  appear  as  the  forerun- 
ners of  the  Gnostics.  They  united  with  ritual- 
i.sm  that  theosophical  tendency  which  was 
almost  characteristic  of  oriental  thought,  aud 
therefoi"e  demanded  an  immediate  refutation 
hy  the  apostle.  The  epistle  luilurally  falls  into 
four  parts:  (1)  the  introduction  and  thanks- 
giving (i.  1-8)  ;  (2)  the  doctrinal  sectiim  (i.  9- 
iii.  4) :  (3)  practical  exhortations  (iii.  'y-iv.  6) ; 
(4)  concluding  salutations  (iv.  7-18).  The  doc- 
trinal section  is  of  great  importance.  Begin- 
uing  with  a  i)rayer  for  their  growth  in  knowl- 
edge and  holiness,  he  rises  to  a  description  of 
the  ])r(^eminence  of  Christ  in  his  relation  to 
God,  the  universe,  and  the  church.  Then 
in  ch.  ii.  he  sets  forth  Christ's  preeminence 
as  against  the  errorists,  assuring  believers  of 
their  completeness  in  him,  since  he  has  once 
for  all  triumphed  over  their  spiritual  foes, 
aud  nothing  but  union  with  him  by  faith  is 
requisite  for  the  full  experience  of  salvation. 
As  against  asceticism  he  further  urges,  in  his 
practical  exhortations,  to  a  spiritual  morality 
and  to  social  order.  The  epistle  is,  therefore, 
christological  in  character.  It  assumes  the 
doctrines  of  salvation  taught  in  previous 
epistles,  but  more  explicitly  states  the  pre- 
eminence of  Christ's  person  and  the  suffi- 
ciency of  his  work.  This  epistle,  together 
with  Philemon  and  Ephesians,  was  probably 
written  comparativelj-  early  in  Paul's  Eoman 
imprisonment,  perhaps  in  the  early  spring  of 
A.  D.  ()2.  The  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians  has 
many  remarkable  coincidences  of  language 
and  thought  with  that  to  the  Colossians, 
though  their  differences  are  equally  note- 
worthy ;  see  Ephesi.^ns.  While  evidently 
written  at  the  same  time,  Ephesians  presents 
a  further  unfolding  of  the  truths  which  the 
specific  needs  of  his  Colossian  readers  led 
him  to  write  to  them.  g.  t.  p. 

Con-a-ni'ah,  in  A.  V.  twice  Cononiah 
[Jehovah  hath  established]. 

1.  A  Levite  who  had  charge  of  the  tithes 
and  offerings  in  Hezekiah's  reign  (2  Chron. 
xxxi.  12,  13). 

2.  A  Levite  of  high  station  in  the  reign  of 
Josiah  (2  Chron.  xxxv.  9). 

Con'cu-bine. 

In  the  Hiblc  a  secondary  wife  under  the 
system  of  jjolygamy.  Concubines  were  com- 
monly taken  from  among  the  purchased  slaves 
or  captives ;  as  Hagar  (Gen.  xvi.  2,  3 ;  xxi. 
10),  Rilhah  (xxix.  29;  xxxv.  22),  Gideon's 
concubine  (.ludg.  viii.  31  ;  ix.  18).  They 
could  be  more  easily  put  away  than  a  wife 
(,Gen.  xxi.  10-14),  yet  their  rights  were  recog- 


nized and  guarded  by  the  Mosaic  law  (Ex. 
xxi.  7-11 ;  Deut.  xxi.  10-14). 

Co'ney. 

The  coney  of  England  is  the  rabbit ;  that 
of  Scripture  is  probably  the  rock-badger 
(Lev.  xi.  5).     See  Rock-b.vdgkk. 

Con-gre-ga'tion. 

In  .Siripture  the  word  is  used  mainly  for: 
1.  The  body  jiolitic  of  Israel,  including  men, 
women,  aud  cliildren  (Ex.  xii.  3,  19,  47;  xvi. 
1,  22  ;  Lev.  iv.  13,  1') ;  xxiv.  14  ;  Num.  i.  2  ; 
xiv.  1  ;  XV.  20;  xvi.  9;  xx.  11  ;  Judg.  xx.  1). 

2.  An  assemblage  of  the  people,  especially 
for  religious  puri)0.ses  (1  Kin.  viii.  14,  d'}  ;  2 
Chron.  x.xx.  2,  4  ;  Ps.  xxii.  22,  25),  or  the 
community  regarded  as  ever  summoned  and 
assembled  for  worship.  In  R.  V.  the  word 
assembly  is  often  preferred  (Num.  x.  7 ;  xvi. 
3  ;  xix.  20  ;  xx.  4  ;  Josh.  viii.  35  ;  and  so  also 
sometimes  in  A.  V.  Judg.  xx.  2),  aud  in  Acts 
xiii.  43  the  word  synagogue. 

3.  In  A.  V.  the  taberoacle  of  the  congre- 
gation designates  the  tent  of  meeting  (R.  V.), 
the  appointed  place  where  Jehovah  and  his 
people  met  (Ex.  xxvii.  21  ;  cp.  xxv.  22  ;  xxix. 
42;  XXX.  36). 

Co-ni'ah.     See  Jeconiah. 

Con-o-ni'ali.     See  Conaniah. 

Con-se-cra'tion. 

The  act  whereby  a  person  or  thing  is  dedi- 
cated to  the  service  and  worship  of  God.  It 
includes  ordination  to  a  sacred  office  (Ex. 
xxix.  9),  ordination  to  sacred  service  (Lev. 
viii.  33  ;  1  Chron.  xxix.  5 ;  2  Chron.  xxix. 
31),  and  the  setting  apart  of  things  from  a 
common  to  a  sacred  use  (Josh.  vi.  19 ;  2  Chron. 
xxxi.  6). 

Con-ver-sa'tion. 

In  the  English  ver.sions  the  word  conver- 
sation is  used  in  its  obsolescent  sense  and  de- 
notes manner  of  life. 

1.  The  rendering  in  the  A.  V.  of  the  Greek 
words  Politend  and  Politenma  (Phil.  i.  27 ;  iii. 
20).  The  words  refer  to  civil  life,  as  is  recog- 
nized by  R.  V.  Christians  are  citizens  of  the 
heavenly  kingdom  aud  their  daily  civil  con- 
duct should  correspond  with  the  teachings  of 
the  gospel  of  the  kingdom. 

2.  The  rendering,  in  many  pa.ssages  of  the 
A.  v.,  and  even  in  R.  V.  of  Ps.  1.  23,  of  vari- 
ous words,  especially  of  the  Greek  Aiins- 
trophr.  It  means  conduct,  or  mode  of  life, 
especiallv  with  respect  to  morals  (Ps.  xxxvii. 
14 ;  Eph!  iv.  22 ;  Heb.  xiii.  5 ;  1  Pet.  i.  15). 

Con-vo-ca'tion. 

A  festival  on  which  the  Israelites  were 
summonc<l  to  assemble  together  and  when  no 
servile  work  was  allowed  to  be  done.  The 
holy  convocations  were  every  sabbath  (Lev. 
xxiii.  1-3),  the  fir.st  and  seventii  days  of  the 
feast  of  unleavened  bread  (Ex.  xii.  16;  Lev. 
xxiii.  6,  7;  Num.  xxviii.  18,  25),  Pentecost 
(Lev.  xxiii.  15-21),  the  first  and  seventh  days 
of  the  tenth  month,  the  latter  being  the 
great  day  of  atonement  (Lev.   xxiii.  24-28, 


Coos 


141 


Corinth 


35;  Num.  xxix.  1),  and  tliu  first  and  eighth 
days  of  till'  least  of  talnriiack-s,  wliiih  bof^au 
on  tliu  l.')tli  of  the  seventh  mouth  (Lev.  xxiii. 
31-;{<) ;  Xeh.  viii.  Itt). 

Co 'OS.    See  Cos. 

Cop'per.    See  Brass. 

Cor.     See  Mkasukks. 

Coral. 

'J'lie  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Rd'moth  in 
Job  xxviii.  is  and  E/.ek.  xxvii.  1(1.  It  was 
rej;ardeil  as  very  valual)le.  Syria  disposed 
of  coral  with  other  articles  of  connnerce  iu 
the  markets  of  Tyre.  It  was  ol)tained  in  the 
Meiliterraiiean  and  Red  seas,  and  was  made 
into  l)i'atls  and  cliarms.  Coral  is  projierly  the 
calcari'oiis  skeleton  of  certain  animals  of  low 
orjianization,  popularly  but  erroneously  called 
coral  insects.  They  are  radiated  animals, 
with  a  central  mouth  surrounded  by  fleshy 
limbs;  and  are  either  attached  sinj^ly  to  a 
rock,  or  so  bud  from  i)an'nts  as  to  make  a 
compound  beint;  of  many  half  distinct,  half 
united  individuals.  The  carbonate  of  lime 
of  wliicii  the  coral  skeleton  is  made  is  ob- 
tained from  the  si-a  water.  The  coral  is  often 
beautifully  branched  like  a  tree  or  shrub, 
whence  these  animals  are  often  called  Zoo- 
phytes (Plant  animals).  Some  species  form 
great  reefs,  and  many  of  the  islands  with 
which  the  hotter  parts  of  the  Pacific  ocean 
are  studded  have  been  wholly  built  by  the 
coral  p(dyps.  So  also  are  the  Hermuda 
Islands  in  the  Atlantic,  the  waters  sur- 
rounding them,  l)rou<;ht  by  the  Gulf  stream, 
beiuf^  warm  enough  to  allow  the  coral  animals 
to  live  and  work. 

Coral  is  also  a  marginal  rendering  of  the 
Hebrew  P'liiiiim,  rendered  rubies  in  the  text 
(Lam.  iv.  7;  Job  xxviii.  18;  Prov.  iii.  15). 

Cor-a'slian.     See  Ashan. 

Cor'ban  [Hebrew  korbau,  offering]. 

An  oH'cring  or  oblation,  either  of  a  bloody 
or  an  unbloody  siicritice,  given  to  Crod  (Lev. 
i.  2,  3;  ii.  1  ;  iii.  1;  Num.  vii.  12-17;  where 
the  word  occurs  in  the  Hebrew  text).  A 
word  korhduas,  from  the  same  root,  is  ren- 
dered in  Mat.  xxvii.  f!  "  tn'asury,"  and  on  the 
margin  of  the  \i.  V.  "sacred  treasury."  Cor- 
Jian  is  used  for  money  or  service  dedicated  to 
God  (Mark  vii.  11).  The  reprehensible  |)rac- 
tice  arose  of  cliildren  giving  in)  aid  toi)an'nts 
needing  their  sup|)i)rt.  on  the  ))rctense  that 
the  money  or  service  which  would  otherwise 
liave  been  available  for  the  parents  had  been 
dedicat«'d  to  God,  and  that  it  would  be  sacri- 
lege to  divert  it  from  this  sa<'red  i)Ui'ii()se. 
.losephus  relates  that  a  clamorous  mob  beset 
the  tribunal  of  Pontius  Pilate  when  he  took 
the  sacred  money  called  Corban  and  ex- 
pemh'd  it  on  aiiiwducts  designed  to  improve  ' 
the  water  supply  of  .Jerusalem.  This  doubt-  | 
less  was  a  iiublic  benefit,  but  the  .lews  evi- 
dently thought  that  money  once  dedicated  to 
God  could  never  again  be  lawfullv  used  for  a    , 


secular  ]>urpose.  b<iwever  conducive  to  the 
public  welfare  (Warii.  9,4). 

Co're.     SeeKouAii. 

Co-ri-an'der. 

.\  plant,  called  in  Hebrew  (iitd,  which  had 
white  seeds  (Kx.  xvi.  ,{1  ;  Num.  xi.  7).  Very 
probal)ly  it  was  the  Coriander  {('oriiiiulniin 
srt/uiOH),  called  in  Punic  lloid ;  a  bninched 
annual,  with  cut  leaves,  und)els  of  jiiuk  or 
white  (lowers,  and  a  small  globular  fruit  u.s«-d 
to  .season  dishes.  It  is  wild  in  .Aralii^i.  north- 
ern Africa,  and,  perhai)s,  in  southern  Lurojie. 
In  Palestine  it  is  found  in  cuItivaK-d  grounds 
and  in  the  Jordan  valley. 

Cor'inth. 

One  of  the  leading  cities  of  ({reece,  about 
Is  miles  west  of  Athens,  well  situated  for  the 
growth  of  eommerce  and  wealth.  It  sto<«l  on 
the  narrow  isthmus  connecting  the  Peloiion- 
ne.su.s,  now  the  Morea,  with  the  mainland  of 
Greece.  Traffic  conducteil  by  land  between 
these  ]>laces  had  tti  jiass  through  Corinth.  Tlie 
Salonic  (iulf,  now  that  of  .Kgina,  to  the  east 
of  the  isthmus,  and  the  Gulf  of  Corinth,  now 
that  of  Lepanto,  on  the  west,  afforded  a  higii- 
way  for  commerce  by  water  between  .Vsiaand 
the  west.  The  short  i)ortage  was  made  at 
Corinth.  The  Pluenician  mariners  seem  to 
have  been  the  first  to  ajijireciate  the  advan- 
tages of  the  situation.  They  built  a  village 
on  the  top  of  a  mountain,  subseiiuently  called 
Acrocorinthus,  or  the  citadel.  The  .Kolian 
Greeks  possessed  it  next,  calling  it  Kphyni. 
About  1074  I!,  c.  the  jxiwer  i)a.s.sed  from  tiie 
iEolians  to  the  Dorian  Henideida".  These 
struggles  were  not  merely  ))etween  rival 
Greek  races:  the  aristocracy  and  the  democ- 
racy each  contended  for  the  mastery.  In  lit! 
H.  c.  the  Koman  consul  .Miinimius  burned  it 
to  ashes.  The  accidental  fusing  together  of 
ditferent  metals  during  the  conflagnitioii  is 
said  to  have  led  to  the  (lis<-overy  of  Corinthian 
brass.  The  city  was  rebuilt  by  ,lulius  ('ies;ir 
about  -If)  Ii.  c. ;  became  the  cajiital  of  the 
Roman  jtrovince  of  .\chaia,  and  was  ruled 
by  a  iirocoiisul.  The  moral  reputation  of 
Corinth  was  not  high.  Peojile  of  all  nation- 
alities congregated  here  ;  and  wealth  pro- 
duced idli'ness  and  idlem-s.-.  vice:  so  that  to 
"corinthiani/e  ■■  had  a  bad  meaning.  Paul 
rcacheil  Corinth  jirobably  in  A.  I).  ."i2  and  la- 
bored there  for:i  year  and  a  half.  l<Mli;ing  with 
.ViliHla  ;ind  Priscilla.  and  supportin;:  himvlf 
by  tent-making.  At  lirst  he  spt.ke  in  the 
syiiJigogiies  ;ind  then  in  the  hous*- of  Justu.s, 
till  at  length  he  was  dnigt'cd  Itcfore  the  tri- 
bunal of  the  i)ro<onsiil  Gallio  (.\cts  .wiii.  1- 
Ib).  .\fter  Paul's  departure.  .\i«illos  contin- 
ued the  work  (xviii.  21-2.^1.  On  three  s«'vcral 
occasions  hiti-r  the  :ipostl«'  sent  a  letter  to  the 
Corinthian  church  (1  Cor.  v.  !0.  The  Cliris- 
tiaii  community  continued  to  increase  ;  ami 
by  the  second  century  its  bishop  p<is.M'SM'il 
great  inlliieiice  in  the  church  at  larire.  Tin- 
c;iptiire  of  ( 'onst;mtino|>le  by  the  \«'iielians 
and  the  crusiiders  in   12<H  was  inune<liately 


Corinthians 


142 


Corinthians 


followed  by  the  surrender  of  Corintli.  In 
144()  the  Turks  took  it,  and  in  1GS7  tin-  Vene- 
tians retook  it  ;  tlie  Turks  caiitiirin^j  it  a^iaiii 
in  1715.  In  l!S2:{  it  jt)ine(i  in  the  suceesst'ul 
{;reat  rebellion.  In  February,  l.s58,  it  was 
nearly  destroyed  by  an  earthquake,  but  has 
since  been  restored.    It  is  now  called  (lortho. 

Co-rin'tM-ans.  E-pis'tles  to  the. 

The  First  Epistle  of  Faul  to  the  Corinthians 
was  written  during  the  apostle's  Ion j<  sojourn 
in  Ephesus  (.\vi.  8,  !l,  lit;  Actsxix.),  ])rol)ably 
early  in  A.  D.  f)?.  He  had  had  uiueli  anxiety 
over  the  state  of  the  Corinthian  ehurch,  which 
he  had  founded  a  few  years  before.  The  Co- 
rinthians had  written  him  a  letter  asking  in- 
structions on  the  subject  of  marriage  and 
social  purity,  and  he  had  replied  (v.  9). 
This  letter  has  not  been  preserved.  Ap- 
parently also  a  deputation  from  C'orinth 
had  been  sent  to  him  (xvi.  17),  and  from 
other  sources  reports  of  divisions  among 
them  had  reached  him  (i.  11).  He  had 
previously  sent  Timothy  to  Corinth  by 
way  of  Jiacedonia  (iv.  17 ;  xvi.  10).  but  the 
later  news  moved  him  immediately  to  write 
this  epistle.  It  is  even  thought  by  many 
that  Paul  himself  made  a  brief  unrecorded 
visit  to  Corinth  from  Ephesus  for  the  pur- 
pose of  exercising  discipline  in  the  church. 
This  is  inferred  from  2  Cor.  xii.  14  ;  xiii.  1, 
where  he  speaks  of  being  about  to  visit  them 
a  third  time,  though  The  Acts  speaks  of  only 
one  previous  visit.  Some  have  located  this 
unrecorded  visit  before  1  Cor.  was  written  ; 
but,  since  that  epistle  does  not  allude  to  it,  it 
should  be  placed  between  1  and  2  Cor.  But 
in  1  Cor.  he  takes  uj)  in  order  the  prac- 
tical and  doctrinal  points  on  which  they 
needed  instruction.  The  epistle  is  carefully 
written.  It  combines  cogent  doctrinal  dis- 
cussion, and  skillful  dealing  with  moral  and 
ecclesiastical  problems.  It  clearly  reflects 
the  actual  conditions  of  the  churches  among 
the  gentiles.  Hence  its  great  importance. 
The  subjects  discussed  are,  after  the  intro- 
ductory salutation  (i.  1-9)  : 

1.  The  divisions  in  the  church  (i.  10-iv. 
21).  Factions  had  arisen,  claiming  to  follow 
particular  leaders,  and  doubtless  character- 
ized by  special  theological  tendencies.  He 
mentions  a  Paul-party,  an  Apollos-party,  a 
Peter-party,  and  a  Christ-party.  Against 
them  all  he  sets  forth  the  deiiendence  of  all 
believers  on  Christ  crucified,  the  insjiired  au- 
thority with  which  the  gospel  had  lirst  been 
preached  to  them,  and  the  subordinate  char- 
acter of  every  one  by  whom  it  was  adminis- 
tered, even  though  he  were  an  apostle  ;  so 
that  none  should  bo  made  the  head  of  a  party, 
but  glory  given  to  God  in  Christ  alone. 

2.  The  duty  of  exercising  and  honoring 
church  discipline  (v.,  vi.),  especially  in  the 
case  of  offenders  against  purity,  of  which 
there  had  been  one  conspicuous  example. 

3.  Directions  on  the  subject  of  marriage 
and  divorce  (vii). 


4.  Directions  concerning  practical  ques- 
tions arising  from  contact  with  heathen 
society  (viii.-xi.  1).  Tbese  jiertained  esjie- 
cially  to  the  eating  of  food  which  had  been 
oU'ered  to  idols  ;  in  regard  to  which  .self-de- 
nial should  control  their  liberty  (viii.),  even 
as  he  sought  to  have  it  do  in  hisown  life  (ix.). 
While  not  needlessly  iiii|uiring  as  to  the  ori- 
gin of  the  food  they  bought  or  ate,  they 
should  be  careful  not  to  seem  to  participate 
in  recognition  of  the  idol  (x.). 

5.  Warnings  against  certain  abuses  in  pub- 
lic worshi])  (xi.  2-o4)  with  resi)ect  to  the 
prophesying  of  women  and  the  administra- 
tion of  the  Lord's  Supper. 

6.  Directions  as  to  the  estimate,  exercise, 
and  regulation,-  of  miraculous  gifts  (xii.- 
xiv.). 

7.  Instruction  concerning  the  doctrine  of 
the  resurrection  of  the  dead,  which  some 
were  disposed  to  doubt  (xv.). 

8.  Directions  about  the  collections  being 
made  for  the  saints  in  Judiea,  and  concluding 
remarks  about  his  own  movements  and  other 
personal  matters  (xvi.). 

The  Second  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians  was 
written  from  Macedonia  (ii.  13;  vii.  5;  ix.  2, 
4)  shortly  after  Paul  left  Ephesus  (Acts  xx. 
1),  and  therefore  in  the  summer  or  early  au- 
tumn of  A.  D.  57.  Timothy  was  now  with 
him  again  (i.  1).  Titus  and  another  had  re- 
cently been  sent  from  Ephesus  to  Corinth 
(ii.  13;  vii.  6,  7,  13,  14,  15;  xii.  18)  with  di- 
rections to  have  the  church  immediately  dis- 
cipline an  offender,  probably  the  incestuous 
person  of  1  Cor.  v.  1,  who  had  openly  defied 
the  apostle's  authority  and  whose  continued 
sin  threatened  the  very  stability  of  the 
church.  Titus  was  to  rejoin  Paul  at  Troas, 
but  the  apostle,  not  finding  him  there,  had 
gone  on  to  Macedonia  in  great  distress  of 
mind.  At  last,  however,  Titus  came  with 
the  good  news  that  the  Corinthians  had  dis- 
ciplined the  offender,  and  that  the  latter  had 
humbly  acknowledged  his  sin.  Thereupon 
this  epistle  was  written,  and  Titus,  with  two 
others  (viii.  1(5-24),  was  sent  back  with  it  to 
Corinth.  The  epistle  bears  witness  to  the 
intense  anxiety  of  the  apostle  lest  the  Co- 
rinthians should  be  false  to  him,  and  to  the 
terrible  strain  he  had  been  under  because  of 
their  spiritual  perils.  It  is  the  least  method- 
ical and  the  most  personal  of  his  epistles.  It 
fiills,  however,  into  three  main  divisions: 
(1)  i.-vii.,  in  which,  after  grateful  recogni- 
tion of  (iod's  goodness  to  him  even  amid 
trial  (i.  1-14),  he  vindicates  himself  from 
the  charge  of  vacillation  (i.  15-ii.  4),  bids 
them  not  carry  too  far  their  zeal  against  the 
tiflender  (ii.  5-11),  and  describes  the  spir- 
itual (iii.),  honest  (iv.  l-(i),  suffering  (iv.  7- 
18),  hopeful  (V.  1-9),  solemn  (v.  10. 11),  Christ- 
impelled  (v.  12-17)  ministry  of  reconciliation 
(v.  18-21)  with  which,  as  a  co-worker  with 
God,  he  had  been  intrusted  (v.  18-vi.  2),  in 
which  he  had  appeared  himself  (vi.  3-10),  on 
the  ground  of  which  he  appealed  to  them 


Cormorant 


143 


Cotton 


ivi.  11  IH).  and  in  their  acknowledfrment  of 
wliicli  lie  foiiiul  l)ul(liics.s  and  ji)y  (vii.).  (2) 
viii.,  ix.,  in  wliicli  lie  treats  of  llic  (•(dloctions 
fur  tbe  Judii-an  saints  and  nrf^cs  lil)erality. 
(3)  x.-xii.,  in  which  he  ajjain  j^ives  a  jiathetie 
Imt  ednfidcnt  testimony  to  iiisai)ostolie  otliee 
and  authority.  lIi-  eloses  with  a  lenewed 
warnin;;  afiainst  tiieir  liesettinji  sins,  and  de- 
chires  tliat  if.  when  he  comes  totliem,  he  find 
them  uncorrected,  he  will  exercise  his  author- 
ity uiMiii  tluin  iinsi)arinj;ly.  <;.  t.  v. 

Cor 'mo-rant. 

1.  Tlie  rendering;  of  Hel)rew  Shaluk.  ]ilnn- 
^'er  :  a  liird  ceri'monially  unclean  (Lev.  xi. 
17;  Deut.  xiv.  17).  It  is  luohably  tlie  com- 
mon cormorant  {Plutlncrocontx  curbo),  a  larpe 
swimmiiii;  bird  of  the  Pelican  family,  but  dis- 
tiuLtuislied  from  tlie  jielican  by  not  haviufr  a 
|ioU(li  below  the  lower  mandible.  Birds  of 
the  Corniurant  j,'enus  are  widely  dilfused  over 
the  world,  the  common  cormorant  found  in 
America  beinj;  the  same  species  as  that  which 
builds  on  rocky  islands  otl' the  coast  of  North- 
umbtrland  in  Kujiland.  and  as  that  which 
lives  on  the  coast  of  Palestine,  on  the  .sea  of 
CTulilee.  and  elsewhere.  The  appetite  of  a 
cormorant  is  i>roverhial  :  and  Tristram  de- 
scribes its  favorit<!  occupation  in  Palestine  to 
be  to  sit  on  the  snair  of  a  tree  where  the  .Jor- 
dan enters  the  Dead  Sea.  and  catch  the  fishes 
while  they  are  sttijielied  by  beinj;  carried  into 
tiie  salt  brine.  He  mentions  that  another 
species,  I'li(ihtcroctirii.r  pi(imn'i(.<i,  the  Pi};my 
Cormorant,  occurs,  though  sparingly,  on  the 
streams  which  flow  throu<;h  Palestine  to  the 
Mediterranean. 

2.  The  rendering  of  Hehrew  Ka'ath  in  text 
of  A.  V.  (Is.  xxxiv.  11;  Zeph.  ii.  14);  see 
Pelicax. 

Corn. 

The  generic  name  for  the  several  cereal 
grasses  cultivated  in  Palestine,  and  so  staple 
that  corn  and  wine  stand  figuratively  for  the 
entire  vegetable  produce  of  the  ficdds  (Gen. 
xxvii.  -JH  ;  Deut.  vii.  13.  etc.).  The  chief 
were  wheat,  barley,  spelt,  and  millet  (Deut. 
viii.  ><■,  and  R.  V.  of  Is.  xxviii.2o  and  Ezek. 
iv.  !i). 

Cor-ne'li-us. 

One  of  the  centurions  of  a  Roman  regi- 
ment called  the  Italian  band,  once  stationed 
at  Cjcsarea.  A  devout,  generous,  and  (io<l- 
fearing  man.  his  jirayors  and  alms  were  ac- 
cejited  by  (lod.  An  angid  in  a  vision  directed 
him  to  send  to  Jopiia  for  I'eter,  who  would 
indicate  to  him  the  path  of  duty.  He  did 
so.  His  messengers  found  I'eter  prepared  ftir 
their  coming  by  the  vision  of  the  sheet  let 
down  from  heaven  with  animals  cU'an  and 
unclean,  the  latter  as  well  as  the  former  to 
be  slaughtered  for  food  if  he  desired.  The 
aiiostle.  accompanied  by  jtome  Christian 
friends,  went  to  Ca'siirea.  ]ireached  the  gos- 
pel to  Cornidius.  and  was  the  nu'ans  of  con- 
vertiTig  him  and  bis  lioustdiold.  Divine  con- 
firmation of  what  had  been  tlone  was  at  once 


given  by  the  descent  upon  them  of  the  Holy 
<;h(ist,  with  the  inipartatioii  of  the  ;;ift  of 
tongues.  The  event  was  one  of  jirinie  im- 
jiortance  in  the  early  church.  It  commenced 
the  long-promised  calling  of  the  gentiles  and 
revealed  that  the  Spirit  is  given  to  believers 
irrespective  of  nationality  (Acts  x.  1-4,'*). 

Cor'ner  Stone. 

A  stone  pla((d  at  the  angle  where  two  walls 
of  a  building  meet,  and  helping  t<i  bind  them 
together.  Any  stone  in  this  position,  from  the 
foundation  (.loli  xxxviii.  (5;  Is.  xxviii.  llj) 
to  the  roof  ( Ps.  cxviii.  22;  Zech.  iv.  7),  is  a 
corner  stone.  Figuratively,  Christ  is  the 
chief  corner  stone  at  the  foundation  (Rora. 
ix.  :«;  Kph.  ii.  2U;  1  Pet.  ii.  (J)  and  al.so  the 
head  of  the  corner  (Mat.  xxi.  42;  1  Pet.  ii.7). 

Cor'net. 

1.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Shophar 
in  1  t'hroii.  xv.  2.s ;  2  Chron.  xv.  14;  Ps. 
xc.viii.  (> :  Hos.  v.  .s.  KIsewhere,  as  in  Lev. 
XXV.  9.  it  is  translated  trumpet  U\.  v.). 

2.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  M'na'an"im 
in  2  Sam.  vi.  5,  A.  V.  The  R.  V.  renders  the 
word  castanets  (q.  v.). 

3.  The  rt'iidering  of  the  Aramaic  lyirna', 
corresponding  to  the  Hebrew  A'ercii  in  Dan. 
iii.  5,  7,  10,  15.  It  means  a  horn,  and  is  so 
rendered  in  viii.  20.  This  instrument  orig- 
inally consisted  of  the  hollow  horn  of  some 
mammal  ;  but  later  it  was  giMienilly  made  of 
metal,  and  was  curved,  like  many  animals* 
horns,  instead  of  being  straight. 

Cor-rup'tlon,  Mount  of. 

A  hill  to  the  east  of  Jerusiilem  (2  Kin. 
xxiii.  13;  cp.  1  Kin.  xi.  7).  Solomon  built 
altars  on  its  southern  side  to  the  gods  wor- 
shijK'd  by  his  heathen  wives.  Hy  c-oninion 
consent  it  is  the  southern  jiortion  of  riie 
mount  of  Olives.  It  is  more  familiarly  known 
in  tradition  as  the  mount  of  Ollen.se. 

Cos,  in  A.  V.  Coos. 

An  island,  now  called  Stanko  or  Stanchio, 
in  the  Archipelago  olf  the  coast  of  Caria  in 
Asia  Minor,  in  a  gulf  between  Cnidiis  and 
Hali<ariiassu.s.  It  lies  between  Miletus  and 
Rhodes,  about  a  day's  sjiil  from  the  latter  city 
(Acts  xxi.  1  ;  mentioned  1  Mac.  xv.  23).  It 
is  about  21  miles  long  by  «i  broad.  Its  prin- 
cipal city  has  been  more  than  once  seriously 
injured  by  eartluiuakes.  Cos  was  celebnited 
for  its  wines,  its  ointments,  and  its  piirjile 
dyes. 

Co'sam. 

\  descendant  of  Diivid  through  Nathan 
and  an  ancestor  of  Zerubbabel  and  Christ 
(Luke  iii.  2S). 

Cotton. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Kitrpits  in 
the  margin  of  the  R.  V.  in  l>lli.  i.<i.  In  the 
court  of  the  royal  jMilace  at  Shushan  were 
hangings  of  fiiu'  white  cotton  and  l>lue.  The 
word  which  corresiumds  to  kitri><i.i  in  Siin- 
scrit,  Persian,  .\nnenian,  and  .\rabic,  denotes 
cotton.     Cotton  is  the  bunch  of  threads  sur- 


Council 


144 


Counselor 


rounding  the  ripe  seeds  of  the  cotton  plants. 
They  beloiij;  to  tlie  {ienus  Gassi/piiiiii.  wliich 
is  onu  of  tlie  mallow  ohUt.  The  Icavos  liavc 
throe  or  live  lobes;  the  llowers,  whieh  are 
larj;e  and  showy,  and  often  of  a  yellow  color, 
are  surrounded  by  an  outer  involucre  or  calyx 
of  tliree  great  leaves.  The  Indian  cotton 
{GoK.yypiuui  herbaceum)  was  early  cultivated 
in  Persia,  and  was  probably  that  of  Esther. 

Coun'cil. 

The  .lewish  governing  body.    The  Persians 
granted  to  the  Jews  jurisdiction  over  their 
own  allairs  (Ezra  vii.  2.">,  2G;  x.  14).     After 
the  fall  i)f  the  Persian  empire  .similar  privi- 
leges were  enjoyed  by  the  Jews.     A  govern- 
ing body  arose  and  became  known  as  (jeronsia 
or  senate  (Antiq.  xii.  3,  3),  and  nu)re  fully  as 
the  senate  of  the  nation   (1  Mac.  xii.  (J).     It 
was  composed   of   elders   (cp.    xiv.   20).     It 
represented   the  nation  (xii.  3),  and  united 
with  Jonathan,  their  liigli  priest  and  leader, 
in   making  ottensive  and  defensive  alliance 
with  the  Spartans.     Jonathan  also  called  the 
elders  of  the  people  together  and  consulted 
with   them   about    building    strongholds   in 
Judsea   and    increasing   the    height   of    the 
walls    of    Jerusalem    (.35 ;    cp.    further    xiii. 
36;  xiv.  20,   28,  and  47).     Under  Gabinius, 
proconsul  of  Syria,  .57-55  B.  c,  Judaea  was 
divided   into   five    districts,    each    under    a 
siinedrion  or  sunodos — i.  e.  assembly  or  sanhe- 
drin  (Antiq.  xiv.  5,  4  ;  War  i.  8,  5).     Hence- 
forth  the   highest  body   at   Jerusalem   was 
called  siuiedriun,  though  not  to  the  exclusion 
of  cierousia  or  boule.     The  arrangement,  how- 
ever, did  not  last  long.     In  47  B.  c,  Csesar 
extended  the  jurisdiction  of  the  sanhedrin 
of  Jerusalem  once  more  over  all  Juda'a  (cp. 
Antiq.  xiv.  9,  3-5;  War  i.  10,  7).     At  the  be- 
ginning of  his  reign  Herod  the  Great  put 
forty-five  of  its  members   to  death   (Antiq. 
xiv.  9,  4;  XV.  1,  2),  but  did  not  abolish  the 
council  (xv.  6,  2).     Under  the  Eoman  procu- 
rators. A.  D.  6-6(5,  its  powers  were  extensive. 
According  to  Jewish  authorities,  it  was  com- 
posed of  71  members  (cp.  the  mock  council, 
War  iv.  5,  4),  and  only  Israelites  whose  de- 
scent  was   above   question  were   eligible  to 
membership.  The  seventy  ordinary  members 
corresponded,  probably,  to  the  seventy  elders 
appointed  by  Moses  to  assist  him  as  judges. 
The  seventy-first  member  was  the  high  priest, 
the  olHcial  president  of  the  body.    It  was  the 
highest  court,  with  ])ower  of  life  and  death 
(Antiq.   xiv.  9,   3  and  4:  Mat.   xxvi.  3,   57; 
Acts  iv.  5,  6,  15  ;  v.  21,  27,  34,  41 ;  vi.  12,  15 ; 
vii.  1 ;  xxiii.  2),  though  apparently  it  had  no 
recognized  authority  to  execute  its  sentence 
of  death,  l)ut  must  submit  its  action  to  the 
review  of  the    Roman   authorities.     It   had 
the   general   administration    of  the  govern- 
ment and  of  justice,  so  far  as  this  was  not 
exercised  by  the  procurator  and  subordinate 
o.lJcials  (cp.  Acts   xxii.  30).     In  the  time  of 
Florus,  at  least,  the  revenue  was  collected  l)y 
the   rulers    and   councilors,    who    dispersed 


themselves  among  the  villages  for  that  pur- 
pose (War  ii.  17,  1).  It  had  ])olice  at  com- 
mand and  could  make  arrests  on  its  own 
authority  (Mat.  xxvi.  47;  JSIark  xiv.  43). 
Jesus  was  tried  before  the  council  (Mat. 
xxvi.  59;  Mark  xiv.  55;  xv.  1:  Luke  xxii. 
66 ;  John  xi.  47).  It  was  before  the  council 
that  Peter,  John,  and  the  other  apostles  were 
brought  (Acts  iv.  5,  6.  15 ;  v.  21.  27,  34,  41). 
Stephen  was  taken  before  the  council  (Acts 
vi.  12),  so  also  was  Paul  (xxii.  30;  xxiii.  15; 
xxiv.  20).  The  sanhedrin  was  swept  away 
at  the  destruction  of  Jerusiilem. 

2.  A  body  of  advisers  selected  by  the 
highest  Roman  official  of  a  province,  in 
Judaea  the  procurator,  to  assist  him  in  the 
administration  of  justice,  before  whom,  with 
the  official  as  president,  cases  were  tried 
(Acts  XXV.  12  ;  Antiq.  xvi.  11,  1  seq. ;  War  ii. 
16,  1). 

Coun'cil  House. 

A  building  in  Jerusalem  west  of  the  temple, 
near  the  g^-muasium  and  adjoining  the  inner- 
most city  wall  (War  v.  4,  2).  It  was  burned 
by  the  Romans  under  Titus  in  the  course  of 
their  struggle  for  the  possession  of  the  city 
(vi.  6,  3).  The  council  house  was  probably 
the  place  where  the  sanhedrin  met :  for  1. 
Its  name  in  Greek  was  houleutcrion,  and  a 
member  of  the  sanhedrin  was  called  bouleutes 
(Luke  xxiii.  50,  51 ;  cp.  War  ii.  17,  1).  2. 
The  council  is  called  by  Josei)hus  sunedrion — 
i.  e.  sanhedrin — and  bonle  indifferently  (Antiq. 
xiv.  9,  3  and  4,  with  xx.  1,  2 ;  War  ii.  15,  6). 
3.  According  to  Jewish  authorities,  the  san- 
hedrin met  in  the  lishkath  hnyciasith  or  cham- 
ber of  the  gazith,  which  jirobably  denoted  a 
chamber  by  the  gymnasium.  According  to 
the  Mishna,  it  is  true,  the  lishknih  haggasith 
was  situated  at  the  east  corner  of  the  court 
of  the  temple.  But  gazith  means  hewn,  es- 
pecially hewn  stone  (Ex.  xx.  25;  1  Kin.  vi. 
36  et  pas.) ;  and  as  the  chambers  of  the  tem- 
ple were  largely  constructed  in  this  manner, 
the  name  gazith  could  not  distinguish  one 
from  another.  Now  the  council  house  stood 
near  or  adjoined  the  xystos  or  gymnasium  ; 
but  xystos  is  the  Greek  equivalent  of  gazith, 
and  is  one  of  the  words  used  in  the  Sep- 
tuagint  to  translate  gazith  into  Greek  (1 
Chron.  xxii.  2 ;  Amos  v.  11).  It  can  scarcely 
be  doubted,  therefore,  that  the  xystos  was 
called  the  gazith  by  one  who  chanced  to 
be  speaking  Hebrew,  and  that  the  name 
lishl-aih  hafninzHh  meant  the  hall  by  the  xys- 
tos (cp.  Schiirer,  f^tud.  it.  Krit.,  1878).  Sim- 
ilar twin  names  are  Christ os.  Messiah  :  Peter, 
Cephas  ;  The  pavement,  (iabbatha;  Place  of 
a  skull,  Golgotha  ;  Field  of  blood.  Aceldama 
(John  i.  41,  42  :  xix.  i;5.  17 ;  Acts  i.  19).  This 
evidence  is  ]K'rha])s  sufficient  to  override  the 
fact  that  the  ehaniber  of  the  gazith  is  stated 
in  the  Mishna,  as  already  mentioned,  to  have 
been  within  the  court  of  the  temple. 

Coun'sel-or. 

The  seven  counselors  of  Artaxerxes  (Ezra 


Court 


145 


Crane 


vii.  11)  were  proba>)ly  the  seven  princes  of 
Media  and  Persia  wiio  saw  tin-  kiiifi's  face 
and  sat  first  in  tiie  kinj^'dom,  and  fnini  whom 
tlie  kinj,'  souglit  ail  vice  (Esth.  i.  14).  These 
jirinces  were  jierhaps  the  lieads  of  the  seven 
diief  families  of  Persia  (Herod,  iii.  b4). 

Court. 

An  enclosi'd  hut  uncovered  area  eitlier  con- 
nected with  a  jirivate  house  and  often  con- 
taining a  well  ("J  Sam.  xvii.  IH  ;  Neh.  viii.  l(i) ; 
or  in  a  i)alace  (1  Kin.  vii.  b.  9,  12  ;  Jer.  xxxii. 
2),  in  front  of  the  royal  apartments  (Esth.iv. 
11  ;  V.  1  ;  vi.  4)  and  sometimes  containint;  a 
j;arden  (i.  5);  or  around  the  tahernaclc  and 
temple  (Ex.  xxvii.  !»:  xl.  S;  1  Kin.  vi.  .'jfj). 
As  the  area  about  the  temple  was  divided 
(2  Kin.  xxi.  i>),  the  word  is  jtenerally  used  in 
the  j>lnral  (Ps.  Ixv.  4  ;  Ixxxiv.  2). 

Cov'e-nant. 

An  agreement  between  two  or  more  per- 
sons. Various  covenants  between  man  and 
man  are  mentioned  in  .Scripture,  but  tliey 
are  m»  longer  important  ((ien.  xxi.  27,  32;  1 
Sam.  xviii.  ;j ;  xxiii.  IS;  1  Kin.  xx.  34).  It 
is  otherwise  with  those  in  which  Clod  conde- 
scended to  be  a  covenanting  party.  His  cov- 
enr^nt  with  man  is  a  free  jiroinisc  on  his  part, 
generally  based  upon  the  fullillment  of  certain 
conditions  by  man.  He  made  a  promise  of 
contimieil  life  and  favor  to  man  on  condition 
I'f  obetlience,  coujiled  with  a  penalty  for  dis- 
obedience (tien.  ii.  Hi.  17).  He  established  a 
covenant  with  Noah,  that  Noah  should  be 
Siived  when  the  old  world  jierished  (vi.  18), 
and  that  there  sliould  be  no  other  great 
deluge,  the  rainbow  being  the  token  of  the 
covenant  (ix.  12,  IT),  Ki)  ;  with  Abraham  and 
his  ])osterity,  of  which  circumcisif)U  was  to 
be  the  sign,  to  l)e  their  (rod  and  to  give 
them  the  land  of  Canaan  for  an  inheritance 
(xiii.  17;  xv.  18;  xvii.  2,  4,  7,  11,  13,  14, 
19;  2  Kin.  xiii.  23;  1  Chron.  xvi.  l-o-lS ;  Ps. 
cv.  it-1 1  :  Acts  vii.  8 ;  Kom.  iv.  13.  17)  ;  with 
the  Israelites  as  a  nation,  to  continue  to  bo 
their  (Jod  and  to  grant  national  protection, 
<if  which  a  sign  was  to  be  the  Sabbath  (Ex. 
xxxi.  Ki),  and  the  keeping  of  the  ten  com- 
mandments its  i-oudition  (Dent.  iv.  13,23). 
This  covenant  was  made  at  Honb  i  Dent.  v.  2 ; 
xxix.  1)  and  M'as  renewed  with  the  next 
generation  on  the  jilains  of  Moab  (Deut. 
xxix.  1).  There  was  a  covenant  with  the 
Livites  (Mai.  ii.  4,  8),  and  one  sjiccially  wiili 
I'hinehas  to  give  him  and  his  descendants 
an  everlasting  priesthood  (Num.  xxv.  12,  13). 
There  was  a  covenant  with  David  that  his 
posterity  should  forever  occujiy  his  tlinme 
(Ps.  Ixxxix.  20-2S,  31;  cp.  2  .Sam.  vii.  1  2!t 
and  1  Chron.  xvii.  1-27;  2  Chron.  vii.  ]>; 
.ler.  xxxiii.  21).  In  contrast  with  the  cov- 
( iiant  at  .Sinai,  there  was  to  be  a  new  cov- 
enant, also  with  the  Isnieliles.  which  was  to 
be  of  a  more  spiritual  charactiT  than  its 
predecessors  (.Ter.  xxxi.  .31:5 1 :  lleb.  viii.  S- 
11),  admini.stered  by  the  Si)irit  l.Iohn  vii.. 3!); 
Acts  ii.  32.  33 ;  2  Cor.  iii.  (J-!l),  based  on  faith 
10 


(Gal.  iv.  21-31),  and  designed  for  all  nations 
(Mat.  xxviii.  19.  20,  Acts  x.  44-47).  Of  this 
Christ  is  the  Mediator  (Heb.  viii.  <)-13;  ix.  1 ; 
X.  15-17;  xii.  24|.  With  reference  to  it  the 
Old  and  New  Testaments  would,  periiaps, 
better  have  been  called  the  Old  and  New 
Covenants. 

The  two  tablets  of  stone  on  which  were 
engraved  the  ten  commandments,  which  were 
the  fundamental  law  of  tJod's  covenant  with 
Lsrael,  were  called  the  tables  of  the  covenant 
(Deut.  ix.  Hi.  and  the  ark.  in  which  these 
tables  were  deposited,  was  designated  the  ark 
of  the  covenant  (Num.  x.  33).  Tlie  book  of 
the  covenant  consisted  of  the  ten  conniiand- 
nients  with  the  accomjianying  onlinance.s, 
contained  in  Ex.  xx. -xxiii.,  which  were 
written  l)y  Mo.ses  in  a  book,  fttrmally  accejited 
by  the  Israelites,  and  ratified  as  a  covenant 
between  the  Lord  and  his  jieople  (Ex.  xxiv. 
3-8);  see  Theock.vcv.  Later  the  term  is 
used  as  synonymous  with  the  book  of  the 
law  (2  Kin.  xxiii.  2  with  xxii.  8,  111  and  in- 
cluded Deuteronomy  (Deut.  xxxi.  9,  20;  2 
Kin.  xiv.  (>  with  Deut.  xxiv.  Ki). 

Cow. 

Cows  were  early  domesticated.  Epj'pt, 
Pliilistia,  and  Palestine,  alforded  excellent 
l)asturage,  and  cows  were  kipt  in  these  lainls 
((ien.  xli.  2;  Deut.  vii.  13;  1  Sjim.  vi.  7). 
Cows  were  herded  by  Abraham  and  liis  de- 
scendants (Geti.  xii.  Ki;  xxxii.  15).  Their 
milk  served  for  food  (2  Sam.  xvii.  29).  They 
found  use  in  concluiling  a  covenant  ((ien. 
XV.  9),  in  the  ceremony  attending  the  j)ro- 
fession  of  innocence  of  a  death  caused  by  an 
undiscoverable  murderer  (Deut.  xxi.  3),  for 
a  peace  olfering  (Lev.  iii.  1).  for  a  sin  olfering 
for  iincleanness  arising  from  contact  with  the 
dead  (Num.  xix.  2;  Ileli.  ix.  13),  and  in  ex- 
ceptional cases  for  a  burnt  olTcriug  (1  Sam. 
vi.  14). 

Coz.     See  Hakkoz. 

Coz'bi  [mendacious]. 

A  daughter  of  Zur.  prince  of  Midian.  In 
the  idolatrous  rites  to  wiiich  the  Midianitcs 
seduced  Israel  the  woman  was  jjublidy  taken 
by  a  prince  of  the  Simeonites.  Both  were 
thrust  through  by  Phineha.s,  son  of  the  high 
priest,  and  shortly  afterwanls  her  father  also 
was  slain  (Num.  xxv.  (i-8.  14,15,  l^i;  xxxi.  8). 

Co-ze'ba,  in  A.  V.  Chozeba  [deceitful]. 

A  village  iu  .ludah.  pcopl.  d  chielly  by  de- 
.scendants  of  Shelah  (1  (  hron.  iv.  22).  It  is 
generally  believed  to  be  the  .sjinie  as  Ach/.ih 
and  Chezib.  Conder,  however,  liK-ales  it  nt 
KiJei/iba,  5i  miles  north-northeast  of  llebn.n, 
at  the  head  of  Pilate's  at|Ueduct  to  .lerusjileni. 

Crane. 

Helm  w  '.ff/Hr, a  mignitory  bird  which  lias 
a  n..te  like  a  chatter  (Is.  xxxviii.  14;  .ler. 
viii.  7i.  The  cniiie  is  the  tyiK- of  a  family 
of  long-legged  wading  birtls.  It  is  a  large 
and  elegant  bird,  breeding  in  the  north  of 
Europe  and  of  Asia,  and  niigniting  southwanl 


Creation 


Hi; 


Creation 


at  the  approach  of  winter.  On  these  flights 
cranes  go  iu  large  flocks  of  wedge-shaped 
form  or  in  long  lines.     See  S\v.\LLO\v'  2. 

Cre-a'tion. 

Tin-  act  or  operation  of  God  whereby  he 
calls  into  existence  what  did  not  before  ex- 
ist. The  verb  always  has  God  for  its  subject, 
and  the  result  is  an  entirely  new  thing.  God 
created  the  heavens  and  the  earth  (Gen.  i.  1), 
aquatic  and  aerial  life  (21).  man  (27),  the  stars 
(Is.  xl.  2G),  the  wind  (Amos  iv.  13).  He  creates 
the  clean  heart  (I's.  li.  10).  Jehovah  com- 
manded and  the  lieavens,  with  all  their  hosts, 
angels,  sun,  moon,  and  stars,  and  the  waters 
that  be  above  the  heavens,  were  created  (Ps. 
cxlviii.  5).  He  spake  and  it  was  done.  Upon 
him  all  living  creatures  depend  ;  his  hand 
provides  for  them,  his  look  preserves  them, 
the  hiding  of  his  face  destroys  them,  and  his 
creative  breath  renews  animate  life  on  earth 
(Ps.  civ.  27-30).  God  created  the  worlds  by 
the  Word,  who  is  the  Son  (John  i.  3  ;  Epb. 
iii.  9 ;  Col.  i.  16  ;  Heb.  i.  2). 

The  designation  creation  is  used  specially 
for  the  original  formation  of  the  universe  by 
God.  In  Genesis  a  general  account  of  the 
creation  of  the  universe  is  first  given  (i.  1- 
ii.  3),  which  is  followed  by  a  particular  ac- 
count of  the  formation  of  man  and  his  sur- 
roundings (ii.  4-25).  The  general  account 
describes  six  successive  acts,  or  sometimes 
groups  of  logically  related  acts  and  processes, 
which  were  willed  by  God  on  as  many  days ; 
see  Days.  All  facts  at  present  available 
indicate  that  between  the  successive  days 
long  ])eriods  of  time  intervened.  The  omis- 
sion of  tlu-  definite  article  in  the  enumeration, 
one  day  and  day  second,  instead  of  the  first 
day,  tlie  second  day,  etc.,  is  favorable  to  this 
view.  And  the  parallel  tradition,  as  pre- 
served by  the  Babylonians,  expressly  refers 
to  intervals  between  the  successive  acts  of 
creation  and  assigns  to  them  long  duration. 

The  earliest  extant  form  of  the  Babylonian 
account  is  found  as  the  introduction  to  the 
myth  of  the  sun-god  Marduk's  conflict  with 
Tiamat  the  watery  deep,  represented  as  a  she- 
dragon  who  lias  attemi)ted  to  reduce  the  or- 
dered universe  to  chaos.  The  tablet  was  in- 
scribed about  650  B.  c,  but  the  tale  itself 
can  be  traced  much  farther  back.  It  states 
that — 

At  the  time  when  on  high  the  heaven  announced 

not, 
Below  earth  named  not  a  name, 
[That  is  to  say :  When  heaven  and  earth  did 

not  exist] 
Then  primeval  ocean,  their  generator,  [and] 
Mummu  Tiamat  [the  watery  deep],  the  bearer 

of  their  totality, 
United  their  waters  as  one  ; 
When  no  field  had  been  formed,  no  reed  was  to 

be  seen. 
At  a  time  when  none  of  the  gods  had  been 

brought  into  existence, 
When  a  name  had  not  been  named,  destiny  not 

determined, 
Then  were  made  the  gods 


The  gods  Lahrau  and  Lahamu  were  brought 

into  existence 

And  grew  up 

Ansliar  [the  host  of  heaven]  and  Kishar  [the 

host  of  earth]  were  made 

Many  days  passed  by 

God  Anu  [heaven] 

Here  the  tablet  is  broken  off,  but  this  part 
of  the  tale  has  also  been  related  by  Damas- 
cius.  He  says  :  "The  Babylonians  assumed 
two  principles  of  the  universe,  Tauthe  and 
Apason  [i.  e.  Tiamat  the  watery  deep,  and 
Apsu  the  primeval  ocean]  ;  making  Apason 
the  husband  of  Tauthe  and  naming  her  the 
mother  of  the  gods.  Of  these  two  there  was 
born  an  only-begotten  son,  Moyniis.  From 
these  same  another  generation  proceeded, 
Laclie  and  Lachos.  Then  also  from  the  same 
[original  pair]  a  third  generation,  Kissare 
and  Assoros ;  from  whom  sprang  Anos 
[heaven],  lUinos  [earth's  surface,  with  the 
atmosphere],  and  Aos  [the  waters  of  earth] ; 
and  of  Aos  and  Dauke  Belos  [the  sun  of 
spring]  was  born,  the  fabricator  of  the 
world."  In  these  narratives  of  creation  the 
Babylonians  fail  to  give  God  glory  ;  but  apart 
from  this  radical  defect,  these  traditions  of 
theirs  preserve  fundamentally  the  same  ac- 
count of  the  development  of  the  world  as  the 
Hebrew  prophet  does.  Stripped  of  poly- 
theistic phraseology,  the  Babylonian  tradi- 
tion taught  that  the  primeval  univer.<6  M'as  a 
chaotic  watery  mass  (cp.  Gen.  i.  2).  Out  of 
this  mass  there  proceeded  not  only  Moymis 
and  Lache  and  Lachos  or  Lahmu  and  Laha- 
mu, who  are  doubtless  natural  objects  or 
forces,  but  have  not  been  identified  as  yet, 
but  also  by  a  series  of  generations,  to  use 
Damascius'  figure  (cp.  Gen.  ii.  4),  the  com- 
prehensive heavens  and  earth  (cp.  Gen.  i. 
6-8),  then  sky  and  dry  land  and  sea  (cp.  Gen.  i. 
9,  10),  and  then  the  sun  (cp.  Gen.  i.  14).  How 
natural  objects,  like  the  heavens  with  all 
their  host,  came  to  be  spoken  of  as  gods  is 
explained  in  tlie  ]>aragraph  devoted  to  As- 
syrian and  Babylonian  religion  in  the  article 
on  Assyria. 

As  to  the  history  of  the  interpretation  of 
the  first  chapter  of  Genesis  it  may  be  said  that, 
although  the  proper  meaning  of  the  word  day 
was  early  considered  doubtful,  the  current 
understanding  of  the  account  was  that  God 
created  the  universe  in  one  week  of  seven 
consecutive  days  of  twenty-four  hours  each. 
When  geologists  began  to  study  the  orderly 
succession  of  the  rocks  and  to  investigate  their 
origin  and  historj',  they  became  convinced 
that  thousands,  not  to  say  millions,  of  years 
must  have  lieeii  retiuircd  to  produce  all  the 
changes  of  which  they  iiad  obtained  evidence. 
At  first  the  tendency  in  Christian  circles  was 
to  regard  the  claim  for  so  enormous  an  exten- 
sion of  the  time  as  unfounded.  At  length  it 
became  a])parent  that  the  geological  claim  for 
extended  time  rested  on  substantial  grounds. 
Dr.  Thomas  Chalmers  adopted  the  result  and 
publicly  declared  in  1804  that  "the  writings 


Creation 


147 


Cricket 


of  Moses  do  not  fix  tlie  iintiiiuity  of  the 
globe."  Afterwards,  in  h\^  Ecidrncesof  Chria- 
tianity,  which  was  iiiil)iislieil  in  isl.'J.  he  more 
fully  exiilained  his  view  that  between  the 
first  act  of  creation  described  in  tien.  i.  1, 
and  the  others  commencing  with  verse  2, 
there  may  have  been  an  interval  of  many 
ages.  Tlie  s;une  view  was  adojited,  appar- 
ently indejiendently,  by  Canon  Auckland, 
afterwards  Dean,  himself  a  gieat  geohjgist, 
in  his  inaugural  lecture  i)ublisiie(l  at  Oxford 
in  IS'JO.  UeoUigy  made  a  fresh  claim,  namely, 
that  the  transition  from  the  one  geological 
jieriod  to  the  other  was  gradual,  and  without 
any  break  in  the  succession  of  life.  This 
view  was  accepted  aiul  the  six  days  were  in- 
terpreted bj-  Cuvier  of  Paris  in  179a  in  the 
preliminary  discourse  to  his  On.sfnieiits  Fus- 
i<iles.  and  by  Hugh  Miller  in  l."^.'!?  in  his  Tis- 
tiiiiuiii/  of  the  Jiockx,  as  six  geological  ages, 
and  a  correspondence  was  traced  between 
the  successive  stages  of  creation  as  told  in 
Gen.  i.  and  as  written  in  the  rocks.  This 
simple  age  tlie<jry  was  modilied  by  the  vision 
theory,  jiublished  by  Kurt/,  on  the  Continent 
and  independently  by  Mr.  James  Sime  in 
England.  The  narrative  in  Gen.  1.  was  sup- 
posed to  be  founded  on  a  series  of  six  visions, 
in  which  the  chief  characteristics  of  succes- 
sive geological  ages  were  presented  to  the  eye 
of  the  inspired  writer.  So  geology  itself  has 
often  spoken  of  the  carboniferous  age,  the 
age  of  fishes,  the  age  of  mammals.  In  con- 
clusion, the  general  remark  may  be  made 
that  the  Hebrew  narrative  exhibits  sym- 
metry and  grouping,  which  maybe  jdausibly 
exjilained  as  intentional  arrangement.  The 
clironological  order  has  been  observed  in  the 
main  at  least,  but  it  remains  to  be  discovered 
whether  it  has  been  followed  in  every  detail. 
At  any  rate  the  works  of  t  lie  six  days  wtTe  more 
than  six  acts;  (Jod  s])ake,  to  use  a  significant 
biblical  term,  eight  times  (vers.  3,  (i,  i>,  11,  14, 
20,  21,  2t)).  and  on  the  third  day  the  com- 
mand went  forth  for  both  dryland  and  vege- 
tation, on  the  fifth  day  for  fish  and  for  fowl, 
and  on  the  sixth  day  for  bi'ast  and  fur  man. 
Moreover,  the  si.x  days  form  two  interrelated 
grou]is:  the  first  day  saw  light,  and  the 
fourth  day,  tlie  first  oftlu'  second  grou]),  saw 
the  luminaries  ;  on  the  second  day  the  waters 
were  divi<h'il  and  the  sky  apjieared.  and  on 
the  .second  day  of  the  otlier  ^jroup  lisii  were 
divinely  willed  in  the  waters  and  fowl  to  fly 
in  the  expanse  of  the  sky;  on  tlie  third  day 
dry  land  and  vegdation  were  decreed,  ami 
on  the  corresponding  ilay  of  the  second  gnmi) 
land  animals,  including  man,  were  made,  and 
vegetation  was  granted  them  for  food.  The 
several  works  of  creation  have  been  logically 
distributed  into  six  gniujis.  Hence  the  fiat  of 
the  Almighty  which  called  the  dry  l.ind  into 
being  is  not  recorded  alone,  but  with  it  is  the 
command  for  vegetation,  (iod  coiitein|ilated 
the  land  as  clothed  with  verdure.  The  two 
acts  of  the  divine  will  are  in  reality  and  in 
purpose  one,  even  though  plant  life  ])ossibly 


did  not  res|)ond  to  the  divine  decree  until  Iho 
sun  appeared. 

Creep'lng  Thing. 

.\iiy  aiiiiii.il  wiiich  creeps  (Gen.  i.  24,  25), 
whether  a  lan<l  or  a  water  reptile  (vi.  7;  I'e. 
civ.  2.')),  and  whether  crawling  on  the  belly 
or  creeping  on  four  or  more  feet  tLev.  si.  41 
42). 

Cres'cens  [growing,  increasing]. 

-V  Christian,  who  was  for  a  time  at  Konio 
while  I'aul  was  a  prisoner  (here,  and  then 
departed  to  (ialatia  cJ  'I'im.  iv.  10). 

Crete. 

A  large  island  in  the  Mediterranean,  lying 
southeast  of  Greece,  and  now  widely  known 
as  Candia.  The  Turks  retain  the  old  name 
in  the  modified  form.  Kiridi.  It  is  about  Dii) 
miles  long  by  (i  to  ;;.')  broad.  It  is  tnivers«-d 
from  east  to  west  by  a  chain  of  mountains, 
of  which  mount  Ida,  near  the  center,  is 
7G74  feet  high.  Homer  s]ieaks  of  its  fair  land, 
its  countless  men  of  dilfereiit  races  and  its 
hundred  cities  (II.  ii.  (Hit;  Odys.  xix.  174). 
The  half-mythic  legislator,  Jliiios,  lived  in 
Crete,  and  the  fabulous  Minotaur  was  feigned 
to  dwell  there  too.  Crete  was  con<|Uered  by 
the  Konians,  (i^-fit!  H.  f.  Many  .lews  settled 
in  the  island  (Acts  ii.  11  ;  cp.  1  Mac.  xv.  H»- 
23,  tiortyna  being  in  Crete).  Christianity 
was  early  introduced  ;  and  Titus  was  left 
there  to  arrange  the  alfairs  of  tlie  churehe.s 
and  to  counteract  .)udai/.ing  doctrine  iTiius 
i.  5,  10,  14).  I'aul  sailed  along  its  whole 
southern  coast  on  his  voyage  to  Koine  (.Vets 
xxvii.  7,  12,  13,  21).  The  rejuitatioii  of  the 
Cretans  was  bad.  They  were  admitted  tube 
excellent  bowmen,  but  their  unchastity  and 
untruthfiilne.ss  were  proverbial.  In  a.  u. 
b'S.i  the  island  was  coinjiiereil  by  the  Saracens, 
who  built  a  fort  called  Kliandax,  the  (ireat 
Fortress,  now  corrupted  into  Candia,  which, 
properly  speaking,  is  the  name  of  the  capital 
only.  The  Greek  emperor  took  the  island 
from  the  Saracens  in  !Mil.  From  12(t4  to  hAiTt 
it  was  held  by  the  Wnetians,  who  obtained 
it  at  first  by  purcha.se.  In  the  last-named 
year  the  Turks  reposse.s.sed  tliem.selves  of  it. 
it  secured  autonomy  in  ls!»7. 

Crctii,  Latin  for  chalk  or  Cretan  earth,  was 
named  from  the  island. 

Crib,    .'^ee  M.\N(;ku. 

Crick'et. 

Tlie  leiideriiig  in  the  ti  xt  of  the  K.  V.  of 
the  Hebrew  UitrijoK  which  belongs  with  gri.sii- 
ho]iprrs  and  locusts,  aiitl  which  d<)es  not 
creep  but  leaps,  is  winged,  and  can  he  eaten 
(Lev.  xi.  22).  The  chief  leaping  insects  Ins- 
long  to  three  families  of  Oithoplem,  vi/.  the 
grasshojipers,  the  locusts,  and  the  crickets. 
The  hiirijtil  almost  certainly  belongs  to  one  of 
the  three,  though  to  which  of  them  cannot 
now  be  determined.  Tlu-  cricket**  have  long 
antennie  like  thc>  grasshoppers,  but  the  wing- 
ca.ses  lie  tlat  on  the  btnly  instead  of  meeting 
over  it  like  a  roof.     Among  the  few  known 


Crispus 


148 


Crown 


species  are  the  house  cricket  {Gryllus  domea- 
ticus)  and  the  field  cricket  (G.  campestris). 
The  A.  V.  renders  hnnjol  beetle,  but  the  most 
typical  species  of  the  Coleopteia,  or  beetle 
order,  are  not  leaping  insects, 

Cris'pus  [curled]. 

The  ruler  of  the  Jewish  synagogue  at  Cor- 
inth, After  listening  to  Paul's  reasonings, 
he  with  all  his  housthold  believed  in  Jesus 
(Acts  xviii,  8),  and  was  one  of  the  few  per- 
sons whom  Paul  personally  baptized  (1  Cor, 
i,  14), 

Croc'o-dile.      See  Leviatuan  and   Liz- 

AKI>. 

Cross, 

This  word  does  not  occur  in  the  O.  T.,  but 
crucifixion  was  common  among  various  na- 
tions of  antiquity  ;  see  Crucifixion,  Cross 
is  used  in  a  figurative  sense  by  Jesus  (Mat. 
X.  38;  xvi.  24),  From  the  narrative  of  the 
crucifixion  it  is  evident  that  the  cross  was  of 
wood  (Col,  ii.  14),  and  was  heavy,  but  still 
not  too  much  so  to  be  borne  by  a  strong  man 
(Mat,  xxvii,  32;  Mark  xv,  21;  Luke  xxiii. 
26;  John  xix,  17),  and  can  scarcely,  there- 
fore, have  been  one  of  the  massive  structures 
"which  some  painters  depict.  It  was  raised 
from  the  earth  either  before  or  after  the  vic- 
tim had  been  affixed  to  it ;  probablj',  in  most 
cases,  before.  Crosses  are  of  three  leading 
types :  one,  generally  called  the  St,  Andrew's 
cross,  like  the  letter  X  ;  another  like  the  let- 
ter T  ;  and  the  third  of  the  dagger  form,  f, 
with  which  we  are  so  faniiliar.  The 
cross  of  Christ  was,  probably,  as  artists 
believe,  of  the  last-named  type,  which 
more  easily  than  the  others  allowed  the 
name,  title,  or  crime  of  the  victim  to 
be  affixed  to  the  upper  part  (Mat.  xxvii. 
37 ;  Mark  xv.  26  ;  Luke  xxiii,  38 ;  John 
xix,  19).  Up  to  the  death  of  Christ,  and 
even  after,  the  cross  was  evidently  as 
much  a  name  of  horror  and  loathing  as 
is  the  gallows  now  (John  xix,  31 :  1  Cor. 
i,  23 ;  C4al,  iii.  13  ;  Phil,  ii,  8  ;  Heb,  xii. 
2 ;  xiii,  13),  so  that  to  bear  the  cross 
meant  to  incur  great  reproach  and  ob- 
loquy ;  butafter  the  crucifixion  the  more 
zealous  followers  of  Jesus  regarded  the 
cross  with  wholly  altered  feelings.  Paul 
gloried  in  the  cross  of  Christ  (Gal.  vi, 
14),  by  which  he  meant  the  atonement 
resulting  from  his  crucifixion  (Eph,  ii, 
16;  Col,  i.  20), 

The  pre-Christian  cross  of  one  form 
or  another  was  in  use  as  a  sacred  sym- 
bol among  the  Chaldeans,  the  Plueni- 
cians,  the   Egyptians,  and  many  other 
oriental  nations.     The  Spaniards  in  the  16th 
century  found  it  also  among  the  Indians  of 
Mexi(<i  an<l  Peru.     Put  its  symbolic  teaching 
was  ((uite  (litl'erent  from  that  which  we  now 
associate  with  the  cross. 

In  the  fifth  century  Socrates,  the  church 
historian,  and  Theodoret,  bishop  of  Cyprus, 
relate  that  Helena,  the  mother  of  Constan- 


tine,  was  instructed  in  a  dream  to  repair  to 
Jerusalem  and  seek  for  the  sepulcher  of 
Christ,  While  there  (a.  v.  32;"))  she  found 
three  crosses,  one  of  which  cured  a  dying 
woman,  and  was,  therefore,  known  to  be  the 
true  cross  of  Christ.  She  gave  part  of  it  to 
the  city  of  Jerusalem,  and  sent  the  other 
I)art  to  the  emperor,  who  placed  it  within  his 
statue,  regarding  it  as  the  i)alladium  of  the 
em])ire,  Eusebius,  however,  who  flourished 
in  the  fourth  century,  and  was  a  contemjio- 
rary  of  Helena,  and  on  terms  of  friendship 
with  the  imperial  family,  knew  nothing  of 
the  story,  which  meets  with  no  acceptance 
from  modern  scholars.  It  is  believed  that  the 
practice  was  to  burn,  instead  of  to  bury,  the 
crosses  on  which  real  or  alleged  criminals  had 
been  crucified. 

Crown. 

1.  An  ornamental  headdress  worn  as  a 
badge  of  authority  or  dignity.  Especially 
(1)  The  royal  crown.  It  was  generally  a 
circlet  of  gold  (Ps.  xxi.  3),  and  was  often 
studded  with  gems  (2  Sam.  xii.  30  ;  Zech.  ix. 
16).  Sometimes  several  crowns  were  com- 
bined or  intertwined  (vi.  11  ;  1  Mac.  xi.  13). 
The  crown  which  David  took  at  Rabbah 
from  the  Ammonites  probably  belonged  to 
the  idol  Malcam  (2  Sam.  xii,  30,  K.  V,  mar- 
gin). Its  weight  was  a  talent  of  gold,  and 
in  it  were  precious  stones.  The  ordinary 
headdress  of  the  Persian  king  (Esth.  i,  11  ; 
vi,  8)  was  a  stiff  cap,  probably  of  felt  or  of 
cloth,  encircled  by  a  blue  and  white  band. 


Crowns  of  Egypt  nnd  Assyria  and  the  common 
Kadiated  Diadem. 

which  was  the  diadem  proper.  The  royal 
crown  of  Assyria  was  a  conical  cap.  sometimes 
fajiering  in  a  conijiound  curve,  but  more  fre- 
quently sha])ed  like  the  modern  Turkish  fez, 
only  higher  and  ending  in  a  round  blunt 
point.  It  was  adorned  with  bands  of  wrought 
gold  and  jewels.  The  king  is  also  rejiresen  ted 
wearing  a  simple  fillet,  and  it  is  probable  that 


Crucifixion 


149 


Cubit 


this  was  a  common  custom,  the  crowu  royal 
being  reserved  fur  state  occasions.  In  Egypt 
there  were  two  royal  crowns.  The  one  for 
Upiier  Egypt  was  a  higli  round  wliite  cap 
tapering  to  a  kiioh;  tlie  crown  I'or  Lower 
Egypt  was  a  Uat-tojjpcd  red  caii,  rising  in  a 
higli  point  at  the  back  and  liaving  a  projec- 
tion witli  a  curled  end  springing  diagcmally 
toward  the  front.  VVlien  the  two  kingdoms 
were  united  under  one  sovereign,  lie  wore 
the  two  crowns  conil)ine(l,  the  crown  of 
Lower  Egypt  being  suiierimjjo.sed  upon  that 
of  Upper  Egypt.  The  Egyptian  king  is  also 
freciuently  depicted  with  a  band  or  diadem. 
Till'  royal  lii'address,  of  whatever  shape,  is 
nearly  always  surrounded  by  the  Ura-us,  the 
sacred  serpent  of  the  Egyptians,  symbolizing 
power  over  life  and  death.  See  also  illustra- 
tions under  I'hak.voh.  The  radiated  diadem 
was  a  form  of  crown  fanuliar  to  the  (irecks 
and  Romans  and  to  the  peoples  under  their 
influence.  A  crown  or  garland  of  some 
thorny  plant  was  placed  by  the  Koman 
soldiers  around  the  temples  of  Jesus,  with 
the  twofold  intention  of  torturing  him  and 
mocking  his  kingly  claims  (Mat.  xxvii.  2i». 
(2)  The  high  jiricst's  crown.  It  consisted 
of  a  golden  i)late  (Lev.  viii.  9),  inscribed 
with  the  legend  "Holiness  to  the  Lord,'' 
and  fastened  on  a  lace  of  blue  to  the  fore- 
front of  the  miter  (E.\.  xxviii.  '.Hi.  .'57:  xxix. 
6).  (3)  The  crown  of  victory  (2  Tim.  ii.  ."> ; 
iv.  8:  Heb.  ii.  !)).  It  might  consist  merely 
of  a  wreath  of  leaves  or  lie  made  of  metal. 

2.  Anything  resembling  a  crown,  as  the 
border  or  moulding  round  about  the  ark,  the 
table,  and   the  altar  (Ex.   xxv.    11,  24,  25; 

XXX. ::,  I). 

Cru-ci-fix'ion. 

The  act  or  operation  of  fixing  a  victim  to 
a  cross  for  the  jiurpose  of  capital  i)unish- 
ment.  This  was  done  either  by  tying  his 
hands  and  feet  to  it,  or  in  the  more  cruel 
way  of  fixing  them  to  it  by  nails  driven 
through  their  fleshy  ])ortions.  This  method 
of  i>unishment  existed  in  many  aniient  na- 
tions. AlexandiT  the  fireat  crucilied  a  thou- 
sand Tyrians.  According  to  Josejihus,  Cyrus 
introduced  into  his  edict  for  the  return  of  the 
.lews  from  Habylon  a  threat  of  crucifying 
anyoiu-  who  attempted  to  ]>revent  the  mi.ssive 
from  being  carried  into  execution  (.Vntiii.  xi. 
1,  3;  4,  (i).  Darius  the  Persian  threatened 
this  death,  ajvparently.  to  those  who  refused 
obedience  to  his  decrees  (Ezra  vi.  11).  Anti- 
ochus  Eiiii>hanes  crucitied  faitliful  .lews  who 
would  not  aliandon  their  religion  at  his  l)id- 
ding  (Ant.  xii.  .">,  1),  and  Alexander  .Fainueus 
(War  i.  4.  *>)  and  the  I'harisees  crucitied  their 
enemies  (War  i.  .">,  .'5).  .\mong  the  Komans 
crucifixion  w.as  a  jienalty  inllicted  only  on 
slaves,  or  on  freemen  who  hatl  committed  the 
most  heinous  crimes  ;  the  ordinary  Koman 
citizen  was  exemi)ted  from  it  by  express  legal 
enactment.  The  preliminary  cruelties  of 
scourging  the  victim  (Mat.  xxvii.  2() ;  Mark 


XV.  15 ;  John  xix.  1),  and  then,  when  his 
body  was  lacerated,  compelling  him  to  bear 
his  cross  (xix.  17),  were  not  nire  (cp.  the 
proverb.  Mat.  x.  .'ih).  Thus  the  Konian  pro- 
curator Florus  (War  li.  II.  "J)  and  Titus,  at 
least  on  one  occasion,  had  those  scourged  first 
wh(»  were  afterwards  to  be  crucified.  If  the 
victim  was  .simply  tied  to  the  cross,  this  was 
no  injury  suflicieiit  to  produre  dialli.  which 
did  not  laki-  i)larf  till  thir.-.t  and  liunLur  had 
done  their  work  ;  and  this  was.'-ometimes  the 
case  even  when  the  hands  and  tVxt  were 
pierced  by  nails.  If  it  was  expedient  on  any 
ground  to  get  rid  of  flu-  victims  before  nat- 
ural death  had  released  them  from  their  tor- 
tures, the  end  was  sometimes  hastened  l)y 
breaking  their  legs,  as  was  done  in  the  case 
of  the  robbers  crucified  with  Jesus  (John 
xix.  ;U-.J.{).  .^hlny  Jews  were  crucified  after 
Titus  took  Jerusjilem  (Life  75).  Constantino 
abolished  ]iunishment  by  crucifixion  in  the 
Koman  emi)ire. 

Cruse. 

A  small  pot  or  jug  used  for  carrying  water 
during  a  journey  (1  Sam.  xxvi.  11  ;  1  Kin. 
xix.  (i)  and  for  holding  oil  (1  Kin.  xvii.  12; 
•Judith  X.  5).  For  cruse  of  boncy  (1  Kin.  xiv. 
3),  a  diflerent  word  in  Hebrew,  the  margin 
substitutes  bottle;  and  the  cruse  of  salt  (2 
Kin.  ii.  20)  was  rather  a  dish. 

Crys'tal. 

1.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  word 
Z'kukith,  in  A.  V.  of  .lob  xxviii.  17.  The  R. 
V.  makes  it  glass,  since  crystal  occurs  in  the 
next  verse.  The  corresponding  word  in 
Syriac  is  used  for  glass  in  Kev.  iv.  fi. 

2.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  (labinh,  ice 
and  crystal,  another  reputed  product  of  cold 
(J(»h  xxviii.  IS;  in  A.  V.  jiearh. 

3.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  word 
Kenth  (Ezek.  i.  22;  cp.  Ex.  xxiv.  Id).  The 
K.  V.  has  ice  on  the  margin,  which  is  an  es- 
tablished Tueaning  of  the  word  (Job  vi.  16; 
xxxviii,2!i;   I's.  cxlvii.  17). 

4.  The  rendering  of  tlie  ({reek  KrustaUoB 
(Rev.  iv.  C  and  xxii.  1).  It  is  either  ice  or 
rock-crystal,  which  isituartz,  transj>arent,and 
when  ])uri'  colorless. 

Cub,  in  A.  V.  Chub. 

A  ])eople  mentioned  with  Ethiopia,  Put, 
and  Lud  (Ezek.  xxx.  .5,  U.  V.).  The  Seventy 
ap])arently  read  Lub,  i.  e.  Libya. 

Cu'bit  [from  Latin  ciihitum,  an  elbow,  a 
cubit]. 

\  measure  of  length  based  on  the  length 
of  the  forearm.  The  Itabylouian  cubit  was 
2().(>5  or  21. 2t)  inches.  The  royal  nabyloniau 
cubit  was  longer  than  the  common  one  by 
three  finger-breadths  (HenMl.  i.  17^).  Tlio 
Egyi'tian  cubit  contained  six  hand-breadths 
or  ]>alms  (ii.  ll!h.  The  royal  cubit  was  a 
palm  longer  antl  was  eijual  to  2<i.til  inches, 
as  appears  from  measuring  sticks  found  in 
the  tombs.  The  Hebrews  also  lia<l  two 
cubit.s,  the  comnmn  and  iHrlinps  older  cubit 
(I)eut.  iii.   11  ;  2  Chron.  iii.  31  and  a  cubit 


Cuckoo 


150 


Cushan-rishathaim 


which  was  a  hand-hreadth  longer  than  the 
common  one  (Ezek.  xl.  5;  xliii.  13).  The 
table  of  Hebrew  lineal  measure  is  4  tingers= 
1  hand-breadtli  or  palm  ;  3  haiid-breadths= 
1  span  ;  2  spans  =  1  ciihit  (Ex.  xxv.  10,  with 
Anticj.  ill.  (i,  5:  Misliiia.  Clielim.  xvii.  S*).  Itis 
not  unlikely  that  tlie  royal  Egyptian  cubitand 
the  cubit  of  Ezekiel  were  theoretically  equal 
to  the  Babylonian  cubit;  so  that  the  common 
Hebrew  cubit  was  17.70  or  18.22  inches,  or, 
if  only  three  fingers  shorter  than  the  long 
cubit,  18.3(j  or  18.9  inches. 

Cuck'oo,  the  A.  V.  has  Cuckow,  using  the 
ob.solete  spelling  [English,  from  the  voice  of 
the  bird]. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Shahaph, 
emaciated  bird,  in  the  A.  V.  A  bird  ceremoni- 
ally unclean  (Lev.  xi.  16;  Dent.  xiv.  15). 
The  cuckoo,  Cnculus  canorus,  is  a  well-known 
climbing  bird,  which,  coming  in  spring  from 
the  south,  on  its  annual  migration,  remains 
till  the  fall  of  the  year,  being  frequently 
heard,  but  rarely  seen.  The  R.  V.,  following 
the  Sei)tuagiiit  translators,  renders  shahaph 
not  cuckoo  but  seamew. 

Cu'cum-ber. 

The  correct  rendering  of  the  Hebrew 
Kisshii',  a  vegetable  which  the  Israelites  ob- 
tained while  they  were  slaves  in  Egypt,  and 
longed  for  when  they  could  not  have  it  in 
the  wilderness  (Num.  xi.  5).  It  is  Ciiciimis 
chate,  which  is  very  common  in  Egypt  and 
somewhat  sweeter  than  the  common  cucum- 
ber, Cnenmis  sntinis.  The  cucumber  was  raised 
in  gardens  in  Palestine  (Is.  i.  8;  Baruch  vi. 
70),  and  both  the  species  mentioned  are  grown 
there  to-day. 

Cum'min  [from  Hebrew  kammon,  Arabic 
Jcamrmm,  Greek  kuminon]. 

A  cultivated  plant  sown  broadcast  and, 
when  ripe,  beaten  with  a  rod  to  detach  its 
seeds  (Is.  xxviii.  25,  27).  It  was  one  of  the 
trifles  of  which  the  Pharisees  were  particular 
in  paying  tithes  (Mat.  xxiii.  23).  Cummin 
is  the  Cuminum  cyminum  of  botanists,  a  fen- 
nel-like plant  bearing  umbels  of  small  white 
flowers.  It  was  cultivated  in  Palestine  for 
its  .seeds,  which  were  eaten  as  a  spice  or  rel- 
ish with  food.  They  are  now  in  large  meas- 
ure superseded  by  caraway  seeds,  which  are 
more  agreeable  to  the  taste  and  more  nutri- 
tious. 

Cun.     See  Berothai. 

Cup. 

1.  A  small  drinking  vessel  (2  Sam.  xii.  3), 
of  earthenware  or  metal  (.Ter.  li.  7),  held  in 
the  hand  ((Jen.  xl.  11),  and  used  for  water 
(Mark  ix.  41 ),  or  wine  (Ps.  Ixxv.  8  ;  Jer.  xxv. 
15).     See  Basin. 

2.  Figuratively,  the  contents  of  the  cup, 
whether  pleasant  or  bitter  ;  that  which  falls 
to  one's  lot  (Ps.  xxiii.  5;  Is.  li.  17;  Jer.  xvi. 
7  ;   Mai.  xxvi.  .3f>). 

Cup'bear-er. 

The  official  who  jioured  drink  into  the  cup 


and  gave  it  to  the  king  (Gen.  xl.  0-14,  where 
the  Hebrew  word  is  rendered  butler;  Neh. 
i.  11  ;  ii.  1,  2).  The  office  was  one  of  the  most 
dignified  in   an   oriental   kingdom,  and  re- 


Assyrian  Cupbearer. 

quired  moral  trustworthiness  in  its  occupant, 
lest  he  be  bribed  to  present  poisoned  wine  to 
the  king  (Autiq.  xvi.  8,  1).  It  said  much  for 
the  character  of  Nehemiah  that  he,  a  stranger 
and  a  foreigner,  should  have  been  appointed 
to  such  an  office  at  the  Persian  court. 

Cush  [Hebrew  Kush,  Old  Egyptian  Kash, 
Kesh,  and  Kish,  Ethiopia]. 

1.  A  son  of  Ham  and  his  descendants  col- 
lectively. They  constituted  five  principal 
peoples,  Seba,  Havilah.  Sabtah,  Raamah,  Sab- 
teca,  and  were  located  in  central  and  south- 
ern Arabia,  except  Seba,  wliich  is  probably  to 
be  sought  on  the  neighboring  African  coast 
(Gen.  X.  6-8  ;  1  Chron.  i.  8-10). 

2.  The  land  where  the  Cushites  dwelt  dur- 
ing any  period.  In  Gen.  ii.  13,  E.  V..  the  term 
denotes  territory  in  the  same  great  basin  as 
the  countries  drained  by  the  Tigris  and 
Euphrates.  In  all  subsequent  passages  it 
designates  Ethiopia  in  Africa  (2  Kin.  xix. 
0 ;  Esth.  i.  1  ;  Ezek.  xxix.  10).  Herodotus 
describes  Asiatic  Ethio])ians  in  the  army  of 
Xerxes,  who  were  difierent  from  the  African 
Ethiopians  (vii.  70). 

3.  A  Benjamite,  perhaps  of  Ethiopian  de- 
scent (the  Seventy  read  Cushi),  who  was  a 
foe  to  David  (Ps.  vii.  title). 

Cu'shan  [a  name  f<irnied  from  Cush]. 

A  country  or  its  inhabitants  mentioned  in 
connection  with  .Midian.  and  hence  probably 
Arabia  as  occupied  by  Cushites  (Hab.  iii.  7; 
see  Cush).  A  reference  is  not  apparent  to 
("^u.shan-rishathaim  (Judg.  iii.  5),  called 
Cushan  by  .Tosephus  (.\iitiq.  v.  3.  2;. 

Cu'shan-risli-a-tha'im,  in  .\.  V.  Chushan- 


Cushi 


151 


Cyrene 


rlshathaim  [etymology  and  meaning  un- 
known]. 

A  king  of  Mesopotamia,  wlio  lu'ld  tlie 
Israelites  in  subjection  for  ei};lit  years.  De- 
liverance was  achieved  under  tlie  leailersliip 
of  Otlmiel,  ('alel)'s  \-ounger  brother  (Judg. 
iii.  5-11). 

Cu'sM  [an  Hlhioiiian]. 

1.  An  ancestor  of  lliat  Jehudi  who  lived 
in  .lereniiali's  time  (.ler.  xxxvi.  14). 

:J.  Father  of  the  jiroiihet  Zeidumiah  (Zeph. 
i.  1). 

3.  According  to  the  A.  V.  one  of  the  two 
men  wlio  carried  David  the  news  of  the  vic- 
tory over  liis  rebellious  son  .M)salom  ;  but  the 
Hebrew  has  "  the  Ciishi,"  evidently  meaning, 
as  the  Iv.  \'.  renders  it,  "the  t'usliite,"  i.  e. 
the  Ethiojiian.  Tiie  actual  name  of  the  run- 
ner is  unknown  ("2  !Sam.  xviii.  21-23,  31,  32). 

Cush'ite. 

An  Kthio])ian  (Num.  xii.  1,  U.  V.  and  mar- 
gin of  A.  v.;  2.  Sam.  xviii.  21,  R.  V.). 

Cuth  and  Cu'thah  [of  doubtful  nieaning]. 

A  city  of  liabylonia.  often  nu'Ulioned  in 
connecIi<in  with  Babylon  and  Horsijiiia,  and 
whose  tutelary  deity  was  Nergal.  C'olonist.s 
were  brought  from  this  place,  among  others, 
to  Samaria  after  the  dei)ortation  of  the  ten 
trilies  (2  Kin.  xvii.  21.  :!0).  Its  site  is  now 
fixed  at  the  mounds  of  Tell  Ibrahim,  north- 
west of  I?abylon. 

Cym'bal  [from  (Jreek  kumhalon  (1  Cor. 
siii.  1)]. 

A  musical  instrument  (2  Sam.  vi.  5 ;  1 
Cliron.  xvi.  Tn,  named  in  Hebrew  from  a  root 
signifying  to  tinkle  or  clang.  One  form  of 
the  name  is  in  the  dual  number,  whidi  im- 
l)lies  that  the  instrument  is  of  two  distinct 


Eastern  Cyml)als. 

parts.  This  undoubtedly  suggests  cymbals, 
as  the  Sejituagint  renders  tlie  word,  which 
are  concave  jilates  of  brass  (1  Chron.  xv.  1!»), 
one  form  of  them  l)eing  nearly  Hat,  am)ther 
consisting  of  hollow  cones  designed  to  be 
claslu-d  together  for  their  .sound.  Sec  Mi'sir. 
Cy'press  [from  Latin  cuprrssiis,  c;/})aiiHiiuii, 
(ireek  kii]>iiris>ii>s]. 

1.  The  rendering  in  .\.  V.  of  Is.  xliv.  11 
of  the  llel)rew  word  Tirznh,  referring  to  the 
hardness  of  the  wood.  The  K.  V.  translates  it 
the  holm  tree. 

2.  The  marginal  rendering  of  the  Hebrew 


T''ash8hur  in  E.  V.  of  Is.  xli.  19 ;  li.  13.  The 

text  of  both  versions  has  box. 

3.  Kemleringof /fiWi,  margin  K.V.  .St-t-  Yin. 
The  Cyiiress,  <'uj)n:isns  srmperrirenn,  is  the 
type  oft  he  sub-order  r/(;))«'.t,>ic.T,r;in  king  under 
the  order  I'iiKttnr  (Conifers).  .About  ten  spe- 
cies of  the  genus  Cnprfssuit  are  known.  The 
eomnmn  cyjiress  is  an  evergreen  running 
into  two  well-marked  varieties,  one  a  tall 
tret'  (iO  feet  higii  with  erect  closely  appres.s«d 
brandies,  and  the  (tther  smaller,  with  the 
branches  sineading.  The  cypress  is  a  na- 
tive of  Persia  and  the  Levant.  It  is  exten- 
siveh-  i>lanted  in  cemeteries  of  the  pjist. 

Cy'prus  [so  called  from  Kupri».  a  name  of 
.\l)hrodite,  the  (ireek  \enus,  who  wa.s  greatly 
worsldped  in  Cyiirus]. 

.\n  island  in  the  nortlieastern  part  of  the 
Mediterranean  Sea,  about  (iO  miles  from  the 
coast  of  Cilicia.  41  from  Syria,  and  2.'JH  from 
Port  Said  in  Egypt.  The  more conii>act  part  of 
the  island  is  1  in  miles  in  lent'tb  by  .'in  to  ,'>(i  or 
60  in  breadth  ;  besides  which  there  runs  from 
its  northeastern  extremity  a  narrow  strip  of 
land,  40  miles  long  by  5  or  (!  broad,  project- 
ing from  the  rest  of  the  i>land  like  a  bow- 
sprit from  a  ship.  The  area  of  ( 'y  ]irus  is  about 
3r)S4  S(iuare  mib-s.  The  island  is  niountiiinous, 
with  intermediate  valleys,  which  are  at  cer- 
tain seasons  unhealthy.  The  mountains  yield 
C()p]ier.  anil  the  mines  were  at  one  time  farmed 
to  Herod  the  Creat  (.\nti(i.  xvi.  4,  .")).  Its 
ancient  inhabitants  were  Kittim,  a  branch  of 
the  (4reek  race  (Cen.  x.  4),  but  Pha'nicians 
from  the  coast  of  Syria  colonized  the  island. 
They  built  as  their  cai)ital  the  town  of  Kition 
or  Citiiim.  Lalerother  bodies  of  (ireeks  ri'in- 
forci'(l  the  original  stock  (cp.  Herod,  vii.  !H)), 
so  that  to  this  day  about  three-fourths  of  the 
I)o]Milatioii  belong  to  that  race.  Cyprus  was 
for  a  short  time  an  imjierial  Hoinan  province 
or  jiart  of  one  :  but  in  the  year  27  it.  c.  .Au- 
gustus h.'inded  it  over  to  the  senat<',  and 
hencefortli  it  was  under  a  jiropra-tor  with 
the  title  of  proconsul.  Many  ,iewish  com- 
munities existed  in  the  island  (1  Mac.  xv.23; 
Acts  iv.  3(i).  There  were  ("hristians  con- 
nected with  it  before  .Stephens  martyrdom  ; 
and  during  the  ju-rsecution  which  followed 
soiue  of  them  returned  to  it,  ])reaching  the 
go.spel  (.\cts  xi.  1!»,  2ni.  It  was  visited  for 
missionary  juirjioses,  lirst  by  Itamabas  anil 
Paul  (.\cls  xiii.  4).  and  afterwards  by  llarnn- 
bas  and  Mark  (xv.  3!t).  Paul  sjiiled  past  it 
at  least  twice  without  landing  (xxi.  3,  1«»: 
xxvii.  4).  Since  l."!  it  has  constituti-d  a 
portion  of  Turkey,  though  by  a  treaty,  dated 
.June  4,  1S7S,  (ireat  Hritain  adnnnisters  and 
holds  it  as  a  jilace  of  arms,  while  I{ii.>vsin  re- 
tains Hatoiini  and  Kars.     See  KiTTlM. 

Cy-re'ne. 

.\n  iui]iortant  Creek  colonial  city  in  North 
Africa,  beautifully  situated  on  a  tableland 
many  huudred  feet  above  the  sea  level,  and 
a  fevv  miles  distant  from  the  Mediterranean. 
It  constituted  one  of  the  Creek  cities  called 


Cyrenius 


152 


Daberath 


Pentapolis,  situated  iu  Libya  Cyrenaica,  now 
Tripoli.  It  is  believed  that  it  was  founded 
by  Dorians  about  the  year  632  b.  c.  During 
the  time  of  the  Ptolemies,  in  the  third  cen- 
tury B.  c,  many  Jews  became  resident  iu 
Cyrene  (con.  Aj)ion  ii.  4  ;  Antiq.  xiv.  7.  2). 
Simon,  who  was  compelled  to  carry  the  cross 
of  Jesus,  seems  to  have  been  a  Cyrenian  Jew 
(Mat.  xxvii.  32).  Cyrenians  joined  with 
Libertines  and  others  in  forminfi  a  synagogue 
at  Jerusalem  (Acts  vi.  !>).  Men  of  Cyrene  early 
became  converts  and  preachers  (xi.  20). 
Among  them  was  a  certain  Lucius,  a  promi- 
nent man  iu  the  church  at  Antioch  (xiii.  1). 
Extensive  ruins  of  Cyrene  still  exist,  now 
called  el-Krenna. 

Cy-re'ni-us.     See  Quirinius. 

Cy'rus  [Elamite  and  Persian,  K'ur'ush]. 

A  king  twice  named  in  Isaiah's  prophecies 
as  anointed,  and  predestined  to  achieve  great 
conquests  over  kings  and  fortified  places, 
and,  when  his  power  was  established,  set  the 
Jews  free  from  the  captivity  (Is.  xliv.  28; 
xlv.  1-14).  Daniel,  referring  to  the  conquest 
of  Babylonia  by  the  Medes  and  Persians,  re- 
cords that  during  the  night  which  followed 
a  great  feast  Belshazzar,  the  king  of  the  Chal- 
deans, was  slain  and  Darius  the  Mede  re- 
ceived the  kingdom  (Dan.  v.  30,  31).  Darius 
was  predecessor  of  Cyrus,  or  his  regent,  iu 
Babylonia  (vi.  28).  Ezra  relates  that  Cyrus, 
king  of  Persia,  in  the  first  year  of  his  reign 
issued  a  proclamation  permitting  the  Jews  to 
return  to  their  own  land,  and  urging  rather 
than  simply  allowing  them  to  rebuild  the  tem- 
ple, for  the  n.se  of  which  he  returned  the 
sacred  vessels  taken  bv  Nebuchadnezzar  (Ezra 
i.  1-11  ;  V.  13,  14 ;  vi!  3).  Many  of  the  Jews 
availed  themselves  of  the  permission,  and 
returned  to  Jerusalem.  Enemies  attempted, 
with  some  success,  to  render  the  edict  of 
Cyrus  abortive,  but  it  was  never  formally 
revoked  (iv.  1-5).  According  to  Babylonian 
inscriptions,  written  at  the  time  of  tUe  cap- 
ture of  the  city,  Cyrus  was  son  of  Cambyses, 
grandson  of  Cyrus,  great-grandscm  of  Teispes, 
all  of  whom  reigned  as  kings  of  Ansan,  a 
designation  which  appears  to  denote  eastern 
Elam  with  Susa  as  its  capital.  About  the 
year  5.50  b.  c,  the  sixth  year  (►f  Xabuna'id 
or  Xabonidus,  king  of  Babylon,  Istuvegu  or, 
iu  Greek,  Astyages,  king  of  the  peojile  of 
Manda,  marched  against  Cyrus,  but  was  be- 
trayed by  his  own  army  and  delivered  into 
the  hands  of  Cyrus.  Cyrus  then  took  Ecba- 
tana  and  carried  its  si)oil  to  his  own  city. 
For  several  years  Xabonidus  is  reported  as 
residing  in  Teva,  while  his  son  is  with  the 
army  in  northern  Babylonia.  In  547  B.  c, 
Nabonidus'  mother  died  at  the  camp  and 
was  publicly  mourned  by  tlie  king's  son  and 
the  army.  In  Xisan  of  this  year  Cyrus,  now 
called  king  of  Persia,  led  the  Persian  army 
across  the  Tigris  near  Arbela  and  carried  his 
conquest  into  the  western  country.  Accord- 
ing to  Greek  authorities,  he  conquered  Lydia 


about  this  time,  taking  Sardis  and  making  a 
prisoner  of  Crcesus,  its  king.  In  5.39  B.  c, 
the  seventeenth  year  of  Xabonidus,  in  the 
month  Tammuz,  Cyrus  met  the  Babylonians 
iu  battle  ;  <>n  the  14th  ilay  he  took  Sippara 
and  Xabonidus  tied.  Two  days  later,  on  the 
IGth,  Ugbaru  or  (Johryas,  governorof  (xutium, 
at  the  head  of  a  detachment  of  Cyrus'  army, 
entered  Babylon  without  fighting.  Xabonidus 
was  afterwards  captured  at  Babylon.  (Jn  the 
3d  of  Marchesvan  Cyrus  himself  entered 
Bal)ylon,  his  governor  Ugbaru  proclaimed 
peace  to  the  province,  governors  were  ap- 
pointed, and  an  order  i.ssued  for  the  restora- 
tion of  many  cajjtive  foreign  idols  to  their 
several  native  sanctuaries.  About  the  27th 
of  Adar  the  king's  wife  died.  A  public 
mourning  for  her  was  observed  for  a  week, 
followed  by  religious  services  conducted  by 
Cambyses,  son  of  Cyrus.  Cyrus  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Cambyses  in  .529  B.  c.  So  far  the 
inscriptions.  According  to  Herodotus  (i.  190, 
191),  Cyrus  captured  Babylon  by  turning  the 
waters  of  the  Eujihrates  temporarily  into  a 
lake  excavated  for  the  purpose,  and  then  en- 
tering from  the  nearly  dry  bed  of  the  river 
by  the  gates  which  had  been  left  open  on  the 
night  of  a  festival  while  the  inhabitants  were 
engaged  in  revelry.  The  account  given  by 
the  Baliylonian  priest,  Berosus,  who  lived 
about  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great,  is  as 
follows:  "In  the  17th  year  of  Nabonidus, 
Cyrus  came  out  of  Persia  with  a  great  army, 
and,  having  conquered  all  the  rest  of  Asia, 
came  hastily  to  Babylonia.  When  Nabonidus 
perceived  that  he  was  advancing  to  attack 
him,  he  assembled  his  forces  and  opposed 
him ;  but  he  was  defeated  and  fled  with  a 
few  of  his  attendants  and  shut  himself  iu 
the  city  of  Borsippa  [the  twin  of  Babylon]. 
Whereupon  Cyrus  took  Babylon  ;  and  he 
gave  orders  that  the  outer  walls  should  be 
demolished,  because  the  city  had  proved  very 
troublesome  to  him  and  dithcult  to  take.  He 
then  marched  to  Borsippa  to  besiege  Xabo- 
nidus :  but  as  Xabonidus  delivered  himself 
into  his  hands  without  holding  out  the  place, 
he  was  at  first  kindly  treated  by  Cyrus,  who 
sent  him  out  of  Babylonia  l)Ut  gave  him  a 
habitation  in  C'armania,  where  he  spent  the 
remainder  of  his  life  and  died  "  (contra  Apion. 
i.  20). 

D. 

Dab'a-reh.     .See  Daberath. 

Dab'be-shetb,  in  A.  V.  Dabbasheth  [hump 
of  a  camel]. 

A  town  on  the  boundary  line  of  Zebulon 
(Josh.  xix.  11).  Couder  locates  it  at  Dabsheh, 
near  .Tokncam. 

Dab'e-ratb,  in  A.  V.  once  Dabareh  errone- 
ously (Josh.  xxi.  28)  [probably  pasture  land]. 

A  city  within  the  territory  of  Issachar, 
given  with  its  suburbs  to  the  Gershonites 
(Josh.  xix.  12  ;  xxi.  28  : 1  Chron.  vi.  72  ;  War  ii. 


Dagon 


153 


Damascus 


21,  3;  Life  62).  It  has  been  identified  as  the 
vilhine  uf  Dehurieh  at  the  l)aso  (if  mount 
Tabor,  on  the  northwestern  side  of  tlie  hill. 

Da'gon  [the  name  probably  has  no  refer- 
ence to  either  fish  or  grain]. 

The  national  god  of  the  Philistines.  At 
tiazii,  at  Ik'lh-dagon.  and  especially  at  Ash- 
dod,  he  had  a  tenijile  (Judg.  xvi.  21,  23  ;  1 
Sam.  V.  1-7  :  1  t'hr4)n.  x.  10).  .Jonathan 
Marcabieus,  after  defeating  the  Philistines, 
drove  them  into  the  temple  of  Dagon  in 
Ashdod.  aM<i  set  fire  both  to  the  city  and  the 
teinjile  (1  Mae.  x.  l?4 ;  xi.  1).  Dagon  was 
wurshijied  to  some  extent  in  PhdMiicia  and 
also  in  Assyria.  The  idol  is  considered  to 
have  had  the  head,  arms,  and  upjier  parts  of 
human  form  (1  Sam.  v.  4),  while  the  lower 
parts  taiu-reil  away  into  the  tail  of  a  fish. 
Diodorus  .Sieulus  (ii.  4 1  mentions  an  idol, 
called  Dercetus.  of  similar  form,  as  having 
existed  at  Ashkelon.  another  Philistine  town. 
It  is  <iuestionable  whether  the  image  of  a 
man  with  the  extremities  of  a  fish,  which 
was  found  at  Khorsabail,  represents  Dagon. 

Da-la'iah.    .See  Delai.\h. 

Da'leth. 

The  fourth  letter  of  the  Hebrew  alphabet. 
The  English  letter  I)  has  the  same  origin, 
and  represents  it  in  anglicized  Hebrew  names. 
It  stands  at  the  head  of  the  fourth  section 
of  Ps.  cxix.,  in  which  section  each  verse  of 
the  Hebrew  begins  with  this  letter. 

The  two  Hel)rew  letters,  daleth  and  resh 
(r),  are  somewhat  sinnlar  now,  and  at  certain 
stages  of  their  develoinnent  were  distinguish- 
able only  when  carefully  written  and  on 
close  scrutiny.  In  the  Siloaiu  inscription,  for 
cxamjile,  they  are  written  ^  antf  \  and 
on  Hebrew  coins  C^  and  Q.  This  similaritj* 
caused  constant  ditliculty  to  readers  and  copy- 
ists, and  fre<iuently  misled  them  as  to  the 
true  spelling  of  words,  esjiecially  of  obscure 
names  where  no  guide  to  the  original  form 
existed. 

Dal-ma-nu'tha. 

A  ]ilace  on  the  western  shore  of  the  sea 
of  tialilee  in  the  vicinity  of  Magdala  (Mark 
viii.  1(1 :  c)).  Mat.  xv.  39J.  The  exact  situation 
is  unknown. 

Dal-ma'ti-a. 

A  region  on  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Adri- 
atic Sea.  with  the  small  but  numerous  adja- 
cent islands.  It  is  traversed  by  the  .lulian 
continued  as  the  Dinaric  Alps,  a  jiart  of  the 
giant  range  sejiarating  Italy  from  France, 
Switzerland,  and  (lermany.  The  mountain 
tribes  Were  suh<lued  in  A.  I».  !•  Iiy  the  Romans 
utiiler  .\ugustus  Cii-sar  and  Tiberius,  the 
futnri'  emperor,  and  the  jirovince  of  Dalmutia 
was  erected.  It  was  regarded  as  part  of 
Illyricuni.  which  constituteil  the  limit  of 
Paul's  missionary  journeys  in  that  direction 
(Kom.  XV.  I'.tj.  His  associate  Titus,  after 
being  for  a  time  with  Paul  in  the  Italian 
capital,    departed    to    Dalmatia,    perhaps   to 


plant  the  gospel  among  its  wild  inhabitants 
(2  Tim.  iv.  lU). 

Darphon. 

A  Miu  of  llaman  (Esth.  ix.  7). 

Dam'a-ris. 

A  woman  converted  through  Paul's  preach- 
ing at  Athens  (Acts  xvii.  34). 

Dam-a-8cene'. 

A  native  or  inhabitant  of  Damascus  (2  Cor. 
xi.  32). 

Da-mas'cus. 

A  city  of  .Syria,  on  a  plateau  watered  by 
the  rivers  Abana  and  Pharpar  (2  Kin.  v.  12). 
The  tableland  is  about  22lX)  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  .sea,  at  the  eastern  foot  of  the 
Antilibanus  chain  of  mountains,  and  contains 
about  .")(MI  s(iuare  miles.  Where  watered  by 
channels  from  the  rivers,  it  is  exceedingly 
fertile,  so  that  the  city  is  embosomed  in 
gardens  and  orchards,  in  refresliing  contrast 
to  the  neighboring  desert.  Three  great  trade 
routes  center  at  Damascus;  one  leads  south- 
westward  to  the  Mediterranean  seacoast  and 
Egyjit.  another  runs  south  to  Arabia,  and  the 
third  crosses  the  desert  to  Hagdad.  The  city 
is  very  ancient.  It  is  mentioned  as  early  as 
the  time  of  Abraham  |(ieii.  xiv.  l."i).  In  the 
days  of  David,  Damascus  was  one  of  several 
petty  states  of  southern  Syria.  It  was  cap- 
tured and  garrisoned  by  David  (2  .Sam.  viii. 

0,  (i ;  1  I'hron.  xviii.  ,">,  ti).  After  he  smote 
the  Syrian  kingdom  of  Zobah,  a  man  called 
Kezon,  a  Ibrmer  subji'ct  of  the  king  of  Zotiah, 
collected  a  band  of  men,  seized  Dama.scus, 
and  founded  the  J^yrian  kingdom,  which 
henceforth  was  .so  often  in  conllict  with 
Israel  (1  Kin.  xi.  23,  241.  Damascus  was  the 
cajiital  of  Hezion,  Tabrinunon.  and  the  lUn- 
hadads  U  Kin.  xv.  L-^,  20;  xx.  34;  2  Kin. 
viii.  7),  of  Hazael  (1  Kin.  xix.  17:  2  Kin. 
viii.  H-15),and  of  IJezin  (xvi..">).  Tabrimmon 
and  the  first  Henhadad  were  in  league  with 
the  king  of  Israel  (1  Kin.  xv.  1>  ;  2  (hron. 
xvi.  2).  Ahab  renewed  the  covenant,  obtain- 
ing the  right  to  establish  streets  of  bazjiars  in 
Damascus  (1  Kin.  xx.  34).  At  this  peri<Kl 
Damascus  took  a  lea<ling  jiart  among  the 
western  nations  in  resistance  to  Assyria.  In 
alliance  with  kings  of  the  .seacoast  ami  .\httb 
of  Israel  it  met  Shalmane.ser  at  Karkar  in 
h.">4  H.  c.  but  was  defeated.  In  ^41  its  king 
Hazael  was  also  defeated  by  Shalmamser.  It 
was  the  residence  of  Naaman.  captain  of  the 
army  under  the  .secmnl  JUnhailail  (2  Kin.  v. 

1,  12).  When  Kezin  of  Dimascus  ami  Pekah 
of  Israel  i)lanned  to  assjiult  .leru.sjilem,  .\haz 
of  Judah  called  in  Tiglath-piles»r,  king  of 
Assyria,  whocaiitured  I >ama.M-iis,  carried  the 
inhabitants  cajitive  to  Kir,  and  killed  Uv/.in 
(2  Kin.  xvi.  5-!! ;  Is.  vii.  1  viii.  t! :  x.  !•).  This 
destruction  is  referred  to  by  Amos  (i.  3-.*»). 
But  Damascus  .soon  n-gaini-d  its  j>rosjHTity 
(Ezek.  xxvii.  1>).  From  the  .Vj^syrians  Ihi- 
ma.seiis  pa.s.sed  to  the  H.ibyloninns.  from  them 
to  the  Persian.s,  and  then  t<>  the  Macedonian 
Greeks.     It  was  one  of  the  ten  cities  origin- 


Dan 


154 


Dan 


ally  forming  the  Decapolis.  It  was  taken  by 
the  Roman  jieneral  Mt'telliis,  and  in  the  year 
63  R.  c.  bfcanio  a  Uoiiian  iiroviiuf.  Many 
Jews  dwelt  in  Daniasi'ii.s.  and  supi)()rtfd  sev- 
eral synagogues  (Acts  ix.  2  ;  War  ii.  "JO,  2). 
Near  Damascus  Saul  of  Tarsus,  when  on  his 
way  to  ])ersecutc  the  Christians  of  the  city, 
was  smitten  to  the  earth  and  heard  the  heav- 
enly voice  (Acts  ix.  2,  3,  10;  xxii.  (i,  10,  11. 
12;  xxvi.  12) ;  and  from  the  walls  he  was  let 
down,  now  himself  a  Christian,  to  escape  the 
fury  of  the  Jews  (Acts  ix.  21,  25;  cp.  xxvi. 
20  ;  Gal.  i.  17).  The  traditional  street  called 
Straight  is  al)out  two  miles  long,  and  runs 
from  northeast  to  southwest,  almost  through 
the  center  of  the  city.  It  is  a  i)oor  .street  now, 
but  in  the  time  of  Paul  it  was  a  magnificent 
thorougiifare,  flanked  with  Corinthian  col- 
umns. At  its  eastern  end  is  the  east  gate  of 
the  city.     The  large  gateway,  38  feet  high 


'f^^J^T 


^:^m 


East  <;ate  of  Damascus. 
Theauiiill  gate  on  the  north  of  the  closed  Roman  arch- 
way leads  to  the  northern  Roman  side  gate,  and  is  the 
present  entrance  to  the  city.     A  mmaret  rises  ahove 
the  gate. 

and  20  feet  wide,  and  the  two  smaller  side 
gates  were  built  by  the  Romans,  probably  as 
early  as  the  time  of  Paul.  Of  these  the  cen- 
tral and  southern  archways  have  long  been 
built  up  with  ma.sonry,  leaving  only  the 
small  northern  side  gate  open.  In  Paul's 
time  the  city  was  in  the  hands  of  Aretas, 
king  of  Arabia  Petra'a,  but  it  soon  reverted 
to  the  Romans  (2  Cor.  xi.  32).  In  a.  d.  (j34 
Dama.scus  was  invested  and  in  635  cai>tured 
by  the  Arabs  under  Omar.  In  1300  it  was 
plundered  by  the  Tartars,  and  in  1400  by 
Timur  the  Tartar.  Since  1516  it  has  been 
held  by  the  Turks.  In  July,  ]S()0.  (iOOO 
oriental  Christians  were  massacred  by  a  Mo- 
hammedan mob  composed  of  Druses  and 
Bedouin,  assisted  by  Turkish  soldiers. 

Dan  [a  judge]. 

1.  A  son  of  .Tacob  by  Rilhah  (Gen.  xxx. 
5,  6).     He  had  one  son,  Hushim  (Gen.  xlvi. 


23)  or  Shuham  (Num.  xxvi.  42).  The  future 
destiny  of  his  descendants  was  thus  predicted 
by  Jac<jl):  "Dan  shall  judge  his  jieojile.  as 
one  of  the  tril)es  of  Israel.  Dan  shall  be  a 
serpent  in  the  way,  an  adder  in  the  path, 
that  biteth  the  horse's  heels,  so  that  his  rider 
falleth  l)ackward  "  ((ien.  xlix.  16,  IT,  R.  V.)  ; 
meaning  that  liis  tril)e  would  contend  with 
the  foes  of  Israel  as  earnestly  and  craftily  as 
would  any  of  the  tribes.  Speaking  on  the 
same  subject  Moses  compared  Dan  to  a  lion's 
whelp  that  leapeth  forth  from  Bashan  (Deut. 
xxxiii.  22). 

2.  The  tribe  to  which  Dan  gave  origin,  and 
the  territory  in  Canaan  which  it  obtained  by 
allotment  (Num.  i.  12,  38.  39).  Its  assigned 
territory  contained,  among  other  towns, 
Zorah,  Ajalon,  Ekron,  Eltekeh,  and  ended 
opposite  Jajjho — /.  e.  Joppa  (Josh.  xix.  40-46; 
xxi.  5.  '.^3;  cp.  Judg.  v.  17).  The  Dauites, 
however,  did  not  possess  themselves  of  all 
this  region,  but  were  restricted  by  the  Amor- 
ites  to  the  hill  country  (Judg.  i.  34,  35). 
Cramjied  for  room,  they  sent  spies  to  the  ex- 
treme north  of  Palestine  to  look  for  a  new 
location,  who  found  what  they  desired  in  the 
town  of  Laish,  occupied  by  foreigners.  The 
Danites  sent  an  expedition,  seized  the  place, 
slew  its  inhabitants,  and  I'ebuilt  it  under  the 
new  name  of  Dan  (Josh.  xix.  47  ;  Judg.  xviii. 
1-31).  Aholiab  and  Samson  were  Danites  (Ex. 
xxxi.  6;  Judg.  xiii.  2.  24). 

3.  A  town  in  the  extreme  north  of  Pales- 
tine, the  phra.se  "from  Dan  to  Beersheba  " 
or  "from  Beersheba  to  Dan"  denoting  the 
land  in  its  entire  extent  from  north  to  south 
(Judg.  XX.  1 ;  1  Chron.  xxi.  2).  The  town 
was  originally  called  Laish.  lion,  or  Leshem. 
perhai)s  place  of  lions  (Lesham  from  lai/ish,  as 
Etam  from  'ai/it).  The  name  Dan  was  given  to 
it  after  its  cai)ture  by  the  Danites  (Josh.  xix. 
47;  Judg.  xviii.).  Abraham  pursued  Chedor- 
laomer  as  far  as  Dan  (Gen.  xiv.  14) :  thought 
by  some  to  be  Dan-jaau  (((.v.).  But  Dan- 
jaan  may  be  Laish,  that  is  Dan  :  if  so.  the 
familiar  name  Dan  has  supjilanted  the  older 
designation  in  Genesis  (cp.  Deut.  xxxi  v.  1) 
At  Dan  Jeroboam  fixed  one  of  his  golden 
calves  (1  Kin.  xii.  29.  30;  2  Kin.  x.  29  ;  Amos 
viii.  14).  Benhadad  destroyed  the  town  with 
other  places  in  its  vicinity  (1  Kin.  xv.  20:  2 
Chron.  xvi.  4);  but  it  was  rebuilt  (Ezek. 
xxvii.  19).  Dan  was  in  a  fertile  valley  by 
Beth-rehob  (Judg.  xviii.  9.  28),  near  Lebanon, 
at  the  sources  of  the  lesser  Jordan  (Antiij.  v. 
3.  1 ;  viii.  8,  4),  near  the  marshes  of  the 
waters  of  Merom  (War  iv.  1,  1),  and  four 
Roman  miles  west  of  Paneas  (Onom).  These 
statements  indicate  Tell  el-Kadi,  which  sig- 
nifies mound  of  tlie  judge,  and  thus  i)re- 
serves,  thougli  perhaps  accidentally,  the  sense 
of  the  old  name  Dan.  At  the  base  of  this 
mound  are  two  springs,  whose  waters  pres- 
ently unite  ami  fu'iii  the  river  Leddan.  the 
shortt'st  but  most  abundant  in  water  of  the 
three  streams  which  llow  tt)gether  a  few  miles 
below  and  form  the  .Jordan. 


Dance 


155 


Daniel 


Dance. 

On  joyous  ofcasicdis  of  a  Sfciilar  or  sen)i- 
sec'ular  tluiractcr  (lancing,  accuniitaiiiml  by 
music,  was  jn'acticcd  aniunji  tiic  Helircws  l)y 
Women,  cither  sinfjly  or  in  fii'oiiiis,  csjiccially 
in  wcicomint;  a  victor  home  l.Iuiif;.  xi.  IM  :  1 
Sam.  xviii.  (i,  7  ;  xxix.  .') ;  cji.  .ler.  xxxi.  -1,  i:!). 
Chihlrcn,  aiiparcntly  of  hotli  sexes,  took  i)art 
in  dances  (Job  xxi.  1 1  ;  Mat.  xi.  17  ;  Luke  vii. 


manifest  uncomi)romi>in^'  i«rincii>k',  even 
when  it  l)ronKlit  tliem  face  to  face  with 
death.  Tiiey  were  niveii  service  at  court, 
and  Itaniel  continued  in  it  with  varying 
I)rominence  (hiring  the  existence  of  the  dy- 
nasty (Jl).  In  Nebuchadnezzar's  second 
year  Daniel  interiireted  tiie  dream  in  which 
the  king  .'<aw  the  great  image  tii.  l-4(i),  which 
led  to  tile  jiroidiet's  being  made  ruler  over 


Two  Steps  in  an  Ancient  Kgyjitian  Dance, 

Folluweii  by  a  revolution  of  the  Imily  in  two  movernenlr.  williout  unclasping  the  hanje 


;i2).  Men  probably  engaged  in  dances  among 
themselves,  as  they  did  in  Egyi)t  (Ps.  xxx. 
11;  Lam.  v.  15;  Ecc  iii.  4;  Luke  xv.  S;")). 
Only  on  one  occasion  do  we  find  a  Jewish 
]iriiicess  dancing  juiblicly  in  an  assembly  of 
men  after  the  Koman  manner  :  acting  a  myth- 
ological story  with  the  face  masked,  but  with 
the  ixjdy  clothed  so  as  to  exliibit  the  beauty 
of  the  "figure  (Mat.  xiv.  (i;  Mark  vi.  22). 
1  lancing  as  i)art  of  a  religious  ci-remony  or 
as  an  act  of  worship  seems  to  have  l)cen  com- 
mon among  tlie  Hebrews.  It  was  jjracticed 
chiefly  by  women  (Ex.  xv.  20;  .Tiidg.  xxi.  21, 
2li),  but  occasionally  by  men,  as  in  the  well- 
known  instance  of  David's  dancing  before  the 
ark  (2  Sam.  vi.  1  I  2:5 ;  1  C'hron.  xv.  2!);  Ps. 
cxlix.  .'i;  cl.  4).  Dancing  before  images  was 
common  among  idolaters  (Ex.  xxxii.  19;  1 
Kin.  xviii.  2<)). 

Dan'lel  [God  is  my  judge]. 

1.  .Son  of  David  and  Abigail,  bom  at  He- 
bron (1  Cliron.  iii.  1).  He  is  called  Chileab 
in  2  Sam.  iii.  ."{. 

2.  The  celebrated  .Jewish  in-ojdu't  at  the 
Babylonian  court.  He  si>rang  from  good 
family  of  the  tribe  of  .Jndah  (Dan.  i.  1-7). 
\N'btn  a  youtii,  he  was  carriecl  oil"  witii  other 
cajitives  by  Nebucliadnez/.ar  after  his  first 
siege  of  .lerusalent,  in  the  third  year  of  king 
.Tehoiakim.  about  (lO.'i  b.  c.  (i.  1  ;  cj).  2  Kin. 
xxiv.  lo:  2  Cliron.  xxxvi.  .">-S).  With  time 
com]ianions,  (h<-  future  jiropliet  obtained 
leave  from  the  master  of  the  eunuchs,  uixler 
whom  lie  and  they  had  been  ])Ut  for  instruc- 
tion, to  substitute  simple  foocl  for  the  viands 
assi;;iied  tlieiii  by  the  king  and  which  were 
lialile  to  be  coutraiy  to  the  Mosaic  law  and 
defiled  by  lieatlien  riles  (Dan.  i.  >i.  Tiie  four 
young  exiles  all  became  proficient  in  learn- 
ing, while  the  grace  of  Uod  enabled  them  to 


the  province  of  Babylon,  and  head  over  its 
wise  men  (4<)-4!ii.  He  afterwards  interpreted 
the  vision  which  revealed  tlie  a])]iroaching 
madness  of  Nebuchadnezzar  (iv.  I.  AIhhU 
this  time  Ezekiel  cited  Daniel  as  a  mital)le 
examiile  of  righteousness  and  wisdom  Ezek. 
xiv.  11  ;  xxviii.  :{).  In  the  first  year  of  Bel- 
sliazzar  he  himself  had  a  vision  and  .>i;iw, 
under  the  figure  of  animals,  four  successive 
Asiatic  kingdoms  to  the  time  when  the  an- 
cient of  days  should  sit.  and  om-  like  a  son 
of  man  come  with  the  clouds  of  heaven  to  set 
111)  i'  sjiiritual  kingdom  w  hich  should  endure 
eternally  (vii.).  The  scene  of  the  vision 
of  the  third  year  of  Belshazzjir  was  at  Shu- 
shan  (viii.  2),  the  Klamite  capital,  and  resi- 
dence of  the  already  renowned  Cynis.  king 
of  Persia  (viii.  2(1;  and  see  Cvius).  The 
])roiihet  him.self  was  ]>robahly  at  Babylon 
(c]).  Ezek.  viii.  l-:{).  In  this  vision  he  .sjtw 
a  ram  tr.imiiled  by  a  goat,  and  from  the  liead 
of  the  hitt<r,  when  its  jiower  was  in  tuni 
broken,  foiii-  horns  ajiiiearing,  from  mie  of 
which  a  little  horn  simiiig  and  wrought 
ju-oudly,  csjiecially  toward  the  glorious  land 
and  its  sjinctuary  :  when  by  were  symboli/ed 
the  Medo-Persian  and  Macedonian  (nijiircs. 
the  division  of  the  latter  into  four  kingdoms, 
the  rise  of  a  fierce  king  and  his  desecration 
of  the  sanctuary  (viii.).  On  the  fall  of  the 
Babylonian  empire,  Darius,  in  behalf  of  tlie 
coiKiucror.  aiijiointed  12(»  s;itnips  over  tlie 
new  kingdojii.  willi  three  pnsidents  over 
them.  Daniel  beiiij:  one  of  the  three  (vi.  1.  2  ; 
.see  CvKts).  In  the  first  year  of  Darius. 
Daniel  concluded  from  the  statenient.s  of 
.leremiah  (xxv.  11,  12:  xxix.  IIH  that  tlie  cap- 
tivity was  approacliing  it>clo.>ie  dhiii.  ix.  1.2i. 
He  humbled  hiniMlf.  confessi-d  his  sins,  nnd 
prayed,  in  con.se<iuciice  of  wlii(-li  lie  had  re- 
vealed to  him   the  i>roi>hecy  of  the  seventy 


Daniel 


156 


Daniel 


weeks  (ix.  2).  It  was  during  this  reign  that 
he  was  thrown  into  the  lion's  deu,  and  then 
miraculously  delivcrod.  In  the  third  year 
of  Cyrus,  king  of  Persia,  he  had  a  vision  of 
the  overthrow  of  the  Persian  empire  (x.- 
xii.).  As  Daniel  had  prophesied  during  the 
dynasty  of  Nel)Uihadnezzar,  so  he  did  during 
the  reigns  of  Darius  llie  Mode  and  Cyrus  the 
Persian  (vi.  2)Sj.  lie  must  have  lived  to  an 
advanced  age.  The  time  and  manner  of  his 
death  are  unknown.  Daniel  is  referred  to 
in  Ezck.  xiv.  14 ;  xxviii.  3 ;  2  Esdras  xii.  11 ; 
1  Mac.  ii.  60  ;  Mat.  xxiv.  15  ;  Mark  xiii.  14  ; 
Heb.  xi.  33. 

The  Book  of  Daniel  is  a  book  of  the  O.  T. 
which  in  the  Septuagint  and  English  versions 
follows  Ezekiel,  but  in  the  Hebrew  canon  is 
placed  in  the  third  division.  That  it  was  not 
put  with  the  prophets  indicates  that  its  writer, 
although  called  a  prophet  (Mat.  xxiv.  15 ; 
Antiq.  X.  10,  4  and  ()),and  one  of  the  greatest 
of  them  (Antiij.  x.  11,  7),  and  although  he  was 
marvelously  gifted  by  the  Sjiirit  of  prophe- 
cy, was  not  regarded  as  othcially  a  prophet. 
He  had  the  donum  propheticum,  but  not  the 
munus  propheticum  ;  the  prophetic  gift,  not  the 
prophetic  vocation.  He  was  officially  a  states- 
man. He  does  not  use  the  common  prophetic 
declaration,  "Thussaith  the  Lord,"  and  he 
does  not  exhort  his  contemporaries,  as  it  was 
the  function  of  the  prophets  to  do.  The 
greater  part  of  the  book  is  in  Hebrew ;  but 
the  portion  which  is  concerned  with  the  life 
of  the  Jews  in  a  foreign  land  and  with  the 
deeds  of  foreign  kings  and  with  prophecies 
concerning  foreign  empires,  beginning  with 
the  middle  of  verse  4,  chap,  ii.,  and  extend- 
ing to  chap,  vii.,  verse  28,  is  in  Aramaic,  the 
commercial  and  diplomatic  language  of  the 
time  (cp.  similar  phenomenon  in  Ezra).  The 
kings  mentioned  in  the  book  are  Nebuchad- 
nezzar (i.  1 ;  ii.  1 ;  iii.  1)  ;  Belshazzar,  his  son 
or  descendant  (v.  1,  2,  18,  22) ;  Darius  the 
Mede  (v.  31;  vi.  1  ;  ix.  1)  ;  and  Cyrus  the 
Persian  (vi.  28).  The  book  may  be  divided 
into  three  sections  :  1.  Introduction,  the  prep- 
aration of  Daniel  and  his  three  companions 
for  their  work  (i.).  2.  Witness  borne  by  God 
through  the  four,  at  a  foreign  court  and 
largely  to  foreigners,  of  his  omnipotent  and 
omniscient  control  of  the  powers  of  the 
world  in  their  development  and  in  their  re- 
lation to  the  kingdom  of  God  (ii.-vii.).  This 
section  is  written  in  Aramaic.  It  includes 
Nebucliaduezzar's  dream  of  the  image  made 
of  four  metalsand  its  destruction  lii.)  ;  theat- 
temjit  against  Daniel's  three  I'omjjanions  and 
their  deliverance  from  the  fiery  furnace  (iii.)  ; 
Nebuchadnezzar's  dream  of  tlie  tree  hewn 
down  (iv.) ;  the  writing  on  the  wall  at  Bel- 
shazzar's  feast  (v.)  ;  the  plot  to  destroy  Daniel, 
and  his  deliverance  from  the  lion's  den  (vi.)  ; 
Daniel's  vision  of  the  four  beasts  (vii.).  This 
last  is  placed  out  of  chronological  order  that 
it  may  form  the  transition  to  3.  Supplemen- 
tary visions  of  Daniel,  having  the  fortunes 
of  God's  people  specially  in  view  (viii.-xii.), 


comprising  three  visions:  (1)  Concerning  the 
cessiUion  of  sacrifice,  desolation  of  the  sanc- 
tuary, opposition  to  the  prince  of  princes 
(viii.  ;  cp.  13,  25).  (2)  In  view  of  the  near 
completion  of  the  predicted  seventy  years 
of  exile,  Daniel  prepared  for  the  great  event 
by  confessing  natioiuil  sins  and  supi)licating 
forgiveness.  From  jjrophecies  gone  before, 
it  might  be  supposed  that  the  kingdom  of 
Messiah  would  be  established  immediately  at 
the  expiration  of  the  captivity ;  but  in  a 
vision  Daniel  is  informed  that  70  weeks 
must  elapse  after  the  decri'e  to  rebuild  Jeru- 
salem is  issued  (cp.  Neh.  ii.  3-(i),  before  recon- 
ciliation is  made,  and  everlasting  righteou.s- 
ness  brought  in  (Dan.  ix.).  (3)  He  is  further 
informed  by  a  vision  in  the  third  year  of  the 
founder  of  the  Persian  empire  in  regard  to 
the  overthrow  of  that  empire,  the  per.secu- 
tion  of  God's  people  that  shall  ensue,  and  the 
final  relief  of  the  saints  and  the  resurrection 
to  glory  (x.-xii.). 

The  essential  integrity  of  the  book  is  not 
questioned  ;  it  was  written  by  one  man.  In 
the  first  seven  chapters  Daniel  is  spoken  of 
in  the  third  person  and  sometimes  in  com- 
mendatory terms  (i.  19,  20  ;  ii.  14;  v.  11,  12; 
vi.  3  ;  cp.  Paul  of  himself.  2  Cor.  ii.  15  ;  x.  8 ; 
xi.  5,  23  seq.)  ;  and  in  the  subsequent  chap- 
ters he  speaks  in  the  first  person.  Many 
critics  deny  that  the  book  was  composed  by 
Daniel ;  and  their  denial  extends  to  those 
parts  in  which  the  first  person  is  used  as  well 
as  to  that  part  where  the  third  person  is  em- 
ployed. They  date  its  publication  about 
168  or  167  B.  c,  and  believe  that  it  was 
penned  to  support  the  faith  of  the  Jews  un- 
der the  dreadful  persecution  then  raging 
under  Antiochus  Epiphanes.  The  chief  ar- 
guments against  the  genuineness  of  the  book 
are :  (1)  Daniel  is  not  mentioned  among  the 
worthies  by  the  son  of  Sirach  in  the  book  of 
Ecclesiasticus,  about  200  B.  c.  (xlix.),  although 
he  mentions  Ezekiel,  Nehemiah,  and  the 
minor  pro]>hets.  (2)  The  writer's  use  of  Greek 
wnirds,  which  indicate  that  he  lived  in  the 
Grecian  period.  (3)  Historical  inaccuracies, 
which  show  that  he  was  not  an  eyewitness 
of  the  events  which  he  describes,  but  lived 
at  a  remote  period  from  them.  (4)  The 
prophecies  give  details  of  history  until  the 
death  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes  only. 

These  arguments  are  answered  as  follows : 

(1)  The  son  of  .'^irach  neglects  to  mention 
Daniel,  it  is  true  ;  but  he  also  fails  to  mentiori 
Ezra  and  other  notable  men,  like  Gideon, 
Samson,  and  Jehoshaphat. 

(2)  The  Greek  words  are  confined  to  the 
names  of  musical  instruments  and  are  all 
found  in  one  ver.se,  iii.  5.  The  Greek  origin 
of  at  least  two  of  these  names  is  freely 
granted:  p'sant'rin  for  the  (Jreek  psaUerion, 
and  sumpon't/a  for  sumphotiia.  But  does  this 
fact  militate  against  the  comp<isition  of  the 
book  by  Daniel  in  Babylon  aliout  .")30  B.  c.  ? 
By  no  means;  for  instrunu'nts  such  as  those 
described  were  in  use  in  the  Tigris  and  Eu- 


Daniel 


phratos  valleys  in  Daniel's  day.  Morc-dver, 
there  is  nn  (|iieslinn  that  at  tliat  time  and  in 
that  retriiMi  music  was  a  feature  in  triumiihal 
processions  and  court  lite.  Captives  from 
distant  lands  were  enii)loyed  to  ]>lay  on  their 
own  instruments  of  music.  Ashurhaniiial  so 
used  Elamites.  Sennaelii'ril)  carried  olf  from 
Judah  sinjjing  men  and  sin^inj;  women.  Of 
the  captive  Jews  the  songs  of  Ziou  and  the 
music  of  the  harp  were  demanded  (Ps. 
cxxxvii.  1-3).  There  was  sutlieient  inter- 
course also  i)etwt'i'n  the  emjiires  on  the  Tigris 
and  the  western  peopli's  to  have  led  to  the 
intro<iuction  hoth  of  the  C4reek  instruments 
and  their  names.  Assyrian  kings  from  .Sar- 
pon.  7~'~  ]i.  V.  onward,  not  to  speak  of  earlier 
monarchs,  had  led  oil'  jirisoners  and  received 
tribute  from  Cyprus,  Ionia,  Lydia,  and  Cilicia, 
which  were  Greek  lands.  Nebuchadnezzar 
warred  against  the  cities  on  the  Mediter- 
ranean. It  would  be  in  accordance  with  custom 
for  these  c()n(iuerors  to  introduce  (ireek  in- 
struments and  (Jreek-speaking  nuisicians  to 
their  courts.  Finally,  the  language  of  the 
Iiassage  in  question  is  Aramaic,  not  Baby- 
lonian. The  Aranueans  had  for  centuries 
hei'ii  in  contact  with  the  west.  Their  language 
was  the  international  language  of  diidomacy 
(c]i.  2  Kin.  xviii. 'i()),  and  they  were  the  inter- 
mediaries of  trade,  who  handled  the  goods 
of  Orient  and  Occident.  Their  language  ac- 
quired an  admixture  of  foreign  words  from 
these  sources.  The  writer  of  the  Book  of 
Daniel  is  using  Aramaic,  and  doubtless  eni- 
l>loys  the  names  which  were  current  among 
the  Araniirans  for  instruments  of  this  kind. 
It  is  for  those  who  base  an  argument  on 
these  words  against  the  genuineness  of  the 
Bonk  of  Daniel,  to  show  that  they  were  not 
current  Aramaic    before    the   sixth    century 

B.  C. 

(3)  The  asserted  historical  inaccuracies  are 
not  statements  which  are  disjiroved  by  his- 
tory, but  only  statements  which  have  seemed 
dithcult  to  harmonize  with  the  meager  ac- 
counts of  secular  historians.  No  contradic- 
tion between  Daniel's  record  and  established 
liistory  has  been  jiroven.  The  asserted  his- 
torical iiiaccunicies  have,  niore<iver.  been 
steadily  diminishing  before  the  increasing 
knowledge  of  the  times  of  Cyrus.  The  ex- 
istence of  king  Belshazzar  was  scouted  :  but 
now  the  records  contemjiorary  with  the  cap- 
ture of  Bal)ylon  have  made  him  a  well-known 
historical  character  ;  ixjilained  why  he  raised 
Daniel  to  tin'  third  jdace  of  jxiwer  in  the 
kingdom  instead  of  the  second,  for  liis  father 
and  he  already  occujiied  the  two  higher 
jdaces  of  authority  :  and  have  maile  clear 
\vhy  he  and  not  Nabonidus  is  mentioned  as 
king  ;it  Babylon  on  the  night  of  the  capture 
of  the  city,  for  Nabonidus  was  absent  at  the 
time.  They  do  not  yet  clear  up  the  reference 
to  Darius  tlu'  Mede  receivintr  the  kingdom, 
but  they  show  that  the  a]>pointment  of  a  re- 
gent for  Babylonia  by  Cyrus  was  in  accord 
with  his  policy.      The  queen's  allusion   to 


l'^7  Dan-jaan 

Belshazzar  as  a  descendant  of  Nebuchadnez- 
zar is  satisfactorily  explained  by  the  jdausi- 
ble  assunijition  that  Nabonidushad  married 
a  princess  of  the  family  of  Nebuchadnezzar. 
]\loreover,  Nabonidus  claimed  royal  decent 
for  himself,  altbnUK'h  he  was  not  in  the  line 
of  succession  ;  and  he  emidiasized  the  des<-c-nt 
of  legitimate  authority  to  him  from  Nebu- 
chadnezzar  and  Neriglis.siir.  In  view  of  the 
revelations  of  the  cuneiform  inscri|>tions.  it 
is  bold  to  assert  that  there  ;ire  historical  in- 
accuracies in  till-  Book  of  Daniel. 

(1)  The  jirophecies  do,  indeed,  give  liis- 
torical  details  until  the  death  of  Antiochus 
Epiphanes  (viii.).  But  are  the  ]iropliecies  not 
definite  for  the  times  after  Antiochus'/  Tiie 
fourth  kingdon\  described  in  clia]i.  ii.  and  vii. 
can  be  none  other  tlian  the  Homan  empire: 
for  (1)  A  writer  of  the  time  of  Antiochus, 
who  had  the  accnuiintance  with  the  history 
of  Babylon,  Persia,  and  (ireece,  which  is  dis- 
played in  the  book,  could  not  have  regarded 
the  kingdom  of  Aiitiocbus  as  greater  than 
the  empires  which  had  jireceded  (ii.  40;  vii. 
lit,  23).  (-2)  The  second  empire,  the  Medo- 
Persian,  cannot  be  divided  into  two.  since 
the  Jledian  kingdom  in  its  sej>a rate  existence 
was  never  an  emiiire  of  world-wide  sway. 
Historically,  Media  and  Pt  rsia  were  one  em- 
pire in  the  days  of  Median  sui)remacy.  There 
was  a  change  of  dynasty,  a  Persian  prince 
olitained  the  throne  of  Jledia.  and  then  the 
Medo-Persian  career  of  universiil  conquest 
began.  (3)  Daniel  si)eaks  of  the  Medo- 
Persian  empire  as  one  (v.  'J>  ;  vi.  b  ;  viii.  20). 
(4)  To  divide  the  Medo-Persian  enijiire  into 
two  empires  re(iuires  the  indentification  of 
the  leoi)ard  with  Persia  instead  of  with 
Greece.  But  the  leoj.ard  has  four  heads 
(vii.  (i).  Persia  was  not  broken  into  four 
parts,  but  the  Macedonian  tinpire  was  (viii. 
21,  22;  xi.  2-4).  The  fourth  kingdom  is 
therefore  the  Poman  empire,  which  suc- 
ceeded to  universal  empire  at  a  time  subsc- 
([uent  to  Antiochus.  and  in  its  later  develop- 
ment is  accurately  described  iu  the  Book  of 
Daniel  (cj).  .\ntiq.  x.  11,  7). 

The  Book  of  Daniel  is  (|Uoted  by  Christ  as 
the  work  of  thai  i>ni]iliet  and  slatesinnn 
(3Iat.  xxiv.  l.")).  .Io>eidius  believed  that  the 
jirophecies  of  Daniel  were  in  exi>t«nce  be- 
fore the  time  of  Alexaniler  the  (ireat,  XW 
U.  c.  (.\ntiq.  xi.  S,  .").  yea,  before  the  days  of 
Artaxerxes  (contni  Apiou.  i.  M.  The  deliv- 
erance of  Sliadrach,  Meshach.  and  Abednego, 
from  the  liurning  fury  furnace  and  of  Daniel 
from  the  lions'  den  are  cited  in  1  Mi'c.  ii.  59, 
KO;  cp.  also  i.  ."i4  with  D.m.  ix.  '-'?  :  xi.  31. 

3.  A  i>riest  who.  doublhss  in  behalf  of  n 
father's  house,  signed  the  covenant  in  the 
days  of  Xt'hemiah  (Kzni  viii.  2  ;  Neh.  x.  (m. 

Dan-ja'an, 

A  jilan  Ki  tween  Gilead  (or  even  between 
the  land  of  the  llittiles  toward  KadeslO  and 
Zidon  (2  Sjini.  xxiv.fi).  Tlie  ruin  D.'inian. 
ou  the  coast  midway  U'tween  Acre  and  Tyre. 


Danuah 


158 


Darius 


can  scarcely  be  its  site,  for  the  takers  of  the 
census  who  left  Dan-jaan  did  not  reach  Tyre 
until  tlu-y  had  jiasscd  Zidon.  It  n)ay  be 
identical  with  Dan,  the  conventional  ex- 
treme north  of  till'  ciiuntry  (cp.  the  connec- 
tion of  each  with  Zidon,  Jud};.  xviii.  2H).  The 
ancient  versions  indicate  that  Dan-jaan  is  a 
corruption  for  Dau-jaar,  and  that  Dan  is  de- 
scril>ed  as  being  in  the  forest. 

Dan'nah  [a  low  ])lace,  low  ground]. 

A  village  in  the  hill  country  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  49).  The  situation  of  the  other 
towns  of  this  group  suggests  a  place  much 
farther  south  than  Idhna,  8  miles  west  by 
mirth  of  Hebron. 

Da'ra.     See  Darda. 

Dar'da  [perhajjs,  pearl  of  wisdom]. 

A  son  of  Mahol,  family  of  Zerah,  tribe  of 
Judah,  who  was  celebrated  for  wisdom  (1 
Kin.  iv.  31).  In  1  Chrou.  ii.  6  the  name  ap- 
pears as  Dara. 

Dar'ic. 

A  gold  coin  current  in  Persia,  worth  about 
five  dollars,  which  had  on  one  side  a  king 
with  a  bow  and  a  javelin,  while  ou  the  other 
was  a  somewhat  square  figure  ;  see  Money. 
The  chronicler  reckons  the  value  of  the  gold 
contributed  by  the  princes  in  David's  reign  for 
the  temple  in  darics  (1  Chron.  xxix.  7),  not 
because  darics  circulated  in  Israel  as  early  as 
David's  reign,  but  because  at  the  time  of 
writing  the  daric  was  familiar  to  his  readers 
and  a  common  standard.  The  daric  was  cur- 
rent in  the  Persian  period  (Ezra  ii.  69;  viii. 
27 ;  Xeh.  vii.  70,  71,  72  ;  in  A.  V.  dram). 
The  first  issue  was  wont  to  be  attributed  to 
Darius  Hystaspis  (cp.  Herod,  iv.  166) ;  but 
Prof.  Saj'ce  argues  that  daric  really  comes 
from  the  Babylonian  darika,  a  weight  or 
measure  which,  like  the  English  pound, 
commencing  as  a  weight  became  afterwards 
a  coin.  Dariku  figures  in  a  contract  in  the 
12th  year  of  Nabonidus,  five  years  before 
Cyrus'  conquest  of  Babylon,  and  long  before 
Darius  was  elected  to  the  throne  (Sayce, 
Ezra,  etc.,  p.  38).  Silver  darics  were  also 
coined,  which  were  worth  about  a  shekel. 

Da-ri'us  [from  Zend  dam,  king]. 

1.  A  king  described  as  Darius  the  Mede, 
son  of  Ahasuerus  (Dan.  v.  31  ;  ix.  1).  When 
about  62  years  old  he  was  made  king  over 
the  realm  of  the  Chaldeans  after  the  capture 
of  Babylon  by  the  army  of  Cyrus,  and  he 
reigned  a  part  of  one  year  at  least  (v.  31 ; 
xi.  1)  before  Cyrus  (vi.  28).  He  set  120  satraps 
over  the  kingdom  (vi.  1).  The  satraps  were 
subject  to  three  presidents,  of  whom  Daniel 
was  one  (2).  Presidents  and  satraps  were  at 
the  court  of  Darius  (6),  and  he  had  authority 
,to  write  unto  all  i)eoples,  nations,  and  lan- 
guages that  dwell  in  all  the  earth  or  land 
(25).  He  was  inveigled  into  issuing  the  fool- 
ish decree,  for  violating  which  Daniel  was 
cast  into  the  lion's  den  (vi.  1-27).  In  his 
first  year  Daniel  saw  the  vision  of  the  seventy 
weeks  (ix.  1-27).    He  has  not  been  identified 


with  certainty,  but  was  probably  sovereign 
of  the  Babylonian  empire  ad  interim  until 
Cyrus,  who  was  pressing  his  conquests,  was 
ready  to  assume  the  duties  of  king  of  Baby- 
lon. Josephus  says  that  he  was  son  of 
Astyages,  but  was  known  to  the  Greeks  by 
auothiT  name  ( Antiq.  x.  11, 4 ).  Perhaps,  then, 
he  was  Cyaxercs,  son  and  successor  of  Astya- 
ges and  father-in-law  and  uncle  of  Cyrus 
(Xenophon,  Cyropaed.  i.  5;  viii.  7)  ;  or  ])os- 
sibly  t'gharu,  governor  of  (jutinm,  appar- 
ently a  j)rovince  in  western  Media  or  on  its 
borders,  who  led  the  detachment  of  Cyrus' 
army  which  captured  Babylon,  held  the  city 
for  at  least  four  months  until  Cyrus  arrived, 
and  is  spoken  of  in  this  connection  in  a  cunei- 
form inscription  as  Cyrus"  governor. 

2.  A  king  of  Persia  who  in  point  of  time 
followed  after  Cyrus  (Ezra  iv.  5).  When  he 
came  to  the  throne,  the  building  of  the 
temple  had  been  suspended  owing  to  com- 
plaints from  the  jealous  neighboring  tribes ; 
but  Darius,  on  being  applied  to,  caused  a 
search  to  be  made  at  Achmetha,  the  Median 
capital,  where  the  edict  of  Cyrus  permitting^ 
the  work  to  be  undertaken  was  found  (Ezra 
vi.  1-12).  The  erection  of  the  sacred  edifice 
accordingly  recommenced  in  his  second  year, 
sixth  month,  and  twenty-fourth  day  (Ezra 
iv.  24;  Hag.  i.  15;  ii.  lb),  and  on  the  third 
day  of  the  twelfth  nmnth  of  his  sixth  regnal 
year  was  completed  (Ezra  vi.  15).  The  proph- 
ets Haggai  and  Zechariah  prophesied  during- 
the  reign  of  this  monarcli  (Hag.  i.  1 ;  ii.  1, 
10,  18;  Zech.  i.  1,  7;  vii.  1),  who  was  with- 
out doubt  the  Darius  Hystaspis  of  the  classi- 
cal writers,  the  Dara  Gustasj)  of  Zend  writ- 
ings. He  was  son  of  Hystaspes,  which  Latin 
writers  denoted  by  using  the  genitive  case 
Hystaspis.  Through  his  father  he  belonged 
to  the  family  of  the  Achpemenides,  which  was- 
already  represented  on  the  throne  by  Cyrus, 
and  Cambyses  ;  but  he  was  not  in  the  line  of 
succession.  The  leading  events  of  his  life  are 
detailed  in  an  inscription  of  Darius'  own  on 
a  rock  at  Behistun,  about  60  miles  southwest 
of  Hamadan.  It  is  in  three  languages,  Per- 
sian, Babylonian,  and  Amardian  or  Elamite. 
According  to  it,  eight  of  his  ancestors  were 
kings.  Cambyses,  Cyrus'  son,  put  his  brother 
Bardes,  called  by  Herodotus  Smerdis,  to- 
death,  and  some  time  afterwards  committed 
suicide.  Then  a  Magian  Gomates  or  (Jaumata 
started  up,  pretending  to  be  Bardes,  who  he 
alleged  had  not  really  been  slaiti.  According 
to  Herodotus  (iii.  67-79),  with  whose  narra- 
tive the  less  detailed  record  on  the  stone 
essentially  agrees,  evidence  of  the  fraud  was 
discovered  and  a  consj)iracy  formed  again.st 
Gomates  by  seven  men  of  rank,  one  of  whom 
was  Darius  Hystaspis.  In  521  B.  c.  they 
slew  the  IMagian  and  saluted  Darius  king. 
Elam  rose  against  the  new  monarch,  but 
was  temporarily  subdued.  Babylon  followed 
under  a  leader  called  Nidintabel  and  stood 
a  siege  of  two  years  (520-519  B.  c).  When 
it  became  known  that  Darius  was  detained 


Darkon 


159 


David 


at  BiibylDii,  in  coiKliictiiij;  the  siffio,  a  K«'iit'ral 
revolt  of  the  jiroviiices  i-oiistitiitiiif;  the  em- 
pire took'  jilace ;  in  fact,  tlie  emjiire  fell  to 
pieces.  Darius  says:  "  While  I  was  in  Hahy- 
lon  these  |irovinces  rebelled  ayaiitst  me: 
Persia,  Kusiana,  Media,  Assyria,  Armenia, 
Parthia,  Marf;ian;i.  Satta;;ydia,  and  the  .Saci- 
ans."  Put  he  and  his  lieutenants  siihdni'd 
them  all.  jjenerally  endint;  by  impaling  tiie 
rebel  leader.  Pa  by  Ion,  in  .">!  1  is.  (  ..  revolted 
anew  under  Arahu  or  Araciis,  an  Armenian  ; 
but  the  rebellion  was  jiut  down,  its  ieadir  and 
liis  cliief  adherents  bein;;  iniiialid.  The  walls 
of  the  city  were  this  time  tliiown  diiwn,  and 
a  great  stej)  taken  to  that  utter  destruction 
which  the  prophets  foresaw.  Oarius  now 
ruled  over  an  empire  extending  eastward 
into  India  and  westward  to  the  (.irecian 
Archipelago.  Jle  administered  it,  on  the 
whole,  wisely  and  well.  After  an  unsuccess- 
ful camiiaign  against  the  Scythians  near  the 
river  Don.  in  what  is  now  Russia,  and  a 
(juarrel  with  the  (Greeks,  in  which  liis  gen- 
erals Datis  and  Artapliernes  were  di'tV-ated  in 
4!I0  B.  C.  at  Marathon,  Darius  died  at  the  age 
of  73  (Ctesias)  iu  486  B.  c,  after  a  reign  of 
3t)  years. 

3.  The  last  king  of  Persia,  who  reigned 
from  ;5.'Jt)  to  330  n.  c.  His  true  name  was 
Codomannus.  He  was  defeated  by  Alexaiuler 
the  Great  (1  :Mac.  i.  1  ;  Antit).  xi.  S,  3),  first 
at  Issus  in  .333,  when  he  fled  into  Persia,  and 
again  at  Arl)ela  in  331.  He  died  about  four 
months  later  at  the  hands  of  his  servants, 
with  Alexander  in  hot  pursuit  of  him. 

Dar'kon  [scattering]. 

Founder  of  a  family,  jiart  of  the  children 
of  Solomon's  servants  (Ezra  ii.  56;  Neh. 
vii.  .=S8). 

Date. 

The  fruit  of  the  date  palm  or  Phoenix  dacty- 
lifera  CJ  C'hron.  xxxi.  .',  A.  V..  margin),  from 
which  honey  was  made  (War  iv.  b,  3).  The 
text  and  the  K.  V..  like  the  Hebrew  original, 
use  the  general  name  honey,  without  specif j'- 
ing  the  kind. 

Da'than. 

A  son  of  Eliab,  a  Reubenite,  who  with 
Abiram.  his  bmther,  and  On,  a  man  of  the 
sjime  tribe,  were  jirominent  leaders  in  the 
rebellion  of  Korah  the  Levite.  Their  griev- 
ance was  (liU'ercnt  frum  his.  They  thought 
that  the  leadership  of  Israel  should  liave 
gone  to  the  tribe  to  which  they  belonged,  for 
Reuben  was  .Jacob's  eldest  son.  Then,  again, 
they  comjilained  tliat  Moses  had  taken  them 
from  a  country  where  there  was  jilenty. 
under  the  i)romise  of  leading  them  into  a 
land  llowing  with  milk  and  honey,  while  in 
fact  all  that  he  ha<l  done  was  to  march  them 
up  and  down  amid  naked  rocks  and  barren 
snnds  (Num.  xvi.  1-35,  cp.  13,  1-1 ;  xxvi.  7-11  ; 
Dent.  xi.  6;  Ps.  cvi.  17). 

Dath'e-ma. 

.\  fortress  intit  which  the  faithful  Israelites 
fled  for  s;ifet  V  iu  the  time  of  Judas  MaccabofUS. 


They  were  relieved  by  Judas  and  hisbroilier 
Jonathan.     It  cannot  be  certainly  identified. 
Daugh'ter. 

Pxsidi  >  ( iirresponding  to  the  several  senses 
in  wlii(  h  son  is  used,  esjieeially  for  child  or 
remoter  female  desci'udant  or  as  an  expres- 
sion of  tender  sympatiiy  for  a  woman  ((ien. 
XXX.  Jl  ;  Ex.  ii.  1  ;  Luke  xiii.  lO;  Mat.  ix. '-»•-'), 
daughter  denotes  a  feniah-  inhabitant  of  a 
country  or  town   ((Jen.  xxiv.  3;  Judg.   xxi. 

j    'Jl),  a  fennile  worshiper  of  a  go<l  (Mai.  ii.  11  ; 

I    Is.  xliii.  6),  the  suburb  of  a  city  (Num.  xxi. 

I    25,  margin),  the  colh-ctive  liody  of  the  citi- 

1  zens  of  a  town  or  country  (Ps.  ix.  14  ;  cxxxvii. 
H  ;  Lam.  iv.  'Jl ;  Zech."  ii.  10).  See  Heib, 
Markiage,  Slavk. 

Da'vid  [biloved]. 

Son  of  J(■.-^eand  second  king  of  Israel.  His 
life  falls  into  sevenil  distin<-t  jieriods. 

I.  His  youth,  wliich  was  i>as.sed  at  Hethle- 
hem  of  Judab.  He  was  the  youngest  of  eight 
brothers  (1  Sam.  xvi.  10,  11  •  xvii.  PJUi.  In 
the  regi.--try  of  the  tril)e  of  Judah  1  Chron.  ii. 
1.3-15)  only  seven  of  these  sons  of  ,Ie.s.se  are 
named,  ]>robably  because  one  died  without 
issue.  David's  mother  was  tenderly  reniem- 
bered  for  her  godliness  ( Ps.  Ixxxvi.  16;  cxvi. 
16).  His  ancestral  history  was  iiicturesciue, 
ins]iiring.  and  generally  iiraiseworlhy,  but  yet 
at  times  tainted  bv  sin  (Gen.  xxxvii.  26,  27; 
xxxviii.  13-2i»;  xli'ii.  H,  It;  xliv.  lS-34  ;  Num. 
1.  7;  Josh.  ii.  1-21;  Ruth  iv.  17-22i.  In 
person  he  was  ruddy  and  beautiful  to  look 
upon  (1  Sam.  xvi.  12).  As  ytiungest  son,  ho 
was  charged  with  tlie  care  of  his  father's 
sheep,  and  he  dis]ilay<d  his  fidelity  and 
courage  in  this  occujialioii  by  slaying  both  a 
lion  and  a  bear  whi<'h  attack<Ml  the  llock 
(11  :  xvii.  3l-3(i).  He  jios.'ie.ssed  musical  gifts 
of  high  order,  at  this  jieriod  jilaying  skillfully 
on  the  harp  and  later  composing  ps:tlms. 
When  king  ."saul  had  been  rejected  by  (wkI, 
the  ])ro]ihel  ."simuiel  was  ,si-nt  to  Helbbheni 
and  dinctcd  to  aiu>int  David  as  Sjnils  suc- 
cessor. There  was  no  jiublic  jimclamation  of 
David,  lest  the  hostility  of  S;iul  shoubl  he 
aroused.  At  most,  the  act  was  i)erformeil  in 
the  presence  of  the  elders  of  the  town,  and, 
so  far  as  appears,  no  word  concerning  the 
juirpose  of  the  anointing  was  sjioken  to  the 
audience  (xvi.  4.  5.  13i,  though  Jes.se  and 
David  were  doubtless  informed.  It  was  u 
crisis  in  David's  history.  The  Spirit  of  the 
Lord  came  mightily  upon  him.  Still  he  did 
not  desi)ise  his  humble,  daily  work. 

II.  His  service  ninlcr  Siiul.  Saul,  forsjikon 
by  (bid,  distressen  by  an  evil  spirit,  and  sub- 
ject to  melancholy  and  insjinity.  was  advisid 
i.y  liis  aftend.mt.s' to  attach  a  harper  to  liis 
jierson  to  soothe  him  by  nnisic  when  dis- 
turbed :  and  one  recommended  I):ivid  as  n 
cunning  musician,  a  num  tif  valor  »n<l  ready 
for  war  by  rca.soii  of  age.  skill,  and  courage, 
even  lliougli  i>erhai>s  not  as  yit  experienced 
in  battle,  di-creet.  comely,  pious  (xvi.  14  lb). 
Saul  sumnumed   him,   was  benefited  by  his 


David 


160 


David 


music  and  pleased  with  his  character,  asked 
Jesse  that  he  mi};lit  remain,  and  appointed 
him  one  of  iiis  arniorhearens  (19-'^;j;  c]>.  2 
Sam.  xviii.  15).  The  service  thu.s  l)egiiu  proved 
a  scliool  for  David.  He  learned  war  and  gov- 
ernment, had  intercourse  with  ahle  men, 
and  .saw  the  dark  and  briglit  side  of  court 
life.  David  did  not,  liowever,  as  yet  remain 
continuously  with  .Saul.  The  king's  condi- 
tion evidently  imi)roved,  and  David  returned 
frequently  to" Bethlehem  to  have  an  oversight 
over  liis  fill her's sheep  (1  Sam.  xvii.  15).  While 
he  was  on  a  visit  home  the  Philistines  in- 
vaded .ludah  and  encamped  about  15  miles 
west  of  Bethleliem.  Haul  led  forth  the  army  of 
Israel  to  meet  them.  The  three  eldest  ))roth- 
ers  of  David  were  with  the  army,  and  after 
they  had  been  absent  from  home  about  six 
weeks,  their  father  sent  David  to  inquire 
about  their  welfare.  Goliath's  challenge 
stirred  his  spirit.  He  felt  certain  that  God 
through  him  would  remove  the  reproach  from 
Israel,  and  he  asked  who  the  Philistine  was 
that  defied  tlie  armies  of  the  living  God.  His 
words  were  reported  to  Saul,  who  perceiving 
the  spirit  by  which  the  young  man  was  ani- 
mated intrusted  the  single  combat  to  him. 
David  put  off  the  armor  with  which  Saul 
had  armed  him,  urging  that  he  had  not 
proved  it.  He  showed  true  genius.  Goliath 
was  rendered  slow  of  motion  by  weight  of 
armor ;  the  kind  of  w'eapon  he  carried  obliged 
him  to  fight  at  close  quarters :  and  he  was 
vulnerable  only  in  the  face,  which  under  the 
•circumstaiKes  was  out  of  reach.  David  ap- 
proaclicd  him,  unhampered  in  movement  by 
any  armor,  with  a  sling,  in  the  use  of  which 
he  was  proficient,  with  five  stones  that  could 
be  hurled  from  a  distance,  with  the  conscious- 
ness of  the  riglitt'ousness  of  his  cause  and 
with  implicit  cnulidcuLe  in  God.  The  taunts 
between  the  two  champions  are  characteristic 
of  ancient  battle.  Goliath  fell,  struck  by  a 
stone  from  David's  sling.  After  the  combat 
David,  on  his  way  to  Gibeah  of  Benjamin 
where  Saul  held  court  or  to  the  tabernacle  at 
Nob,  displayed  the  head  of  the  giant  at  Jeru- 
salem, apparently  in  defiance  to  the  Jebusites, 
who  held  the  stronghold,  and  put  the  armor  in 
the  tent  which  he  thenceforth  occupied  (xvii. 
54).  The  sword  was  deposited  in  the  taber- 
nacle (xxi.  9).  When  David  had  gone  forth 
to  meet  Goliath  Saul,  amazed  at  his  spirit, 
asked  Abner  whose  son  such  a  youth  could 
be;  and  when  David  returned  triumphant 
the  king  put  the  same  question  to  him,  only 
to  receive  the  simple  answer.  "  1  am  the  .son 
of  thy  servant  Jesse  the  Bethlehemite."  This 
reply  formed  the  sum  and  suh.stance  of  the 
interview  (xvii.  .5.5-xviii.  1);  David's  ances- 
tors were  not  notable  for  heroic  achievement. 
The  question  of  the  king  had  also  reference 
to  tlie  rank  and  material  condition  of  the 
family,  for  Saul  had  i>ronnsed  to  accept  the 
victor  as  son-in-law  and  to  free  liis  father's 
family  from  taxation  (xvii.  25  ;  xviii.  18).  He 
found  that  he  had  no  occasion  to  be  ashamed 


of  the  birth  of  his  son-in-law.  The  victory 
over  (toliath  was  a  se<'ond  crisis  in  David's 
life.  Tlie  valor,  modtsly,  and  ])iety.  which 
he  dis]>layed  w(m  fur  him  the  disinterested 
and  enduring  love  of  .Jonathan  (xviii.  1). 
He  was  no  longer  permitted  to  repair  i)eriod- 
ically  to  his  father's  house,  but  he  remained 
continuously  at  court  (2).  The  ovation  which 
he  received  arcnised  the  jealousy  of  Saul, 
who  thenceforth  was  David's  enemy  (0-9). 
Saul  saw  that  Samuel's  prediction  of  the 
transfer  of  the  kingdom  from  him  to  one 
better  than  he  (xv.  17-2!))  approached  fulfill- 
ment in  David,  and  he  attempted  to  juevent 
it.  He  endeavored  to  slay  David  with  his 
spear  (xviii.  10,  11).  Failing  in  this,  he  re- 
duced David  in  military  rank  and  power 
(13).  He  gave  his  daughter,  whom  he  had 
promised  to  David  for  a  wife,  to  anotlier 
(17-19).  He  endeavored  to  entrap  him  to 
death  through  his  love  for  Michal  (20-27). 
As  David  grew  in  favor  (29,  30)  Saul's  fear 
increased,  and  he  no  longer  concealed  his 
purpose  to  slay  David  (xix.  1).  This  purpose 
was  never  after  allowed  by  Saul's  adherents 
to  be  abandoned,  but  was  fostered  by  a  party 
at  court  (xxiv.  9 ;  Ps.  vii.  title).  Appeased 
for  a  time,  his  jealousy  soon  revived,  and  he 
again  attempted  to  snnte  David  with  his  spear 
(i  Sam.  xix.  4-9).  Then  he  would  have  ar- 
rested David,  who,  however,  escajied  through 
Michal's  deceit  (10-17).  David  wrote  Ps.  lix. 
at  this  time.  He  tied  to  Samuel  at  Eamah, 
whither  Saul  sent  to  seize  him  (18-241  ;  fled 
next  to  Jonathan,  who  inquired  and  informed 
him  that  there  was  no  longer  safety  for  him 
at  court  (xx.). 

III.  The  fugitive  hero.  Without  confidence 
iii  God  and  sunk  in  desjiair  David  fled  from 
Saul.  Stopjuug  at  Nol),  without  faith,  he 
told  a  lie  (xxi.  1-9);  then  hurried  to  Gath 
and  sought  protection  of  Saul's  enemy  Achish. 
The  lords  of  the  Philistines,  however,  refused 
to  harbor  him  who  had  formerly  humiliated 
them,  and  they  seized  David  (14;  Ps.  hi. 
title).  He  feigned  madness  and  made  him- 
self despicable,  and  Achish  drove  him  away 
(Ps.  xxxiv.  title).  He  regained  his  faith  in 
Jehovah  (Ps.  xxxiv.).  returned  to  Judah.  and 
abode  in  the  cave  of  Adullani  (1  .Sam.  xxii.  li, 
but  placed  his  parents  in  ]\Ioab  (3,  4i.  A 
motley  comjiany,  mostly  of  unemployed  and 
desperate  men,  num)>ering  400  at  first,  in- 
creasing eventually  to  (>(10.  l)egan  to  join  him. 
Anunig  these  were  Abiathar,  the  surviving 
ju-iest  of  Nol),  who  ))rought  an  ejiliod  witli 
him,  and  the  projjhet  (iad,  whom  David  had 
probably  met  at  Ivamah  (5,  20 ;  xxiii.  6). 
David  thus  had  religious  aid  and  comjianion- 
shij).  From  Adullam  he  went  to  the  n'lief 
of  Keilah  and  delivered  the  town  out  of  the 
hands  of  tlie  Philistines  (xxiii.  1-5).  On 
Saul's  pre])aring  to  attack  him  there,  he  fled 
to  the  wild(>niess  of  Judah  (14;  Ps.  Ixiii.). 
wliither  Saul,  at  the  instigation  of  the 
Ziphites,  pursued  him  until  compelled  to  de- 
sist by  an  incursion  of  the  Philistines  (1  Sam. 


David 


161 


David 


xxiii.  14-29).  That  trouble  beiii";  settled.  Saul 
bipii;cht  David  in  the  wilderness  near  Kii- 
j;e(li.  but  was  lor  the  tiini'  eoiuiuered  by  the 
kindness  of  David,  who  had  tlic  king  in  his 
j)()Wer  in  the  eave,  but  spared  his  life  (xxiv.  ; 
I's.  Ivii.  ;  exlii.).  David  and  his  band  of 
arinicl  f<illowers  proteeted  the  exjxiscd  jmi]!- 
erty  of  the  Israelites  from  thieving  maraud- 
ers (1  Sam.  xxiii.  1;  xxv.  Ki,  '21;  xxvii.  b), 
and  naturally  eqouyh  exjjeeted  some  return 
in  gifts  of  food.  He  did  not  levy  tax  or 
<lemaiiil  regular  cont  ribiit  ions  of  lu'ovisious. 
Nabal's  seornful  rejeetion  of  his  request  iu- 
eensed  him,  and  he  w'as  only  saved  from 
shedding  blood  in  his  fury  by  the  wisdom 
and  address  of  Nabal's  wife  (xxv.),  whom 
Daviil  married  after  the  death  of  her  hus- 
band. David  again  eame  into  the  ui'igli- 
borhood  of  Zijdi,  and  the  Ziphites  again  in- 
formed Saul,  who  marehed  against  David. 
David  showed  his  magnanimity  by  not  slay- 
ing the  sleeping  king,  but  mi-rely  earrying 
away  from  his  side  his  sjiear  and  eruse  of 
•water  ixxvi.).  Desjjairing  of  always  e.seaping 
Saul.  David  left  Judah  and  obtained  jiermis- 
sioii  from  Achish  to  oceujiy  Ziklag,  a  frontier 
town  toward  the  SdUthern  desert.  Here  he 
renuiined  a  year  and  four  niontiis,  jiroteeting 
the  Philistines  by  warring  with  the  desert 
tribes,  yet  sometimes  wasting  a  remote  vil- 
lage even  of  riiilistia  (xxvii.).  When  the 
Philistines  went  to  (Jilboa  to  war  with  Saul. 
David  was  prevented  from  accomiianying 
them  by  the  lords  of  the  Philistines  (xxviii. 
1,  2;  xxix.).  Keturning.  he  found  Ziklag  in 
ruins.  He  pursued  the  retreating  invaders 
and  reeovered  the  spoil  (xxx.).  When  he 
heard  the  result  of  the  battU'  of  (4ill)oa.  he 
mourned  the  fate  of  Saul  and  Jonathan  iu  au 
elegy  (2  Sam.  i.). 

IV.  King  of  Judah.  On  tlu'  death  of  Saul 
the  tribe  f)f  Judah,  to  whieh  David  belonged, 
elected  him  king,  and  he  began  to  reign  in 
Heliron  (ii.  1-10).  being  then  about  tliirty 
years  old  (v.  l).  The  rest  of  the  tribes,  inxler 
the  leadershij)  of  Abner.  one  of  the  ablest 
men  of  the  time,  set  up  Ish-boshcth,  SaiiTs 
son.  at  Mahanaim.and  for  the  next  two  years 
eivi!  war  raged  between  his  jparlisans  and 
tliosi'  of  David.  It  ended  by  the  assassina- 
tiiiu.  sorelv  against  David's  will,  butli  of 
Abner  and  of  Ish-bosheth  (ii.  12-iv.  12). 
DaviiPs  reign  at  Hebron  continued  fur  seven 
years  :ind  six  m<pntlis.  He  iiail  already  si'V- 
eral  wives,  and  among  the  sons  born  to  him 
at  Hebron  were  Amnon.  Absalom,  and  Adoni- 
jah    ii.  11  ;  iii.  l-o ;  v.  '>). 

V.  King  of  all  Israel.  On  the  death  of 
Ish-beshetii.  David  was  elected  king  over  all 
the  tril)es,  and  he  at  once  set  to  work  to  es- 
tablish the  kingdom  (v.  1-5).  Various  towns 
in  the  territory  of  Israel  were  garrisoned  by 
the  Philistines,  and  others  were  held  by  the 
( 'anaaniti's.  David  bi'gan  a  siege  of  the 
.lebusite  stronghold  at  Jerus.'ilem.  It  was 
deemed  impregnable  l>y  its  inhabitants,  but 
David  took  it  by  storm.     He  wisely  made  it 

11 


his  capital,  and  erected  a  jialace  there  by  the 
skill  of  Tyrian  arlitieers.  The  luw  capital 
stood  <jn  tlie  border  of  .hidah  and  Israel.  Its 
situati(jn  tended  toallay  the  jealousy  ]>etween 
north  and  south.  Its  delivenmce  from  the 
haiuls  of  the  I'anaanites  opened  the  highway 
between  Jiidali  and  the  north,  facilitated  in- 
tercourse, and  tended  to  further  cement  the 
kingdom.  The  Philistines  twice  invaded  tiie 
land,  and  twice  sulfered  defeat  near  Jerusiileni 
(v.  17-25;  1  (hron.  xiv.  h  17).  TJie  king 
followed  uj)  the  second  victory  liy  invading 
the  country  of  the  Philistines,  took  (iath.and 
V)y  this  eon()uest  and  by  brief  campaigns  later 
(2  Sam.  xxi.  15-22)  so  comiiietely  sulyugated 
the  Philistines  that  these  hen  tlitary  «  nemies 
ceased  to  trouble  Israel  for  cenlnries.  Tlie 
kingdom  being  establi>lied.  David  turned  his 
attention  to  religious  all'aii°s.  He  Itrought 
the  ark,  with  ceremony,  sacrifices,  and  re- 
joicing, from  Kirjath-jearim  (Josh.  xv.  J»;  2 
C'hron.  i.  4),  and  ]ila<-ed  it  within  a  taliernade 
whieh  he  had  pitched  for  it  in  tlie  city  of 
David  (2  Sam.  vi.  1-23;  1  C'hron.  xiii.  1-14; 
XV.  1-3).  Next  he  organized  the  w«jrshii>  on 
a  magnificent  scale  (1  Chron.  xv. ;  xvi.),  and 
jilanned  a  siilendid  templi'  (2  Sam.  vii.  1-2!*; 
1  C'hron.  xvii.  1-27;  xxii.  7-10).  Thnjugh 
the  divine  favor  he  now  l)ecame  very  pros- 
perous. To  insure  the  .sjifety  of  the  nation, 
to  keep  it  from  idolatrous  contamiiuition,  and 
to  avenge  insult  oll'ered  to  it.  he  waged  war 
with  surrouiuling  nations,  and  sulxlued  the 
Moabites.  the  Aranueans  of  Zobah  and  Ihi- 
maseus,  the  Amnu)nites,  the  Ivioinites.  and 
the  Amalekites  (2  Sam.  viii.  1-1>;  x.  1-1!>; 
xii.  2(i-31),  thus  extending  his  kingdom  to 
the  limits  long  before  ju-omised  to  .Mirahani 
(Gen.  XV.  IS).  It  was  during  the  Ammonite 
war  that  David  committed  his  gnat  sin  in 
the  matter  of  I' riah  the  llittitc,  for  wliich  (iod 
rebuked  him  through  Natlian  the  imipiiet. 
and  imposed  the  jienalty  that  the  swonl 
should  lu'ver  dejiart  from  his  house  (2  Sam. 
xi.  1-xii.  2.'{).  David  sincerely  rejiented  (Ps. 
Ii.).  The  chastisemint  was  jiartly  ilirect  and 
partly  the  natunil  Iriiit  of  his  example  and 
transmitted  character.  The  child  died  (2Siini. 
xii.  1!>).  Lawless  lust  and  lawhss  vengeance 
were  manifested  in  his  own  family  (xiii.). 
Lawless  and  iinlilial  ambition  triumi'hed  for 
a  time  in  his  family  and  led  to  civil  war 
(xiv.-xix.).  The  sjiirit  of  diss;iti>faction  and 
tribal  jealousy  fomented  by  Absiilom  sliowed 
itself  after  the  suppre.sMoii  of  Absjili>m's  n-- 
bellion  onc«-  nn)ri'  in  tin-  revolt  of  ."^hebn 
(xx.).  David  .solemnly  satisfied  justice,  ae- 
conling  to  the  ideas  of  that  age.  in  avenging 
Saul's  bloody  violation  of  tlie  treaty  rights 
of  the  (iibconites  (xxi).  He  comniittcil  » 
sin  of  jiridc  in  numbering  tlic  fH-ojile.  and 
was  punislu  (1  by  a  jiestileiKi'  (xxiv.  ;  1  Cliroii. 
xxi).  Daviil  was  mii<  h  occupied  during  his 
reign  with  the  organization  of  internal  alVnirs 
and  with  the  preparation  of  material  for  the 
erection  of  the  temple.  He  clo,M-d  liis  rejgn 
by  securing  the  succession  to  Solomon  (1  Kin. 


David,  City  of 


102 


Day 


i.\  and  by  providing  that  the  guilt  of  some 
who  had  escaped  justice  in  his  day  should 
not  fji)  unpunished  (ii.  1-11).  lie  died  in  liis 
sevent}--lirst  year,  alter  having;  rei,t;ned  forty 
(or,  more  precisely,  forty  and  a  half  )  years, 
seven  and  a  half  at  Hebron  and  thirty-three 
at  Jerusalem  (2  Sam.  ii.  11 ;  v.  4,  5 ;  1  C'hron. 
xxix.  27). 

David  early  received  the  distinguished  des- 
ignation of  the  sweet  singer  of  Israel  (2  Sam. 
xxiii.  1).  Ancient  Hebrew  tradition,  much 
of  which  was  un(iuestioual)ly  current  about 
David's  own  time  and  shortly  after,  ascribed 
the  composition  of  psalms  to  him  both  di- 
rectly and  indirectly.  His  fondness  for  music 
is  recorded  in  the  historical  books;  he  played 
skillfully  on  the  harp  (1  Sam.  xvi.  lri-23 ;  2 
Sam.  vi.  r>),  and  he  arrangi'd  the  service  of 
praise  for  the  sanctuary  (1  C'hron.  vi.  31 ;  xvi. 

7,  41,  42  ;  XXV.  1).  He  composed  a  lament 
over  Saul  and  Jonathan,  and  over  Abnei",  and 
a  song  of  deliverance  and  last  words  (2  Sum. 
i.  17-27  :  iii.  33,  34  ;  sxii.  1-.")1  ;  xxiii.  1-7). 
His  musical  activity  is  referred  to  by  Amos 
(vi.  5),  Ezra  (iii.  10),  Xehemiah  (xii.  24,  36, 
45,  4t)).  and  the  son  of  Sirach  (Ecclus.  xlvii. 

8.  9).  Such  work  on  the  part  of  David  ac- 
corded with  the  times,  for  poetry  and  music 
had  long  been  cultivated  by  the  Hebrews  as 
well  as  by  the  Egj'ptiaus  and  Babylonians 
(Num.  xxi.  14;  Judg.  v.).  Seventy-three 
psalms  are  designated  David's  in  their  He- 
brew titles  :  and  as  in  many  cases  the  inten- 
tion is  to  indicate  that  he  is  the  author  (cp.  iii., 
vii.,  xxxiv.,  Ii.,  etc.),  it  is  probably  always  the 
intention.  Lix.  and  perhaps  vii.  are  assigned 
to  the  time  of  his  sojourn  at  Saul's  court; 
xxxiv.,  Iii.,  liv.,  Ivi.,  Ivii.,  Ixiii.,  and  cxlii.,  to 
the  period  of  distress  when  he  was  a  fugitive  ; 
and  iii.,  xviii.,  xxx.,  Ii.,  and  Ix.,  to  the  years 
of  varied  experiences  when  he  was  king. 

Though  at  times  David  committed  deep- 
dyed  sins,  for  which  the  early  and  compara- 
tively dark  period  of  the  church's  history  in 
which  he  lived  and  his  own  deep  penitence 
are  his  only  defense,  yet  his  general  fidelity 
to  Jehovah  was  such  that  he  was  called  the 
man  after  God's  own  heart  (1  Sam.  xiii.  14). 
Speaking  generally,  he  did  that  which  was 
right  in  the  eyes  of  the  Lord,  save  in  the 
matter  of  Uriah  the  Hittite  (1  Kin.  xv.  5). 
He  served  his  generation  by  the  W'ill  of  God, 
and  then  fell  on  sleep  (Acts  xiii.  36).  His 
influence  on  mankind  can  scarcely  be  over- 
estimated. He,  rather  than  his  predecessor 
Saul,  was  the  founder  of  the  Jewish  mon- 
archy. His  psalms,  sung  throughout  Chris- 
tendom century  after  century,  revive  his 
spiritual  influence.  He  was  an  important 
link  in  the  chain  of  ancestry  of  Him  who 
was  at  once  David's  son  and  David's  Lord 
(Mat.  xxii.  41-45). 

Da'vld,  Cit'y  of. 

1.  The  Jebusite  stronghold  of  Ziou  cap- 
tured by  David's  men,  and  calU'd  by  him 
the  city  of  David,  because  he  made  it  his 
royal  residence  (2  Sam.  v.  6-9;  1  Chron.  xi. 


5,  7).  Not  the  whole  hill  of  Zion,  but  the 
strongliold  or  castle  upon  some  part  of  it, 
probalily  its  summit,  was  called  the  city  of 
David.  The  ark  was  brought  thither  by 
David,  and  continued  tliere  till  Solomons 
temple  was  built  (2  Sam.  vi.  10,  12,  16;  1  Kin. 
viii.  1 ;  1  C'hron.  xv.  1-2'J  ;  cj).  xiii.  13  and  2 
Chron.  v.  2).  David  was  buried  there  (1  Kin. 
ii.  10).  Solomon  brought  thither  for  a  time 
his  first  queen,  Pharaoh's  daughter  (1  Kin. 
iii.  1),  though  lie  afterwards  erected  a  palace 
for  himself  and  her  (vii.  1  :  ix.  24;  2  Chron. 
viii.  11).  He  was  buried  in  the  city  of 
David  (1  Kin.  xi.  43:  2  Chron.  ix.  31),  as 
were  Rehoboam  ( 1  Kin.  xiv.  31  ;  2  Cliron. 
xii.  16)  and  many  other  kings  (1  Kin.  xv.  8, 
24;  xxii.  50  ;  2  Kin.  viii.  24  ;  ix.  28  ;  xii.  21 ; 
xiv.  20;  XV.  7,  3s  ;  xvi.  20;  2  Chron.  xiv.  1 ; 
xvi.  14;  xxi.  1,  20;  xxiv.  Ki,  25;  xxvii.  9). 
Jehoiada,  the  high  priest,  was  also  interred 
there  (2  Chron.  xxiv.  16).  Hezekiah  brought 
the  upper  watercourse  of  Gihon  to  the  west 
side  of  the  city  of  David  (2  Chron.  xxxii.  30  ; 
cp.  xxxiii.  14).  Millo  was  apparently  within 
its  limits  (2  Chron.  xxxii.  5).  In  Nehemiah's 
time  there  was  a  descent  from  the  city  of 
David  by  means  of  stairs  (Neh.  iii.  15.  16  ; 
xii.  37).  It  was  fortified  and  garrisoned  by 
the  Syrians  and  Greeks  during  the  Maccabee 
wars  (1  Mac.  i.  33  ;  ii.  31 ;  vii.  32  ;  xiv.  36,  37). 
See  Jkrusalem. 

2.  Bethlehem,  the  birthplace  or  at  least  the 
home  of  David  (Luke  ii.  4). 

Day. 

1.  An  interval  of  time  comprising  the 
period  between  two  successive  risings  of  the 
sun  (Gen.  vii.  24  ;  Job  iii.  6).  The  Hebrews 
reckoned  it  from  evening  to  evening  (Lev. 
xxiii.  32;  Ex.  xii.  18;  War  iv.  9,  12).  This 
custom  was  pi'obablj-  due  to  the  use  of  lunar 
months,  which  began  with  the  appearance  of 
the  new  moon.  The  exact  designation  of  the 
civil  day  accordingly  was  evening-morning  or 
night-day  (Dan.  viii.  14.  margin  ;  2  Cor.  xi.  25). 
But  although  the  evening  projierly  introduced 
a  new  day,  it  was  often  reckoned  in  connec- 
tion with  the  natural  day  which,  strictly 
sjieaking,  it  followed — e.  g.  the  evening  which 
began  the  fifteenth  of  Nisan  is  designated  by 
the  expression  "  the  fourteenth  day  at  even  " 
(Ex.  xii.  18;  cp.  2  Chron.  xxxv.  1;  see  also 
Lev.  xxiii.  32).  The  days  of  the  week  were 
numbered,  not  named.  The  only  excejition 
was  the  seventh  day,  which  was  also  called 
Sabbath. 

2.  The  interval  between  dawn  and  dark- 
ness (Gen.  i.  5;  viii.  22).  It  was  divided  into 
morning,  noon,  and  evening  (Ps.  Iv.  17;  cp. 
Dan.  vi.  10)  ;  or  its  time  was  indicated  by 
reference  to  sunrise,  beat  of  the  day,  cool  of 
the  day,  sunset,  and  the  like.  After  the  ex- 
ile the  use  of  hours  became  common,  and  the 
day  from  sunrise  to  sunset  was  divided  into 
twelve  hours  (Mat.  xx.  1-12:  John  xi.  9); 
the  sixth  hour  being  noon  (John  iv.  (i ;  Acts 
X.  9). 

3.  Any  period  of  action  or  state  of  being 


Daysman 


163 


Dead  Sea 


(Zecb.  xii.  :>  scq.) ;  as  clay  of  tr(inl)le  (Ps.  xx. 
1),  (lay  of  his  wrath  (Job  xx.  -JM,  (hiy  of  the 
lj)ril  (Is.  ii.  l:i\  xiii.  (!,  li ;  iu  the  N.  T.  sjn'- 
rially  of  the  secoiul  advent  of  Clirist,  1  Cor. 
V.  o  •  1  Tht's.  V.  -J  :  -2  IVt.  iii.  10).  So  also  in 
tilt'  phrase  "in  the  day  that."  which  i.s 
iiliiivalent  to  "when"  ((ien.  ii.  I,  17;  Lev. 
xiv.  •^-•_'0l,  and  is  often  rendered  su  in  the 
English  versions  (Lev.  xiv.  o7  ;  Num.  vi.  13  ; 
1  Sam.  XX.  Ill;  Ps.  xx.  il). 

Days'man. 

(  Mu-  w  111)  has  appointed  a  day  for  hearing 
a  cause  ;  a  mediator  or  an  arbitrator  (Job  ix. 
3:5). 

Dea'con  [(Ireek  ilinkonos :  in  classical 
writers  a  servant,  u  waitiiif;  man,  a  niessen- 
^'er.  It  is  used  in  this  sense  in  Hat.  xx. 
■Jti.  wliere  it  is  translated  minister,  and  is 
distin<ruished  from  ilnnlos.  bond-servaut  or 
slave,  occurriiii;  in  the  next  verse  ;  cj).  also 
.Mat.  xxiii.  11  ;  .Mark  ix.  3.j ;  x.  13;  John  ii. 

A  Christian  ollicer,  whose  spiritual  and 
moral  (|Ualili(  alions  are  laid  down  in  1  Tim. 
iii.  r^.  It  is  .justly  assumed  that  the  seven 
men  chosen  to  relieve  the  apostles  of  the 
secular  care  of  the  widows  and  other  poor 
jieoiile  in  the  early  church  were  deacons 
(Acts  vi.  1-0:  cjt.  the  words  ministration, 
didkoiiia,  and  serve,  dinkuneo,  in  vs.  1  and  'J). 
Their  char^'e  of  the  needy  did  not  debar 
them  from  the  jirivile^^e  of  .speaking  i)ublicly 
fiirChrist.  for  Stephen  and  Philij)  labored  also 
as  iireachers  and  evanj^elists.  They  did  so, 
however,  in  tlie  exercise  of  a  pcrsoJial  i^it't 
rather  than  of  an  ollicial  duty.  A  jdurality 
of  deacons  existed  in  the  churdi  at  Philipjii, 
and  shared  with  the  bishops  the  duties  of  the 
church  (Phil.  i.  1). 

Dea'con-ess. 

.\  fi male  deacon;  like  Phoebe,  servant  or 
(liiil.oiio.i  of  the  chnrcli  at  C'enchrea'  (Rom. 
xvi.  1  ;  .see  marjrin  of  R.  V.).  Deaconesses  are 
jirobably  referre<l  to  in  1  Tim.  iii.  11.  They 
existed  in  the  churches  of  l$itliynia  as  early 
as  .\.  I).  ](i().  for  Pliny,  in  his  celebrated  letter 
to  the  I'mjieror  Trajan  re^ardin;:  the  Chris- 
tians, rejKirts  havin';  examined  "  two  old 
Women"  of  the  Christian  community  "who 
Were  called  ministers"  (miiiistne). 

Dead  Sea. 

The  name  now  j;ivcn  to  the  sheet  of  water 
called  in  the  P.ible  the  salt  sea  l(  Jen.  xiv.  .3; 
.\um.  xxxiv.  12;  I'eut.  iii.  17:  Josh.  iii.  1(>), 
the  .sea  of  the  Arabah  or  Plain  (Dent.  iii.  17; 
Josh.  iii.  Ifi).  and  the  east  or  easterji  sea 
(K/.ek.  xlvii.  IS;  Jtpel  ii.  -JO:  and  R.  V.  of 
Zech.  xiv.  S).  .losejilius  calls  i(  .\splialtitis 
(.\nti(i.  i.  i»,  1).  It  was  nanud  tlie  Dead  Sea 
by  the  Greeks  as  early  as  the  latter  half 
of  the  secoml  century  of  the  Christian  era 
iPausanias).  It  is  situate  il  in  the  deep  vol- 
canic rent  or  lissure  which  runs  ihroiiKh 
Palestine  from  north  to  south;  and  is  fed 
chietly  by  the  river  Jordiin,  which  empties 
into  it   on   au   averaw  six  million  tons  of 


water  every  twenty-four  hours.  Its  surface 
was  a.scertaimd  by  ilie  otlicers  of  the  ord- 
nance survey  to  be  IJH-,'  feet  lower  than  the 
ocean  level.  The  sea  is  like  a  lonjr  rectangle 
with  the  angles  beveled  oil':  hut  its  regular- 
ity of  form  is  interrupted  by  a  projection 
into  its  southeastern  side  of  a  great  promon- 
tory or  jieninsula  called  Li.san.  or  the  Tongue. 
The  length  of  the  .sea  from  north  to  south  is 
on  an  average  about  -J7  English  miles,  but  it 
varies,  a  large  jiortiou  of  the  southern  shore 
being  sometinus  dry  and  sonielinies  covered 
with  water.  The  breadth  a  little  north  of 
En-gedi  is  i)h  miles,  and  it  is  nearly  as  much 
everywhere  north  of  the  Lisan.  Ancient 
watermarks  indicate  that  the  area,  especially 
the  length,  was  formerly  miu-h  larger  iWar 
iv.  8,  1).  The  Li.san  is  about  9  miles  long 
from  north  to  south.  Its  banks  are  from 
40  to  fiO  feet  high  ;  while,  according  to  Tris- 
tram, its  highest  iioint  is  about  .3fKi  feet  above 
the  water.  Lieut.  Lynch,  who  in  l."«|ci  led 
an  expedition  for  the  explor.ition  of  the  Jor- 
dan and  the  Dead  Sea.  fouiul  the  maximum 
depth  of  the  latter,  as  ascertaineil  by  sound- 
ing, to  be  l'J7s  feet ;  this  was  at  a  jittint 
near  the  mouth  of  the  .\riion.  .Soundings 
farther  north  yield  13(K(  t'eet.  South  of 
the  Lisan,  on  the  contrary,  the  sea  is  (juite 
shallow.  Except  on  the  north  side,  where 
the  Jordan  enters,  tin-  Dea<l  Sea  is  nearly 
surrounded  by  a  ramjiart  of  clilfs.  which  in 
some  places  leave  a  narrow  beach  between 
them  and  the  water,  while  in  others  they 
themselves  constitute  the  coastline.  These 
rise  in  successive  terraces,  which  also  exist 
along  the  lower  part  of  the  Jordan  valley. 
On  the  western  side,  at  En-gedi.  the  lieigbt 
from  the  seashore  to  the  to(>  of  the  clill's  is 
IKoti  feet;  a  little  farther  north,  at  R&.s  esh 
Shufk,  the  toj)  is  SyUI  feet  above  the  Dead 
Sea,  i.e.  l'J'J7  above  the  Mediternmean.  Far- 
ther northward  the  elevation  gnidnally  de- 
creafses  till  it  reaches  IKKI  feet  above  the  Dead 
Sea.  These  west<rn  clill's  contain  ileposits  of 
bitinnen  in  lioth  li(iuid  and  solid  stat*-.  On 
the  eastern  side  the  )ire<  ipitoiis  mountains  of 
Moab  rise  from  -J.-MH)  to  .3000  feet  above  the 
shore. 

The  Dead  Sea  is  one  of  the  most  remark- 
able sheets  of  water  on  the  face  of  the  earth. 
Xo  other  one  is  known  to  oicujiy  so  deep  a 
hollow  on  the  surface  of  the  globe.  Its 
waters  are  much  silter  than  those  of  the 
ocean,  for  while  in  the  latter  1<H»  Ib.s.  of 
water  contain  (!  lbs.  of  siilt,  in  the  fonner 
100  lbs.  of  water  contain  from  "JO  to  1J7.8 
lbs.  of  salt.  In  cons(i|Uence  of  this,  one 
bathing  in  them  finds  himself  almost  liidi- 
crouslv  buoyant.  Rut  when  be  comes  ashore 
there  is  a  greasy  deposit  of  silt  upon  his 
skin,  which  tortures  him  if  llien-  happens  to 
be  a  scratch  or  a  briii-e  on  its  surface.  In 
seeking  an  explanation  of  this  stillness,  «n- 
geologic.il  tnivelers  point  to  a  ridge  of  hills, 
Jebel  I'sdum  (Hill  of  SkIouiK  containing 
rock  salt,  from  which  sj»line  rills  flow  into 


Dearth 


164 


Decapolis 


the  southwestern  portion  of  the  sea.  Geolo- 
gists, liowever.  jjoint  out  tluit  the  range  of 
hills  is  j)art  of  the  old  lud  of  the  Diail  Sea, 
wliL'U  tlie  waters  stood  niucli  lii.uluT  than 
now.  The  sea  created  I  lie  rock  sail,  iuslcad 
of  llie  rock  salt  reudcriuj;  an  otiierwise  fresh- 
water lake  saline.  The  jiroce.ss  was  this : 
the  water  of  the  Jordan  contains  a  minute 
portion  of  .salt ;  and  there  heins;;  no  outlet  from 
the  Dead  Sea,  tiie  salt  j^iven  it  by  tlie  river 
remains  and  accumulates  year  hy  year,  while 
the  water  with  wliich  it  comes  goes  off  to  a 
large  extent  in  vapor,  evaporation  being  im- 
mense, .since  the  air  from  the  desert  comes  dry 
and  thirsty  to  an  extraordinary  degree.  The 
Scripture  name,  "Salt  Sea,"  has  been  super- 
seded by  the  name  Dead  Sea.  Organic  life 
scarcely  exists  in  its  waters ;  neither  shell- 
fish nor  corals  are  found.  The  old  belief, 
however,  that  there  is  a  total  absence  of  life 
in  and  around  the  sea  is  erroneous.  Birds 
frequent  it>s  shores  or  fly  over  its  surface,  as 
they  do  that  of  other  lakes  and  inland 
seas;  vegetation  flourishes  on  its  shores  at  the 
mouth  of  wadies  and  by  sjiriiigs  of  fresh 
water  :  and  fishes,  though  woefully  deficient, 
are  found,  according  to  Lartet,  in  small  num- 
bers south  of  the  Lisan.  Ezekiel  prophesied 
the  ultimate  healing  of  the  waters  of  the 
Dead  Sea.  and  the  multijilication  of  fish  till 
the  species  for  number  should  rival  those 
of  the  open  Mediterranean  (Ezek.  xlvii. 
6-12). 

Dearth.     See  Famine. 

De'hir. 

1.  A  king  of  Eglon,  ally  of  Adoni-zedek  ; 
defeated,  ca])tured,  and  executed  by  Joshua 
(Josh.  X.  -3.  27). 

2.  A  city  ill  the  hill  country  of  Judah,  yet 
in  the  Negeb  or  south  land.  It  was  also 
called  Kirjath-sepher,  which  may  mean  city 
of  bo(jks  and  indicate  a  literary  people ;  and 
Kirjath-sannah,  city  of  a  jialiii  tree  or  per- 
haps peak  (Josh.  xv.  ]".,  19,  4s,  49).  In  the 
time  of  Joshua  it  was  inhabited  by  Anakim, 
had  a  king,  and  was  head  of  other  towns. 
Joshua  caiitiired  it  and  slew  its  inhabitants 
(Josh.  X.  ;58,  39 ;  xi.  21 ;  xii.  13) ;  but  it  was 
reoccupied  by  returned  fugitives,  and  had  to 
be  recaptured  by  Othniel  (Josh.  xv.  15-17; 
Judg.  i.  11,  12).  It  was  assigned  to  the 
priests  (.Tosh.  xxi.  13,  15 ;  1  Chron.  vi.  57, 
58).  The  most  jirobahle  site  proposed  (better 
perhaps  than  Dilbeh,  4^  miles  soutliwest  of 
Hebron)  is  Dhaheriyeh,  nearly  12  miles 
southwest  of  Hebron,  on  a  flat  ridge,  with 
open,  rocky  ground  all  around.  It  is  west 
of  the  sites  of  Socoli,  Anab,  and  Kshtemoh 
(Jo.sh.  XV.  48-50).  It  is  supjilied  from  cis- 
terns. The  sjirings  mentioned  in  Judg.  i.  15 
are  not  distinctly  connected  with  Debir  and 
may  be  nearer  Hebron. 

3.  A  town  on  the  boundary  of  the  tribe  of 
Judah,  near  the  valley  of  Achor  (Josh.  xv. 
7).  The  name  is  perliaps  preserved  in  ed- 
Debr,  a  grotto  near  ed-Dumm,  i.  e.  Adum- 


mim,  on  the  road  between  Jerusalem  and 
Jericho. 

4.  A  place  east  of  the  Jordan,  near  Maha- 
naim  (Josh.  xiii.  26).  The  margin  of  R.  V. 
has  Lidebir.     Perhaps  Lodebar  (q.  v.). 

Deb'o-rah  [a  bee]. 

1.  Kebekah's  nurse,  who  accompanied  her 
from  Mesopotamia  and  lived  until  Jacob's  re- 
turn from  I'addaii-aram.  She  liad  jierhajJS 
returned  to  her  kindred  in  Ilaran  after  the 
death  of  IJebekah  and  accomjianied  Jacob 
back  to  Canaan,  or  she  had  gone  to  him  when 
he  was  sojourning  at  Sheciiem.  At  any  rate 
she  was  with  him  at  Betliel.  There  she  died 
at  the  age  of  about  155  years,  for  she  could 
not  have  been  much  younger  than  Isaac.  She 
was  buried  at  the  foot  of  the  hill  on  which 
the  town  stood  and  under  an  oak,  called  in 
consequence  AUon-bacuth,  oak  of  weeping 
(Gen.  xxiv.  59;  xxxv.  8). 

2.  A  ijrojihetess,  the  wife  of  Lapjndoth. 
She  dwelt  under  a  palm  tree,  called  after  her 
name,  between  Ramah  and  Bethel,  in  mount 
Ephraim,  and  there  judged  the  Israelites. 
She  summoned  Barak  to  undertake  the  con- 
test with  Sisera,  and  accompanied  him  to  the 
rendezvous  of  his  army  (Judg.  iv.  4-14). 
Afterwards  she  composed  a  song  of  triumph 
for  the  victory  (v.  1-31 ;  cp.  7). 

Debt'or. 

One  who  owes  another  money.  To  foster 
the  spirit  of  brotherhood  and  mutual  help- 
fulness, the  Mosaic  law  ordained  that  the 
creditor  release  his  brother  Israelite  from  all 
obligations  at  the  year  of  release,  which  re- 
curred every  seven  years  (Dent.  xv.  1-4).  In 
the  intervening  years  custom  permitted  the 
seizure  and  enslavement  of  a  debtor,  his 
wife,  and  his  children  (2  Kin.  iv.  1 ;  Neh.  v. 
5,  8 ;  Is.  1.  1 ;  Mat.  xviii.  25).  In  the  time 
of  Jesus,  in  accordance  with  Roman  law,  im- 
prisonment was  sometimes  inflicted  on  a 
debtor  (Mat.  v.  25;  xviii.  30  ;  Luke  xii.  oS). 

De-cap'o-lis  [an  association  of  ten  cities]. 

A  district,  beginning  where  the  plain  of 
Esdraelon  opens  into  the  Jordan  valley  and 
expanding  eastward,  wliich  was  dominated 
by  ten  associated  Greek  cities.  The  Greek 
population  had  come  in  the  wake  of  Alex- 
ander's conquest.  The  ten  cities  originally 
included  in  the  association  were  Scythopolis, 
i.  e.  Bethshcan,  Hipjios,  Damascus  ;  Gadara, 
Rajibaiia,  Kaiiatha  ;  I'ella,  Dion,  Gerasa,  and 
Philadelpliia.  i.e.  lvabl)atli  .\mmon  (Pliny, 
His.  nat.  v.  Hi).  Other  towns  were  afterwards 
added.  Ptolemy  enumerates  eighteen.  Three 
roads  connect  Ksdraelon  with  the  commercial 
highway  which  runs  between  Damascus  and 
Arabia  along  the  margin  of  the  desert.  The 
ten  towns  stood  on  these  three  roads  and 
on  the  higliway.  The  district  is  called  Dc- 
capolita  regio  i)y  Pliny  (v.  15).  Multitudes 
from  Decajiolis  followed  Jesus  at  an  early 
period  of  his  miiiistiy  (Mat.  iv.  25).  The 
Gadarene  demoniac,  wlieii  the  evil  spirit  was 
expelled,  published  his  deliverance  in  Decap- 


Dedan 


165 


Delaiah 


SojSteiE'T/'    Map  of /he  Region 

o/ihe 

Decapo/is 

f/tus/rafing' He&rva'  //ishry 


olis  (Mark  v.  20).  Jcsiis  travcle<l  tliroiigh 
its  initlst  oil  liis  way  t'njiu  Tyre  and  Sidon^o 
the  sea  of  (ialilee.  apiJniachiiig  the  lake  from 
the  eastern  side  (vii.  31). 

De'dan. 

A  t'nsliite  people  (fien.  x.  7),  but  also  re- 
lated to  .\l)raliaiu  throiif^b  Keturah  (xxv.  3). 
They  were  an  important  commercial  people 
{Ezek.  xxvii.  15,  20;  xxxviii.  l.'J)  of  Arabia 
(Is.  xxi.  13),  in  the  nei^'liborhood  of  Edom 
(Jcr.  xxv.  23  ;  xlix.  8  ;  Ezek.  xxv.  13),  where 
caravan  routes  from  southern,  eastern,  and 
central  .\raliia  conver^jcd.  The  name  prob- 
alily  lin;;ers  in  Daidaii,  to  the  west  of  Taima 
ami  southeast  of  Aila.  Formerly  two  distinct 
tril>es  of  Dedanites  were  assumed  :  one  Sem- 
itic, liviuf;  near  Edom;  the  otlier  t'ushitic, 
dw(dlin.i;  near  Kaamab  ((Jen.  x.  7),  which  was 
thought  to  have  ))een  situated  on  tiie  coast  of 
the  I'ersian  ( iiilf  Kaamab,  however,  is  lietter 
located  in  southwestern  .\rabia:  and  tlien 
l>e(lan  was  one  jieoiile,  centercil  near  Taima, 
and  nrt;;bbor  alike  to  the  l-;doniitcs  and  the 
inliabitauts  of  K:iamaii. 

Ded-l-ca'tion,  Feast  of. 

An  annual  fiNiival  instituK-d  by  .Tudas 
.MaccabaMis  in  liCi  n.  c.  to  ctdebratc  the  re- 
consecration  of  the  temple  to  Jehovah  after 
it  bad  been  ilesecrated  for  three  years  liy  the 
Greek  idolatries  carried  on  within  its  jire- 
cinct.s  by  order  of   Aiitiochus  Epiphanes  (1 


Mac.  iv.  52  .">!»!.  The  feast  lasted  ei>;bt  days, 
beK'iuninf;  on  the  -^^th  of  (  hisUv  (approxim- 
ately Noveiuben.  and  fallinj;  cons<i(U«  ntly  iu 
winter.  Jesus  was  at  least  once  jire.sent  at 
Jeru.siilem  during  the  festival.  an<l  delivered 
one  <d"  bis  discom-scs  to  those  a-ssendiled  at 
the  temple  for  the  celebration  (John  x.  22). 
The  Jews  still  observe  the  festival. 

Deer. 

The  English  name  of  the  pcnu.s  ('vrrn»,  or 
of  the  family  Cirriihr.  The  wonl  occurs  only 
in  A.  y.  in  the  name  falli>w  deer,  but  the 
hart  is  frequently  mentioned.  Tristram 
euunierates  two  species  of  the  geinis  Cerviui 
as  still  occurriuf;  in  Palestine,  the  roebuck 
{Cenus  aipiTuln.si  and  the  fallow  deer  (Cer- 
vus  (tamii);  whilst  the  teeth  and  bones  of 
three  others,  the  red  deer  iCt'ivu.i  cliiphim), 
the  reindeer  (Cervus  tiiniiidi(K),  and  the  (dk 
(Ccrvns  alecs),  arc  found  in  l)one  breccia  iu 
caves  in  tbi'  Lebanon  mountains. 

De-grees'. 

A  Word  occurriiifj  in  the  titles  of  fifteen 
Psalms,  cxx.-cxxxiv.  inclusive,  which  are 
called  SoiifTs  of  l)e};rees.  It  is  the  rendering 
of  the  Hebrew  MiVhth.  ascents  or  goings  up 
(Ezra  vii.  9),  steps  (Ex.  xx.  2(> ;  1  Kin.  x. 
19).  A  Jewish  tradition  tells  that  the  fifteen 
Songs  of  Degrees  were  sung  as  an  a>cent  was 
maile  by  lifteen  steps  from  the  court  of  the 
Women  to  that  of  the  men,  a  view  not  now 
generally  entertained.  (jcsenius  and  De- 
litzsch  held  that  they  were  so  called  becau.so 
there  is  in  their  comiiosition  a  certain  jiro- 
gression,  the  concluding  words  of  one  sen- 
tence being  often  the  commencement  of  the 
next,  as — 

I  will  lift  up  mine  eyes  unto  the  hills 
From  wlience  cdiiiilh  my  help: 

ily  lulp  coimtli  from  the  Lord, 
Who  made  heaven  and  earth. 

But  the  repetition  is  the  exception  rather  than 
the  rule  in  these  i).salms.  The  common  opin- 
ion is  that  they  were  sung  by  the  pilgrims 
during  the  ascejit  to  .lerusalcm.  Such  a  cus- 
tom is,  bowevi'r.  nowliere  mentioned. 

De-ha'itea,  in  A.  V.  De-ha'vites. 

One  of  the  tribes  brought  over  to  ."Nimaria 
from  the  Assyrian  emjiire  to  replace  the  ton 
tribes  carried  captive  (Ezniiv.  9).  liawlin- 
•son  believes  that  they  were  Dili  or  Dj»hi,  S 
nomad  tribe  of  .Vryan  descent  mentioned  by 
Herodotus  (i.  125). 

De'ker,  in  A.  V.  Dekar  [perforation]. 

Tlie  father  of  Solomon's  i>urve.viir,  Ben- 
deker    1  Kin.  iv.  9,  U.  V.). 

De-la'iah,  in  .\.  V.  once  Dalalah  (1  Chron. 
iii.  21)  [Jehovali  hath  drawn  out,  i.  r.  deliv- 
ered ] . 

1.  A  dcsi-endant  of  Aaron.  His  family, 
grown  to  a  father's  hous4<  by  the  time  of 
David,  was  made  the  twenty-thirxl  ctiursc  of 
the  jiriests  (1  t'liron.  xxiv.  IS). 

2.  A  prince,  son  of  Shenuiiah.  and  one  of 


Delilah 


166 


Demoniac 


those  who  urged  king  Jehoiakim  not  to  burn 
the  roll  containing  the  prophecies  of  Jere- 
miah (Jcr.  xxxvi.  V2,  "25 1.  Perhaps  it  is  he 
or  his  grandson  who  is  incidentally  men- 
tioned later  (Neh.  vi.  lit). 

3.  One  of  tlie  Nethinim,  and  founder  of  a 
family  (Ezra  ii.  <io  ;  Neh.  vii.  62). 

4.  A  Sim  of  Elioenai  (1  Chron.  iii.  24). 

De-li'lah  [delicate,  wasted  with  longing  or 
desire]. 

Tile  Philistine  woman  from  the  valley  of 
Sorek  who  lured  Samson  to  his  ruin  (Judg. 
xvi.  4-18). 

De'los,  in  A.  V.  Delus. 

A  small  island  in  the  jEgean,  celebrated  as 
the  birthjjlace  of  Ai>ollo  and  Diana.  The 
Roman  consul  Lucius  wrote  to  Delos  con- 
cerning a  pact  of  friendship  established  be- 
tween the  Romans  and  the  Jews  (1  Mac.  xv. 
23).  It  was  at  that  time  the  center  of  an 
extensive  commerce. 

Del'uge.    See  J'lood. 

De'mas. 

A  fellow  laborer  of  Paul,  who  sent  saluta- 
tions from  Rome  to  the  Colossians  and  to 
Philemon  (Col.  iv.  14 ;  Philemon  :i4).  After- 
wards he  deserted  the  apostle  from  unwilling- 
ness to  suffer,  and  went  to  Thessalonica  (2 
Tim.  iv.  10). 

De-me'tri-us  [belonging  to  Demeter,  or 
Ceres,  the  goddess  of  agriculture  and  rural 
life]. 

1.  Demetrius  I.,  surnamed  Soter,  king  of 
Syria  162-150  b.  C,  nephew  of  Antiochus 
Epiphaues.  He  had  been  kept  as  a  hostage 
at  Rome  ;  but  on  hearing  of  his  uncle's  death 
he  made  his  escape,  and  arriving  safely  in 
Antioch  made  himself  master  of  the  king- 
dom, and  \n\t  to  death  Lysias  and  the  young 
Eupator  (1  Mac.  vii.  1-4).  In  war  with  him 
Judas  Maccabieus  lost  his  life  (ix.  1-1!)).  In 
152  B.  c.  Alexander  Balas,  with  the  consent 
of  the  Roman  senate,  claimed  the  throne. 
The  rivals  met  in  a  decisive  battle  in  150 
B.  c,  and  Demetrius  was  defeated  and  slain 
(x.  48-50;  Antiq.  xiii.  2,  4). 

2.  Demetrius  II.,  surnamed  Nicator,  son 
of  Demetrius  I.  In  148-7  b.  c.  he  raised  the 
standard  of  revolt  against  Alexander  Balas, 
and  with  the  aid  of  Ptolemy  VI.  defeated 
him.  Alexander  fled  into  Arabia,  where  he 
was  murdered,  and  Demetrius  became  king 
of  Syria  (1  Mac.  xi.  15-19).  But  Alexander's 
general  Tryphon  almost  immediately  pro- 
claimed Alexander's  voung  son  Antiochus 
king  (.39,  40).  The  struggle  lasted  until  138 
B.  c,  when  Demetrius,  during  a  plundering 
expedition  in  Persia,  was  taken  prisoner  by 
king  Arsaces  and  kept  in  bonds  for  ten  years. 
Before  his  departure  on  this  expedition  he 
gave  the  Jews  their  independence.  Although 
they  fell  under  the  power  of  the  Syrians 
again,  this  event  was  of  national  importance, 
and  thev  dated  their  independence  from  it 
(1  Mac.  xiii.  36-42  ;  Antiq.  xiii.  4,  9).    Deme- 


trius regained  liberty  and  the  throne  in  128 
B.  C.  An  Egyi)tian  pretender,  supported  by 
Ptolemy  VII.,  took  the  iiebl  against  him. 
Demetrius  was  defeated  near  Damascus,  tied 
to  Ptolemais,  and  took  ship  to  Tyre,  where 
he  was  murdered  when  about  to  land  (Antiij. 
xiii.  9,  o). 

3.  A  silversmith  at  Ephesus,  who  made  for 
sale  silver  models  of  the  celebrated  temple 
of  Diana.  Believing  his  craft  to  be  in  danger 
from  Christianity,  he  excited  his  fellow  work- 
men against  Paul,  and  stirred  u\)  the  riot  in 
which  the  moli  cried  for  two  hours,  "Great 
is  Diana  of  the  Ei)hesians"  (Acts  xix.  24-41). 

4.  An  approved  Christian,  commended  by 
John  also  (3  John  12). 

De'mon  [among  the  Greeks,  (1)  a  god  or 
deity  in  general  ;  (2)  one's  genius;  (3)  one's 
fortune;  (4)  the  soul  of  some  man  belonging 
to  the  golden  age,  now  acting  as  a  tutelary 
divinity;  a  god  of  inferior  rank]. 

An  evil  spirit  (Luke  viii.  29 ;  x.  17-20). 
The  designation  is  applied  especially  to  the 
gods  of  the  heathen  (Deut.  xxxii.  17;  Ps. 
cvi.  37;  and  margin  of  1  Cor.  x.  20.  and  cp. 
Rev.  ix.  20  ;  all  11.  V.),  and  to  inferior  evil 
spirits,  subject  to  the  devil  (Mat.  xii.  24-27; 
Luke  iv.  33;  Jas.  ii.  19;  Rev.  xvi.  14;  all 
margin  of  R.  V.) ;  see  Demoniac. 

De-mo'ni-ac  [possessed  by  a  demon]. 

A  person  pos.sessed  and  rfiled  by  a  demon 
(Mat.  iv.  24,  R.  V.  margin).  The  iuhaliitation 
of  such  a  being  in  .some  cases  affected  the 
person  physically,  and  produced  certain  ordi 
nary  diseases.  Thus  one  possessed  boy  is  de- 
scribed as  having  a  deaf  and  dumb  spirit  and 
as  being  affected  at  intervals  with  morbid 
symptoms  resembling  those  of  epilepsy  (Mark 
ix.  14-29;  cp.  Mat.  xvii.  15,  IS;  Luke  ix. 
37-42).  Hence  the  opinion  of  many  is  that 
possession  was  simply  a  Jewish  hypothesis  to 
account  for  bodily  and  mental  diseases  and 
for  the  visible  effects  on  body  and  will  of  en- 
slavement to  sin.  But  this  view  takes  no 
note  of  the  fact  that  the  demons  speak  (Mark 
i.  23,  24;  iii.  11,  12;  v.  7);  that  they  pos- 
sessed at  times  knowledge  beyond  that  of 
men  :  as,  for  example,  of  the  divinity  of 
Christ  (Mark  i.  24)  ;  that  they  recognized 
their  own  distinct  individuality  independent 
of  Jesus  and  independent  of  the  person  pos- 
sessed (Mat.  viii.  31) ;  that  the  distant  herd 
of  swine  became  frenzied  when  the  demons 
were  cast  out  of  the  demoniac  of  Gadara  and 
allowed  to  enter  into  them  (Mat.  viii.  30)  ; 
that  Jesus  ajiparently  recognized  them  as 
actually  existing  beings,  and  instructed  his 
di.sciples,  saying:  "This  kind  can  come  out 
by  nothing,  save  by  prayer"  (Mark  ix.  29, 
R.  V.) ;  and  that  later,  when  the  di.sciples  re- 
ported that  even  the  demons  wi're  subject  unto 
them  in  his  name,  Jesus  replied  :  "  I  beheld 
Satan  as  lightning  fall  from  heaven.  .  .  . 
Notwithstanding  in  this  rejoice  not.  that  the 
spirits  are  subject  unto  you  ;  but  rather  re- 
joice, that  your  luimes  are  written  in  heaven  " 


Deputy 


1G7 


Deuteronomy 


(Luke  X.  17-20).  Man  was  himself  respon- 
sible ior  his  hideous  visitor.  l'ri>halil.\-  not 
until  a  {)ersi>n  was  degraded  and  weakened  by 
sin,  i)ers<>iial  or  inherited,  might  he  be  taken 
captive  i)v  a  demon  (1  Sam.  xvi.  14;  with 
xiii.  s-14;'  xv.  10-31). 

Dep'u-ty. 

One  empowered  to  act  for  another,  gener- 
ally of  higher  rank  than  himself;  as  a  re- 
gent ruling  in  place  of  a  king  (1  Kin.  xxii. 
47) :  an  ollicial  invested  with  the  powers  and 
rank  of  a  Roman  consul  (Acts  xiii.  7;  xviii. 
iL':  xix.  3S,  A.  V.);  see  rKocuNsiL. 

Der'be. 

A  ciiy  in  the  southeastern  part  of  Lycaouia, 
in  Asia  Minor.  Paul  was  stoned  and  left  for 
dead  at  Lystra,  on  his  lir.st  missionary  jour- 
ney. On  reviving,  he  went  to  Derbe  (Acts 
xiv.  0,  20).  On  his  second  journey  he  again 
passed  through  it,  and  either  there  or  at 
Lystra  made  the  acquaintance  of  Timothy 
(xvi.  1).  Ciaius  was  a  native  of  Derbe  ixx.4). 
The  ruins  of  a  town  on  lake  Ak  (jul  near 
Divle  have  been  sujijiosed  to  mark  the  site 
of  Derbe;  but  Prof.  lv;imsi'y  believes  with 
Prof.  Sterrett  that  the  site  is  Zosta  on  the 
road  which  ran  from  Cilicia  Tracheia  through 
LanUKla  to  Iconium. 

Des'ert. 

1.  .V  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Midbnr  and 
the  Greek  Eremos,  an  unenclosed,  unculti- 
vated plain,  where  wild  beasts  roam  at  will 
(Job  xxiv.  ,")) ;  often  terrible  in  its  solitude 
and  de.solatencss  (Dent,  xxxii.  10;  and  A.  V. 
of  Is.  x.xi.  1),  yet  al-so  capable  of  aliording 
pasturage  (Ex.  iii.  1,  A.  V.).  The  words  arc 
usually  rendered  wilderness  (Gen.  xvi.  7; 
xxi. '20;  1  Sam.  xvii.  28;  xxv.  21 ;  Mat.  iii. 
1;  Mark  i.  1.5;  Luke  xv.  4). 

2.  A  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  '"rahah,  arid 
regiim  (Is.  xxxv.  1,  6;  li.  :i).  With  the  defi- 
nite article  the  word  specially  doiotes  the 
plain  of  the  Jordan  and  Dead  Sea  (Ezek. 
xlvii.  8;  2  S.im.  ii.  2!>),  and  is  rendered  in 
the  K.  V.  as  a  proi>er  name,  Arabah. 

3.  A  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Y'xhinwn,  a 
waste,  a  desolation  ( Ps.  l.xxviii.  4i);  cvi.  14; 
Ls.  xliii.  ](».  20).  When  the  definite  article 
is  prefixed  it  is  rendered  as  a  projier  name, 
Jeshimon  (Num.  xxi.  20,  A.  V.  and  margin 
of  R.  v.). 

4.  A  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  If"rnbofh, 
waste,  desolate  jilaces  (Is.  xlviii.  21).  In  Ps. 
cii.  6 ;  Kzek.  xiii.  4  the  K.  V.  translates 
it  waste  places. 

De-u'el  [invocation  of  God]. 

A  Gailite,  the  father  of  Kliasaph  (Num.  i. 
14;  vii.  42;  x.  20).  Called  in  ii.  14  Heuel. 
which  means  "friend  of  God."'  It  is  uncer- 
t;iin  wliich  of  these  two  forms  is  correct. 
Thf  ."^aniaritan  text  has  Deuel  everywhere, 
whereas  the  .'^eptuagint  and  the.Syriac  trans- 
lators read  Reuel  ;  see  Dai.ktii. 

Deu-ter-on'o-my  [repetition  of  the  law]. 

The  name,  derived  from  the  Septuagint,  of 
the  fifth  book  of  the  Pentateuch.   The  Greek 


word,  of  which  Deuienmuniy  i-  tlu  Knglish 
form,  is  u.sed  in  the  S-ptuagiut  to  translate 
the  ex])ression  "copy  of  this  law"  in  eliajiter 
xvii.  Ifi.  But  this  l)ook  is  not  merely  the 
rejietition  or  coj)y  of  laws  already  given.  It 
is  a  rehearsal  umler  peculiar  tin  um-tances 
and  for  a  .special  luirpo.-e.  In  Kxodus.  Le- 
viiiciis,  and  Numbers,  the  legislatiun  is  repre- 
sented as  in  ju'ocessof  enactment,  the  occasion 
or  the  time  when  the  siucessive  installments 
were  received  is  commonly  slat<-il.  and  eaih 
body  of  statutes  is  severally  declared  to  pro- 
ceed from  (iod.  In  Deuteronomy,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  law  is  represt-nted.  not  us 
being  enacted,  but  as  being  rel)ear.s4'd  and 
ex]ioun(led.  Thirty  and  eight  yeai-s  have 
elapsed  since  the  greater  ]>inl  of  tiie  old  leg- 
islation was  given.  The  new  geiienition.  on 
the  eve  of  taking  ]iossession  of  Canaan,  i.s 
suninu)ned  to  hear  the  law  of  the  nation,  to 
be  instructed  in  the  ajiplicatiou  of  its  prin- 
ciiiles  to  the  new  circumstance-  which 
await  tliein,  to  have  their  apprehension  «»f 
its  siiiriiuality  tjuickened,  and  then  to  intel- 
ligently renew  the  covenant  maile  with  their 
fathers.  Instead  of  the  Lord  s|>eaking  unto 
Moses,  it  is  now  Moses  at  the  command  of 
(xtjd  speaking  to  the  i)eople  (i.  1-4  ;  v.  1  ; 
xxix.  1).  The  hook  con.sists  first  and  mainly 
of  an  address  delivered  in  three  installments, 
committed  to  writing,  and  solemnly  ratitieil 
as  a  covenant  (i.-xxx.l.  First  Aihlrfnn.  i.  (i 
iv.  40  :  with  sui>i)lenH'ntary  statement.  41-4!' : 
Kehear.sal  of  the  history  of  the  people  since 
the  covenant  was  ma<le  with  the  jireceding 
generation  at  .Sinai  as  a  motive  lor  ol)edienc<' 
to  .lehovab's  laws.  The  speaker  is  dedari'd 
to  be  Moses  (i.  1,  '.i,  .'),  !»,  l.">.  10.  1!»,  etc.)  :  tile 
date  is  the  40th  year,  11th  month,  1st  day: 
after  the  smiting  of  Silioii  ami  Og,  and  after 
the  sin  in  the  niatt<r  of  Peor  li.  .{.  4  ;  iv.  .'{) : 
the  |)lace  is  beyond  .Ionian  in  the  lanil  of 
Moab  (i.  5.  cji.  Num.  xxxiii.  4b;  xxxv.  1),  in 
the  wilderness,  in  the  .\ral)ah  (i.  1,  cp.  Num. 
xxiii.  2f< ;  xxiv.  1).  The  ]ihni.se  "beyond 
Jordan"  or  "other  side  of  .Ionian"  was 
ambigm)us  ami  rei|uir«'d  jirecise  definition. 
To.\i)niham  and  the«'anaanites  it  meant  the 
country  east  of  the  river;  and  as  an  estab- 
lished geographical  term  it  meant  the  >:itne 
to  .Vbnihamsde.scenilant.s.  They  had  arrived 
there;  but  they  still  called  the  place  where 
they  were  by  the  old  inherited  designation 
"tlie  other  side  of  Jonlan."  just  as  they 
called  the  mighboring  blulVs  Abariin  or 
"mountains  of  the  other  sitle."  .Xnd  tlie 
people  felt,  too,  that  they  wen-  on  the  other 
side  of  .lonl.ni.  outside-  of  tin-  pniinis«-d  land. 
Hut  with  the  river  in  fnuit  of  (hem  the 
])hras(-  was  ambiguous,  hrme  its  rejH-ated 
(-Incidation  by  .some  expn-.^sion  like  "  in  the 
lanil  of  Moab."  Sfcoml  .tililnsi.  v.-xxvi.: 
Hehi-arsiil  of  statutes  which  cono-rned  the 
])eopl(-.  with  (-mphasis  on  the  spiritmility  of 
tlie  laws  ami  urgent  insistence  upon  their 
observance.  The  speaker  is  Mos«'s  i  v.  1. .'»,  22t , 
the  date  is  at  the  end  of  the  forty  years,  «n 


Deuteronomy 


1G8 


Deuteronomy 


the  eve  of  crossing  the  Jordan,  after  Balaam's 
prophecy  (viii.  2;  ix.  1;  xi.  31;  xxiii.  4). 
Third  Address,  xxvii.,  xx%'iii. :  (.'ouclusiou  of 
the  precedi!!};,  (1)  Provision  for  writing  the 
hiw  on  phistered  stones  on  mount  Ehal,  (2) 
Blessings  and  curses  annexed  to  ohedience 
and  disobedience  respectively.  This  great 
address  is  closely  followed  by  a  brief  address 
(xxix.,  XXX.)  at  the  ratification  of  the  coven- 
ant as  thus  proclaimed  (xxix.  1;  xxx.  1). 
This  covenant,  like  the  words  of  the  former 
one  made  at  lloreb,  was  recorded  in  a  book 
(xxix.  20,  21,  27;  xxx.  10;  cj).  Ex.  xxiv.  4 -S). 
The  place  and  date  are  alluded  to  in  Deut. 
xxix.  1,  5,  7,  cS. 

After  delivering  the  address  which  forms 
the  bodj'  of  the  book  of  Deuteronomy,  Moses 
publicly  appointed  Joshua  to  be  his  successor 
and  gave  a  formal  charge  to  him  (xxxi.  1-8). 
Moses  delivered  the  written  law  to  the  priests 
with  a  charge  regarding  its  public  reading 
(9-1.3).  He  repaired  with  Joshua  to  the  tab- 
ernacle that  Joshua  might  be  charged  by  Je- 
hovah, and  was  there  instructed  to  prepare  a 
song  for  the  people  (14-23).  He  prepared 
and  wrote  the  song  (22),  charged  the  Levites 
who  bore  the  ark  to  i)ut  the  completed  book, 
which  contained  law  and  song,  beside  the 
ark  for  a  witness  (24-29),  ordered  an  assembly 
called  to  hear  and  learn  the  song  (28),  and 
repeated  it  publiclj'  (30-xxxii.  47).  Moses' 
farewell  (48-xxxiii.  29)  and  death  (xxxiv.). 

The  distinctive  feature  of  Deuteronomy  is 
the  evident  preparation  for  the  settlement  in 
Canaan.  1.  It  affects  the  language.  For  ex- 
ample, the  people  are  about  to  live  a  settled 
life  ;  hence  the  camp  which  figures  so  largely, 
though  of  course  not  exclusively,  in  the 
former  legislation  disappears  from  Deuter- 
onomy, except  where  reference  is  made  to 
future  war  or  to  the  encampment  at  Shittim 
where  they  then  are.  The  speaker  mentions 
houses,  towns,  city  gates.  2.  It  leads  to 
minor  modifications  of  existing  laws  to  adapt 
them  to  the  new  mode  of  life.  For  example, 
the  law  which  required  animals  that  were 
slain  for  food  to  be  brought  to  the  door  of  the 
tabernacle  is  changed  to  permit  the  people  to 
slay  for  food  in  the  town  where  they  reside 
(xii.  15,  21  ;  Lev.  xvii.  3,  4).  3.  It  leads  to 
insistence  upon  one  altar  for  the  nation  in 
the  place  where  Jehovah  shall  record  bis 
name.  The  unity  of  the  altar  was  intended 
to  counteract  the  tendency  to  lapse  into  idol- 
atry, by  preventing  the  people  from  worship- 
ing at  the  numerous  local  sanctuaries  of  the 
C'anaanites;  to  render  the  wor.ship  of  .Jehovah 
a  grander  spectacle  and  of  greater  pomp  than 
the  rites  of  the  idols  of  the  Canaanites  by 
uniting  the  numbers  and  the  wealth  of  the 
Hebrews;  and  to  give  strength  to  the  com- 
munal feeling  and  aid  in  binding  the  nation 
together.  'V\n'  sj)irit  of  jealousy  between 
individuals  and  bctwt'eii  tribes,  the  popular 
proneness  to  idolatry,  and  the  willingness  of 
large  sections  of  the  people  to  separate  from 
their  brethren  and  settle  in  attractive  i)as- 


toral  regions  had  already  become  manifest. 
The  old  law  of  the  one  altjir  is  emphatically 
insisted  upon  at  tWs  crisis.  It  was  essential 
to  the  unity  of  the  nation  and  continuance 
of  the  theocracj-.     See  Altar. 

It  has  been  urged  that  no  distinction  is 
made  in  Deuteronomy  between  priests  and 
Levites  such  as  appears  in  the  legislation  of 
Leviticus  and  Numbers.  The  priests  are  fre- 
quently called  "the  priests  the  Levites."'  and 
the  i)assage  xviii.  1-8,  if  it  be  isolated,  may 
be  interpreted  to  mean  that  any  Levite  might 
become  a  priest.  But— 1.  The  tribe  of  Levi 
is  indeed  assigned  priestly  functions  (x.  6; 
xviii.  1-8;  xxxiii.  8,  9).  But  it  is  correct  to 
do  so,  for  the  tribe  as  a  whole  was  called  to 
holy  service,  especially  to  priestly  service. 
Even  when  the  distinction  between  the 
priests  and  the  lower  order  of  the  Levites 
was  established,  the  tribe  as  a  whole  is  spoken 
of  as  priestlv  (1  Kin.  xii.  31;  Mai.  ii.  1-4; 
iii.  3;  cp.  Heb.  vii.  13).  2.  The  title  "the 
priests  the  Levites"  occurs  in  writings  which 
were  composed  after  the  legislation  of  Le- 
viticus was,  as  everybody  admits,  in  full 
force.  It  is  used  by  Ezekiel  (xliii.  19:  xliv. 
15)  and  by  the  Chronicler  (2  Chrou.  xxiii.  18; 
xxx.  27).  It  should  also  be  remembered  that 
Jeremiah  uses  the  expression  (xxxiii.  18,  21). 
3.  Deuteronomy  is  based  on  previous  priestly 
legislation,  for  it  presupposes  the  technical 
laws  of  the  ritual.  The  speaker  explicitly 
refers  to  former  laws  on  the  subject  of  which 
he  is  speaking,  and  these  laws  are  known 
only  from  the  books  of  Leviticus  and  Num- 
bers (Deut.  xviii.  1,  2  with  Num.  xviii.  20; 
Deut.  xxiv.  8,  9  with  Lev.  xiii.,  xiv. ;  Num. 
xii.),  or  he  makes  allusions  which  imply 
these  laws  (Deut.  xii.  15  with  Lev.  xvii.  3 
seq.).  4.  The  passage  Deut.  xviii.  1-8  may 
be  readily  interpreted  on  the  assumption  that 
the  laws  of  Leviticus  were  in  force.  Levi 
was  to  have  no  inheritance  with  Israel,  but 
was  to  enjoy  certain  perquisites  (Lev.  vi.  17, 
18  ;  Num.  xviii.  20,  21,  24,  26).  The  speaker 
pres.ses  this  law  with  earnestness.  The  priests 
thelx^vites.  the  whole  tribe  of  Levi  have  no  in- 
heritance ;  they  shall  eat  the  ofle rings  (ver.  1). 
The  dues  of  the  priests,  without  the  epithet 
"  the  Levites,"  are  next  spoken  of.  It  is  an 
urgent  matter.  The  people  must  not  defraud 
the  i>riests  of  their  income  (3,  4  with  Ex. 
xxix.  27,  28;  Lev.  vii.  34;  Num.  xviii.  11.  12, 
where  slight  changes  are  introduced).  Fi- 
nally, the  rights  of  the  Levites  at  the  sanctu- 
ary are  dwelt  upon.  If  a  Levite — not  neces- 
sarily a  Levite  of  lower  rank — come  from 
any  part  of  the  country  to  the  sanctuary, 
he  shall  minister  in  the  name  of  the  Lord 
as  all  his  brethren  the  Levites  do,  which 
stand  before  the  Lord,  and  he  shall  fare  as 
they  do  ((is).  The  kiiul  of  service  which 
he  shall  jierform  is  not  the  matter  at  is.sue. 
The  language  covers  both  priestly  .-Jervice 
and  the  labors  rendered  by  the  lower  order 
of  the  Levites  (5,  xvii.  12  ;  and  1  Sam.  ii.  11, 
18;  iii.  1;  2  Chron.  xxiii.  (> :  xxix.  4,  .">,  11). 


Devil 


109 


Diamond 


The  point  insisted  ujion  is  that  all  Lt-viti-s 
shall  R'c-i'ivc  full  ri'cii;;iiiti()ii  at  the  siUK'tuary 
anil  he  aceonletl  their  j)reni<;ativcs.  It  >;>'es 
without  Siiyinn  that  if  the  Levite  l)e  a  i)riest, 
he  shall  serve  aiul  Tare  like  his  hrethren  the 
jiriests;  if  he  he  not  a  iiriest,  he  shall  enjoy 
the  |iri\"ilej;es  that  helonj;  to  his  hrethren 
who  are  Lfvites  hut  not  i)riests.  Those  in 
])o\\er  shall  not  deiirive  him  of  his  iircrofja- 
tives  heeaiise  he  isohscurc  and  from  a  distant 
part  of  the  country. 

Dev'il  [(treek  (Uabulo.'i,  a  slanderer]. 

1.  An  evil  sjiirit  (Mark  i.  :>1  ;  Luke  iv.  3.3; 
viii.  •,'!•).  A.  V.  and.  in  its  text.  K.  V.  do  not 
ohserve  the  distinction  made  in  the  Cireek 
orifiinal  hetween  a  demon  and  the  devil. 
Demons  take  possession  of  wicked  men  and 
are  subject  to  the  devil  (Mat.  iv.  24  ;  xii.  24) ; 
see  l)KMONi.\c. 

•J.  The  evil  one,  Satan,  the  greatest  of  all  the 
fallen  sjiirits  (Rev.  xii.  9 ;  Mat.  iv.  8-11  ;  xiii. 
38.  :!!»;  XXV.  41;  cp.  Jude  6).  The  general 
ojiinion  is  that  the  sin  into  which  he  fell  was 
jiride  il  Tim.  iii.  (i).  He  is  the  fireat  enemy 
of  (iod  and  man  (1  Pet.  v.  8  ;  1  John  iii.  b), 
who  tempted  Christ  and  incites  men  to  sin 
(Mat.  iv.  1  :  .lohn  xiii.  2:  Eph.  iv.  27).  He 
is  "that  old  serpent"'  who  tempted  Eve 
(Wi.sdom  ii.  23,  24  ;  2  Cor.  xi.  3  ;  Kiv.  xii.  i)  ; 
XX.  2).  Perhaps  with  reference  to  this  trans- 
action he  is  called  a  murderer  from  the  he- 
ginning,  and  a  liar,  an<l  the  father  of  lies 
(John  viii.  44  ;  cp.  1  John  iii.  8).  When  the 
good  seed  of  truth  is  sown  the  devil  either 
steals  it  away  (Luke  viii.  12)  or  sows  tares 
(Mat.  xiii.  3-^).  He  is  continually  going  about 
like  a  roaring  lion  seeking  whom  he  may  de- 
votir  (1  Pet.  v.  8).  He  lays  snares  or  prac- 
tices wiles  to  injure  the  children  of  God 
(  Ejih.  vi.  11  ;  2  Tim.  ii.  2()),  and  seduces  them 
by  his  siibtilty  (2  for.  xi.  3)  :  but  the  femi>ted 
one  is  not  to  yield  to  him,  but  to  resist  him, 
and  he  will  Hee  (Eph.  iv.  27;  James  iv.  7). 
He  had  power  to  produce  demoniacal  pos.ses- 
sion  (.\cts  X.  .38),  and  he  instigated  the  im- 
]irisonm(nt  of  martyrs  (  Ri'V.  ii.  ll>).  He  is  li- 
nally  to  he  cast  into  a  lake  of  everlasting 
tire  prepared  for  the  devil  and  his  angels 
(Mat.  XXV.  41  ;  cp.  Jude  <>).  Preeminently 
sinful,  unritrhteous  men.  also  those  imbued 
with  the  si)iiit  of  jyiui.' and  munhr.  are  fii;- 
uratively  called  children  of  the  devil  (Jolm 
viii.  44  ;  1  John  iii.  8,  lU).  Judas  was  even 
called  by  Jesus  a  devil  (John  vi.  70).  His 
works  Christ  came  to  destroy  (1  John  iii.  8). 
.ludf  alludes  to  a  dis]iutc  of  the  devil  with 
Michael  lor  the  body  of  .Moses  (!i;  cji.  Kev. 
xii.  7).  Whence  the  apostle  drew  this  illu.s- 
tration  is  unkiniwn.  He  has  been  thought  to 
(|Uot<'  an  authoritative  tiachinj;  of  the  .lewish 
church,  or  a  familiar  intcrpr<iatiou  of  Z(<b. 
iii..  accordiiif;  to  which  the  high  jiriest  n)>re- 
>cntsMosaism,  or  else  to  cite  a  moral  tale  cur- 
rent among  the  Jews. 

Dew. 

.Moisture  condensed  from  the  atmos]>liere 


upon  cold  hollies.  I'sed  iu  .Scripture  figura- 
tively tor  whatever  conies  noisele.s,sly  and 
even  invisibly,  but  proves  a  refrishnieiit  and 
a  blessing,  as  dew  does  to  vegetation  (l)eut. 
xxxii.  2;  Ps.  ex.  3;  Prov.  xix.  12  ;  Mic  v 
7). 

Di'a-dem  [a  band  or  liUet,  as  being  bound 
round]. 

1.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  word* 
Snuiph,Saiiviili,;nn\  Sanitph,  something  bound 
round.  It  was  a  heatl  dress  for  man  ami  woman 
(Job  xxix.  14,  martiin  of  K.  V.  turlian  :  Is. 
iii.  23,  in  A.  V.  hoods,  Ii.  V.  turbans).  A  royal 
diadem  of  this  tyjie  was  worn  by  kings  (Is. 
Ixii.  3),  and  is  once  mentioned  as  worn  by 
the  high  juicst  (Zech.  iii. .')),  where  it  istnms- 
lated  miter,  but  on  the  margin  of  K.  V.  tur- 
ban or  diadem. 

2.  A  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  word  .Vi.«- 
iicphfth,  a  name  aiijilied  siiecially  to  the  miter 
of  the  Jewish  higli  i)riest  (Ezek.  xxi.  2(j  in 
A.  v.),  ami  regularly  translated  so. 

3.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  word 
S'l>)iiiiih,  circlet,  crown  (Is.  xxviii.  5). 

Di'al. 

An  instrument  consisting  of  a  surface  which 
is  graduated  into  hour  lines,  and  furnished 
with  a  projecting  gnomon  to  cast  a  sliadow 
as  the  sun  advances  in  his  daily  course,  and 
thus  jioint  out  the  hours.  The  dial  of  Aliaz 
(2  Kin.  XX.  11  ;  Is.  xxxviii.  r^inay  have  been 
such  an  instrument,  with  either  tlat  or  ct>n- 
cave  dial  and  with  f;ra<luated  lines  called 
steps  or  degrees,  which  Ahaz  had  introduced 


Ancient  Dial. 

front  Babylonia,  where  the  sun  dial  was  in 
n.se  before  the  time  of  Herodotus  illeriKl.  ii. 
10!t  .  and  at  least  as  early  as  the  ei(.'hlh  cen- 
tury I?,  c.  Less  likely  it  was  a  (light  of  steps 
at  the  jialace  of  Ahaz.  so  designed  and  ar- 
ranged that  the  shadow  of  an  obelisk  near 
by  jiassed  over  the  stei)s  and  thus  imliiated 
the  time  of  day.  The  reces.sion  of  the  shallow 
on  the  dial  of  .\h.iz  has  been  variously  ex- 
plained as  cau.se<l  by  .i  niiraeiilons  reversion 
of  the  earth's  motion,  or  by  a  backwanl 
movement  of  the  sun.  or  by  refraction  of  the 
sun's  niys.  or  by  a  solar  eelijise,  l'n(|Ueslion- 
ablv  the  recorded  elfect  could  have  been  pn>- 
duced  by  either  of  the  two  latter  n.s  well  aa 
by  the  former  causes. 

Di'a-mond. 

.\  mineral  of  iine<iualed  hanlne<s  ami  Ins- 


Diana 


170 


Dinah 


ter,  transparent  or  translucent,  and  capable 
of  taking  a  si)1imi(Hi1  jiolisli.  It  is  simply 
carbon,  crystalli/eil  t)y  tin;  chcinistry  of  na- 
ture, which  thai  of  art  has  not  yet  been  able 
to  imitate.  Diamonds  have  long  been  known 
to  exist  in  India  and  the  island  of  Borneo. 
Diamond  is  the  renderinjj  of — 

1.  The  Hebrew  Ynh"l(»n,  a  precious  stone 
(Ezek.  x.xviii.  1:5),  one  of  those  in  the  breast- 
plate of  the  high  prie.st  (Ex.  xxviii.  18,  in 
It.  V.  margin  sardonyx;  xxxix.  11). 

2.  The  Hebrew  Shatnir.  a  hard  stone  used 
to  jioinl  graving  instruments  {.ler.  xvii.  1)  ; 
elsewhere  rendered  adamant  (Ezek.  iii.  9; 
Zeeh.  vii.  12). 

Di-a'na. 

The  Koman  goddess  of  the  moon,  and  of 
field  and  woods,  and  of  all  forms  of  life  and 
activity  which  were  supposed  to  be  influ- 
enced by  the  moon.  She  corresponded  to  the 
Greek  Artemis,  who  was  twin  sister  of 
Apollo,  favorite  child  of  Zeus,  and  huntress 
of  the  sky.  She  was  the  ideal  of  chastity 
and  virginity,  and  is  generally  represented 
as  a  tall  and  beautiful  maiden,  with  a  quiver 
on  her  shoulder  and  a  bow  or  a  javelin  in  her 
right  liand,  and  as  engaged  in  hunting  deer. 
The  Asiatic  Artemis,  Diana  of  p]phesus,  was 
a  union  of  the  Greek  Artemis  with  the  lusty 
Semitic  moon-goddess,  Ashtoreth.  Her  image 


Coin  showing  Temple  of  Diana. 

•was  supposed  to  have  fallen  from  heaven 
{Acts  xix.  3,5),  and  it  may  have  been  origi- 
nally a  meteoric  stone.  Ancient  authorities, 
however,  state  that  it  was  of  wood,  though 
they  differ  as  to  the  kind.  Its  form  is  known 
from  ancient  coins  as  the  rude  figure  of  a 
woman  with  crowned  head,  many  breasts,  and 
extended  arms  supported  by  props.  The 
shrine  became  a  temple,  which  largely  de- 
veloped, if  it  did  not  even  at  fir.st  create,  the 
city  of  Eiihesus.  The  first  temple  being  burnt 
(3r>()  B.  v.),  a  second  and  more  splendid  one 
arose,  which,  according  to  Pliny,  was  42,5 
feet  long.  220  broad,  and  liad  around  it  sup- 
porting its  roof  1:57  columns  (!0  feet  high. 
Demetrius  the  silversmith  and  his  fellow- 
craftsmen  manufactured  silver  models  of  the 
temiile  of  Diana  (Acts  xix.  24).  Diana  of  the 
E]ihesians  has  not  now  a  worshii)er  anywhere 
in  the  whole  world. 

Dlb'lab,  in  A.  V.  Diblatli  [a  rounded  mass, 
•cake]. 

A  ])lace  in   Palestine  in   the  vicinity  of  a 


wilderness  (Ezek.  vi.  14  ;  cp.  Num.  xxxiii. 
4() ;  .Ter.  xlviii.  22).  Grave  objections  lie 
against  the  projjosed  emendation  of  the  text 
to  Riblab. 

Dib'la-iin  [twin  ))alls  or  cakes]. 

The  mother-in-law  of  Hosea,  if  the  trans- 
action was  real  and  not  typical  (Hos.  i.  '•>}. 

Diblath.     See  Diblah. 

Di'bon  [a  wasting  away,  a  consumption]. 

1.  A  town  north  of  the  Arnon,  wrested 
from  M(jab  by  the  Amorites.  taken  by  the 
Israelites  (Num.  xxi.  30;  xxxii.  ."J),  rebuilt 
by  the  (iadites  (xxxii.  34),  and  lieiice  called 
Dibon-gad  (xxxiii.  45,  4fi),  afterwards  given 
over  to  the  tribe  of  lieuben  (.Josh.  xiii.  9,  17). 
It  I'everted  to  the  I\Ioabites  (Moabite  Stone 
21,  23  ;  Is.  XV.  2;  Jer.  xlviii.  18,  22).  Itstill 
exists,  as  a  heap  of  ruins,  retaining  its  old 
name  Dhiban,  3  miles  north  of  the  Arnon, 
slightly  eastward  from  the  Roman  road. 
Tristram  describes  it  as  a  twin  city  covering 
the  tojis  and  slopes  of  two  adjacent  knolls, 
and  surrounded  by  a  wall.  There  are  cav- 
erns, cisterns,  vaulted  underground  store- 
houses, rude  semi-circular  arches,  and  cy- 
clopean  buildings  of  basalt  like  those  of 
Bashan.  It  was  among  the  ruins  of  Dibon 
that  Mr.  Klein,  in  1SG8,  found  the  ]\Ioabite 
Stone  (q.  v.). 

2.  A  village  in  the  territory  of  Judah 
(Noh.  xi.  25).  Probably  the  same  as  Di- 
monah  (q.  v.). 

Di'bon-gad.     See  Dibox. 

Dib'ri. 

A  Danite,  ancestor  of  him  who  was  stoned 
to  death  in  the  days  of  Moses  for  blasphem- 
ing the  Name  (Lev.  xxiv.  11-14). 

Did'y-mus  [a  twin]  :  see  Thom.\s. 

Dik'lab  [a  ]ialm  tree]. 

A  people  descended  from  .Toktan  (Gen.  x. 
27  ;  1  t'hron.  i.  21),  and  who  doubtless  dwelt 
in  Arabia  and.  as  the  name  suggests,  in  a 
region  abounding  in  palm  trees. 

Dil'an,  in  A.  Y.  Dilean  [field  of  cucumbers]. 

A  town  in  the  lowland  of  Judah  (.Tosh.  xv. 
38).     Exact  site  unknown. 

Dill.     See  Anisk. 

Dim'nah.     See  Eimmox. 

Di'mon  [probably  a  variant  of  Dibon]. 

A  jtlace  in  Moab  (Is.  xv.  !t|;  ajiparently 
Dibon,  by  a  counnon  permutation  of  the 
labials,  .lerome  states  that  in  his  day  both 
names  were  connnon  for  the  town.  The  form 
with  m  is  ciioseu  by  the  i)rophet  for  its  as- 
.sonance  with  (hmi.  blood,  used  it)  the  same 
verse.  The  waters  of  Dibon  are  best  re- 
garded as  the  Arnon,  as  the  waters  of  Me- 
giddoare  the  Kishon  (Judg.  v.  19). 

Di-mo'nab. 

.\  town  in  the  southern  ]iait  of  .Tudah, 
near  ICdom  (.Tosh,  xv.  22),  pro]>al)ly  the  same 
as  Dibon  (Neb.  xi.  25). 

Dl'nab  [judgment  or,  perhaps,  judged], 

A    daughter  of  Jacob    by    his   wife    Leali 


Dinaites 


171 


Dispersion 


(Gen.  XXX.  21).  (4oin;;  out  ;ii)iP!iro!itly  iin- 
pntt('ctc<l  to  see  tin- Canaaiiilc  ii;iii;;littTs  of 
the  land,  she  was  either  led  astray  or  out- 
raged by  Shecheni,  the  son  of  llanior  the 
Hivite.  The  yoinif;  jprinee  afterwards  wishid 
to  take  lier  in  lionorahh-  niarria^'c,  and  liir 
hrotlicrs  aiiiiarciilly  tiiMsriitcd.  on  condition 
that  tlie  llivitesshoiild  lifi-irciiniuisfd.  'I'liesu 
acquieseed  in  the  stiimhitioii,  and  carried  it 
out;  but  an  attack  on  their  town  was  sud- 
denly made  by  Simeon  and  Levi,  two  of 
Dinah's  full  biothers.  who  slew  all  the  males 
in  the  i)laee,  Ilamor  and  .Shechem  amonjitlie 
rest  (xxxiv.  1-"J9).  Jacob  took  no  part  in  the 
treacherous  and  cruel  deed,  re^rarded  it  as 
inexjiedient  (lift),  and  denoiiiu'ed  it  with  hor- 
ror on  his  deathbed  (xli.x.  ."j-Tl.  V>y  this  act 
of  his  sons,  however,  the  concjuered  district 
fell  to  him  as  head  of  the  tribe,  and  he  be- 
queathed it,  not  to  those  who  were  answer- 
able for  the  abhorred  deed,  but  to  Josejih 
(xlviii.  2-2). 

Di'na-ites. 

ihn-  of  the  f(treign  tribes  brought  over  to 
Samaria  to  replace  the  ten  tribes  carried  into 
captivity  (Ezra  iv.  9).  Probably  the  Arme- 
nian i(eo]>le  who  were  known  to  the  Assyr- 
ians as  Dayani. 

Dln'ha-bah. 

The  city  of  liela,  king  of  Edoni  (Gen. 
xxxvi.  ;?'J  ;  1  Chroii.  i.  4:5).  Si-veral  towns  of 
this  name  are  known,  but  none  in  Edoni. 
Jerome  identified  it  with  Dannaia.a  town  ex- 
isting in  his  day  in  Moab,  a  little  .south  of 
the  Arnon. 

Dinner.    See  Mkals. 

Di-o-ny'si-us  [belonging  to  Diouusos  or 
Bacchus,  the  god  of  wine]. 

A  memlH'r  of  the  Athenian  su]ireine  cdurt 
of  Areo])agus,  who  was  converted  through 
the  i)reacliing  of  Paul  on  IMars  Hill,  where 
the  court  held  its  sittings  (.\ct,s  xvii.  34). 

Di-ot're-phes  [nurtured  by  Zeus]. 

A  member  of  the  church  of  which  Gains, 
to  whom  .John  sent  his  third  epistle,  was  a 
member.  He  loved  to  have  the  jireeminence 
in  the  church  to  which  he  belonged,  refused 
to  receive  the  apostle  .lohn  or  the  l)rethren 
who  went  forth  for  thi>  sake  of  the  Name, 
and.  on  his  own  resiionsibility,  excoinmuni- 
catt'd  those  who  entertaiiU'd  them  (.J  .lohn  !t, 
l(i|. 

DiB-cl'ple. 

A  i)Upil  or  scholar  (Mat.  x.  24)  ;  es])ecially 
the  follower  of  a  jiulilic  teacher,  like  .bdin 
the  l',ai)tist  (ix.  14).  A  person  taught  of  God 
(Is.  viii.  K!).  It  is  used  of  all  of  whatever 
age  who  in  faith  received  the  divine  Master's 
instructions  (Mat.  x.  42;  Luke  xiv.  2(),  27, 
3:5:  John  iv.  1;  vi.  (!(>),  and  esiiecially  of  the 
twelve  ajiostles  (Mat.  v.  1;  viii.  2.");  x.  1; 
xii.  I.  etc.). 

DlB-eas'es. 

Disease  arises  from  the  violation  of  pliysi- 
cal  or  meutiil  laws.     The  observance  of  these 


laws  is  often  a  moral  act,  and  their  trans- 
gression is  sin  (Prov.  ii.  17  22;  xxiii.  2!>- 
:>2) ;  so  that  disea.se  is  in  certain  casc-.s  the 
punishment  imposed  by  tlie  Creator  for  sin. 
(iod,  moreover,  .sometimes  smites  a  sinner 
with  disease  where  no  natnnil  cause  can  he 
traced  (Ex.  ix.  .-^  sei|.  ;  Num.  xi.  :$.'{  ;  xii.9  11  ; 
iJeut.  xxviii.  21,  22,  ;i."j,  liO  ;  2  Sjiin.  xsi.  1  ; 
xxiv.  1.") ;  2  Kin.  v.  27).  From  the  connection 
between  sin  and  various  diseases,  the  hitler 
are  sometimes  atlribnt<-d  (o  Satan,  who  .st-- 
dnced  the  race  to  its  fall  into  sin  and  who  i.s 
still  the  great  temjiter  to  sin  (Luke  xiii.  Ki)  ; 
but  the  inference  is  not  legitimate  that  every 
sick  person  is  a  sinner  or  that  Satan  is  the 
immediate  cause  of  oiir  maladies  (.lob  jii.- 
xlii.  ;  .loiin  ix.  l-:i).  The  chief  forms  of 
human  disease  are  mentioned,  such  as  fcver 
(l)eiit.  xxviii.  22;  Mat.  viii.  14;  John  iv. 
52  ;  Anti<|.  xiii.  1.5,  o),  cutaneous  di.<ease 
(Lev.  xiii.  (i-8,  30,  :«•).  dysentery  (2  Chron. 
xxi.  1."),  Irt  ;  Acts  xxviii.  S.  U.  V.),  ophthalmia 
(Hev.  iii.  is ;  Tobit  ii.  10;  vi.  H;  xi.  13). 
boils  (Ex.  ix.  !» ;  1  Sam.  v.  ti),  jiaraly.sis  (1 
Mac.  ix.  5ii;  JIat.  viii.  (i ;  ix.  2 ;  Acts  ix.  33). 

Di'shan  [probably  pygarg]. 

A  llorite  tribe  (Gen.  xxxvi.  21.  2H)  under 
a  chief  Cid). 

Di'shon  [jivgarg.  antelojie]. 

A  Horite  tribe  ((ien.  xxxvi.  21,  2<'. ;  1 
Chron.  i.  3S),  organized  under  a  chief  i(;«n. 
xxxvi.  30).  and  descended  through  Anah 
from  Zibeon  (24,  2.")).  Many  interpreters, 
however,  di.scover  two  jiersons  of  this  name  : 
one  in  vs.  20,  2(i,  30,  the  other  in  25. 

Dis-per'sion. 

The  body  of  Israelites  scattered  abroad 
in  other  lands  than  their  own.  the  diaspora 
(,Ier.  XXV.  .'54,  A.  V.  and  margin  of  K.  V.  ; 
.lohn  vii.  35;  Jas.  i.  1:.  Dispersion  was 
threatened  as  a  iienalty  if  the  jieoplc  de- 
parted from  the  Mo.saic  law  (Lev.  xxvi.  .'f{- 
37:  Dent.  iv.  27,  2s ;  xxviii.  (14  (!>t.  The 
cai)tivity  of  the  ten  tribes  and  that  of  the 
two  largely  heljted  to  fullill  these  prophecies  , 
for  the  mass  of  the  ten  tribes  were  never  re- 
stored to  their  own  land,  and  of  the  two  u 
very  large  number  cIiom'  to  remain  in  tiic 
region  to  which  tin  y  had  Iteen  taken  rather 
than  return  to  their  own  country.  A  ver\ 
considerable  immignition  of  .lews  took  i>hn  e 
into  tlie  cities  and  towns  of  .\lcxan<ler  the 
(Jreat's  empire,  and  into  the  kingdoms  of 
Egyjit,  Syria,  etc..  into  which  it  was  after- 
wards divided  ;  and  later  when  the  Konian 
emi)ire  establislied  its  sway  over  tlu-.s*-  and 
other  regions,  colonies  of  Jews  .sought  a 
selthinent  in  all  the  inijiortant  places. 
.\gri|i]>a,  in  a  letter  to  Caligula  jire.Mrviil  by 
Philo,  .sjiys  :  '•Jerusalem  is  the  capital  not 
alone  of  Ju<ln'a  but.  by  means  of  colonie>, 
of  most  other  lands  .-ilso.  The,H«>  C4»loiiics 
have  been  sent  out  at  litlini;  opportunities 
into  the  neighliorinu  countries  i>f  Egypt. 
Pho-nicia.  Syria.  Code-syria,  an<l  the  farilirr 
removed  Pamphylia,  Cilicia,  the  greater  |»art 


Divination 


172 


Dodavahu 


of  Asia  as  far  as  Bithynia  and  the  most  re- 
mote corners  of  Pontiis.  In  the  same  man- 
ner also  into  Eiiroiie :  Thessjily.  Uo-otia, 
Macedon,  .Etolia,  Attica,  Argos,  Coriiitli,  and 
the  most  and  finest  ])arts  of  the  IVlojion- 
nesus.  And  not  only  is  the  mainland  full  of 
Israelitish  comuumities.  but  also  the  most 
imi)ortant  islands:  Euboea,  Cyprus,  Crete. 
And  I  say  nothing  of  the  countries  beyond 
the  Euiihrates,  for  all  of  them,  with  unim- 
I)ortant  exceptions,  Hal)ylon  and  the  satrap- 
ies that  include  the  fertile  districts  lying 
around  it  have  .Jewish  inhabitants."  Thus 
the  Dispersion,  with  synagogue  and  doctrine, 
was  found  in  all  parts  of  the  known  world 
(Acts  ii.  5-11  ;  1  Pet.  i.  1). 

Div-i-na'tion. 

The  attempt  to  read  the  future  and  utter 
soothsaying  either  by  a  kind  of  inspiration 
or  divine  aiHatus  (Acts  xvi.  Hi),  or  else  by 
means  of  signs.  In  the  latter  sense,  it  in- 
cludes augury  or  foretelling  the  future  by 
means  of  natural  signs,  such  as  the  flight  of 
birds,  the  disposition  of  the  entrails  (Ezek. 
xxi.  21) ;  hydromauey  or  foretelling  from  the 


Ivoman  Divinatii.ai. 

appearance  of  water  poured  into  a  vessel  or 
of  objects  dropped  into  the  water  (Gen.  xliv. 
')) ;  sorcery,  in  its  original  sense  of  foretelling 
by  casting  lots  (Ezek.  xxi.  21)  ;  and  also  as- 
trology or  the  determination  of  the  supposed 
influence  of  the  stars  on  the  destiny  of  a 
person  (cp.  Is.  xlvii.  13).  The  Hebrews  also 
included  iu  divination  necromancy  or  fore- 
telling the  future  by  calling  up  the  sjuritsof 
the  dead  and  conversing  with  them  (1  Sam. 
xxviii.  8).  The  diviner  sometimes  pro- 
nounced blessing  or  cursing  (Num.  xxii.  6)  : 
not,  however,  as  the  magical  spells  of  a  sor- 
cerer, but  as  i)rophecy  revealed  by  the  divine 
afllatus  or  familiar  s])irit  or  the  sign  (12,  13). 

Di-vin'er. 

A  soothsayer;  a  practicer  of  divination. 
They  were  numerous  among  heathen  nations 
(Deut.  xviii.  9-12;  1  Sam.  vi.  2;  Is.  xix.  3  ; 
Ezek.  xxi.  21  ;  D.an.  ii.  2  ;  Acts  xvi.  16),  and 
also  at  various  times  among  the  Israelites, 
who  were  informed  of  the  diviner's  impos- 


ture, warned  against  placing  reliance  iu  him, 
and  threatened  with  punishment  for  the  sin 
of  consulting  him  (Lev.  xix.  31  ;  xx.  (5,  27; 
Deut,  xviii.  10;  1  Sam.  xxviii.  «;  Is.  ii.  6; 
iii.  2,  K.  V. ;  Jer.  xxvii.  9  :  xxix.  H  ;  Ezek. 
xiii.  23 ;  xxii.  2H  ;  Mic.  iii.  6,  7,  11  ;  Zech.  x.  2). 
He  practiced  his  art  for  hire  (Num.  xxii.  7, 
17,  IH  ;  Acts  xvi.  Iti). 

Di-vorce',  Di-vorce'ment. 

Annulment  of  the  bonds  of  matrimony. 
Under  the  law  of  Moses  a  man  could  divorce 
his  wife  if  he  found  some  unse<'mly  thing 
in  her.  She  might  then  be  married  to  an- 
other man.  If  her  second  husband  also  di- 
vorced her,  the  first  one  was  not  allowed  to 
take  her  again.  The  process  of  divorce,  when 
once  resolved  upon,  was  easy.  All  the  hus- 
band had  to  do  was  to  give  his  partner  a  bill 
of  divorcement,  and  send  her  away  (Deut. 
xxiv.  1-4  ;  cp.  Is.  1.  1  ;  Jer.  iii.  8).  Our  Lord 
explained  that  this  enactment  was  framed 
only  on  account  of  the  Israelites'  hardness 
of  heart.  He  added  that  the  original  and 
just  law,  that  of  nature,  is  that  a  man  cleave 
to  his  wife  and  they  twain  become  one  flesh, 
marriage  being  a  permanent  comjiact ;  and 
that  a  wife  should  not  be  divorced  except 
for  fornication,  including  what  is  now  tech- 
nically called  adultery.  If  a  man  puts  away 
his  wife  on  other  grounds  and  marries  an- 
other, he  commits  adultery.  If  anyone  mar- 
ries a  divorced  woman,  he  also  has  com- 
mitted the  same  sin  (Mat.  v.  31,  32  :  xix. 
3-9  ;  Mark  x.  2-12;  Luke  xvi.  IS;  cp.  1  Cor. 
vii.  10-17).  Protestants  almost  universally 
teach  that  willful,  final  desertion  annuls  the 
marriage  bond  (cp.  1  Cor.  vii.  15)  and  a  second 
marriage  may  be  contracted  bj'  the  deserted 
one. 

Di'-za-hab,  in  A.  Y.  Diz'a-hab  [abounding 
in  gold]. 

A  place  cited  to  indicate  the  locality  and 
circumstances  connected  with  the  delivery 
of  the  farewell  addresses  of  Moses  (Deut.  i. 
1).  Dhahab  on  the  western  shore  of  the  gulf 
of  Akaba,  75  miles  south  of  Ezion-geber,  has 
similarity  of  name  in  its  favor,  but  that  is 
all.  It  lies  remote  from  the  route  of  the 
Israelites.  Perhaps  Di-zahab  was  a  district 
in  Edom  identical  with  Me-zahab  (Gen.  xxxvi. 
39;  cp.  Septuagint  of  Num.  xxi.  14,  which 
has  Zahab  instead  of  Vaheb  of  Ii.  V.). 

Do'dai.     See  Dodo  2. 

Dod'a-nim  [a  plural  word,  Dodanites]. 

A  tribe  related  to  Javan  (Gen.  x.  4). 
Against  identifying  them  with  the  Dardan- 
ians  or  Trojans  is  the  ditference  in  the  name  ; 
while  the  .situation  of  Dodona,  a  place  in 
Epirus,  in  Greece,  the  seat  of  a  celebrated 
oracle,  is  again.st  locating  them  there.  The 
Septuagint  aiul  the  Samaritan  version  iu 
Gen.  X.  4,  and  the  common  Hebrew  text  it- 
self in  1  Chron.  i.  7,  have  Kodanini  (([.  v.). 

Dod-a-va'hu,  in  A.  V.  Dod'a-vah  [perhaps 
love  of  Jehovah]. 


Dodo 


173 


Dor 


A  man  from  Maresliah,  fatluT  of  that 
Elif/.iT  wlio  ]iroiihesie(i  the  (Icstniction  of 
Jehoshajiliat's  ships  (2  Chrou.  xx.  37). 

Do'do  [liniii;;]. 

1.  A  man  of  Issac-har,  ancestor  of  the 
ju<lt;e  Tola  (.Iiidg.  x.  1). 

•J.  An  Aliohitc,  and  the  father  of  Eleazar, 
one  of  David's  three  miglity  men  of  the  first 
rank  {'2  Sam.  xxiii.  !t,  in  K.  \.,  followinjj  tlie 
j>resent  Hebrew  text.  Dndai;  1  C'hrun.  xi. 
12).  David  aii])ointed  Dodai  [or  probably 
his  .son]  as  military  commander  overt  lie  course 
of  the  second  month  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  l). 

'A.  A  man  of  BcthUliem,  fatherof  Kllianan, 
one  of  David's  miglity  men  {j2  Saau.  xxiii.  24; 
1  Chron.  xi.  2()). 

Doe. 

A  female  deer  or  antelojie.  In  Prov.  v.  19, 
E.  ^'..  it  is  the  female  ibex  or  wild  goat  of 
Sinai  {('upra  hcdeu),  in  Hebrew  Ya'"lah;  see 
Wii.n  (Jo.xT. 

Do'eg  [timid]. 

An  Edomite.  the  chief  of  Saul's  lierdmen. 
He  was  at  Nob  at  the  tabernacle,  detained 
before  the  I^ord  on  account  of  a  vow  or  un- 
cleanness  or  signs  of  lejirosy  (Lev.  xiv.  4, 
11.  21).  or  was  jierhajis  in  sanctuary  for  some 
crime  (cj).  1  Kin.  i.  .W),  when  David,  a  fugi- 
tive from  Saul's  court,  arrived  at  Nob  and 
obtained  food  and  a  sword  from  Aliimelech, 
who  did  not  know  that  he  was  fleeing  from 
the  king  (1  Sam.  xxi.  7  ;  I's.  Hi.  title).  Docg 
subse(|Uently  told  Saul  what  had  occurred, 
which  so  excited  the  king  that  he  summoned 
Aliimelech  and  fellow  jiriests  and  demanded 
an  exjilanation.  Not  considering  it  sfitisfac- 
tory,  he  ordered  the  guard  to  kill  the  jiriesls. 
They  would  not.  The  king  then  batle  Doeg 
do  the  deed.  He  did  so,  slaying  eighty-live 
men.  He  subseciiiently  fell  ujion  the  village, 
mas-sacred  the  women  and  children,  and  ile- 
stroycd  even  the  cattle  (1  Sam.  xxii.  7-23). 

Dog. 

The  dog  of  Palestine  is  the  same  variety 
as  the  pariah  or  ownerless  dog  of  India. 
During  the  earlier  ]ierioil  of  Bible  history  it 
i^  described  as  jirowling  about  the  streets  and 
suburbs  of  cities  (IV.  lix.  (>,  Hi,  feeding  on 
what  was  thrown  out  to  it  (Ex.  xxii.  31), 
licking  up  blood  when  it  was  shed  (1  Kin. 
xxii.  3S  ;  Ps.  Ixviii.  23),  or  devouring  dead 
bddies  (1  Kin.  xiv.  11  :  xvi.  1;  2  Kin.  ix.  3.", 
3t))  ;  nay.  even  sometimes  congregating  in 
packs,  to  surround  and  attack  human  beings 
(Ps.  xxii.  H),  20).  It  was  early  trained  sulli- 
ciently  to  aid  the  shejiherd  in  jirotecting  the 
flock  against  beasts  of  jirey  and  thieves  (.lob 
xxx.  1).  It  was  at  length  sometimes  dome.s- 
ticated.  ac<-ompanied  its  master  from  place  to 
jilace  (Toliit  v.  K! :  xi.  4).  and  was  in  the 
house  with  him  and  jiicked  iij)  the  crumbs 
from  under  bis  tible  (Mark  vii.  28).  More- 
over, they  licked  the  sores  of  beggars  at  the 
rich  man's  gate  (Luke  xvi.  21).  The  dog 
was  also  widely  used  by  the  ancients  for 
hunting.     Hut  the  great  mass  of  dogs   ran 


wild.  On  account  of  their  food  and  habits, 
they  Were  cleemed  unclean  ;  anil  to  call  one 
a  dog  was  a  gross  insult  (1  Sam.  xvii.  43;  2 
Kin.  viii.  13).  Tlie  term  dog  is  applied  in  a 
tigunitive  sense  to  those  who  are  incapable 
of  appreciating  what  is  high  or  holy  (Mat. 
vii.  (i),  who  introduce  fal.se  doctrines  with 
cynical  ell'rontery  ( Phil.  iii.  "J),  wim,  like  a 
dog  returning  to  its  vomit,  go  back  to  sins 
which  nominally  they  had  renounced  forever 
(2  Pet.  ii.  22  ;  c]».  Prov.  xx vi.  1 1 ),  or  who  are 
so  vile  as  t(j  submit  to  lust  like  dogs  (  Dent, 
xxiii.  l.">).  The  later  Jews  were  acitistomed 
to  call  the  heathen  dogs  becau.se  ceremonially 
unclean  ;  and  even  .h-sus  once  employed  the 
term  in  order  to  exjiress  his  doctrine  of 
grace  the  more  vividly  (Mat.  xv.  2ti ;  Mark 
vii.  27). 

Dok,  in  A.  V.  Do'cus  [watchtower]. 

A  little  stronghold  near  Jericho,  built  by 
Ptolemy  (1  Mac.  xvi.  15),  son-in-law  of  Simon 
MaccabaMis  (II,  12).  Into  this  castle  he  re- 
ceived Siino!!  and  two  of  liis  sons,  and  then 
treacherously  slew  them  (Iti).  The  murder 
was  avinged  by  John  Hyrcanus,  a  third  son 
of  Simon.  He  besieged  Dok.  and  after  a 
time  Ptolemy  lied  beyond  Jordan  lAntiq. 
xiii.  7,  4  ;  S,  1).  The  name  seems  to  remain 
in  'Ain  Duk,  a  cojiioiis  spring  about  four 
miles  northwest  of  Jericho.  A  road  leads  by 
it  froiu  the  .Ionian  valley  into  tiie  hill  coun- 
try. Above  the  sjiring  are  tr.ices  of  ancient 
fortifications. 

Dopb'kah. 

A  station  of  the  Israelites  on  the  route  to 
Sinai  between  the  Ked  Sea  and  ICephidim 
(Num.  xxxiii.  12.  13).  Si'ct/en  locates  it  at  a 
place  called  Tobliacha.  but  the  identification 
has  not  been  generally  accepted. 

Dor  [habitation]. 

A  town  in  the  west  of  Palestine  (Josh.  xl. 
2),  on  the  seacoast  1 1  Ma<-.  xv.  Ill,  !>  Homnn 
miles  north  of  (a-sarea  lOiiomast).  It  was 
in  Asher  ;  but  it  belonged  to  the  tribe  of  .Man- 
as.seh  (Josh.  xvii.  11;  cp.  xix.  2<!:  1  (hnm. 
vii.  2fl),  which,  iiowever,  failed  to  expel  the 
C'anaanite  inhabitants  (Judg.  i.  27).  It  was 
the  chief  town  of  one  of  .*>olomon's  tax  dis- 
tricts il  Kin.  iv.  11).  In  Ma<tabee  times  it 
was  called  Doni.  In  217  ii.  t'.  it  was  unsuccess- 
fully besieged  by  Antiochus  III.  (the  (Jreat). 
and'about  I.'ts  by  Antiochus  VII.  (1  Mae.  xv. 
11-11).  Subsec|iiently  it  was  taken  by  a  cer- 
tain ?.oilus.  on  whose  death  it  fell  into  the 
hands  of  Alexander  Jaiina-us.  In  M  B.  c. 
Pomjiey  granted  it  autonomy.  In  .">f>  n.  c.  it 
was  rebuilt  by  Cabinius  (Anti.|.  xvi.  .''..  3). 
Early  in  the  Chri-itian  em  it  fell  into  decay. 
Remains  of  it  exist  near  Khurbet  Tantuni, 
on  the  coast,  between  7  anil  8  miles  north 
of  (H'sarea.  The  old  town  stood  on  n  low 
ridge.  The  ruins  consist  of  a  mound  with  a 
tower,  the  foundations  of  wliicb  antedate  cni- 
sjiding  times,  a  harbor  with  the  entniiuecnt 
through  the  rmk.  various  huildinKs,  rock- 
hewn  tombs,  a  tank,  and  a  causeway. 


Dorcas 


174 


Dragon 


Dor'cas  [gazelle,  the  Greek  rendering  of 

tbf  Aramaic  {'hithn,  gazelle]. 

A  Wdiiiun  wiiosi- Aramaic  name  was Tabitha, 
resident  at  .loppa.  She  made  garments,  wliich 
she  gave  to  the  poor.  When  she  died  Peter 
was  sent  for.  After  i)rayer,  he  bade  her 
arise,  and  her  life  returned.  The  fame 
thereof  si)read,  and  many  l)elieved  on  the 
Lord  (.\cts  ix.  ;}(j-13).  Dorcas  societies  are 
named  from  her. 

Do'than  [possibly  wells]. 

A  town  not  far  from  Shechem  and  Samaria, 
hard  by  a  caravan  ronte  (Gen.  xxxvii.  14, 17, 
2.") :  2  kin.  vi.  13),  near  the  plain  of  Esdraelon 
and  a  jiass  into  the  hill  country  of  Judah 
(Judith  iii.  10  ;  iv.  6,  7).  Josejih  was  cast 
into  a  pit  in  the  vicinity,  whence  he  was 
taken  out  and  sold  to  the  Midianites  (Gen. 
xxxvii.  17-28).  It  afterwards  belonged  to  the 
kingdom  of  the  ten  tribes.  Elisha  was  once 
besieged  in  it  by  the  Syrians  ;  but  the  soldiers 
of  the  beleaguering  army  were  miraculously 
struck  with  blindness,  led  to  Samaria,  had 
their  vision  restored,  and  were  finally  sent 
home  without  molestation  (2  Kin.  vi.  8-23). 
Its  site  is  the  ruin  Tell  Dothan,  near  a  well 
9i  miles  north,  slightly  east,  of  Samaria. 

Dove. 

A  bird  (Ps.  Iv.  6)  having  fine  eyes  (Song  i. 
l.o ;  V.  12),  a  plaintive  voice  (Is.  xxxviii.  14), 
a  gentle,  affectionate  disposition  (Sont;  ii.  14  ; 
V.  2 ;  vi.  9),  but  not  much  sagacity  (IIos.  vii. 
11).  It  is  timid,  and  when  frightened  trem- 
bles (Hos.  vii.  11).  When  wild  it  sometimes 
frequents  valleys  (Ezek.  vii.  16),  making  its 
nest  in  tlie  side  of  holes  or  fissures  (Jer. 
xlviii.28).  When  domesticated  it  files  when 
alarmed  to  windows  or  cotes  (Is.  Ix.  8;  cp. 
Gen.  viii.  8-12).  Jesus  refers  to  it  as  pro- 
verbially harmless  (Mat.  x.  16).  It  was  bought 
and  sold  within  the  temple  courts  (Mat.  xxi. 
12  ;  Mark  xi.  15  ;  John  ii.  14),  for  it  was  used 
in  sacrifice  (Luke  ii.  24).  The  dove  is  a 
symbol  of  the  Holy  Spirit  (Luke  iii.  22). 
'  Dove  is  but  another  name  for  pigeon,  though 
in  popular  usage  it  is  usually  restricted  to 
the  smaller  sjiecies.  It  is  frequently  trans- 
lated pigeon  in  the  English  versions  (Gen. 
XV.  9;  Lev.  i.  14;  v.  7,  11  ;  xii.  6,  8;  xiv.  22, 
30;  XV.  14,  29;  Num.  vi.  10). 

The  doves  constitute  a  family  of  birds 
(Columbidie),  of  which  Tristram  enumerates 
four  species  as  occurring  in  Palestine:  the 
ringdove  or  wood  pigeon  (Cnliunha  pdlitmhiis), 
the  stockdove  [Cobimha  iriuts),  the  rock  dove 
(Cohimha  Uvia),  and  the  ash-rumped  rock  dove 
{Colamba  .ichimperi).  The  ringdove  visits 
Palestine  in  immense  fiocks  in  spring  and 
autumn  during  its  annual  migrations;  indi- 
viduals also  remain  all  the  winter.  The 
stockdove  is  found  chielly  east  of  the  Jordan, 
or  in  the  valley  of  that  river.  The  rock  dove 
is  abundant  on  the  coast  and  in  the  highlands 
west  of  the  .Ionian.  'I'he  ash-ruinpcd  rock 
dove  is  exceedingly  abundant  in  tlie  interior 
of  the  country  and  in    the   Jordan   valley, 


taking  refuge  in  caves  and  fissures.  It  is  the 
species  described  in  Jer.  xlviii.  28. 

Doves  Dung. 

A  suljstance  which  rose  to  famine  prices 
during  the  siege  of  Samaria  by  Benhadad 
(2  Kin.  vi.  25).  Dung  was  also  eaten  during 
the  siege  of  Jerusalem  (War  v.  13,  7).  Pos- 
sibly, however,  dove's  dung  was  the  name  of 
some  herb,  as  the  Arabs  call  a  species  of  soap 
plant  sparrow's  dung. 

Dow'ry. 

Among  the  Israelites  and  neighboring  na- 
tions a  bridegroom  or  his  father  paid  a  dowry 
to  the  bride's  father  to  induce  him  to  give 
her  in  marriage  (Gen.  xxix.  15-20 ;  xxxiv. 
12;  Ex.  xxii.  17;  1  Sam.  xviii.  25).  The 
lowest  legal  amount  seems  to  have  been  fifty 
shekels  (Deut.  xxii.  29;  Ex.  xxii.  1.5,  16). 
Occasionally  the  father  of  the  bride  bestowed 
a  material  blessing  on  her  (Josh.  xv.  19 ; 
1  Kin.  ix.  16). 

Drag'on  [from  Greek  drakon,  a  serpent,  a 
dragon]. 

In  the  Old  Testament  the  word  dragon  is 
often  used  to  translate  Tannin,  a  long  animal. 
The  word  tannin  denotes  a  land  serpent  (Ex. 
vii.  9  ;  cp.  iv.  3,  4  ;  Ps.  xci.  13  ;  and  doubtless 
Deut.  xxxii.  33),  great  sea  animals  (plural, 
Gen.  i.  21,  in  A.  V.  whales,  in  K.  V.  sea  mon- 
sters; Ps.  Ixxiv.  13;  cxlviii.  7),  and  the 
crocodile  of  the  rivers  of  Egypt  (Ezek.  xxix. 
3).  The  last  is  described  as  having  jaws, 
and  scales  to  which  fish  could  stick  (4),  and 
feet  with  which  it  disturbed  tlie  waters 
(xxxii.  2),  as  lying  in  the  sea  and  in  the 
branches  of  the  Nile  (xxix.  3;  xxxii.  2).  as 
swimming  (6),  and  as  taken  with  great  hooks 
(xxix.  4 ;  Herod,  ii.  70)  and  with  nets 
(xxxii.  3).  It  is  used  as  a  symbol  for  Egypt 
(Is.  11.  9;  and  probably  xxvii.  1). 

The  R.  V.  recognizes  that  the  word  Tan, 
rendered  dragon  in  A.  V.  of  Job  xxx.  29  ;  Ps. 
xliv.  19  ;  Is.  xiii.  22 ;  xxxiv.  13 ;  xxx  v.  7  ;  xliii. 
20 ;  Jer.  ix.  11 ;  x.  22  ;  xiv.  6  ;  xlix.  33  ;  11.  37  ; 
Mic.  i.  3,  8,  and  sea  monster  in  Lam.  iv.  3, 
should  be  translated  jackal ;  aud,  on  the 
other  hand,  that  the  Hebrew  text  of  Ezek. 
xxix.  3  ;  xxxii.  2  should  be  emended  to  read 
dragon,  where  A.  V.  has  once  properly  dragon 
and  once  whale. 

The  dragon  of  New  Testament  imagery  is 
the  old  serpent,  the  devil  (Kev.  xii.  9;  xx.2), 
who  is  symbolically  ])ortrayed  as  in  color  red 
and  having  seven  lu'ads,  ten  horns,  an  enor- 
mous tail,  and  a  huge  mouth,  from  which  he 
was  able  to  cast  forth  water  like  a  river  after 
those  whom  he  would  destroj'  (xii.  3,  4,  15; 
xvi.  13).  He  was  hurk'd  from  the  heavens 
to  the  earth,  wliere  be  jiersecuted  Ihecliurch, 
b\it  was  finally  chained  and  imprisoned  in 
the  aby.ss  (xii.  7-17;  xx.  2,  3).  In  certain 
features  the  dragon  bears  resemblance  to  the 
beast  of  chap.  xiii.  Tliis  beast  is  a  combina- 
tion of  Daniel's  four  beasts,  and  rei)resents 
the  coml>ined  jiowers  of  earth  in  oi)position 
to  the  kingdom  of  God  (Dan.  vii.).     Tlie  i)ic- 


Dragon's  Well 


175 


Dulcimer 


tiire  of  the  dragon  was  cimfoniu-d  to  tliat  of 
the  l>L-a>t,  lifraiisi-  llic  dni;,'oii,  that  <ihl  scr- 
jii'iit,  is  the  aiiiiiiatitiji  and  nioiihlinj;  siiirit 
in  the  kin>;doni  of  this  worhl,  ami  when  he 
was  portrayed  in  ehap.  xii.,  features  of  the 
world-iiower  familiarized  hy  Daniel  were 
•>iiniliiiu-d  with  the  distinj^iiishinK  feature 
furnished   hy  the  serjiellt   of  (ienesis  iii. 

Drag'on's  Well,  in  A.  V.  Dragon  Well. 

A  well  at  .hrusiileiu,  ai)iiarenily  helween 
^e  Valley  Gate  and  Dun;;  fiate  (Neli.  ii.  13; 
cp.  iii.  13,  14). 

Dream. 

Ideas  present  to  the  miad  during  sleep. 
They  may  he  classified  as — 1.  Vain  dreams 
(Joh  XX.  y;  I's.  Ixxiii.  20;  Is.  xxix.  b).  2. 
Dreams  emi)loyed  hy  God  fur  the  purposes 
of  his  kingdom.  In  producing  them  God 
works  according  to  the  laws  of  mind,  and 
jierhaps  always  employs  secondary  causes. 
Tiu'V  are  (el  Intended  to  alfect  the  spiritual 
life  of  individuals.  That  to  the  Midianite  dis- 
couraged the  enemy,  and  encouraged  Giileon, 
who  providentially  heard  it  (.Iiulg.  vii.  13). 
Perhaps  such  was  the  dream  of  Pilate's  wife 
(Mat.  xxvii.  IJl).  Many  such  ])rovidential 
dreams  have  heen  sent  in  modirn  times. 
John  Newton,  concerned  ahout  his  soul's  sal- 
vation, had  a  dream  which  made  the  way  of 
salvation  clear  to  him.  (b)  Directive  and 
projihetic  dreams,  used  when  revelation  was 
incomplete.  They  seem  to  have  carried  with 
them  credentials  of  their  divine  origin.  Di- 
vine communications  were  made  in  dreams 
to  Ahimelech  ((ien.  xx.  3).  to  ,Tacoh  (xxviii. 
I'i:  xxxi.  10).  to  Lahan  (xxxi.  21).  to  .loscpli 
(xxxvii.  .■),  1>,  10.  20),  to  Pharaoh's  hutler  and 
haker  (xl.  ")).  to  Pharaoh  (xli.  7,  lr>,  2~->,  2(1),. 
to  .Solomon  (1  Kin.  iii.  .5),  to  Xehuchadnezzar 
(Dan.  ii.  1,  4,  3(!;  iv.  1  .seq.).  to  Daniel 
(vii.  1  .st-q.l,  to  Joseph  the  hetrothed  husliand 
of  .Mary  (.Mat.  i.  20),  to  the  .Magi  (ii.  12). 
The  power  of  accurately  interjireting  jiro- 
phetic  dreams  was  granted  to  certain  favored 
pe(ii)le,  as  to  Josej)h  (tJen.  xli.  1(>)  and  to 
Daniel  (Dan.  ii.  2.")-28,  47).  Dreams  olfered 
as  revelations  to  the  church  were  suhjected 
to  tests  to  determine  their  character.  If  they 
inculcated  immoral  conduct,  they  were  hy 
that  very  fact  iiroclaimed  false:  and  any  man 
who  sought  hy  their  means  to  lead  Israel  frum 
the  Worship  of  .lelmvah  was  to  he  i>ut  to  death 
(Dent.  xiii.  1-5;  cj).  Jer.  xxiii.  25-32;  xxix. 
8;  Zech.  X.  2).     See  Visio.ns. 

Dress.     Sec  ('[.oTiiiNf;. 

Drink. 

The  usual  heverage  of  the  Ilehrews  was 
water  ((Jen.  xxi.  14;  Ex.  xxiii.  25;  1  Sam. 
XXV.  11  :  1  Kin.  xiii.  S ;  2  Kin.  vi.  22), 
though  they  alsM  t'reiiuently  used  milk  (.ludg. 
V.  25),  sour  wine  (Num.  vi.  3 ;  liiith  ii.  14), 
ordinary  wine  (Gen.  xiv.  IH ;  xxvii.  25 ; 
Josh.  ix.  4;  Judg.  xix.  19;  Xeh.  v.  15),  and 
mori-  rarely  strong  drink  (Lev.  x.  9). 

Drink  Of  fer-ing.     See  Offkkixos. 


Drom'e-da-ry  [from  L:itin  tlioinnliinus, 
running  caiiK-l). 

1.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Helefh, 
quickly  running  thing,  in  the  A.  V.  of  1  Kiu. 
iv.  2fi ;  Itut  in  Mic.  i.  13,  swift  beast,  and  in 
Ksth.  viii.  10,  a  mule.  The  K.  V.  every- 
where translati-s  it  swift  steed. 

2.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Ritmmitk 
(listh.  viii.  10)  in  the  text  of  the  A.  V.,  and 
on  the  margin  of  the  Ii.  V.  The  text  of  the 
K.  V.  tran.-lates  it  steed.  Gesenius  under- 
stands it  to  mean  a  mare. 

3.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Biher,  a 
sort  of  camel,  swift  and  cai)able  of  carrying 
merchandise  (Is.  Ix.  (> ;  Jer.  ii.  23).  In  Ara- 
bic the  Word  denotes  a  young  camel  nf  an 
age  suilahh-  fur  riding  and  bearing  burdens. 
The  K.  \'.  accordingly  renders  it  in  the  mar- 
gin young  camels. 

The  dromedary  is  a  variety  of  the  Arabian 
or  one-hnmiied  camel  (Camelus  ilroinvdnriuii\ 
bred  for  sjieed  and  endurance.  It  can  tnivel 
about  125  miles  a  day.  The  two-humped 
Bactrian  camel  (('.  bdvtiiantts)  can  also  be  im- 
proved into  a  dromedary. 

Drojp'sy. 

A  disease  nuirked  hy  an  uiniatural  accumu- 
lation of  watery  liijuid  in  any  cavity  of  the 
body  or  in  the  tissues  (Luke  xiv.  2). 

Dru-sil'la. 

The  youngest  daughter  of  Ilerod  Aprii)pa 
I.,  by  his  wife  Cypros.  Before  the  death  of 
her  father  in  .v.  D.  44,  and  when  not  yet  six 
years  old,  she  was  promi.sed  in  marriage  to  a 
certain  Ki>i])hanes,  son  of  Antiochus  mot.  of 
course,  the  persecuting  kijig  of  that  name). 
The  l)ridegroom  iiromised  to  accept  .Midaisni; 
but,  on  further  reflection,  he  refused  to  adopt 
a  religion  in  which  he  did  not  believe,  and 
the  proposed  alliance  fell  through.  .Azizus, 
king  of  Kme>a.  was  lU'xt  aii]>lied  to,  the  con- 
dition oU'ered  being  the  same  as  in  the 
former  case.  He  had  no  scruple  about  sacri- 
ficing his  faith  to  his  self-interest,  and  Dru- 
silla  became  his  wife,  ."^he  was  ]H(S.ses.>ied  of 
great  beauty,  and  was  in  conseciuence  some- 
what ]ier.-ii(iited  by  her  eldest  sister  Pernice, 
who  was  i>lain  in  appeanince.  Felix,  pro- 
curator of  .huhea,  conceived  a  sinful  ]>ast«ion 

for  Drusilla.  to  wliich  she  res) ded  all  the 

more  readily  that  liernice's  I'etty  tyninny 
over  her  made  her  unhappy.  In  (lefiance  of 
Jewish  law,  she  left  her  legitimate  husband, 
and  married  Felix,  a  foreigner  and  an  idola- 
ter. They  had  a  smi  called  .\grippa,  who 
grew  uji  to  manhood  and  married,  but  who 
peri.shed,  however,  in  an  eruption  of  mount 
Vesuvius  (.\ntiq.  xviii.  .5.  4  ;  xx.  7,  1  and  21. 
One  can  well  understand  that  when  Paul, 
then  a  prisoner,  reasoned  befon-  Feli\  and 
Drusilla  of   righteousne-vi.   l«nipenince.    and 

Juilgment     to     .oliie.      I'elix     trembled     I  Acts 

xxiv.  21.  25  . 

Dul'ci-mer. 

Tin-  rendering  of  .\ramaic  Sumphdiirt/ah, 
f^umphouri/n',  or  to   follow  the  best  attested 


Dumah 


176 


Earring 


traditional  pronunciation,  Sumpon'i/ah  or  Sum- 
pon'i/d'  (Dan.  iii.  ;">,  10,  15),  i)r(il)ably  meaning 
ba^pilie.  as  the  margin  of  llie  K.  V.  makes  it. 
The  real  dulcimer  is  quite  a  dillerent  instru- 
ment. In  its  earliest  and  simjilest  form  it  con- 
sisted of  a  tlat  piece  of  wood,  on  which  were 
fastened  two  converging  strips  of  tlie  same 
material,  which  were  crossed  by  strings  played 
by  small  hammers.  Afterwards  pegs  for  I'eg- 
nlating  the  tensicm  of  the  strings  were  super- 
added, and  the  flat  piece  of  wood  gave  place 
to  a  resiiuance  box. 
Du'mali  [silence]. 

1.  A  tril)e  descended  from  Ishmael  (Gen. 
XXV.  14  ;  1  Chron.  i.  30).  Its  territory  was 
probably  the  region  called  Doumaitha  by 
Ptolemy,  and  Domata  by  Pliny,  on  the  con- 
fines of  the  >Sj-rian  and  Arabian  deserts.  The 
town  is  now  called  Doomat  el-jendel,  meaning 
Dumah  of  the  stones,  and  is  situated  in  the 
district  el-Jauf,  in  the  northwestern  part  of 
the  Arabian  peninsula. 

2.  A  symbolic  designation  of  Edom,  chosen 
on  account  of  its  assonance  with  Edom  and  in 
allusion  to  the  desolation  in  store  (Is.  xxi.  11). 

3.  A  town  in  the  hill  country  of  Judali 
(Josh.  XV.  52).  Its  site  is  the  ruin  Domeh,  10 
miles  southwest  of  Hebron. 

Dung. 

Dung  was  used  for  manuring  plants  (Luke 
xiii.  8  ;  Ps.  Ixxxiii.  10).  A  dunghill,  with 
straw  trodden  in  it  by  the  cattle,  is  referred 
to  (Is.  XXV.  10).  In  the  East  dried  cowdung 
is  constantly  used  for  fuel  (Ezek.  iv.  12,  15). 
Beggars  often  lay  on  dunghills  and  asli  heaps 
(1  Sam.  ii.  8  ;  Lam.  iv.  5).  As  a  punishment, 
the  house  of  a  man  was  sometimes  made  a 
dunghill  (Dan.  ii.  5),  that  is,  probably,  was 
converted  into  a  privy  (2  Kin.  x.  27).  Dung, 
as  refuse,  was  swept  away  (1  Kin.  xiv.  10  ; 
Phil.  iii.  8). 

Dung  Gate.   See  Jerusalem  II.  3. 

Du'ra. 

A  plain  in  the  province  of  Babjdon  where 
Nebuchadnezzar's  golden  image  was  set  uj) 
(Dan.  iii.  1).  Several  localities  in  Babylon 
were  called  Duru,  which  means  a  wall  or 
fortification. 

Dys'en-ter-y. 

A  disease  characterized  by  inflammation 
and  ulceration  of  the  lower  part  of  the  in- 
testines, with  heinorrhage  from  the  bowels. 
It  is  so  constantly  attended  by  fever  that  it 
is  often  called  fever  and  dysentery.  Publius, 
chief  man  of  the  island  of  Melita  while  Paul 
was  there,  suffered  from  this  com]>laint,  but 
was  miraculously  cured  by  the  apostle  (Acts 
xxviii.  7,  8,  R.  V.;  in  A.  V.  bloody  flux). 


E. 


Ea'gle. 

A  binl  of  prev  (Job  ix.  2fi  :  xxxix.  .30  ;  Hab. 
i.  &),  large  (Ezek.  xvii.  3,  7),  swift  of  flight 
(2  Sam.  i.  23),  seeing  at  a  great  distance,  and 
which    builds   its   nest   on    lofty  rocks    (Job 


xxxix.  27-29;  Jer.  xlix.  16).  It  was  cur- 
rently believed  to  bestow  great  care  u))on  its 
young  while  training  them  to  act  fi>r  them- 
selves, stirring  up  the  nest  and  forcing  them 
out,  hovering  over  them  and  under  them 
when  they  made  their  first  weak  attempts  to 
fly  (Dent,  xxxii.  11  ;  Kx.  xix.  4.  5).  Sir 
Humi)lirey  Davy  relates  witnessing  a  ]iair 
of  golden  eagles  similarly  engaged  above  the 
crags  of  Ben  Nevis.  There  is  also  probably 
an  allusion  to  an  ancient  i)opular  belief  that 
the  eagle,  at  the  end  of  a  certain  period, 
moults  aiul  renews  its  youth  (Ps.  ciii.5).  The 
story  was  that  the  eagle,  on  reaching  old  age, 
flew  upward  toward  the  sun  until  its  feathers 
were  singed  and  it  foil  into  the  sea.  Thence 
it  emerged  in  the  strength  of  youth.  The 
allusion  may,  however,  be  to  the  great  age  to 
which  the  eagle  lives  and  retains  the  vigor 
of  youth.  As  a  carnivorous  bird,  feeding  on 
reptiles  and  occasionally  on  carrion,  it  was 
unclean  (Lev.  xi.  13).  The  Hebrews,  like 
the  Arabs,  applied  the  name  which  they  used 
for  eagle  to  birds  that  eat  carrion,  ]irobably, 
like  the  Greek  and  Eoman  naturalists  Aris- 
totle and  Pliny,  including  certain  larger  va- 
rieties of  the  vulture  among  the  eagles  (Mat. 
xxiv.  28  ;  cp.  Prov.  xxx.  17).  In  alluding  to 
the  baldness  of  the  eagle  (Mic.  i.  16),  the 
prophet,  if  he  does  not  refer  to  moulting, 
which  is  an  inconspicuous  process  in  the 
eagle,  has  some  vulture  in  mind,  who.se  head 
is  bald  and  neck  but  scantily  feathered. 

Tristram  enumerates  eight  species  of  the 
eagle  subfamily  as  occurring  in  Palestine. 
Seven  are  of  the  typical  genus  Aquila.  viz.  : 
Aqiiila  chrjisaetus,  the  golden  eagle  ;  A.heliaea, 
the  imperial  eagle :  ,1.  dunga.  the  greater 
spotted  eagle:  .4.  mpax.  the  tawny  eagle; 
^4.  pennatd.  the  booted  eagle;  ,4.  nipaleusis, 
the  steppe  eagle;  .4.  Bouelli,  Bonelli's  eagle, 
and  Ciiraetus  gaUicus,  the  short-toed  eagle. 
With  the  exception  of  the  booted  eagle,  the 
others  are  not  uncommon.  By  far  tlie  most 
abundant  of  all  is  the  short-toed  eagle.  It 
feeds  on  reptiles.  It  is  numerous  in  summer 
and  autumn.  In  winter  it  occurs  more  spar- 
ingly, many  apparently  migrating  southward. 

Ear'nest. 

Part  payment  in  advance  of  a  wage,  a  sum 
of  money,  or  anything  else  promised,  this 
being  intended  as  a  jiledge  or  guarantee  to 
the  reciinent  that  the  bargain,  contract,  or 
promise  will  in  due  time  be  carried  out. 
Blackstone  says  that  the  prepayment  of  a 
penny  in  England  will  legally  bind  a  con- 
tract, and  the  handing  over  the  smallest 
quantity  of  goods  ordered  will  bind  the  en- 
gagement for  the  remainder.  The  earnest, 
as  a  rule,  is  the  same  in  kind  as  the  ultimate 
payment,  of  which  it  is  the  pledge.  The  Si)irit 
in  the  hearts  of  Christians  is  the  earnest  of 
their  inheritance  (2  Cor.  i.  22:  v.  5;  Ejih.  i. 
1.3,  14). 

Ear'ring. 

Earrings  were  worn  by  the  Israelites,  men, 


Earth 


177 


Ebal 


women,  and  cliildri'ii  (Kx.  xxxii.  2i,  e.spe- 
cially  by  llir  wdhicii  (E/rk.  xvi.  V2  ;  .liiditli 
X.  4).  They  wen:  iil.su  worn  l)y  tlie  Mitlian- 
ites  (Num.  xxxi.  5U),  As.syrians,  Egyptians, 
and  otluT  jieopU's.  The  eustom  wa.s  innoeent 
in  it.seir.  Hut  tlie  earrinjr  .sonu'times  served 
as  an  amulet  dp.  Is.  iii.  2(1 :  in  K.  \'.  amulet). 
As  used  in  idolatrous  wor.sliiji,  they  were 
worn  liy  the  men  and  women  of  ,Jaeol)"s 
household,  until  he  ordered  the  strangi'  gods 
to  he  ]iut  away  ((ien.  xxxv.  4).  'J'hey  were 
made  of  gold  (Ex.  xxxii.  "J;  ej).  I'rov.  xxv. 
I'Jl  or  other  preeious  metal.  It  is  often  not 
clear  from  the  narrative  whether  earring.s 
or  nose-rings  are  intended  (Gen.  xxiv.  2-J,  30  ; 
Ex.  xxxv.  2-2}. 

Earth. 

1.  The  world  in  wliieli  we  dwell  as  distin- 
guished from  the  heavens  overhead  ((ien.  i.  1). 

2.  The  dry  land,  as  distinguished  from  the 
sea  (Gen.  i.  10);  the  habitable  world  ((ien.  i. 
28;  X.  2.'3 ;  xviii.  18).  It  is  freiiuently  de- 
seribed  in  jxietry.  Hannah  sjioke  of  tlie 
earth  standing  on  jiillars,  on  whieh  it  had 
been  plaeed  liy  (iod  (1  Sam.  ii.  8;  Job.  ix.  (J; 
I's.  Ixxv.  3).  'J'he  jtsalniist  sjieaks  of  the  In- 
liahitetl  eartli  as  founded  ni)on  the  seas  and 
eslal)lished  on  the  Hoods  (xxiv.  2  ;  exxxvi.  (i : 
op.  Ex.  XX.  4).  (Others  speak  literally  or  fig- 
uratively of  the  foundations  of  the  earth  (I's, 
cii.  •.'.'.;  "civ.  .")-9  ;  I'rov.  iii.  1!) ;  viii.  2!l;  Is. 
xlviii.  IM). 

3.  Vegetable  soil  (Gen.  xxvii.  28;  Ex.  xx. 
24  ;  Ps.  civ.  14). 

4.  The  inhabitants  of  the  world  or  of  any 
region  in  it  (tien.  xi.  1 ;  Ps.  xcviii.  !»i. 

Eartli 'quake. 

The  ((iiakiiig  of  the  earth  ;  a  vibratory  or 
undulatory  movement  extending  superficially 
over  a  wide  area,  and  downward,  it  is  be- 
lieved, from  a  mile  f)r  two  to  more  than  thirty 
miles.  The  vibrations  are,  ])erhaps,  produced 
by  cdii  tract  ions  of  iiorl  ions  ol' the  earth's  crust. 
Earth(iuakes;iii(l  volcanoes  are  connected,  and 
are  confined  to  particular  regions  constituting 
continuous  lines.  One  of  these  lines  ]ia.s.ses 
from  the  Taurus  mountains  to  the  gulf  ()f 
Akaba.  along  the  valleys  of  the  Oronles  and 
the  .Jordan.  In  severe  earthquakes,  at  the 
point  where  the  force  is  greatest,  the  hilLs 
move  to  and  fro  (Jer.  iv.  24)  and  the  foumla- 
tions  of  the  mountains,  as  it  were,  tremble 
(I's.  xviii.  7);  clefts  ajipear  in  the  earth's 
crust  (Zech.  xiv.  4, ."))  and  chasms,  into  which 
men  may  fall,  open  and  close  (Num.  xvi.  .'51- 
33i ;  buildings  are  shaken  down  and  their 
inbaliitaTits  often  buried  in  the  ruins;  and 
if  the  sea  is  near,  it  may  leave  its  bed  for  a 
few  minutes  nearly  dry.  and  then  bring  in  a 
wave  upon  the  land  which  will  swee]>  over  it 
with  destriu-tive  effect,  .ludiea  was  visited 
by  a  severe  earth(|Uake  in  the  days  of  I'/ziah 
and  .Feroboam  II.  (.\mos  i.  1:  /ech.  xiv.  .">; 
.Vutii|.  ix.  Id.  4).  Another  notable  e.arth- 
«|Uakc  occurre(l  in  the  seventh  year  of  Herod 
the  (ireat,  which  destrovetl  much  cattle  and 
12 


upwards  of  l(i,(Ki()  lives  (Antii).  xv.  .'j,  2).  An 
earthi|uakc,  aciompanied  with  darknes.s,  sifj- 
nali/.ed  the  death  of  Christ  I.Mat,  xxvii.  4.'>. 
51-.'i4),  and  another  heraldeil  hi-,  rourrection 
(xxviii.  2).  One  occurred  in  Macedonia  when 
Paul  and  ."^ilas  were  in  the  jail  at  Philijijii 
(Acts  xvi.  2(j). 

East. 

The  direction  toward  the  sunrise  (as  is  de- 
noted by  the  Hebrew  and  Greek  word.s  eni- 
l>loyed  in  Josh.  xi.  3;  xii.  3.  etc.  ;  Mat.  ii.  1). 
The  Hebrews  faced  the  jioint  of  tiie  rising 
sun  when  they  determined  direction  ;  hence 
the  east  was  the  front  (as  is  denoted  by  the 
Hi-lucw  \\iinl  in  ( Jen.  ii.  si. 

East,  Children  of  the,  or  Men  of,  m  Peo- 
ple of. 

A  general  designation  of  the  tribes  occupy- 
ing the  east  country,  who  inhabited  the  re- 
gion bordering  on  .\mmon  and  .Moab  (Ey.<-k. 
xxv.  4,  KM.  dwelt  as  far  north  as  a  ili-irict 
when-  jieojile  of  Hanm  pastured  their  flocks 
(Gen.  xxix.  l,4).an<l  extended  far  MHitliward 
into  Arabia. 

East  Country. 

The  r('.:iiiii  l.\  iiig  east  nf  Palestine  (Zech. 
viii.  7  ,  e^picially  the  .\rabian  and  Syrian 
deserts   Kien.  xxv.   17'. 

East  Sea  or  Eastern  Sea.     .S  e  I)j:.\ii  Sk.v. 

East  Wind. 

A  wind  blowing,  broadly  speaking,  from 
the  east.  In  Egypt  it  blasts  the  ears  of  corn 
(ticn.  xli.  23.  27).  and  in  Palestine  the  vines 
and  vegetation  genenilly  ( l-^/ek.  xvii.  7-10; 
xix.  10  rJi.  The  east  wind  in  the.se  lands  is 
hot  and  sultry,  and  deleterious  to  vegetation, 
because  it  lias  been  blowing  over  the  Arabian 
or  Syro-Arahian  desert  (Hos.  xiii.  l.'n.  Doubt- 
less this  sanu'  wind  is  meant  in  Jon.  iv.  8, 
although  the  Ninevites  thcm.-elves  would  not 
have  called  it  an  east  wind. 

East'er. 

Originally  the  si>riiig  festival  in  honor  of 
Eastra  or  Ostara,  the  Ti'Ulouic  goddess  of 
light  and  siiring.  As  early  as  the  eighth  t-en- 
tury  the  name  was  transferred  by  the  .\iiglo- 
Saxoiis  to  the  Christian  festival  designed  to 
celebrate  the  resurrection  of  Christ.  In  the 
A.  V.  it  occurs  once,  viz.,  in  Acts  xii.  4,  but 
is  a  mistranslation.  The  origiiuil  is  pngfhii. 
the  ordinary  (ireek  wonl  for  jiassover.  Tlic 
K.  ^  .  projierly  enijiloys  the  word  i>iis»over. 

E'bal. 

1.  A  son  of  Shobal,  and  u  dcMcndant  of 
Seir  the  Horile  (tJen.  xxxvi.  23;  I  (  hrun. 
i.  40). 

2.  The  same  as  Ol>al  (1  Chron.  i.  22  with 
(ien.  X.  2>i. 

3.  A  mountain  sepaniled  only  by  a  narrow 
valley  from  mount  (ierizim  iDeut.  xxvii.  Pi- 
ll), west  of  the  western  highway  and  near  the 
oaks  of  .Moreh  (xi.3o.  U.  V.).  wbicli  wen  near 
Shechem  (Gen.  xii.f!.  K.  V.  :  xxxv.  4  .  When 
the  Isnielites  j>a.s.>«ed  the  Jordan  they  were  to 
set  up  great  stones  pla.slered,  t»n  which  the 


Ebed 


178 


Ecclesiastes 


words  of  the  law  were  to  be  written.  An  altar 
also  was  to  he  hiiilt  (I)cut.  xxvii.  l-f<).  Roji- 
reseutatives  of  six  trihcs,  those  of  Keiibeii, 
Gad,  Asher.  Zehiiliiu.  Dan,  and  Naphtali, 
were  to  stand  on  mount  Khal,  and  pronounce 
curses  on  those  who  were  f;"ilt.V  of  certain 
heinous  sins.  The  representatives  of  the  re- 
maining six  tribes  standing  on  mount  Geri- 
zini  were  to  ])rouounce  blessings  (I)eut.  xi. 
29;  xxvii.  9-i(i).  These  directions  were  car- 
ried out  by  Joshua  (Josh.  viii.  30-.35).  Mount 
Ehal  lies  on  the  northern  side  of  Nablus, 
the  ancient  Sheihem,  whilst  mount  Gerizim 
lies  on  its  southern  side  (.\uti(|.  iv.  y,  44). 
Both  are  west  of  the  road  from  the  south  to 
the  north,  and  the  branch  road  to  Samaria 
and  Eu-gannim  passes  between  them.  Ebal 
ri-ses  3077  feet  above  the  sea,  and  is  steep, 
rocky,  and  barren.  In  some  places  a  few 
stunted  olive  trees  may  be  discovered  on  its 
lower  i)art,  and  prickly  pear  above  ;  in  others 
it  is  destitute  of  vegetation.  It  is  now  called 
Jebel  Eslamiyeh. 
E'bed  [servant]. 

1.  Father  of  (iaal  (Judg.  ix.  28,  30). 

2.  A  chief  of  the  father's  house  of  Adin, 
who  returned  from  Babylon  with  fifty  males 
under  the  leadership  of  Ezra  (Ezra  viii.  6). 

E'bed-me'lecli  [slave  of  the  king]. 

An  Ethiopian,  a  eunuch  of  the  palace,  who 
heard  that  Jeremiah  had  been  cast  into  a 
dungeon  where  he  would  probably  have  soon 
died  of  hunger,  and,  having  obtained  the 
king's  permission,  drew  him  out  by  cords  let 
down,  and  rags  to  protect  the  prophet's  arm- 
pits against  their  sharpness  (.Ter.  xxxviii.  7- 
13).  Jeremiah  w;is  substMiuently  commissioned 
to  inform  him  that,  on  account  of  the  service 
he  had  rendered,  he  should  be  preserved 
when  Jerusalem  was  taken  (xxxix.  15-18). 

Eb-en-e'zer  [stone  of  help]. 

A  comniemorative  stone  set  up  by  Samuel, 
evidently  in  Benjamin,  between  Mizpah  and 
Shen,  where  the  Lord  discomfited  the  Philis- 
tines (1  Sam.  vii.  10,  12).  Twenty  years  pre- 
viously the  I.sraelites  themselves  had  been 
defeated  at  this  place  by  the  Philistines  and 
had  lost  the  ark  (iv.  1 ;  where  the  place  is 
mentioned  by  its  later  name). 

E'ber,  in  A.  V.  thrice  Heber  (1  Chron.  v. 
13;  viii.  22;  Luke  iii.  3."))  [other  side,  region 
beyond]. 

1.  A  descendant  of  Shem  through  Arpach- 
shad  (Gen.  x.  22,  24).  He  ])ecame  the  i)ro- 
genitor  of  a  group  of  peoples  (x.  21),  em- 
bracing the  Hebrews  (xi.  l()-2fi),  the  .(ok- 
tanide  .\ra))s  (x.  2r)-30l,  iind  certain  Aramtean 
tribes  descended  from  Xahor  (xi.  29;  xxii. 
20-24).  He  is  put  for  these  ])eoples  collec- 
tively (Num.  xxiv.  24).  lie  Ix'longed  to  the 
region  beyond  or  east  of  the  Eujihrates,  per- 
haps a'.so  of  the  Tigris,  with  respect  to  the 
later  Hebrews  (c]).  .Tosh.  xxiv.  2.  .'5,  14,  1.')), 
and  to  the  Joktanide  Arabs,  and  not  unlikely 
with  respect  to  his  descendants,  the  ancestors 
of  Abraham  and  Nahor,  in  Ur  (Gen.  xi.  28). 


2.  A  priest,  head  of  the  father's  house  of 
Amok  in  the  daj-s  of  the  high  priest  Joiakim 
(Xeh.  xii.  20). 

3.  A  tTadite.  liead  of  a  father's  house  in 
Gilead  in  Bashan  (1  Chron.  v.  13). 

4.  A  Benjaniite,  son  of  Elpaal  (1  Chron. 
viii.  12). 

3.  A  Benjamite,  son  of  Shashak  (1  Chron. 
viii.  22,  25). 

E-bi'a-saph.    See  Abi.\s.\ph. 

Eb'on-y. 

Wood  of  various  sjjecies  of  the  genus  Dios- 
pyros,  which  constitutes  the  type  of  the 
Ebenacex  (Ebenads).  The  inner  wood  is 
black,  very  hard,  and  heavy.  Ebony  is  used 
for  inlaying  and  ornamental  turnery.  The 
men  of  Dedan  traded  with  it  in  the  markets 
of  Tyre,  having  obtained  it  apparently  from 
India  or  Ceylon  (Ezek.  xxvii.  15).  The  Greeks 
recognized  two  kinds  of  ebony,  one  varie- 
gated, from  India,  and  the  other  black,  from 
Ethiopia. 

E'bron,  in  A.  V.  Hebron. 

A  town  on  the  boundary  line  of  Asher 
(Josh.  xix.  28).  Perhaps  identical  with  Ab- 
d.in. 

E-bro'nah.     See  Akroxah. 

Ec-bat'a-na.     See  Achmeth.-v. 

Ec-cle-si-as'tes  [Greek  eH-Iesiastes,  one 
who  sits  and  speaks  in  an  assembly  or  church, 
a  preacher]. 

The  name  borrowed  from  the  Sejituagint 
and  applied  to  the  O.  T.  book  called  in  He- 
brew Kohcleih.  The  meaning  C)f  Koheleth  is 
disputed.  It  is  etymologically  related  to  the 
word  which  means  congregation.  The  Eng- 
lish versions  follow  the  Greek  and  Latin  ver- 
sions in  rendering  it  "the  preacher''  li.  1). 
The  preacher  is  distinctly  represented  as  Sol- 
omon, "son  of  David,  king  at  Jeru.salem  " 
(i.  1),  excelling  all  his  predecessors  in  Jeru- 
salem in  wisdom  and  wealth  (i.  IG  ;  ii.  7.  9). 
The  book  may  be  regarded  either  as  a  writing 
of  Solomon  himself  in  his  old  age  or  as  words 
which,  though  not  actually  uttered  by  Sol- 
omon, accuriitely  sum  up  his  com]ileted  expe- 
rience, are  spoken  from  the  standimint  of  his 
finished  course,  teach  the  great  lesson  of  his 
life  as  he  himself  learned  it,  and  exjircss  the 
sentiments  which  he  might  rightly  be  suj)- 
posed  to  entertain  as  he  looked  at  life  in  the 
retrosiiect.  The  meaning  of  i.  12,  13  is, 
according  to  Hebrew  grammar,  either:  "'As 
for  me,  during  my  reign  [which  still  contin- 
ues] I  have  apjilied  my  heart  to  seek  wisdom 
and  have  discovered  that  ali  is  vanity,"  or 
"  WheJi  I  was  king  [as  I  am  not  now]  I  ap- 
plied  my  heart  to  seek  wisdom  and  discovered 
that  all  is  vanity,''  The  latter  ex])lanation 
is  doubtless  the  correct  one  ;  for  the  language 
smacks  everywhere  of  the  vocal)ulary  and 
grammar  of  the  later  postexilic  Hebrew 
scriptures  and  of  the  Aramaic  jiortions  of 
Daniel  and  Ezra.  The  book  recounts  the 
feelings,  experiences,  and  observations  which 


Ed 


179 


Eden 


Would  lie  uiiavoiduIiU'  tn  tlic  wise  111:111  situated 
as  was  Suloiiioii.  Its  tlitnic  is  the  vanity  of 
all  caitlily  tliiiijis  (i.'.').  Tlif  iircailHT  pmvi'S 
this  l>y  roa.sDTi  and  tlii-  cxiicrii'iicc  of  iiiinsclf 
and  otlifis.  He  sliows  the  vanity  of  toil,  for 
no  linal  siitisfaction  is  attainable,  history  is 
liiit  the  iinceasin;,'.  nionotonoiis  eoniiiif;  and 
;;<iin^;  of  the  same  events  (;i-lll;  the  vanity 
of  earthly  wisdom  (Iri-lM  and  pleasure  (ii. 
1-11).  Still  wisdom  and  ideasiire  have  a  cer- 
tain value:  hence  the  jireacher  coni])ari-s 
wi>tloni  and  folly  (ii.  12- "-.'o).  and  concludes 
that  conteiitinent  is  true  wisdom  and  i)leas- 
ure.  and  is  found  in  enjoyin^c  the  thinjrs  one 
has.  which  (iod  ^.dves  to  those  who  ]iU'ase 
him  (ii.  •il-".2<)l.  The  ju-i^acher  continues  to 
advance  ])roof  of  his  main  contention  by 
showiiij;  the  vanity  of  human  elforts,  lii'caiise 
the  laws  of  (iod  are  lixed  (iii.  1-1.'));  the  van- 
ity of  human  justice  (l(i-iv.  '.i).  of  lal)or  and 
efforts  to  obtain  the  i)eiishable  (4-12).  the 
vanity  of  even  royal  jiower  (K5-lfi).  The 
search  is  further  ]nirsued  in  the  realm  of 
relijiioii.  and  the  jireacher  shows  the  vanity 
of  formalism  (v.  1-7)  and  of  wealth  (S-vi.  !•). 
Then  takinjr  up  practical  wisdom  as  a  subor- 
dinate theme  I  vii.-xi.  (i).  he  teaches  the  value 
of  a  i.'"'i'l  name  and  the  means  of  obtainiiifr 
it  (vii.  l-l()i.  and  the  \:ilue  of  wisdom  as  a 
safeguard  (11-2:2)  and  in  dealinj.' with  kinj^s 
iviii.  1-it) ;  and  he  insi.st.s  on  the  ultimate 
welfare  (.f  those  that  fear  God  (Kt-l.")).  Still 
he  is  careful  to  aj^ain  remind  his  readers  of 
the  vanity  of  wisdom  (Ki-x.  1)  :  but  wisdom 
is  better  than  folly  (x.  2-20),  ami  there  is 
wisdom  in  beneficence  (xi.  l-<i).  lie  rotnrn.s 
to  his  main  theme  (xi.  7-10).  makes  his  i;reat 
aiijieal  to  youtli  to  rcmembi'r  fJod,  and  slates 
his  conclusi<iii  that  thi'  whole  duty  of  man  is 
to  fear  (Iod  and  keiji  his  i-oiiimandments 
(xii.).  Kcclesiastes  ostensibly  depicts  the  ab- 
errations of  a  f;reat  mind,  which  cotild  find 
no  rest  till  it  returned  to  God.  These  abcr- 
rations  are  not  iiroimsed  for  imitation  :  they 
are  desiiriied  as  beacons  to  warn  men  atrainst 
traversinj;  the  s;ime  dan>;erous  ]iaths.  Amid 
all  these  wanderings  the  belated  jiilKrim  was 
under  divine  guidance,  which  ever  and  anon 
brought  him  back  to  the  right  way.  and  en- 
abled him  to  give  forth  sjiiritual  truth  in 
beautiful  and  powi'rfnl  language.  Finally, 
liis  aberrations  over,  he  thus  satisfactorily 
ended  his  book  :  "  Let  us  hear  the  conclusion 
of  the  whole  matter:  Fear  (iod.  and  keep 
his  commandments:  for  this  is  the  whok' 
duty  of  man.  P'or  (iod  shall  l)ring  every 
work  into, judgment,  with  every  secret  tiling, 
whether  it  be  good,  or  whetlier  it  be  evil." 

The  startling  character  of  some  statements 
in  Kcclesiastes  le<l  certain  .lews  to  (|ues(ion 
its  right  to  its  place  among  iiisiiirctl  books. 
At  last,  however,  its  right  to  remain  in  the 
canon  was  nniversilly  accorded.  There  Is  no 
direct  (|notation  from  it  or  une(iiiivocal  allu- 
sion to  it  in  the  N.  T. 

Ed  [a  witness]. 

.\  word  inserted  in  the  A.  V.  and  the  K.  \'. 


of  .Tosh.  xxii.  'M.  It  or  a  similar  wuvd  wag 
doubtless  originally  in  the  Hebrew.  It  is 
found  in  some  manii.scripts  and  vtT>ious, 
though  it  may  be  an  insertion  in  tliun  a.s  it 
is  in  the  Kiigli>h  version.  It  is  needful  lo  the 
full  meaning  of  the  jiassige,  which  tills  liow 
the  two  and  a  half  tribes  east  of  the  Jordan 
reared  an  altar  as  a  witness  that  they  were 
of  coinniou  descent  and  religion  with  those 
west  of  the  river.  The.se  latter,  taking  the 
altar  to  be  the  comnieiicenient  of  ajiostasy 
from  Jehovah,  were  ]>reiiaring  to  make  war 
uiion  those  who  had  erected  it,  wlien  exjda- 
nations  were  given  and  accepted  a>  .sat i.^fac- 
tory  (Josh.  xxii.  1-3-1). 

E'dax.    See  Edeu. 

E'den  []ileas;intness  or,  iperhajis.  jdain]. 

1.  A  country  in  which  God  caused  trees  to 
grow  from  the  ground  and  in  this  manner 
jilanted  for  Adam  a  gardiii,  called  from  its 
situation  the  ganlen  of  Kden.  A  river  went 
out  of  the  country  of  Fdeii  to  water  tin-  g-.ir- 
den.  and  lieiiig  thence  (larted.  became  four 
heads,  called  l'i>lion.  (iilion.  Hiddi-kel,  and 
Euiihrales.  Of  these  four  rivers,  tlie  Eu- 
j)hrates  is  well  known.  Hiddekel  is  un(|iu'8- 
tir)nably  the  Tigris  ;  the  other  two  an-  doubt- 
ful. The  I'ishon  siirrounde<l  or  meandered 
through  the  land  of  Havilah.  where  there  i.s 
gold  ;  and  the  (lihon  surrounded  the  laud  uf 
C'ush. 

The  main  theories  as  to  the  ^ite  of  the 
garden  may  be  classed  in  two  groU|is:  I. 
Those  which,  while  ]iro)iosiiig  to  identity  the 
four  streams  with  still  existing  rivers,  fail  to 
find  a  geogra]thical  counterimrt  of  the  one 
stream  divided  into  four.  The  site  is  by 
many  sought  in  .\rniefiia.  The  sources  of 
the  Tigris  and  Kuphrates  are  in  \\\\>  region. 
The  PishoJi  issiipiiosed  to  be  either  the  I'ha- 
sis.  in  modern  Persian  Fas.  or  the  Kur,  the 
large  trilmtary  of  the  Ar:ixes.  The  (iihon  is 
ideiitilieil  with  the  A  raxes,  in  .\nibir  known 
as  (iiiihiii)  tr-l'iis.  Objections  to  this  theory 
arc,  in)  the  difliculty  in  exjdaining  the  one 
river;  ih)  the  abs<-nce  of  jiroof  that  tlu-  land 
of  Ciish  ever  extended  to  this  n-gion ;  (r) 
Havilah,  as  located  by  the  biblical  writers, 
did  not  lie  in  .\rmenia.  I!y  otliers  the  lair- 
den  is  thought  of  as  situated  between  the 
Nile  and  India  or  between  India  and  the 
Oxus.  Havilah  is  identified  with  a  j.ortion 
of  India,  where  gold  was  obtained  :  and  Cush 
with  eitlier  F.thiojiia.  which  is  called  (tish  in 
the  .Scriptures,  or  the  jdateau  of  centnil  A.sia 
which  was  inhabited  by  Cos-seans.  The  (Ji- 
hon.  the  river  of  lU\>]i.  is  iielice  either  the 
Nile,  called  by  the  Kthiopians  Unnw  or  '■Vyoii, 
or  th<-  (>xus.  The  siinie  objeelions.  niutntii 
miiliiiKHi'.  lie  against  the  Mcond  theory  as 
against  the  first.  It  may  be  adiled  that  the 
identification  of  the  Gihon  with  the  Nile  is 
ti-aceable  as  far  back  as  .losejdius.  In  liin 
case  it  probably  rests  on  a  niis<oncej>lion. 
Tin-  only  lantl  of  (iish  in  the  geographical 
knowledge  of  the  later  Isnielites  wu.s  Ethio- 


Eden 


180 


Edom 


pia ;  aud  accordiugly  Josephus  understood 
the  Nile  l)y  the  Gihou,  Ijecause  it  is  the 
great  river  of  llie  land  of  Cush.  II.  The- 
ories which  seek  an  exact  geographical  coun- 
terpart to  tlie  bililical  description  and  identify 
not  only  the  four  rivers,  but  also  the  one. 
Calvin  dbserved  that  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates 
are  actually  united  for  a  sliori  distance  as  one 
stream,  wliich  then  divides  and  enters  into 
the  Persian  gulf  l)y  two  mouths;  and  he  con- 
cluded that  the  district  watered  by  the  united 
streams  was  the  site  of  the  garden.  There  is 
reason  to  believe  that  this  particular  spot  was 
formerly  the  l)ed  of  the  IVrsian  Gulf.  But 
the  general  locality  indicated  has  much  in 
favor  of  its  being"  the  .site  of  the  garden. 
Friedrich  Delitzsch  thinks  that  the  river  of 
Eden  is  the  Euphi-ates.  Its  channel  being 
higher  than  the  Tigris,  its  superabundant 
waters  on  entering  the  alluvial  plain  north 
of  Babylon  llowed  from  its  banks  and  found 
their  way  across  the  plain  to  the  Tigris.  The 
district  thus  watered  was  extremely  fertile. 
It  was  even  known  to  the  ancient  Babylonians 
as  the  garden  of  the  god  Duuiash.  Here  the 
garden  of  Eden  is  to  be  sought.  The  word 
ediiiu  in  Assyrian  means  plain  ;  and  the  two 
river  bottoms  of  southern  ^Mesopotamia  aud 
the  alluvial  lowlaud  form  a  plain,  and  were 
spoken  of  as  an  edinu.  A  descendant  of  Cush 
reigned  in  the  Babylonian  plain  (Geu.  x.  8- 
10)  ;  and  Kashites,  that  is  Cushites,  who  were' 
related  to  the  Elamites,  early  descended  upon 
Babylonia  and  for  a  time  held  the  political 
power.  Hence  the  land  of  Cush  may  be  sat- 
isfactorily regarded  as  having  designated  at 
one  jieriod  Baliylonia  or  its  southern  portion. 
Havilah  was  situated  northwest  of  the  Per- 
sian Gulf,  according  to  Scripture  notices,  and 
may  be  assumed  to  have  extended  to  the  Eu- 
phrates and  bordered  on  Babylonia.  Under 
these  circumstances,  the  Pishon  may  reason- 
ably be  identified  with  the  Pallakopas  canal, 
which  was  i)robably  a  natural  channel  orig- 
inally ;  and  the  Gilion  with  a  great  Babylo- 
nian canal  which  branched  from  the  Eu- 
phrates eastward  at  Babylon,  and  on  which 
two  of  Ninirod  the  Cushite's  cities,  Babylon 
and  Erech.  stood.  It  may  be  the  canal  near 
Babylon  whose  name  was  Kahana  or-Guhana, 
corresponding  to  Gihou.  This  scholarly  the- 
ory still  lacks  proof.  Its  weakness  at  present 
lies  in  its  numerous  assumptions,  in  the  dif- 
ficulty of  showing  that  the  bounds  of  Havi- 
lah ever  extended  to  the  banks  of  the  Eu- 
jihrates,  and  were  not  sejjarated  from  the 
river  by  the  land  of  .Mesha.  and  of  establish- 
ing the  conjecture  that  the  country  near 
Babylon  to  the  east  was  designated  the  land 
of  Cush.  Glaser  offers  a  natural  exidanalion 
of  the  language  employed  in  the  description. 
He  regards  the  four  heads,  which  are  imme- 
diately aftt'rwards  called  rivers,  as  the  heads 
or  tributaries  of  the  river  of  Eden.  These 
four  aflluents  united  somewliere  below  the 
garden  or,  to  modify  his  theory,  at  the  gar- 
deu  itself.     The  name  Pishon  he  finds  still 


lingering  in  the  Middle  Ages  in  the  wady 
Eaishan  in  northern  central  Arabia,  which 
drains  the  rainfall  toward  the  Persian  Gulf. 
This  region  jiroduced  gold  and  corresi)onds 
to  the  location  of  Havilah  as  indicated  by 
the  biblical  writers.  He  also  believed  that 
he  found  the  name  Gihou  applied  to  the 
wady  er-Kumma,  which  drains  the  country 
about  Jeliel  Shamar  toward  the  Euiihrates, 
and  he  concluded  that  the  Cushites  occupied 
this  region  during  their  migratiim  from  the 
east  to  Africa,  and  caused  it  to  be  known  for 
a  long  time  as  the  land  of  Cush.  He  erred, 
however,  in  his  belief  that  he  had  found  the 
wady  er-liumma  called  Gihou.  The  Arabian 
poet  whom  he  quotes  is  speaking  of  a  river 
of  Cilicia. 

The  site  of  the  garden  of  Eden  is  most  prob- 
ably to  be  sought  about  the  head  of  the  Per- 
sian Gulf.  The  locality  is  east  of  Palestine,  as 
Geu.  ii.  8  may  mean.  The  Tigris  aud  Euphrates 
rivers  are  there.  Havilah  was  a  district  of 
northern  central  Arabia.  A  land  of  Cush 
cori-espouded  approximately  to  Elam,  where 
the  names  Kashshu  and  Cosstcau  long  lin- 
gered. The  plain  of  Bal)ylonia  could  be  and 
evidently  was  called  an  edinu,  as  Delitzsch 
has  shown.  Possibly  the  fact  tliat  the  Per- 
sian Gulf  was  called  a  river  may  also  have 
some  bearing  on  the  solution  of  the  problem. 
The  garden  of  Eden  is  referred  to  iu  Isa.  li. 
3;  Ezek.  xxviii.  13;  xxxi.  9,  16-18:  xxxvi. 
35;  Joel  ii.  3:  cp.  Gen.  xiii.  10. 

2.  A  region  in  Jlesopotamia  ;  mentioned  in 
connection  with  Gozan,  Haran,  Reseph,  Te- 
lassar  (2  Kin.  xix.  1-2;  Is.  xxxvii.  12).  and 
with  Haran  and  Canueh  (Ezek.  xxvii.  23, 
24).  Apparently  the  locality  in  Amos  i.  5, 
on  the  margin  called  Beth-eden.  The  region 
is  mentioned  in  Assyrian  documents  by  the 
name  Bit-Adini,  situated  on  both  sides  of  the 
Euphrates  north  of  the  Belik  river. 

3.  A  Gershouite  Levite,  a  son  of  Joah  (2 
Chron.  xxix.  12;  xxxi.  1.")). 

E'der,  iu  A.  V.  once  Edar  (Gen.  xxxv.  21) 
and  once  Ader  (1  Chron.  viii.  15)  [a  flock]. 

1.  A  tower,  beyond  which  Jacob  on  one 
occasion  spread  liis  tent  (Gen.  xxxv.  21). 
Exact  situation  unknown. 

2.  A  town  iu  the  extreme  south  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  21).     Exact  situation  unknown. 

3.  A  Bcujamite,  sou  of  Elpaal  (1  Chrou. 
viii.  lo). 

4.  A  Levite.  son  of  Mushi,  of  the  family  of 
Merari  (1  Chron.  xxiii.  23;  xxiv.  30). 

E'dom  ;  in  A.  V.  of  O.  T.  four  times  Idumea 
[red]. 

1.  A  name  of  Esau,  given  iu  memory  of  his 
having  sold  his  birthright  for  red  pottage 
(Gen.  XXV.  :?0:  xxxvi.  1.  8,  19). 

2.  The  Edomites  collectively  (Num.  xx.  IS. 
20,  21 ;  Amos  i.  ti,  11 ;  ix.  12;  Mai.  i.  4). 

3.  The  region  occuiiied  by  the  descendants 
of  Edom,  i.  e.  Esau.  It  was  originally  called 
mount  Seir.  from  Seir.  the  Ilorite  (Gen.  xxxii. 
3;  xxxiii.  14  :  xxxvi.  20-30;  Num.  xxiv.  18, 


Edomites 


181 


Edrei 


etc.),  but  took  the  iiiiine  of  Etloin  afttr  the 
Edomites  had  disiihicud  tlie  aborij^iiial  llur- 
ites  (Deiit.  ii.  1"^).  The  rejjioii  is  the  iiioiin- 
taiiioiis  and  extremely  ni{;;;ed  eountry,  almut 
10(1  miles  long,  extendinji  southward  from 
Moali  on  hoth  sides  of  the  Arahah,  or  {;reat 
depression  eoimeeting  the  southern  jjarl  of 
the  Dead  Sea  with  the  Kulf  of  Akaha  (lien, 
xiv.  U ;  Deul.  ii.  1,  l'.i  ;  Josli.  xv.  1 ;  Judfj.  xi. 
17.  1."^;  1  Kin.  ix.  20).  The  summit  of  mount 
Jr'eir  is  believed  to  rise  about  3.j()0  feet  above 
the  adjaeent  Aral)ah.  The  lower  part  of  the 
chain  is  of  red  Nubian  sandstone,  with  dykes 
of  red  granite  and  poridiyry  ;  tlie  summit  is 
of  ii  ehalky  limestone,  probalily  of  cretaceous 
a>;e.  Edom  is  not  nearly  so  fertih-  as  Pales- 
tine (c]).  -Mai.  i.  -J—l)  ;  but  in  the  time  of 
Muses  it  had  fields,  vineyards,  wells,  and  a 
hi;,'hway  (Num.  xx.  17,  1!M.  The  Edomite 
capital  in  the  times  of  the  Hebrew  monarchy 
was  .'<ela,  believed  to  be  the  jilace  afterwards 
called  I'etra.  Other  imiiortant  towns  were 
Jjozrah  and  Teman.  In  the  (ireek  period 
the  name  was  modified  to  Iduuuea  (q.  v.). 

The  wilderness  of  Edom  was  the  Arabah 
at  the  southern  extremity  of  the  Dead  Sea 
(•J  Kin.  iii.  >,  -^(i). 

E'dom-ites. 

The  descendants  of  Edom,  i.  e.  Esau  (({en. 
xxxvi.  1-1!M,  and  others  incorjjorated  with 
them.  As  early  as  the  return  of  .Tacob  from 
Mesoiiotamia  Esau  had  occupied  the  land  of 
Edom  ((ien.  xxxii.  3;  xxxvi.  (j-8  ;  Dent.  ii. 
4,  5;  .To.-.h.  xxiv.  4),  having  driven  out  the 
aboriginal  llorites  (cp.  Clen.  xiv.  (i ;  xxxvi. 
:i(l-;;{):  Dent.  ii.  12.  -22).  The  Edomites  ap- 
I)ear  to  have  been  lirst  ruled  by  tril)al  chiefs 
called  dukes,  who  were  probably  like  Arab 
sheiks  ((Jen.  xxxvi.  l.Vl!»,  4(>-4:{;  1  Chron. 
i.  .")l-.")4i  ;  but  before  the  rise  of  the  Hebrew 
monarchv  they  wi're  governed  by  kings  (den. 
xxxvi.  .SI  :«);'l  Chron.  i.  4:5-.')!)".  When  the 
Israelites  were  aiiiiroaching  Canaan,  they 
sought  ]iermission  from  the  king  of  IMom  to 
pass  tlirough  his  territory,  giving  assurance 
that  the  privilege  would  not  i)e  :ii)used.  Here- 
fused  the  re(iuest,  and  was  jireiiared  to  fight 
if  the  Israelites  bail  i)ersislcd  in  moving  for- 
ward. Hut  liecausc  the  I'-domites  were  ile- 
scended  from  Al)raliam,  the  Israelites  were 
for!>idden  to  make  war  \\\h\\\  them  and  com- 
manded to  pass  around  their  land  (Num.  xx. 
11-211.  Notwithstanding  this  hostility,  an 
Edomite  was  regarded  in  the  Mosaic  law  as 
a  lirother  of  the  Israelites,  and  the  posterity 
of  the  former  were  allowed  in  the  third  gen- 
eration to  become  incorjiorated  with  the  He- 
brew people  ( Dent,  xxiii.  7.  ^).  while  it  was  not 
till  the  tenth  generation  that  the  dexciid- 
ants  of  a  Moabite  or  an  Ammonite  could  oh- 
tsiin  the  s:une  jirivilegc  (3-(j).  Saul  fought 
against  the  Edomites  (1  Sam.  xiv.  47)  ;  and 
I'avid  jiut  garrisons  in  Edom  after  coimuer- 
ing  the  country  (1  Ciiron.  xviii.  1.'!:  I's.  Ix., 
title:  and  2  .Sam.  viii.  13,  11.  where  the  woril 
Syrians  is  doubtless  the  error  of  a  eoj>yist 
who  misreail  daleth  as  resh).     This  contjucst 


liail  been  [iredicted  by  Iljiljuim  (Num.  xxiv. 
l"*).  .Joab,  David's  conimamler-in-ehief.  re- 
mained in  Etlom  lor  >ix  months,  cutting  off 
every  male  (1  Kin.  xi.  15.  10);  hut  Hadad, 
one  of  the  royal  family,  escaped  with  some 
others  of  his  countrymen  to  Egyjit,  and  l»c- 
came  an  active  enemy  of  Solomon  (14-22). 
After  the  death  of  Ahab  of  I>niel,  aiid  during 
the  reign  of  .lehoshaphat  of  Judah.  Edom- 
ites jtiined  with  the  Ammonites  and  Moabites 
in  invading  Judah  :  but  a  misiindei-standing 
arising,  they  were  attacked  and  (le>t roved  by 
their  allies  (2  Chron.  xx.22  .'JOi.  .lehoshaphat 
redin-ed  the  country  to  its  former  subjection, 
and  imt  it  under  a  dejnity  (1  Kin.  xxii.  47) ; 
and  the  Edomites  aided  l>rael  and  Judali  iu 
the  content  with  .Me>lia,  kiiigof  Moab  -^  Kin. 
iii.  4-271.  In  the  reign  of  .loram.  king  of 
Judah,  .lehoshaidiat's  son  and  siu-ces.sor,  the 
Edomites  revolted.  Jonini  vantjuished  them 
in  the  held,  but  could  not  reduce  them  to 
subjection  2  Kin.  viii.  2(1  22;  2  Chron.  xxi. 
8-10).  Ama/iah  was  more  successful.  He 
slew  1(),IK)0  Edomites  in  the  valley  of  .Salt, 
took  Sela,  the  capital,  and  put  1(I,("mki  Edom- 
ites to  death  by  tlinging  them  from  the  top 
of  the  rock  (2  Kin.  xiv.  7;  2  Chron.  xxv.  11, 
12).  In  the  reign  of  Ahaz.  when  .liidah  was 
attacked  by  I'ekah  and  lie/.in.  the  Edomites 
invaded  .ludah,  and  carried  oil'  captives  (2 
Chron.  XX viii.  17),  and  when  ,lerus;ilem  was 
taken  by  Neliuchadiie/.z;ir  the  Edomites  <-ut 
otl'  .Jewish  fugitives,  and  rijoiied  over  the 
catastrojdie  which  liad  l)efallen  the  kindred 
peo])le  (dhad.  10-14).  .strong  feeling  in  con- 
se(iuenc<'  arose  against  them.  an<l  vengeance 
was  breatheil  (I's.  cxxxvii.  7;  Jer.  xlix.  7- 
22;  Lam.  iv.21,  22  ;  E/ek.  xxv.  12-14;  xxxv. 
1."):  Joel  iii.  1!»;  Amos  ix.  12;  Obad.  1-21). 
When  the  captivity  of  the  two  tribes  ren- 
dered the  territory  of  .ludah  somewiiat  desti- 
tute of  inhabitants,  tin-  Edomit«-s  seized  on 
it  as  far  as  Hebron,  and  were  themselves  sup- 
planted in  mount  Seir  by  the  Nahatheean 
Arabs.  See  N.\n.\i<)'rn.  Jmlas  Maccabteus 
retook  Hebron  and  the  other  towns  which 
the  Edomites  had  occupied  (1  Mac.  v.  I'm; 
Anti<|.  xii.  f^,  •>).  .lohn  Hyrcanu>  compelled 
the  Edomites  to  submit  to  the  rite  of  circum- 
cision, and  incorjiorated  them  with  the  Jew- 
ish jieople  (.\ntiti.  xiii.  !'.  1).  The  Her<Kls 
were-  Idunueans,  i.  r.  Edomites.  Many  »tf 
the  Zealots  who  took  part  in  the  defense  of 
Jenisjileni  against  the  Konians,  and  wore 
almost  as  dangerous  to  their  fellow  citizens 
as  to  the  enemy,  were  also  Idumii-ans.  After 
this  the  tribe  is  little  heard  of  again  in  his- 
tory. 

Ed're-i  [strong]. 

1.  The  capital  city  of  Itashan  '  Deut.  in.  10; 
Josh.  xii.  4  :  xiii.  \S.  31 1.  There  the  Israelites 
fouglit  the  great  battle  with  Og,  which  de- 
]irived  him  of  his  dominions  and  his  life 
(Num.  xxi.  3.!  :{.'.;  Deul,  i.  1;  iii.  1.  10). 
Edrei  has  lieeii  iilentilied  with  the  niiMlern 
village  tif  Der'at,  about  27  mdes  east  of  tiad- 
ara. 


Eglah 


182 


Egypt 


2.  A  fenced  city  of  Naphtali   (Josh.  xix. 

37).     Not  identified. 

Eg'lah  [aiair]. 

OiiL-  of  Davi(l's  wives,  and  mother  of 
Itlireani  {2  Sam.  iii.  5;  1  Chron.  iii.  3). 

Eg'la-im  [two  ponds]. 

A  Moal)ite  town  (Is.  xv.  8).  Eusebiusmen- 
tion.s  a  village  Aigaleini,  8  Roman  miles  to 
the  south  of  Arcopolis  ;  cp.  also  the  town 
Agalla  (Antiq.  xiv.  1,  4).  It  is  not  the  same 
as  En-eglaim. 

Eg'lon  [perhaps  vituline]. 

1.  A  king  of  Moab,  who.  at  tlie  head  of  an 
army  of  Moabites,  Ammonites,  and  Amale- 
kites.  captured  Jericho,  and  retained  it  for 
eighteen  years,  oppressing  the  Israelites.  He 
was  assassinated  by  Ehud,  who  had  gained 
access  to  his  presence  on  the  ])retext  of  bring- 
ing him  a  present,  which  is  a  common  term 
for  tribute  (Judg.  iii.  12-30). 

2.  A  town  in  the  lowland  and  assigned  to 
Judah  (Josh.  xv.  39).  Its  king  was  one  of 
the  five  allies  who  made  war  on  Gibeon,  but 
were  defeated,  captured,  and  executed,  by 
Joshua  (Josh.  x.  3-23,  34-37;  xii.  12).  Its 
site  is  'Ajlan,  16  miles  northeast  of  Gaza. 

E'gypt. 

For  the  sake  of  convenience,  the  facts  re- 
garding Egj-pt  are  grouped  under  three  heads: 
the  country,  the  peojile,  and  the  sojourn  of 
the  Israelites. 

I.  The  Country. — 1.  Its  namex.  The  coun- 
try was  designated  Aiguptos  by  the  Greeks 
as  early  as  the  time  of  Homer.  The  ancient 
Egyptians  themselves,  however,  commonly 
called  their  native  land  Kam-t,  black,  naming 
it  from  the  color  of  the  soil.  To  the  Canaan- 
ites  it  was  known  as  Misru,  which  probably 
means  the  fortified  land,  or  closed  land,  so 
called  on  account  of  the  fortifications  along 
its  Asiatic  frontier  at  the  isthmus  of  Suez,  or 
it  may  denote  simply  the  territory.  This 
latter  name  the  Hebrews  employed  almost 
exclusively,  though  they  used  it  in  the  dual 
form  Misraim,  the  two  Egypts,  viz.,  upper  or 
southern  and  lower  or  northern  ;  like  the 
Egyptians  themselves,  considering  the  coun- 
try double. 

I.  2.  The  teiritory  and  its  divisions.  In  an- 
cient times  Egypt  was  the  country  watered 
by  the  Nile  from  the  Mediterranean  Sea  as 
far  as  the  first  cataract.  In  addition  it  in- 
cluded a  series  of  oa.ses  in  the  western  desert, 
and  also  the  country  between  the  eastern 
mouth  of  the  Nile  and  the  wady  el-'Arisli, 
the  river  of  Egypt.  The  country  is  divided 
by  nature  into  two  tracts — a  narrow  valley, 
running  from  south  to  north,  sunken)  in  the 
midst  of  a  desert  ;  and  the  prolongation  of 
the  valley  into  a  delta.  These  geographical 
divisions  formed  jtolitical  boundaries  also; 
Upper  Egypt  was  coincident  with  the  valley, 
and  Lower  Egypt  with  the  delta.  The  length 
of  the  Nile  country  from  the  .sea  to  the  first 
catarai-t  is  .>")0  miles,  and  its  breadtii  frotn 
the  liead  of  the  delta  to  the  cataract  varies 


from  14  to  32  miles.  The  area  of  this  tract 
is  about  11,342  square  miles,  of  which  at  the 
time  of  the  French  occiiiiatioii  G'J2I  square 
miles  were  cultivable.  Ancient  Egyi>t  w;u<  a 
small  country,  scarcely  one-half  again  as 
large  as  New  Jer.sey;  but,  at  the  same  time, 
in  jirojiortion  to  its  width,  it  is  the  longest 
country  in  the  world.  It  may  be  compared 
to  New  Jersey  with  its  area  increased  by  one 
half,  ehmgated  so  as  to  extend  from  New 
York  to  Cincinnati,  or  from  New  York  to 
Wilmington,  N.  (".  It  is  nearly  twice  as  far 
from  Mcmjihis  to  the  cataract  (about  4t)()miles) 
as  from  Memphis  to.Terusalem  (about2<J0),  and 
the  distance  is  greater  from  Memphis  to  the 
cataract  than  from  Memphis  to  Damascus 
(about  110  miles).  This  long,  narrow  valley 
of  the  Nile,  as  far  as  the  first  cataract,  was 
originally  an  estuary  of  the  .sea.  Herodotus 
came  to  this  conclusion  (ii.  10),  and  his  theory 
has  been  confirmed  by  geology.  "The  Nile 
mud,"  says  Fraas,  "  rests  on  a  bed  of  .sea  sand. 
The  whole  country  between  the  first  cataract 
and  the  Mediterranean  was  formerly  a  nar- 
row estuary."  In  the  strictest  sense.  Egypt, 
as  the  ancient  Greeks  said,  is  "  the  gift  of  the 
Nile."     See  Nile. 

I.  3.  The  adjacent  region.  Ancient  Egypt 
was  bounded  on  either  side  by  desert  laud. 
The  waste  country  gradually  rises  from  the 
Sahara  in  the  west  toward  the  east,  and 
terminates  in  a  chain  of  mountains  which 
skirt  the  Red  Sea.  The  desert  region  on  the 
east  of  the  river,  extending  to  the  Red  Sea, 
and  containing  nearly  50,000  square  miles, 
about  equal  in  extent  to  Pennsylvania,  was 
considered  as  forming  geographically  part  of 
Arabia  (Herod,  ii.  8.  19),  perhaps  because  like 
the  Arabian  peninsula  in  character,  although 
it  was  separated  from  Arabia  by  the  Red  Sea 
and  was  politically  no  man's  land,  virtually 
uninhabited,  whose  scanty  resources  were 
worked  by  the  Egyptians.  The  mountains 
rise  to  a  height  of  (3600  feet.  They  form  a 
broad  and  massive  range  of  crystalline  rock, 
running  parallel  with  the  coast  of  the  Red 
Sea  and  sending  forth  numerous  ramifications 
into  the  interior  of  the  country.  It  was  iu 
these  mountains,  at  Hammamat  on  the  cara- 
van route  ])etween  Koser  and  Thebes,  that 
the  ancient  Egyptians  quarried  the  hard, 
dark-colored  stone  which  they  used  for  sar- 
cojthagi  and  sphinxes:  and  at  Je})el  Dukha, 
nearly  opposite  the  extremity  of  the  Sinaitic 
peninsula,  they  mined  coi)])er  ami  emerald. 
Extensive  masses  of  limestone  stretch  from 
the  mountains  to  the  Nile,  yielding  the  ala- 
baster with  which  the  ancient  Egyi)tiaus  em- 
bellished their  buildings.  The  desert  on  the 
west  of  the  Nile  was  assigned  to  Libya.  It 
presents  an  I'utirely  ditterent  aspect  from 
the  region  east  of  the  river.  It  consists  of 
an  immense,  monotonous  and  stony  table- 
land, 6r)0  to  1000  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
Nile,  without  mountains  or  \alleys  or  even 
isolated  hills  of  any  considerable  height,  and 
without  trace  of  crvstalliue  or  volcanic  for- 


Egypt 


183 


Egypt 


mations.  The  whole  of  this  stonj'  and  al)so- 
lutely  unwatered  ])!ain  consists  of  limestone 
with  a  few  siind  liills  scattered  iiere  and 
there  over  it,  and  a  l)arrier  of  smdstonc  jiene- 
trating  into  it  not  far  from  the  Kthiopian 
border.     The  utter  desolation  of  this  region 


Ancient  Egypt  was  thus  an  isolated  coun- 
try—sea on  the  north,  desert  an<i  sea  on  the 
east,  desert  cleft  only  for  nearly  a  HKX)  miles 
by  the  narrowest  and  least  i)rtKluctive  part  of 
the  Nile  valley  on  the  south,  and  the  silent, 
illimitable  desert  on  the  west. 


Map  of 


is  relieved  at  five  i>oints  only  within  the 
Egyptian  territory  by  oases,  mere  s]iecks  in 
the  desert,  distant  by  a  journey  of  from  three 
to  live  days  from  each  other,  and  by  a  jour- 
ney of  from  three  to  sixtci'U  days  fr<»m  the 
Nile.  They  owe  their  fertility  to  subter- 
niuean  supi>lies  of  water,  which  are  believed 
to  l)e  connected  with  the  Nubian  Nile  or  i>os- 
sibly  with  the  Soudan.  The  combined  pojJU- 
lation  is  about  35,000. 


II.  The  Proplf.'-l.  Thrir  orit/in.  .\cconl- 
ing  to  the  Millie.  Misniim  wa.--  the  s<in  of  Ham 
and  the  brother  of  t'lmaan.  Put.  and  the  Eth- 
iopian Cash  (Gen,  x.  6).     This  descriptioM  iu- 


Egypt 


184 


Egypt 


dicates  an  Asiatic  orifjiii  for  the  Ej;yi)tiaus, 
but  whether  tliey  were  desceuded  I'nmi  Ham 
or  incorporated  witli  him  is  not  determined. 
Their  own  traditions  jioint  to  their  immif,'ra- 
tion  from  soutliern  Arahia.  The  type  of  the 
ancient  Egyptian  is  Caucasian  ;  l)Ut  at  the 
siime  time  anatomy,  cliaracter,  and  huiguage 
dillerentiate  him  from  the  Indo-Euroi)ean 
and  Semitic  i)eoples.  On  the  other  liand, 
many  of  the  domestic  utensils  employed  by 
the  ancient  Egyi)tians,  as  well  as  many  of 
their  customs,  are  said  to  be  similar  to  those 
of  the  dwellers  on  the  banks  of  the  Zambesi 
and  Niger,  but  totally  different  from  those 
seen  on  the  banks  of  the  Indus  and  Eu- 
phrates. Notimi)robably  JIamitic  immigrants 
from  Asia  conquered  an  aborignial  race  al- 
ready settled  on  the  banks  of  the  Nile. 

II.  2.  Their  appearance.  The  Egyptian  was 
short  of  stature  and  slender  of  build.  The 
head  was  large  in  jiroportion,  and  covered  with 
black  or  brown  hair — smooth,  not  woolly. 
The  forehead  was  square,  but  receding,  the 
eyes  large,  the  cheeks  full,  the  mouth  wide, 
the  lips  tolerably  thick.  In  color  the  Egyp- 
tian was  dark,  but  not  black.  The  women, 
not  being  exposed  to  the  sun,  had  a  lighter 
complexion. 

II.  3.  Their  language.  The  Egyptian  lan- 
guage is  difficult  to  classify.  Its  vocabulary 
connects  it  with  the  Turanian  tongues,  and 
its  grammar  with  the  Semitic  languages.  Its 
modern  descendant  is  the  Coptic,  which  con- 
tinued to  be  spoken  in  Lower  Egypt  until  the 
seventeenth  century.  Though  now  dead,  it 
is  known  by  translations  into  it  of  the  O.  T. 
and  N.  T.  Originally  a  kind  of  picture 
writing,  which  has  been  named  hieroglyphic 
or  sacred  writing,  was  used.  It  consisted 
chiefly  of  representations  of  objects  which 
occur  in  nature  and  art,  such  as  birds,  beasts, 
plants,  and  implements,  together  with  math- 
ematical symbols.  These  delineations  are 
partlj^  ideographs — that  is,  the  picture  is  the 
word  oT  idea,  and  they  partly  represent 
sounds  which  when  combined  yield  a  word. 
Hieroglyphic  writing  was  used  down  to  the 
latest  times ;  but  after  a  time  the  scribes 
began  to  dispense  with  the  details  of  the  pic- 
tures in  order  to  write  more  rapidly,  and  thus 
arose  the  hieKitic  or  priestly  writing.  It  was 
employed  wherever  ornamentatioTi  was  not 
an  object.  About  the  eighth  century  b.  c. 
the  demotic  or  popular  writing  came  into 
vogue.  It  was  used  in  social  and  commercial 
intercourse  for  writing  the  dialect  which  had 
developed  among  the  people,  and  was  a  cur- 
sive form  of  the  old  lii('rogly])hs.  When  the 
attention  of  the  modern  world  was  directed 
to  the  ancient  Egyjifian  writings,  they  could 
not  be  read,  and  for  a  long  time  no  key  could 
be  found.  But  when  Alexandria  surrendered 
to  the  British  in  1801  there  fell  into  their 
hands  a  slab  of  black  basalt,  called  the 
Rosetta  stone,  from  its  having  been  found 
by  the  French  near  the  Kosetta  branch  of 
the  Nile.     It  is  now  in  the  British  Museum. 


On  this  stone  is  cut  a  decree  bj'  Ptolemy  V., 
about  193  B.  c.  It  is  repeated  in  three  lan- 
guages and  in  three  forms  of  writing— de- 
motic, hieroglyphic-,  and  (Ireek.  A  bilingual 
inscription, (ireek and  liicroglyj)hic,was found 
on  an  obelisk  on  the  island  of  I'hihe  near  the 
tirst  cataract.  The  Cieek  of  these  texts  was, 
of  course,  easily  read,  being  a  known  lan- 
guage, and  the  hieroglyphs  were  deciphered 
by  comparison  with  it. 

II.  4.  Their  numbers.  The  population  of 
Egypt  was  greater  in  ancient  than  in  modern 
times.  Diodorus  Siculus.  cori temporary  of 
Julius  Ca'sar  and  Augustus,  states,  on  the 
authority  of  the  ancient  Egyptian  records, 
that  the  land  contained  in  the  time  of  the 
Pharaohs  more  than  IH, 000  cities  and  villages  ; 
and  he  gives  the  ancient  j>opulation  of  the 
country  as  7,000,000.  In  the  days  of  Nero,  on 
the  basis  of  the  revenue  derived  from  the  poll 
tax,  it  was  estimated  at  7,500.000,  exclusive 
of  the  inhabitants  of  Alexandria  (War  ii.  16, 
4).  This  number  is  quite  reasonable  in  itself, 
for  the  country  could  support  from  8,000,000 
to  9,000,000  people.  According  to  the  census 
of  1882,  the  present  population  of  Egy]it  proper 
is  6,811,448,  or  about  600  per  square  mile,  and 
is  therefore  denser  than  that  of  most  Euro- 
pean states. 

II.  5.  Their  history.  When  Egypt  passed 
from  the  prehistoric  to  the  historic  age  it 
seems  to  have  existed  as  a  number  of  small 
kingdoms.  These  were  afterwards  combined 
into  an  empire  by  Menes,  the  first  historical 
king.  Students  of  Egyptian  chronology  as- 
sign different  dates  to  the  commencement  of 
Menes"  reign.  These  vary  from  about  5700 
B.  c.  to  2700  B.  C.  Manetho,  a  priest  of  Seben- 
nytos  in  the  reign  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus, 
reckons  thirty  dynasties  from  the  accession 
of  Menes  to  the  Persian  conquest  of  Egypt  in 
345  B.  c.  These  are  now  generally  grouped 
into  three  periods:  those  of  the  Old,  the  Mid- 
dle, and  the  New  Empires.  To  the  Old  Em- 
l)ire  are  assigned  the  first  seven  or  ten  dy- 
nasties. Its  great  feature  was  pyramid  build- 
ing, which  reached  its  height  under  the 
fourth  dynasty.  That  of  the  Middle  Empire 
was  the  conquest  of  at  least  Lower  Egypt  by 
the  Hyksos,  or  .Shejjherd  Kings,  from  the 
northeast.  They  are  generally  supjiosed  to 
have  belonged  to  the  Semitic  race,  but  may 
have  been  Hittites.  It  is  believed  that  it  was 
during  their  domination  that  Abraham  vis- 
ited Egypt  and  that  .Toseph  was  ju'ime  min- 
ister. The  New  Empire  began  with  the  eigh- 
teenth dynasty.  Tlie  first  notable  event  in 
it  was  the  expulsion  of  the  Hyksos,  when 
they  had  ruled  by  one  account  511,  by  anotlier 
625  years.  Afterwards,  under  nativ(>  rulers, 
Egypt  attained  to  higli  jirosjierity,  and  be- 
gan a  career  of  coiupiest  and  (huninatiou  in 
western  Asia,  Thotluues  III.  being  its  greatest 
warrior,  and  Kanises  II.  not  much  inferior. 
The  latter  was  probably  the  Pharaoh  who 
oppressed  the  Israelites,  and  bis  son  Menep- 
tah  the  Pharaoh  of  the  exodus.     Other  Pha- 


Egypt 


185 


Egypt 


raohs  are  meutioneil  in  the  O.  T. — Shisliak, 
So,  Tirliakali,  Xeclio.  Uoplini  :  see  Phauaoh. 
Tirhakali  assisted  in  elu-ckin};  the  advance 
of  SennachiTili,  kin;;  ol"  Assyria,  toward 
E^yjit  ;  liiit  he  was  uverthruwn  hy  Senna- 
cherib's successor  Ksarha(Uhin.  The  Assyr- 
ians divided  K;;yi)t  into  twenty  districts,  and 
aiiiM)inted  a  f^overnor  over  each.  Tirhakah 
stirreil  up  revolt,  and  K;;y|>t  was  reconiiuered 
Ky  A>hiirl)aniiial,  who  iilunihred  and  de- 
stroyed Thehes  in  ()(!l  u.  c.  (Nali.iii.8-lU). 
r.sanuneticu.s,  one  of  the  jietty  rulers,  rose  iu 
revolt,  and,  aided  by  the  Asiatic  Greeks,  re- 
stored K^'yjit  to  independence,  founding;  the 
twenty-sixth  dynasty.  In  T/J.j  is.  t'.  K^rypt 
was  contiuered  by  C'anibyses  and  became  a 
Persian  satrajiy.  About  a  century  and  a  ((uar- 
ter  latt-r  Nephriti's  succeeded  in  completely 
tlirowin;;  of!"  the  Persian  yoke,  and  became 
tlie  founder  of  the  twenty-ninth  dynasty; 
but  in  ol.")  B.  c.  Efi.vpt  surrendered  to  Arta- 
xerxes,  and  again  became  a  Persian  sjitrajiy. 
In  '3'.i'2  B.  V.  it  welcomed  the  Macechinians  and 
Greeks,  led  liy  Alexander  the  (ireat;  for  it 
saw  in  him  a  deliverer  from  the  Persian  yoke. 
After  his  death  it  was  ruled  by  the  Ptolemies. 
In  ;>0  B.  t".  it  became  a  province  of  the  Konian 
empire,  and  was  ^roverned  by  jirefects  until 
A.  D.  'M2.  .loseidi,  Mary,  and  the  infant 
Jesus,  took  refuge  there  during  the  time  that 
Archelaus  ruled  .Tmhea.  In  a.  i>.  (>1!>  Egyjit 
was  conquered  by  Chosroes  II.  of  Persia,  who 
lost  it  again  iiermaneiitly  in  (i-JS.  Petween 
G38  and  (ild  it  ])assed  to  the  Saracens,  and 
between  IKi.'J  and  ll!)(j  to  the  Turks. 


Rast,  personification  of  .sexual  imssiun  (in 
Pi-beseth),  and  Anion,  a  god  who  animates 
nature.  Each  nonie  or  district  hail  its  spe- 
cial local  deity  or  deities,  to  \yhom  it  paid 
peculiar  honors.  Some  among  the  |>cople 
were  henotheists  or  worshipers  of  om-  god 
as  far  exalted  aliove  the  otheis  and  wortliy 
of  all  adonition,  and  ]ierhaps  some  were  even 
monotheists.  A  remarkably  clear  kiiowl«(lgo 
of  ethical  and  religious  truths  was  pos.ses.»ed 
from  very  early  times — truth  in  regard  to 
human  conduct,  sin.  justilication.  immortal- 
ity, and  witli  all  their  nature  worshij)  even 
in  regard  to  (iod. 

111.  The  Sojourn  tif  Ihe  IsraelUes  in  Efiypt. 
1.  The  ilisri'iit  into  I-Jii/jif.  A  grievous  famine 
l)revailed  throughout  the  whoh-  known  world, 
or  at  least  throughout  tliat  large  part  of  it 
about  the  eastern  and  southeastern  shores  of 
the  Mediterninean  .'^ea.  wln-re  ilwelt  a  eoni- 
jdex  of  nations  cut  olf  socially  and.  so  far  as 
obtaining  sutlicient  sujijdies  for  the  neces- 
sities of  life,  economically  from  the  moun- 
tains of  Asia  Minor  and  tlie  rich  valleys  of 
the  Euphrates  and  Tigris  Kien.  xli.  'tA  :  xlvii. 
1!5).  <)n  occasion  of  this  distress  .lost'jih.  who 
Iiad  risi'ii  toautlnirily  at  the  court  of  Phanioh 
second  only  to  that  of  the  king,  urged  his 
father  and  brethren  to  leave  Canaan  and 
settle  temjiorarilv  in  Egypt  (xlv.  !t-ll  ;  xlvii. 
4,2!t.  .Sd:  xlviii.  il  :  1.  •_»!).  Accordingly  .lacob 
migrati'd  with  his  tribe.  It  consisted  of  the 
patriarch  himself,  his  six  sons  and  one  daugh- 
ter by  Leah  with  t  went  y-five  sons:  his  two  s«ins 
by  Leah's  maid  with  thirteen  sons  and  one 


Migration  of  Asiatics  inlo  EgJi"!  during  the  Twelfth  liyiiii.-ty. 


II.  (i.  Thrir  reliijioii.  The  religion  of  the 
Egyptians  was  a  spiritualized  nature  wor- 
ship, centering  about  veneration  of  the  sun 
ami  of  the  river  Nile,  two  sources  of  life.  A 
v;ist  number  of  (hilits  were  ;idored.  They 
reid'csented  the  forces  and  idienomena  of 
nature.  Ptah,  whose  name  oeeiirs  in  Me- 
neptali,  was  chief.  He  represent«'d  the  or- 
ganizing and  motive  power  developed  from 
moisture.  The  names  of  several  others  are 
found  in  the  < ).  T.  — IJa,  the  sun  god.  illumi- 
nator of  the  world  and  awakener  of  life  (in 
Ivamses) ;  Thum,  the  evening  sun,  the  posses- 
sor of  creative  power  and  the  dispenser  of 
the  welcome  evening  breezes   (in    Pithoni); 


daughter;  histwo.sons  by  Rachel  with  twdvo 
.sons,  of  which  number  three  wen-  already  in 
Egypt  ;  and  his  two  sons  by  Kadn  I's  maid 
with  five  sons  (xlvi.  ."^  •,'."> i.  .Ml  the  souls 
which  came  with  .lacob  into  Egypt,  which 
»:ime  out  of  bis  loins  (even  though  pj-rhnps 
.some  wen-  yet  unboni,  cji.  Ilib.  vii.  9,  10», 
were  sixty-six  souls  ((Jen.  xlvi.  '2i>).  All  the 
souls  of  the  house  of  .lacob  which  cnnie  into 
Egypt  first  anil  la-l.  iiicliiding  the  head  of 
the  house  ami  .loseph  with  bis  two  son.n  who 
were  born  in  Egyi>t.  were  s.'venty  souls  (vcr. 
27).  This  is  also  the  ennmenition  of  Ex.  i.  ."> 
(as  in  (Jen.  xlvi.  l.">,  apparently  exclusive  of 
.Jacob,  but  in  reality  inclusive  of  himi  and 


Egypt 


186 


Egypt 


Deut.  X.  22.  The  Septuagiut,  however,  and 
Stephen  who  follows  the  Greek  version  (Acts 
vii.  14)  reckon  seventy-live.  This  I'esult  is 
due  to  the  addition  in  Gen.  xlvi.  20  of  three 
grandson.s  and  two  grcat-f^randsons  of  Joseph, 
who.se  names  are  ol)taine(l  from  Num.  xxvi. 
29  and  35  seq.  The  numerical  correspond- 
ences of  the  register,  a  total  of  seventy,  and 
the  descendants  of  each  maid  precisely  half 
tiiose  of  her  mistress  (Leah  32,  Zilpah  16, 
Rachel  14,  Billiah  7),  suggest  design,  and  can 
scarcely  he  altogether  accidental.  A  com- 
parison with  Num.  xxvi.  leads  to  the  belief 
that  regard  was  had  to  the  subsequent  na- 
tional organization  in  constructing  this  table, 
and  that  its  design  was  to  include  those  de- 
scendants of  Jacob  from  whom  permanent 
tril)al  divisions  sprang,  even  if  in  a  few  in- 
stances they  were  still  in  the  loins  of  the 
patriarch  when  he  led  his  tribe  into  Egypt. 
The  tribe  of  Israel  settled  in  Goshen,  and  re- 
mained in  and  about  this  fertile  region  until 
the  exodus  (Gen.  xlvii.  6,  11 ;  Ex.  viii.  22 ; 
ix.  2fi  ;  xii.  37). 

III.  2.  The  sojourn  as  embedded  in  the  na- 
tional consciousness.  The  descent  of  Jacoii 
and  his  tamily  into  Egypt,  their  su1)sequent 
increase  and  enslavement,  their  sutl'erings 
and  their  exodus  in  a  body,  were  recorded  in 
their  earliest  historical  document  (Gen.  xlvi. 
4,  28-34  ;  xlvii.  27 ;  Ex.  i.  9,  11,  15-22  ;  ii.  11  ; 
xii.  31-37;  xiii.  21).  The  feast  of  the  pass- 
over,  and  to  a  less  degree  that  of  the  taber- 
nacles, bore  testimony  to  the  events,  and 
kept  the  knowledge  of  them  alive  among 
the  people.  Psalmists  pitched  their  songs 
of  redemption  and  their  hymns  in  celebration 
of  Jehovah's  might  to  its  key,  and  from  it 
prophets  drew  lessons.  The  standing  tyjies 
of  the  grievous  oppression  of  tlie  church  and 
of  God's  redemptive  power  and  love  are 
Israel's  bondage  of  old  in  Egypt  and  deliv- 
erance from  that  furua(^e  of  atHiction.  The 
tradition  is  not  peculiar  to  one  tribe,  as  though 
but  a  portion  of  the  Hebrew  folk  had  en- 
dured Egyptian  slavery  ;  it  is  not  exclusively 
Judiean,  but  it  is  Ej)hraimite  as  well.  The 
prophets  of  botji  kingdoms  voice  it — Isaiah, 
Micah,  and  Jeremiah,  among  the  hills  of 
Judah  (Is.  xi.  l(j;  Mic.  vi.  4  ;  vii.  15;  Jer.  ii. 
6  ;  vii.  22),  and  Hosea  and  Amos  in  tlie  king- 
dom of  Samaria  (Hos.  ii.  15  ;  viii.  13  ;  ix.  3  ; 
xi.  1  ;  xii.  9, 13 ;  Amos  ii.  10  ;  iii.  1 ;  ix.  7).  The 
tradition  is  the  common  property  of  all 
Israel.  The  people  as  a  whole  had  suffered 
Egyptian  bondage. 

III.  3.  The  duration  of  the  sojourn.  The 
biblical  data  are  stated  in  the  following 
terms:  "  He  said  unto  .\braham,  'Thy  seed 
shall  be  a  stranger  in  a  land  that  is  not  theirs, 
and  shall  serve  tlujm  ;  and  they  shall  afflict 
them  400  years  .  .  .  but  in  the  fourth  genera- 
tion they  shall  come  hither  again  '  "  (<  ien.  xv. 
13-ltj).  "The  sojourning  of  the  children  of 
Israel,  which  tiicy  sujounu>(l  in  Egypt,  was  4."iO 
years"  (Ex.  xii.  40,  K.  V.)  ;  according  to  the 
Septuagint  and  Samaritan  Pentateuch  in  this 


passage,  the  sojourning  "  in  Egypt  and  in  the 
land  of  Canaan  was  430  years.'"  God  sjjake 
to  Abraham  ''  that  his  .seed  should  sojourn  in 
a  strange  land  ;  and  that  they  should  bring 
them  into  bondage,  and  entreat  them  evil 
400  years"  (Acts  vii.  (j).  "The  law  came  430 
years  after"  the  covenant  (CJal.  iii.  17). 
These  statements  are  interpreted  to  mean  : 

(1)  The  children  of  Israel  dwelt  in  Egy])t 
215  years.  For  the  Seventy,  either  to  re- 
move an  aml)iguity  or  because  their  Hel)rew 
manuscripts dill'ered  from  the  present  Hebrew 
te.xt,  add  the  words  "and  in  the  land  of  Ca- 
naan "  to  the  statement  in  Ex.  xii.  40.  Now 
from  the  date  of  the  covenant  with  Abram, 
shortly  after  his  arrival  in  Canaan,  to  the 
migration  of  his  descendants  into  Egypt  was 
about  215  years  (Gen.  xii.  4  ;  with  xxi.  5; 
XXV.  20;  xlvii.  9),  leaving  215  years  for  the 
sojourn  of  the  children  of  Israel  in  Egyjit. 
This  statement  is  also  made  by  Josephus,  wiio 
says,  ''The  Hebrews  left  Egyi)t  430  years 
after  our  forefather  Abraham  came  into  Ca- 
naan, but  215  years  only  after  Jacob  removed 
into  Egypt"  (Autiq.  ii.  15,  2).  In  this  state- 
ment he  is  following  the  Septuagint,  but  he 
nullifies  his  statement  by  saying  elsewhere, 
"400  years  did  they  spend  under  these 
labors"  (Antiq.  ii.  9,  1  ;  War  v.  9,  4;  mani- 
festly incorrect,  for  the  Israelites  were  not 
oppressed  for  400  years).  But  however  Jo- 
sephus may  vacillate.  Paul  dates  the  law  at 
Sinai  430  years  after  the  covenant  with 
Abram,  and  the  genealogies  give  four  gen- 
erations between  Jacob  and  the  exodus,  which 
may  cover  215  years,  but  scarcelv  400  vears 
(Ex.  vi.  16-'20).' 

The  biblical  data  are  explained  to  mean 

(2)  The  children  of  Israel  dwelt  430  years  in 
Egypt.  (1)  The  natural  interpretation  of 
Gen.  XV.  13-16  requires  this,  (a)  The  state- 
ment is  not  that  the  Israelites  should  be 
atHicted  400  years,  but  that  the  entire  so- 
journ as  strangers  in  a  land  not  theirs,  where 
they  shall  be  eventually  brought  into  bond- 
age, is  400  years.  (&)  The  event  is  not  to  take 
place  until  after  Abraham's  death  (ver.  15). 
(c)  The  four  generations  are  equivalent  to 
the  aforementioned  400  years.  In  this  pas- 
sage, generation  does  not  mean  each  succes- 
sion of  persons  from  a  common  ancestor,  as 
it  does  in  Ex.  xx.  5  ;  Job  xlii.  16,  but  the  age 
or  period  of  a  body  of  contemporaries,  and 
this  not  in  our  modern  sense  of  the  average 
lifetime  of  all  who  pass  the  age  of  infancy, 
but  the  average  period  of  the  activity  of  any 
generation,  and  tliis  is  determined  by  the 
normal  span  of  life.  The  generation  lasts 
while  any  of  its  membei"s  survive  (Ex.  i.  6; 
Num.  xxxii.  13;  Judg.  ii.  10;  Ecc.  i.  4).  The 
period  of  a  generation's  acti\ity  may  be 
judged  from  the  length  of  the  life  of  Isaac, 
180  years;  of  Jacob,  147  years;  of  Levi.  137; 
of  Kohath.  133 ;  of  Amram,  137  ;  of  Aaron, 
1-23;  of  Moses,  1-20  (Gen.  xxxv.  28;  xlvii. '28  ; 
Ex.  vi.  16,  18,  >20:  Num.  xxxiii.  .39;  Deut. 
xxxiv.  7).     Gr  the  period  of  a  generation's 


Egypt 


187 


Egypt 


activity  may  be  estiinatod  from  the  record 
of  tliree  fitiieialions  lictwecii  tlie  liirlli  of 
Abraham  and  the  desifiit  into  j-^j^'yiit.  when 
Jacob  was  still  active,  a  (leriod  of  25«J  yeai-s. 
A  generation  was  about  100  years.  Hut  are 
uot  just  four  ^generations  registered — namely. 
Levi  and  Kohath,  who  eami'  into  Kj,'y|il  with 
Jacob,  .Vmram,  Moses,  and  Moses'  sons'.'  \ 
consecutive  Kenealojjy  in  Jjcvi,  K(diath,  and 
Amnini  is  admitti'd  ;  l)ut  was  .Moses  the  son 
of  Amram  and  ,Iochebe<l  (Ex.  vi.20;  1  Cliron. 
vi.  l-."{)'.'  .\  dilliculty  arises  if  the  i)as.sa;;e 
be  so  interiu-eted.  (<i]  Amram  and  his  broth- 
ers gave  rise  to  the  Aniraniites,  Izharites, 
Hebronites,  and  Uzzielites ;  and  these  one 
year  after  the  e.xodus  amounted  to  SfJOO 
males  ;  that  is,  the  finindlaliur  of  .Moses  had 
81J00  male  descendants  in  the  days  of  Pluses, 
of  whom  "JTriO  were  between  the  ages  of  'M 
and  .">0  (Num.  iii.  27;  iv.  36).  (6)  In  the 
parallel  genealogy  of  the  contemiior.iries  of 
Moses  Bezalel  is  seventh  from  .lacol)  and 
Joshua  a])i)areutly  eleventh  (1  Chron.  ii.  Is- 
20 ;  vii.  23-27).  the  hmguage  of  Ex.  vi.  20 
does  uot  necessarily,  nor  even  evidently,  mean 
that  Amram  and  .Jochebed  were  the  imme- 
diate jiarents  of  .Moses  and  .\aron.  In  (ien. 
xlvi.  L"^,  great-grandsons  of  Zilitah  are  men- 
tioned with  others  as  sons  which  she  Ixire  to 
Jacob.  In  Mat.  i.  8  .loram  is  said  to  beget  his 
great-great-grandson  I'zziah.  According  to 
lien.  X.  1,>-1.'- Canaan  begat  nations.  Wliere 
the  l)irth  of  Moses  is  narnited  in  detail,  he  is 
not  Siiid  to  l)e  the  child  of  Anu-am  and  ,loch- 
ebed  (Kx.  ii.).  The  n^ason  for  registering 
only  fournamesin  the  genealogy  of  Mosesand 
otliers  (Kx.  vi.  16-22)  is  that  the  first  three 
names  are  otHcial  and  give  the  tribe,  family, 
and  father's  house  to  which  Mosesand  .\aron 
belonged.  The  thrte  names  |)roi)erly  and  at 
once  <-la.ssify  Mo.ses  and  Aaron.  (2)  130  years 
for  tlie  sojourn  is  also  the  record  of  Ex.  xii. 
40.  The  statement  does  not  incliule  tlie  so- 
journ of  the  jiatriarchs  in  Canaan,  for  («) 
Abraliam  and  Isiac  were  not  sons  of  Israel, 
and  (h)  the  verse  in  the  Hebrew,  Chaldee, 
etc.,  except  Sei)tuagint  and  .'samaritan,  makes 
no  reference  to  Canaan.  (."5)  A  sojourn  of -130 
years  best  accounts  for  tlie  number  of  the 
children  of  Israel  at  the  t-xodus.  ( \)  On  the 
interjirelation  of  the  datii  as  meaning  that 
the  sojourn  lasted  -130  years  Paul's  stiitement 
in  (lalatians  can  be  accounted  for.  It  is  not 
his  object  to  measure  the  exact  time  lietween 
the  covenant  and  the  law.  His  argument 
only  rei|uires  liini  to  prove  that  the  law  was 
given  long  aft«'r  tlie  covenant,  and  lience 
cannot  disninul  it.  He  i>roves  it  by  citing 
the  well-known  jieiiod  of  the  sojourn  which 
intervened  between  tlie  two  events;  the 
largest  and  most  familiar  single  sum  of  years 
in  the  interval.  He  does  not  state  that  the 
law  came  exactly  130  years  after  the  cove- 
nant;  but  he  rather  says  that  the  law  came, 
as  we  all  know,  130  years  after  the  covenant. 
It  is  indilferent  whether  he  has  the  Hebrew 
or  the  Greek  text  in  mind,  and  whether  his 


Galatiaii  nadei>  nler  to  the  Hebrew  or  to 
the  (Jreek  edition. 

III.  -1.  Till-  iiinltipltcatiun  of  the  Imiirtitei 
duiiutj  lite  siijutirn.  (1)  It  has  been  jiointed 
out  (Keil)  that  if  from  the  Si-venty  soul>  who 
went  ilown  into  Egypt  there  be  deducted  the 
jiatriarch  ,Ia<ob,  his  twtdve  son>.  Dinah,  and 
Serali  daughter  of  .Vsher,  and  al.■^o  the  three 
Bonsof  Levi,  the  four  grandsons  of  .luilaii  and 
Asher,  and  those  gnimlsoiis  of  .lacob  who  prob- 
ably died  without  male  oirsjiring.  inasmuch  as 
their  des<(ndants  air  not  named  among  the 
families  of  Israel  (see  Num.  xxvi.),  then-  will 
remain  forty-one  gnmd.sons  of  Jacob  (be.-ides 
the  Levites)  wlio  founded  families;  and  if. 
furthermore,  there  be  allowed  but  ten  gen- 
erations for  the  l.to  years;  iievcrthele.ss  tlie 
forty-one  miii  would  increase  to  I7>.22l  males 
if  each  family  averaged  thri-e  sons  and  thn-e 
daughters  during  the  lirst  six  generations, 
and  two  sons  and  Iwodaughteis  during  the 
last  four  generations.  TIicm-  with  the  sur- 
vivors of  the  ninth  generation  would  amount 
to  more  than  (iiMi.iMKt  men  above  twenty  years 
of  age.  (2)  It  is  a  mistake  to  overlook  the 
fact  that  till-  household  of  the  ]iatriarch  in- 
cluded numerous  servants  ((Jen.  .\xx.  1.3; 
xxxii.  .") ;  xlv.  10).  who  were  cin-umcised 
((Jen.  xvii.  12.  13)  ami  enjoyed  full  religious 
jirivileges  (Ex.  xii.  14,  4s,  4!t,  et».).  and  witii 
whom  intermarriage  was  no  degnidation 
((Jen.  xvi.  1,  2;  xxx.  4,  U;  Num.  xii.  1;  1 
Chron.  ii.  31,  3")). 

III.  o.  The  chttiKje  of  oreiipntioii  tliiriiifi  the 
sojourn.  When  the  Israelites  .settled  in  (to- 
shen  they  were  a  coiniiaratively  small  tribe, 
independent,  and  herdsmen.  Hut  after  .losejdi 
and  the  men  of  that  geiienition  died,  a  new 
king  arose  who  knew  not  .loseph  1 1-^x.  i.  6-8). 
He  saw  the  increasing  numbers  of  the  I>rael- 
ites,  and.  fearing  that  they  might  ally  them- 
selves with  the  enemies  of  Egyjit,  took  meas- 
ures to  render  them  a  siibji'ct  |>eople  and  to 
check  their  increa.se.  Taskmasters  were 
jilaced  over  them,  and  rigorous  service  was 
exactetl  from  them  in  the  lorm  of  agriculture, 
brickmaking,  and  Imilding  i  Ex.  i.  11.  II;  v. 
6-8),  while  they  still  provided  .some  at  least 
of  their  own  sujiport  by  herding  (ix.  4.  6  :  x. 
5),  21  ;  xii.  3.-). 

III.  (>.  The  minicle.i  irroiiiiht  '«/  Mnsen  nl  tlie 
euil  of  the  Mojoiini.  The  op)>res.sion  of  the 
Isrjtelites  lasted  eighty  years  or  nion-  (Ex. 
vii.  7;  cp.  ii.  2  seq.).  At  length  their  cry 
came  up  unto  (Jtxl,  and  he  sent  Mos«'s  t<i 
deliver  them  (ii.  23  se«j.).  Tin-  humble  am- 
has.siidor  of  heaven  was  ]>rovidid  with  mir- 
acles as  his  creih-ntials.  They  were  miracles  ; 
that  is.  in  .*Nripture  parlance,  signs,  wonders, 
and  jiowers  (I's.  Ixxviii.  12.  43i.  They  were 
wonderful,  unusinil.  and  intende<l  to  enforce 
attention.  They  were  signs  accrediting  Motsos 
as  the  mes.s<'nger  of  (J.kI  to  the  lsr.»elit«'s  \  Kx. 
iv.  M.i).  30.  31 ;  vi.  7i  and  to  I'hanioh  (iii.  2«»;  iv. 
21 ;  vii.  3  .") ;  viii.  2','.  '231.  They  were  jMiwers,  not 
natunil  idienomena  ;  for  ( 1 )  design  is  ap|i!»r- 
ent  in  them,  and  not  the  blindncjw  of  nature. 


Egypt 


188 


Egypt 


They  form  an  orderly  series;  the  one  is  in 
logical  hut  not  causal  relation  to  its  successor ; 
they  increase  in  severity,  aflbrdiug  Pharaoh 
sufficient  evidence  at  the  outset  of  the  di- 
vine authority  of  Moses,  without  inflicting 
unnecessary  suffering  upon  the  Egyptians; 
and  when  he  refuses  to  let  the  Hebrews  go, 
they  become  more  intense,  and  bring  ever- 
increasing  pressure  ujion  his  otxlurate  heart 
until  he  finally  yields.  {2)  A  distinction  was 
made,  w'hich  nature  does  not  make,  between 


Brickmaking  in  Ancient  Egyjit. 

the  people  of  God  and  the  Egyptians  (viii. 
22,  23 ;  ix.  4,  25,  26  ;  x.  22,  23;  xi.  5-7).  (3) 
A  pestilence  might  have  slain  a  great  num- 
ber of  the  Egyptians  in  one  night,  but  the 
tenth  plague  is  a  pestilence  with  a  method. 
It  is  not  a  promiscuous  death,  the  firstborn 
in  every  family  of  the  Egyptians  dies. 

These  signs,  wonders,  and  powers  belong 
to  the  first  group  of  miracles  recorded  in 
Scripture.     See  Miraclks. 

III.  7.  The  ortinniziitidii  of  the  Txraelifes  at 
the  end  of  the  sojourn.  The  forefathers  of  the 
children  of  Israel  had  descended  into  Egypt 
as  a  family  of  twelve  households,  and  had 
settled  together  in  Goshen.    As  is  iiuite  natu- 


ral in  itself  and  as  appears  from  the  narrative, 
they  retained  their  organization  desjiite  their 
enslavement.  Tlu'y  did  wot  auialgamate  with 
the  master  race,  l)ut  remaiui'd  a  distinct  peo- 
ple and  preserved  the  twelve  great  family 
divisions.  ]}y  the  end  of  the  430  years  the 
families  of  the  twelve  sons  had  become  twelve 
tribes,  and  the  sons'  sons,  and  in  a  lew  in- 
stances the  sons'  remoter  descendants,  had 
grown  into  large  family  connections.  Accord- 
ingly, at  the  time  of  the  exodus  there  was  a 
people,  Israel,  divided  into  twelve 
tribes;  and  each  trilie  was  subdi- 
vided into  families  or  connections, 
which  derived  their  names  for  the 
most  part  from  tiie  grandsons  of 
Jacob  (Ex.  vi.  14  with  Gen.  xlvi. 
y,  and  Num.  xxvi.  with  (xen.  xlvi.), 
and  at  the  time  of  the  second  census 
numbered  57,  without  Levi;  and 
each  family  connection  into  fathers' 
houses  (Num.  i.  2,  18,  20).  Au- 
thiirity  of  various  kinds  was  vested 
in  ( 1 )  Princes  by  birth  (Ex.  xvi.  22), 
heads  of  the  tribes  or  family  con- 
nections (Num.  i.  4,  Ifi).  (2)  Elders, 
who  were  probably  heads  of  tribes 
and  families,  and  aged  (Ex.  iv.  2!) ; 
xii.  21 ;  xvii.  5-6).  (3)  Apparently 
also  in  priests  (Ex.  xix.  22,  24;  per- 
haps cp.  Ex.  xxiv.  5).  They  were 
probably  men  out  of  the  various 
tribes  who  were  ])erforniing  priest- 
ly functions  for  the  Israelites ;  as 
Abraham,  Isaac,  and  .Jacob,  as  head 
of  the  family,  had  offered  sacrifice. 
(4)  The  Egyptians  had  imposed 
further  organization  on  the  Israel- 
ites by  setting  officers  (Ex.  v.  6,  10, 
19)  over  them  ;  Hebrews  (Ex.  v.  15, 
16),  who  had  undoubtedly  been  ap- 
pointed on  the  grouiul  of  their 
ability  to  direct.  Through  the.se 
various  representatives  Pharaoh 
and  Moses  communicated  their  will 
to  all  the  peojile  with  dispatch.  The 
children  of  Israel,  groujied  in  tribes, 
families,  and  fathers'  houses,  offi- 
cered and  accustomed  to  obedience, 
were  not  an  unwieldy  horde,  but  a 
multitude  with  the  organization  of 
an  army.  They  are  fittingly  called 
the  hosts  or  armies  of  the  Lord,  and  it  is  sig- 
nificantly said  that  they  went  out  of  Egypt 
by  their  hosts  (Ex.  xii.  41). 

III.  8.  The  Phnraohs  of  the  oppres.imn  and 
e.rodus.  Ramses  II.  is  commonly  regarded 
as  the  Pharaoh  of  the  oppression,  and  ]\lenep- 
tah  as  the  Pharaoh  of  the  exodus.*    This  opin- 

*  In  view  of  various  references  in  the  tablets 
of  Tell  el-Aniarna  to  the  Hatiiri  inakiuj,' war  with 
the  inhabitants  of  western  Palestine  in  the  days 
of  Ainenophis  IV.,  and  the  similarity  of  this 
name  to  the  word  Iletirew,  and  the  "essential 
afrrcement  o"f  this  date  with  thv  date  of  tlie  ex- 
odus which  I'slier  obtained  fnun  a  study  of  the 
liiblieal  data,  certain  recent  writers  ari'  inclined 


Egypt 


18!» 


Ekron 


ion  is  based  on  tlie  following;  considcTations: 
(1)  TIr'  Israolites  liad  nut  ohtaint-d  j>i)sse.ssi<)n 
of  rak'Stim-  in  tlio  days  of  Anicnuidiis  III. 
and  IV. ;  fur  tiic  country,  whose  condition  at 
that  time  lias  l)ccn  revealed  liy  the  tal)lets 
found  at  Tell  el-.\niarna,  was  hrcdvcn  nji  into 
petty  governments,  and  nndi'r  ICjiyjitian  su- 
zerainty, liamses  II.,  muri'over,  and  li^imses 
III.,  both  of  whom  warre<l  in  Palestine,  make 
no  mention  of  the  Israelites  as  bein<j  in  the 
land;  and  the  Hebrew  records  are  silent  as 
to  an  invasion  of  the  country  by  thesi'  Ej,'yi>- 
tian  niiinarclis.  CJ)  In  K.\.  i.  II  it  is  noted 
that  the  children  of  Israel  built  for  I'haraoh 
store  cities,  Tithom  and  liamses.    The  site  of 


Storehouse  for  Grain  in  Ancient  Kgypt. 

Pithom  lias  been  identified  and  the  ancient 
granaries  uncovered.  No  remains  have  been 
foun<l  there  of  earlier  date  than  the  rei;rn  of 
Ramses  II.,  and  his  name  is  inscribed  on  some 
of  the  stones.  Aiiiiarentl>-  I'ilhoin  was  built 
in  the  reij;n  of  Kamses  II.  It  was  Kamses 
II.  also  who  erected  a  lU'W  town,  with  tem- 
ples and  shrines,  adjacent  to  the  ancient 
fortrcs.s  at  Zoan.  and  on  this  account  the 
place  was  called  Pa-Kamses.  the  city  of  Kam- 
ses. These  correspondences  with  the  Hebrew 
records  indicate  that  Kamses  II.  was  the  Plia- 
Tiiob  of  tlie  opiires>ion.  (.'5)  Jleneiilah.  a  son 
and  successor  of  Kamses  II.,  in  an  inscrijition  > 
in  which  he  records  his  reiiulse  of  the  Libyan 
invasion  of  his  fifth  year,  closes  with  describ- 
iii'r  certain  consetiiiences  of  tliis  victory.  He 
mentions  the  ravaj;in.ir  of  Pa-Kanana  in  south- 
ern Palestine,  the  capture  of  .\shk(lon  aiitl 
Ciezer  in  Philistia.  the  reilmtion  of  a  town  , 
near  Tyre,  the  sjioilinfr  of  the  peo]ile  of  Is-  j 
rael,  and  the  widowhood  of  Khar,  i.  e.  soutli-    i 

to  believe  that  Anien-lietep  lI.,orTlinthnK's  IV.,    | 
was  the  I'haraoh  of  the  exodus.    The  wei^ity    , 
ohjections  to  this  theorv  nri — 1.  Ilahiri   is  not    ' 
the  uatunil   tniuslileratjon  of '/'"/,  Ilehrew,  a 
Word   wliidi    l.eL'ins   with   uiii>oiiited   ain    and 
short   i.     Habiri  is   ratlier  connected  etyinoloi:- 
icnlly  witii  such    Ilelirew  wi>rds   as    llihir  and 
/Ar/wr,  and  hence  is  reirarded  liv  pliiloloKists  as 
liiost  ))rol>alilv  iiicaninL.'  thcnllies.    J.  Kamses  isn 
peoL'raiihical"desi>.'nnti(m  (Kx.  i.  11 :  xii.  :!7i.  and 
the  theorv  in  c|uesti<in  is  uiial.le  to  exi>laln  how 
it  oiuld  liave  heen  so  in  the  davs  of  Anieli-lietep 
lI.orTliothnies  I V.  years  I  lefore  the  tlrsl  Kamses 
ascended  (he  tlirone  of  I'-tjypt. 


em  Palestine.  The  reference  t<i  the  |K-opIe 
of  Israel  has  been  jilausibly  explained  as 
notin;;  an  attack  on  the  children  of  l!»niel 
durinji  their  sojourn  in  the  wilderties.s  on  the 
borders  of  southern  Palestine.  .>^ee  Pii.\kaiiII. 
As  already  stated.  Kamses  III.,  who  succeeded 
.Mi-iieiitah  after  an  interval,  warred  in  Pales- 
tine, i)ut  does  not  mention  the  Isnielites  as 
beiiiK  in  the  country.  It  is  rea.sonabie  to 
believe  that  the  Isnielites  left  Kgypt  at  the 
be},'innin;,'  of  Menejitah's  rei;;n,  but  had  not 
sjieiit  their  forty  ye;ii>  in  the  wildernc-vs  and 
arrived  in  Canaan  by  the  reign  of  Kamses 
III.     For  the  date  of  the  exodus,  see  CUKO- 

NOLOCY. 

E'M.     See  AilIK.\M. 
E'hud  [union]. 

1.  A  Henjamite,  descended  through  .lediael 
(1  Cliron.  vii.  Ki). 

2.  A  left  -  handed  Benjamite,  descended 
through  tiera.  He  as.siissinated  Kghin,  king 
of  Moab,  then  the  o])pres.sor  of  Israel,  at 
.lerielio.  Fleeing  to  the  hill  country  of 
Ephraiiii.  he  summoned  the  I>nielites  by 
sound  id'  triimiiet,  put  him.-elf  at  tlieir  head, 
descended  to  the  valley  of  the  Jordan,  seized 
the  ford  of  the  river,  and  slew  KMKKI  .Moabites 
as  they  attempted  to  cross.  He  Judged  Isniel 
for  the  remaiiKler  of  his  lile.  and  kept  the 
j)eoi>le  true  to  .lehovah  (Judg.  iii.  ir)-iv.  1). 

E'ker  [one  transplanted,  a  inau  of  foreign 
descent  .settli'd  in  a  place]. 

A  man  of  .ludah,  a  .son  of  Kjuii,  of  the 
house  of  Jerahineel  (1  C'hron.  ii.  '27). 

Ek'ron  [eradication]. 

The  most  norilierlyof  the  five  chief  Phili.*- 
tine  cities  (.losli.  xiii.  .'J;  1  Sam.  vi.  l»i.  IT). 
It  was  a.ssigned  to  .Tudah  (.lo.sh.  xv.  -I"),  4t!i, 
and  afterwards  to  Dan  (xix.  I.Si;  but  the 
boundary  line  of  ,ludah  ran  past  it  (xv.  Ill, 
and  it  was  taken  and  possessed  by  the  men 
of  tliat  tribe  (.hidg.  i.  1>).  .\fler  a  time  it  was 
recovered  by  the  Phili.stines.  When  the  iHojile 
first  of  .\shdod  and  then  of  (Jath  became 
afraid  to  retain  the  ark  of  (iod,  th«-y  .-^nt  it 
to  i;kron,  wlieiice  it  was  returned  to  I-niel 
(1  Sam.  V.  Ml.  Fkron  was  apparently  taken 
by  the  Ismeliles  under  .Annuel,  but  was  .mmiu 
again  a  Philistine  city  (vii.  II ;  xvii.  .V,*i.  Its 
tutelary  go<l  was  15aal-zebiib,  whom  .Vhaziaii. 
king  of  Israel,  sent  to  consult  cJ  Kin.  i.  'J- 
Ki).  .Indgment  was  denouncctl  again-t  it 
and  the  other  Philistine  cities  by  the  pniphel.K 
(.ler.  XXV.  •-'<»:  Amos  i.  s ;  Z«pii.  ii.  4;  Zech. 
ix.  r>,  7).  Alexantler  Rilas.  king  of  Syria, 
gave  Kkron  to  .lonathan  Maccabaiis  1 1  Mhc. 
X.  S!l).  It  still  »xi>led  at  the  time  of  the 
C'rusiides.  It  is  lu-lieved  to  be  now  n-pn- 
sented  by  the  village  of  'Akir.  situated  among 
fine  gardens.!!  miles  west  td'tiezer.  and  V2 
northea-t  from  Azotus.  No  vi>ible  nlics  of 
antiquity  have  been  foun<l  at  the  )dace  ;  but 
Kobinsoii  was  assured  by  the  Mohammedan 
sheik  of  the  jdac*-  titat  in  digging  old  cis- 
terns the  .st<mes  of  iuuid mills,  etc.,  are  «Hcn- 
sionallv  brought  to  liglit. 


Ela 


I'JO 


Elath 


E'la,  in  A.  V.  Elah  [terebinth  or  like  tree]. 

The  father  of  one  of  Solomon's  i)urveyors 
(1  Kin.  iv.  IS). 

Era-dab,  in  li.  V.  Eleadah  [God  hath 
adorned]. 

A  descendant  of  Ephraini  (1  Chron.  vii.20). 

E'lah  [a  large  evergreen  tree,  like  the  ilex 
or  lerehiiith]. 

1.  A  valley  near  Socoh  in  which  Saul  and  the 
Israelites i)itched,  confrontiufi  tiie  Philisliiies, 
jnst  befoi'e  the  combat  between  David  and 
Goliath  (1  Sam.  xvii.  2,  19;  xxi.  9).  Prob- 
ably the  wady  es-Snnt,  which  is  formed  by 
the  junction  of  three  other  valleys,  and  is 
about  It  or  1.")  miles  west  by  south  from  Beth- 
lehem. It  is  fertile  and  traversed  by  a  stream. 
Wady  es-Sunt  means  the  valley  of  the  acacia 
t.lciicin  vera),  of  which  various  trees  exist  in 
llic  valley. 

•J.  A  duke  of  Edom,  named  from  his  habi- 
tation (Gen.  xxxvi.  41 ;  1  Chron.  i.  52).  See 
Elath. 

3.  A  son  of  Caleb,  the  son  of  Jephunneh  (1 
Chron.  iv.  15). 

4.  A  Benjamite,  son  of  Uzzi  (1  Chron.  ix.  8). 

5.  The  father  of  one  of  Solomon's  purvey- 
ors.    See  Ela. 

6.  The  son  and  successor  of  Baasha  in  the 
kingdom  of  Israel.  He  reigned  part  of  two 
years.  As  he  was  drinking  himself  drunk  in 
the  house  of  his  steward,  in  Tirzah,  his  cap- 
ital, he  was  assassinated,  with  all  his  house, 
by  Zimri,  who  commanded  half  his  chariots. 
This  fulfilled  the  projjhecy  made  by  Jehu,  the 
son  of  Hanani,  to  Baasha.  That  it  did  so  in 
no  wav  justified  the  murderous  deed  (1  Kin. 
xvi.  ti'.  8-10). 

7.  The  father  of  Hoshea,  king  of  Israel  (2 
Kin.  XV.  30;  xvii.  1;  xviii.  1). 

E'lam  [high]. 

1.  A  son  of  Shem  or  the  inhabitants  of 
Elam,  as  being  Semites  or  becoming  incor- 
porated with  the  Semites  by  conquest  (Gen. 
X.  22;  1  Chron.  i.  17).  Elam  was  a  region 
beyond  the  Tigris,  east  of  Babylonia.  It  was 
bounded  on  the  north  by  Assyria  and  Media, 
on  the  south  by  the  Persian  Gulf,  on  the  east 
and  southeast  by  Persia.  The  name  is  pre- 
served in  the  Greek  Ehonais,  the  Latin  Elj/- 
mais.  Its  capital  was  Shushan  or  Susa,  which 
gave  rise  to  the  name  Susiana,  though  some- 
times Elymais  and  Susiana  are  made  the 
names  of  adjacent  instead  of  identical  re- 
gions. Elam  was  the  seat  of  an  ancient  em- 
pire. In  the  time  of  Abraham,  Chedorlaomer, 
king  of  Elam,  was  recognized  as  sovereign  by 
Babylonian  states,  and  laid  even  the  country 
on  the  .Jordan  under  trilnite  ((Jen.  xiv.  1-11). 
In  the  eighth  and  seventh  centuries  n.  c,  when 
Assyria  was  the  dominant  jiowit  in  western 
Asia,  Elam  was  its  doughty  opponent ;  but 
was  subjugated  after  repeated  campaigns  of 
the  Assyrians  under  Sargon,  Sennacherib, 
and  Ashurbanijial.  ShiLshan  was  at  length 
taken  about  f)45  B.  c.  Elamites  rendered  mil- 
itary service  to  the  Assyrians  in  the  invasion 


of  Judah  (cp.  Is.  xxii.  6).  But  liefore  the 
close  of  the  century.  Elam  was  relieved  (»f 
the  Assyrian  yoke  through  the  cai)turi'  of 
Nineveh  by  the  Baliylonians  and  the  fall  of 
the  Assyrian  empire.  When  Ezekicl  ]irophe- 
sied  the  invasion  of  Etrypt  by  Nebuchadnez- 
zar, he  mentioned  a  jirior  slaughter  of  the 
Elamites,  perhai>s  by  Nclmchadne/.zar  (Ezek. 
xxxii.  24).  But  Elam,  joining  with  Media, 
was  ultimately  to  cajjture  Babylon  ( Isa.  xxi. 
2;  c]).  9).  To  this  concjuest  and  restoration 
the  following  prophecies  regarding  Elam  seem 
to  refer  {Jvv.  xlix.  :i4-;59  ;Ezek.  xxxii.  24,  2."')). 
Elam  was  a  province  and  Shushan  a  capita) 
of  the  Persian  empire  (Dan.  viii.  2;  Herodo- 
tus iii.  91  ;  iv.  83;  v.  49).  On  the  return  of 
the  Jews  from  Babylon,  Elamites,  who  had 
long  before  been  forcibly  settled  in  Samaria, 
joined  with  others  in  attempting  to  prevent 
the  rebuilding  of  the  temple  and  city  of  Jeru- 
salem (Ezra  iv.  9).  Elamites  were  present  on 
that  day  of  Pentecost  which  was  notable  for 
the  descent  of  the  Holy  Sjiirit  (Acts  ii.  9). 
Elam  or  Susiana.  now  Khuzistan,  is  a  prov- 
ince of  modern  Persia. 

2.  The  iifth  son  of  Meshelemiah,  a  Korah- 
ite  Levite,  in  the  reign  of  David  (1  Chron. 
xxvi.  3). 

3.  A  Benjamite,  a  son  of  Shashak  (1  Chron. 
viii.  24). 

4.  The  head  of  a  family  of  which  12.54  in- 
dividuals returned  from  Babylon  with  Zerub- 
babel  (Ezra  ii.  7  ;  Neh.  vii.  12),  and  71  more 
with  Ezra  (Ezra  viii.  7).  Its  representative 
signed  the  covenant  in  Nehemiah's  time 
(Neh.  X.  14). 

5.  The  other  Elam,  of  whom  just  as  many 
descendants  returned  as  of  No.  4  (Ezra  ii.  31 ; 
Neh.  vii.  34). 

6.  A  priest  who  took  part  in  the  dedication 
of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  xii.  42). 

El'a-sa,  in  A.  V.  Eleasa. 

A  place  at  which  Judas  Maccabieus  once 
camped  (1  Mac.  ix.  5) ;  probably  the  ruins 
Il'asa,  which  lie  midway  between  the  two 
Beth-horons. 

El'a-sah  [God  hath  made].  The  Hebrew- 
name  is  sometimes  anglicized  as  Eleasah. 

1.  A  son  of  Shaphan.  He  and  Gemariah 
carried  a  letter  from  Jeremiah  in  Jerusalem 
to  the  exiles  in  Babylon  (Jer.  xxix.  3). 

2.  A  son  of  Pashur,  induced  by  Ezra  to  put 
away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  22). 

E'lath  and  Eloth,  the  singular  or  jilural 
being  used  indifferently;  also  Elah  and  El, 
other  forms  of  the  singular  [terebinth  or 
other  large  tree]. 

A  town  on  the  gulf  of  Akaba  (Dent.  ii.  8  ; 
1  Kin.  ix.  2()),  on  the  eastern  biu-der  of  the 
wilderness  of  Paran  (Gen.  xiv.  (i).  The  car- 
avan routes  between  southern  Arabia  and 
Egypt  and  Plnrnicia  passed  its  gates,  mak- 
ing its  possession  valuable  to  an  exactor  of 
tribute.  It  was  taken  by  Chedorlaomer  from 
the  Horites  ((ten.  xiv.  G).  In  it  dwelt  a  duke 
of  Edom  (xxxvi.  41),  and  it  constituted  the 


El-berith 


191 


Elder 


southern  limit  of  tlie  Edomitos  (Deiit.  ii.  8). 
It  (li.ul)tUss  fell  into  tlu-  Imnds  of  |):iviil  CJ 
Sam.  viii.  11;  cp.  1  Kin.ix.'Jd;  "J  ( 'liron.  viii. 
17).  After  a  time  it  reverted  to  tlie  Edomites. 
Iz/iah  rebuilt  it  and  restored  it  to  .ludali  i2 
Kin.  xiv.  22:  •JChron.  xxvi.  ','1.  It  was  after- 
wards caiitured  hy  the  Syrian.s  and  Ioiil:  ic- 
maintil  in  their  jtowir  (J  Kin.  xvi.  (>|.  Klath, 
called  in  the  (ireek  and  i\oman  jieriod  Aila 
and  yElana,  gave  the  name  ^Elanitie  to  the 
),'ulf  of  Akaha,  at  the  northeastern  corner  of 
whicli  it  was  situat(<l.  It  was  lonj;  the  sta- 
tion of  a  Koman  le^^ion.  It  was  once  the  seat 
of  a  Christian  hishoiiric.  It  was  taken  and 
retaken  durinji  the  Crusades.  It  is  now- 
called  Ailah  and  'Akalia,  and  consists  nierelj* 
of  extensive  mounds  of  ruhhish. 

El-be'ritli.     Sec  H.\.\i,-hi;kitu. 

El-beth'-el  [(^od  of  Bethel]. 

Tlic  name  f,'iven  by  Jacol)  to  an  altar  which 
he  reared  at  Hetlu'l,  alter  his  return  from 
Mesopotamia.  It  commemorati'd  the  apiiear- 
ance  of  (lod  to  him  there  in  a  dream  when 
he  was  fleeing  to  eseajjc  the  conseciuenees  <»f 
his  brother's  wratli  ((Jen.  xxxv.  7;  c]>.  xxviii. 
1(1  sei].).  The  sanctuary  was  named  after  the 
(iod  to  whom  it  was  dedicated.  Cj).  El-el- 
i)iii;-lsi{Ai:i,. 

El'da-ah  [Cod  hath  called]. 
A  son  or  tribe  descended  from  Midian  and 
related  to  Abraham  (Cen.  xxv.  4  ;  1  Cliron. 

i.  :',:',). 

El'dad  [(iod  hath  loved]. 

An  elder  and  olliier  of  the  Israelites  who 
was  summoned  with  sixt\-niue  others  to 
assist  Moses  in  bearing  the  burden  of  govern- 
UK-nt.  Eldad  and  Medad  for  some  reason 
failed  to  jiresent  themselves  with  the  others 

at    the    tabernacle;    nevertheless    they,    t 

although  al>seut  in  the  cam]i.  were.'  tilled  like 
the  others  with  tlie  divine  Spirit,  who  W(Mk- 
eth  when  and  where  he  will.  .loshua  was 
Jealous  for  Moses'  honor,  which  he  feared 
would  sutler  l)ecause  they  had  received  the 
gift  without  the  intervention  of  Moses;  but 
Moses  rejoiced,  and  only  wished  that  the 
Lord  would  put  his  Si>irit  upon  all  his  jieople 
(Num.  xi.  -JO-Jt)). 

El'der. 

An  otiicial  who.  so  far  as  can  be  judged, 
hatl  by  virtue  of  his  right  as  tirstborn  suc- 
ceeded to  the  headsbii>  of  a  father's  house, 
of  a  tribal  familv,  or  of  the  tribe  it.self  (1 
Kin.  viii.  1-.3;  .Tudg.  viii.  11,  Ki).  When  la- 
was  the  head  and  representative  of  a  tribe  or 
ol'  llie  larger  tribal  families  the  elder  was  an 
important  prince.  In  the  ordinary  course  of 
nature,  only  men  of  mature  age  came  into 
these  positions,  hence  the  designatitm  eliler. 
Other  piMi|)les  which  were  organized  on  the 
IrTlial  system  had  elilers.  as  tin-  Midianitcs 
and  Mcjal)iles  (Num.  xxii.  I,  7).  'I"he  title 
designates  high  ollicials  generally  in  (ien. 
1.  7.  They  exercised  authority  over  the 
people  (Deut.  xxvii.  1;  Ezra  x.  H),  and  rejt- 


resented  the  nation  in  adairs  of  state  (Ex. 
iii.  !■> :  ,Iudg.  xi.  .">  11  :  1  .Sim.  viii.  4i.  in  ex- 
lending  honor  to  a  distinguished  guest  (Ex. 
xviii.  I'J),  in  comlmling  coveiumts  (•_'  Sjini.  v. 
."5),  and  in  religious  acts  (Lev.  iv.  i:{-I.') ;  .Josh, 
vii.  (>).  A  body  of  s«V(nty  elders  a.s.sisted 
Moses  in  the  government  of  the  Isnulites 
(Num.  xi.  Ki,  --'4).  Ijicli  t<iwn  had  its  eiders, 
who  administered  itscivil  and  religions  allairs 
(Deut.  xix.  !•_*;  \\\.2:  Ivuth  iv.-.J-ll;  1  .Siini. 
XI.  ;;•.  Kzni  X.  141.  These  functions  were  still 
ipcrformed  by  the  eld<  rs  at  the  time  of  the 
Homan  government  of  Judaa  (Mat.  xv.  •-' ; 
xxi.  -S.i;  xxvi.  .i,  47).    See  .Synagiku  e  and 

S.XMIKDRIN. 

In  the  churches  founded  hy  the  apostles 
elder  or  jirtsbyter  and  bi.-hop  were  inter- 
changeable designations  (Act.-,  xx.  17  with  -JH, 
R.  V. ;  Titus  i.."),  7),  though  not  strictly  synon- 
ymous. The  former  had  jiriniary  reference 
to  the  dignity  of  the  oflice,  the  latter  to  its 
duties.  The  distinction  between  elder  or 
presbyter  and  bishoji,  as  two  sejianite  orders 
of  ministers,  dates  from  the  .s<-cond  century. 
The  origin  of  the  ollice  of  elder  is  not  re- 
corded, but  elders  existed  imictiially  from 
the  lieginning.  In  .\.  n.  44  they  already  ex- 
isted in  the  church  at  .lerii.sjileni  (Acts  xi. 
30)  :  I'aul  on  his  lirst  missionary  journey  ap- 
pointed elders  in  every  chur»-h  (xiv.  •_';{),  and 
thev  held  olhce  in  churches  not  founded  by 
I'aiil  (.las.  V.  14;  1  I'et.  v.  1).  The  oflice  of 
elder  in  the  Christian  church  was  evidently 
suggested  by  the  ollice  of  elder  among  the 
Jews,  and  was  investe<l  with  similar  author- 
ity. Elders  were  associated  with  the  apos- 
tles ill  the  government  of  the  church  (Acts 
XV.  2,  4,  I),  2-J.  'J.'i;  xvi.  4  :  cj).  xxi.  iMt.  They 
were  the  hishojis  or  overseers  of  the  local 
churches  (xx.  17,  2s :  Tit.  i.  5).  having  the 
sjiiritual  care  of  the  congregation,  exercising 
rule  and  giving  instruction  (1  Tim.  iii.  5;  v. 
17;  Tit.  i.  !»;  Jas.  v.  14;  1  I'et.  v.  14;  cp. 
Ileb.  xiii.  17).  ami  onlaining  to  otiice  (1  Tim. 
iv.  14).  There  were  several  bishops  i  I'liil. 
i.  1)  or  elders  (Acts  xi.  i'di  in  a  Imal  church. 
There  is  no  intimation  of  any  division  of 
labor  among  them.  As  in  the  synagogue,  so 
in  the  Christian  church  of  apostolic  tinie.s 
jireaching  was  imt  the  jxi  uliar  function  of 
the  elders,  nor  was  it  restricted  to  them. 
They  were,  indeed,  the  regular  pastors  and 
teachers,  .\iitness  to  teach  was  an  es.sentinl 
(imililication  for  the  ollice  1 1  Tim.  iii.  '-' ;  Tit. 
i.  !l).  Hut  any  man  who  possessed  the  gift 
of  i)rophecy  or  teaching  exhorted  (1  Cor.  xii. 
•>-:«>:  xiv." 24,  .'Ul. 

In  the  government  of  h'efonned  «linnhe8 
the  teaching  <liler  is  the  )ninister,  and  the 
ruling  eldir  is  a  laym:in  who  is  an  elder. 
The  arnmgenient  is  convenient,  but  its  ex- 
istence in  apostolic  timis  is  not  univiTsnlly 
admitted.  Calvin  inter]""etcd  1  Tim.  v.  17 
as  teaching  two  kinds  of  ehlers :  llrst,  thoM- 
who  both  teach  and  rule,  and  M-cotid.  llio-o 
who  rule  only.  Hut  there  is  wide  dis.iu-nt 
from    this  interpretatii>n.     It   is  iirg«<l   that 


Elead 


192 


Elhanan 


the  apostle  is  speakinj;  of  two  functions  of 
the  same  office,  the  ])rimitive  cklor  liaving 
been,  it  is  contended,  hotli  teacher  and  ruler. 
In  the  Apocalypse  the  elders  are  twenty- 
four  in  number,  possibly  with  reference 
back  to  the  twelve  founders  of  triltcs  under 
the  Jewish  economy,  and  the  twelve  ajiostles 
under  the  Christian  church  (Kev.  iv.  4,  10; 
V.  5,  6,  8.  14  ;  vii.  11-13;  xi.  16;  xix.  4). 

E'le-ad  [God  continueth], 

A  descendant,  jterhaps  son,  of  Ephraim. 
He  and  his  brother  were  killed  by  the  people 
of  Gath  when  attempting  to  carry  away  the 
cattle  belonging:  to  that  Philistine  town. 
Ephraim,  who  was  alive  at  the  time,  greatly 
mourned  his  loss  (1  Chron.  vii.  20-22). 

E-le-a'dah.    See  Eladah. 

E-le-a'leh. 

A  town  rebuilt  by  the  Reubenites  (Num. 
xxxii.  3.  37).  Later  it  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  Moabites  (Is.  xv.  4  ;  xvi.  9  ;  Jer.  xlvii.  34). 
The  ruins,  now  called  el-'Al,  are  on  top  of 
a  hill  on  the  Roman  road,  scarcely  2  miles 
north  of  Hesh])on.  Tristram  describes  them 
as  consisting  of  stone  heaps  with  a  single 
standing  column. 

E-le'a-sa.    See  Elasa. 
E-le-a'sah  [God  hath  made].     In  Hebrew 
it  is  the  same  word  as  Elasah. 

1.  A  descendant  of  .Tudah  through  Jerah- 
meel,  but  with  Egyptian  blood  in  his  veins 
(1  Chron.  ii.  39). 

2.  A  descendant  of  Saul  and  Jonathan  (1 
Chron.  viii.  37  ;  ix.  43). 

E-le-a'zar  [(iod  hath  helped].  Grecized 
as  Lazaros,  in  Latin  Lazarus. 

1.  The  third  son  of  Aaron  (Ex.  vi.  23  ;  Num. 
iii.  2)  and  father  of  Pbinehas  (Ex.  vi.  25). 
With  his  brothers  and  his  fiither  he  was  con- 
secrated a  priest,  and  afterwards  acted  as 
such  (Ex.  xxviii.  1  ;  Num.  iii.  4  ;  xvi.  37-40; 
xix.  3).  He  was  not  allowed  to  mourn  when 
his  elder  brothers,  Nadab  and  Abihu,  were 
killed  for  oflering  strange  tire  (Lev.  x.  G-20). 
He  then  became  chief  of  the  Levites,  and 
second  only  to  Aaron  in  priestly  authority 
(Num.  iii.  32).  Before  Aaron  died  on  mount 
Hor,  Eleazar,  who  had  been  directed  to  as- 
cend the  mountain  with  him,  was  invested 
with  his  sacred  garments,  and  succeeded  him 
in  the  higb-iniesthood  (xx.  2.5-28;  Dent.  x.  6). 
He  held  this  ollice  during  the  remainder  of 
Moses'  life  and  the  leadershij)  of  Joshua.  He 
took  a  prominent  part  in  distributing  Canaan 
by  lot  among  the  several  tribes  (Josh.  xiv.  1). 
He  was  buried  in  a  hill  belonging  to  his  son 
Phinehas  in  mount  E]ihraim  (xxiv.  33),  and 
was  succeeded  by  Phinehas  (Judg.  xx.  28  ;  1 
Chron.  vi.  4.  50). 

2.  A  Levite,  family  of  Merari,  house  of 
Mahli.  Dying  without  sons,  his  daughters 
were  taken  to  wife  by  their  cousins  (1  Chron. 
sxiii.  21.  22;  xxiv.  28 ;  cp.  Num.  xxxvi.  6-9). 

?.  A  son  of  Abinadab.  He  was  consecrated 
by  the  men   of   Kirjath-Jearim  to  keep  the 


ark  when  they  nobly  received  it  from  Betli- 
shemesh  after  its  restoration  by  the  Philis- 
tines (1  Sam.  vii.  1). 

4.  One  of  David's  mighty  men,  a  son  of 
Dodo,  the  Ahohite  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  9;  1  Chron. 
xi.  12;  cj».  xxvii.  4  jierliai)s). 

5.  A  jiriest,  son  of  Phinehas.  He  assisted 
the  high  priest  in  the  time  of  Ezra  (Ezra  viii. 
33). 

(J.  A  son  of  Parosh,  who  was  induced  by 
Ezra  to  put  awav  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x. 
25). 

7.  A  priest,  one  of  tho.se  who  acted  as  mu- 
sicians at  the  dedication  of  the  wall  of  Jeru- 
salem in  the  time  of  Nchemiah  (Neh.  xii. 
42). 

8.  Surnamed  Avaran,  of  priestly  descent,  a 
son  of  Mattathias  and  brother  of  Judas  the 
Maccabee  (1  Mac.  ii.  5).  In  the  battle  be- 
tween Judas  and  the  Syrians  at  Beth-zacha- 
rias,  he  boldlj-  ran  into  the  ranks  of  the 
enemy,  crept  under  an  elephant  whose  trap- 
pings indicated  that  it  carried  a  royal  rider, 
and  thrust  it  in  the  belly.  The  beast  in  its 
fall  crushed  Eleazar  to  death  (vi.  43-46). 

9.  An  ancestor,  perhaps  great-grandfather, 
af  Josejih.  the  husband  of  Mary  (Mat.  i.  15). 

El-e-lo'he-Is'ra-el  [God,  the  God  of  Israel], 
Tlie  name  given  by  Jacob  to  an  altar  which 
he  erected  near  Shechem  (Gen.  xxxiii.  20). 

E'lepb  [an  ox]. 

A  village  of  Benjamin  (Josh,  xviii.  28). 
Site  unknown. 

El'e-phant. 

The  English  name  for  a  genus  of  animals 
containing  two  recent  species — Elephasindicitu, 
the  Indian,  and  Elephus  africanuf.  the  Afri- 
can elephant,  with  several  others  now  ex- 
tinct. Their  tusks  furnish  ivory  (1  Kin.  \. 
22,  A.  V.  margin).  The  elephant  was  used 
in  war  (1  Mac.  i.  17  :  iii.  34),  each  beast  l)eing 
in  charge  of  an  Indian  driver,  and  bearing 
on  its  back  a  tower  from  which  two,  three,  or 
four  soldiers  fought  (1  Mac.  vi.  37,  wliere 
thirty-two  is  an  obvious  error:  Livy  xxxvii. 
40).  The  entire  body  of  elephants  was  under 
a  master  (2  Mac.  xiv.  12).  Before  entering 
battle,  it  was  customary  to  inflame  them  by 
the  sight  and  even  taste  of  wine  (1  ]Mac.  vi.  34  ; 
3  Mac.  V.  2). 

E-leu'the-rus  [free]. 

A  river  (1  Mac.  xi.  7;  Antiq.  xiii.  4.  5) 
which  flows  from  Lebanon  and  entities  into 
the  Mediterranean  sea  iiorfh  of  Tri)ioli  (  Pliny. 
Hist.  nat.  V.  17).  and  which  formed  the  liouud- 
ary  between  Palestine  aad  Syria  (1  Mac.  xii. 
30";  Anti(i.  xv.  4,  1 ;  Strabo  xvi.  2,  12).  It  is 
now  called  Nahr  el-Kebir. 

El-ha'nan  [(4od  hath  bei-n  gracious]. 

1.  A  son  of  .Tairand  ]ierha])s  a  Bethlehem- 
ite,  who  slew  [the  brother  of]  Goliath  of  (4ath 
(cp.  2  Sam.  xxi.  19  with  1  Chron.  xx.  5).  The 
text  of  at  least  one  jias-sage,  perhaps  of  both, 
has  become  corrujit.  The  letters  of  "Beth- 
lehemite  Cioliatb,"  with  the  jiarticle  'eth  be- 


Eli  193 

_ , — 

tween  them,  which  stand  togetlier  in  the  He- 
brew text  of  Saniiicl,  closelv  lestnihlu  those 
of  "  Liihnii  tlio  brother  of  ("ioliatb." 

2.  A  lit'thb'lu'iiiitc.  a  son  of  Dodo,  and  one 
of  David's  tliirty  hunics  id'  tiio  second  rank 
(*2  Sam.  xxiii.  'J I;  1  Chroii.  xi.  2f!). 

E'U,  I.  [my  (Jod]. 

A  word  oecurriiifi  in  tlie  tittcninee  of  Jesus 
on  the  cross,  spoken  in  Aramaic,  'Kli,  'EH, 
lamninh  sh'hnhfnni,  "My  (jod,  my  (Jod,  wliy 
hast  tliou  fors;iken  me?"  (Mat.  xxvii.  Ki;  ejt. 
I's.  xxii.  1).  In  Mark  xv.:il,  I'^loi.an  .\ramaic 
syMun>ni  of  Kli  containing  a  dill'erent  word 
for  God,  is  used. 

E'U,  II.   [prol)aldy  (devation,  lieif;ht]. 

A  bij;ii  ]>riest  of  tlie  family  of  Ithamar  (1 
Sam.  i.  i> ;  1  Kin.  ii.  27  with  1  (bron.  xxiv. 
3.  <)).  He  is  .said  to  have  been  the  lirst  of 
Ithamar's  line  to  receive  the  otlice  (Antiq.  v. 
11,  r>;  viii.  1,  .'Ji,  but  it  is  uncertain  wliicli 
priest  of  the  other  line  he  succeeded.  I)eei)ly 
pious,  he  had  the  es.sential  (lualilication  for 
his  exalted  olbce  ;  but  there  was  oni'  serious 
defect  in  bis  conduct.  He  was  not  sullicicntly 
firm  with  bis  two  sons,  Hojibni  and  Phinehas, 
giving  them  only  mild  reitroof  when  their 
behavior  in  the  priestly  (itlice  was  absolutely 
scandalous  (1  Sam.  ii.  -2:^-2',,  2i) :  iii.  i:5).  Di- 
vine jud;fment  a<;ainst  him  and  bis  hou.se 
was  therefore  denounced  by  a  i)ro])het  (ii. 
27-3()).  He  should  see  evil'  befall  the  .sanc- 
tuary, his  descendants  should  die  in  the 
flower  of  their  age.  bis  two  sons  sliould  die 
in  one  day,  and  a  faithful  jirie.st  should  su])er- 
se<le  Eli's  descendants,  from  whom  they  should 
seek  for  subordinate  priestly  appointments 
tliat  they  mifibt  be  fed  (1  ,^am.  i.  S)-iii.  21). 
Tlie  iues.sage  was  confirmed  by  a  similar  rev- 
clution  to  youjig  Sanniel,  and  Eli  was  com- 
forted by  tiie  evidence  which  Samuers  call 
and  the  youth's  (ilial  and  tiutbfiil  conduct 
toward  liim  in  the  tryitij;  circuinstauces  af- 
forded, that  (iod  bad  not  left  hinisidf  without 
witness  in  Israel,  but  had  rai.sed  uj)  a  triu' 
and  fearless  projibct  (iii.  11-lb).  The  first 
jiart  of  the  prc(liclion  was  .soon  afterwards 
fulfilled,  llopbiii  and  Phinehas  beiuj;  killed 
in  a  battle  with  the  Philistines,  to  which  they 
had  none  as  custodians  (d"  the  ark.  Eli,  now 
9H  years  old  and  blind,  was  sitting  out- 
side on  a  seat  when  a  man  arrived  from 
the  scene  of  strife,  to  say  that  the  Israel- 
ites were  totally  ilefiated,  bis  two  .sons, 
Ho])hni  and  Pbiiudias,  slain,  and  tlie  ark  of 
(bid  taken.  All  but  the  last  item  of  intelli- 
gence be  was  ])re|iaied  to  bear;  but  on  learn- 
ing that  the  ark  of  (iod  was  cai)lured  iiy  the 
enemy  he  f<di  b;ick  apparently  unconscious, 
and  being  stout  broke  his  neck  and  i'X])ired 
(iv.  1-lH).  He  bad. judged  Israel  fiuly  yeai-s. 
AhituI)  succeeded  to  the  rank  nf  liit.'b  i)riest 
(xiv.  :{)  ;  but  witli  the  ib^atli  of  Eli  the  ollice 
lost  for  a  long  time  its  importance,  for  the 
ark  was  in  cai)tivity  and  .seclusion,  and  the 
tabernacle  was  no  longer  the  jdace  <d"  .T<dio- 
vah'.s  gnicious  presence.  Samuel  the  j)ro]>het 
13 


Eliakim 


was  the  religious  leader  of  the  people.  The 
judgment  against  Eli's  p..>i,rity  was.xecuted 
when  Sid. )mon  deposed  Eli's  descendant  Abia- 
tbar  from  the  iiigh-priesthoiMl,  substitutinji 
Zadok  in  liis  room  (1  Kin.  ii.  :i."i). 

E-li'ab  [(iod  is  a  father!. 

1.  The  <i,u  of  Melon,  and  tiie  head  of  the 
tribe  of  Zc  bulun  in  the  wiidenicHS  (Num.  1. 
J);  ii.  7;  vii.  21,  2!»;  x.  ItJ). 

2.  A  Keubenite,  son  of  I'alln  and  father 
of  Dathan  and  Abirain  (Num.  xvi.  1,  12; 
xxvi.  S.  <»|. 

3.  A  Levite,  an  ancestor  of  Samuel  '1  fliron. 
vi.  27,  2S).     See  Ei.inr. 

4.  David's  eldest  brother.  He  was  so  tall 
and  had  .so  kingly  a  countenance  that  on 
seeing  him  .Samuel  exclaimed,  "  Sun  ly  the 
Lord's  anointed  is  before  him."  Hut  Judged 
by  tiie  heart  be  was  not  worthy  of  the  king- 
dom (1  .Sam.  xvi.  (i,  7  :  xvii.  i:i).  due  defect 
which  he  had  was  his  inability  to  appreciate 
the  larger.soul  of  David,  liis  youngest  l)rolher 
(2tS.  2!»|.  His  daughter  .Vbihail  married  a  son 
of  David  (2  Chnm.  xi.  Is.  R.  V.). 

.'j.  A  Gadite,  of  the  heroic  type  who  joined 
David  at  Ziklag  (1  (  hron.  xii.'iM. 

I).  A  Levite,  musician  at  the  .sanctuary  in 
David's  reign  (1  Chron.  xv.  20). 

E-li'a-da,  in  A.  V.  once  Eliadah  (1  Kin. 
xi.  2.'5)  [(iod  has  known — i.  «•.  kindly  re- 
garded]. 

1.  A  son  of  David,  horn  at  Jerusjileni  (2 
Sam.  V.  Ifi;  1  Chrou.  iii.  H).  failed  aUo 
Heeliada  (q.  v.). 

2.  Father  of  Kezou  of  Zobah  (1  Kin.  xi. 
23). 

3.  A  Benjamite,  one  of  .Tehoshapbiifs  chief 
captains  (2  C'liron.  xvii.  17). 

E-li'ah.     See  Elliaii  2  and  t. 

E-li'ah-ba  [God  hath  hidden]. 
A  Sbaalbonite.  oiii-  of  David's  mighty  men 
(2  Sam.  xxiii.  32;  1  (hron.  xi.  :{.'{). 

E-li'a-kim  [(;.«1  hath  established]. 

1.  An  ancestor  of  ( 'brist.  He  lived  In'fore 
the  captivity,  and  was  descended  from  Ihivid 
through  Nathan  (Luke  iii.  .'!(>.  311. 

2.  Son  of  Hilkiah.  He  was  over  king 
Hezekiah's  hou.sehold  ;  and  when  .lern.siileni 
had  (dosed  its  gates  against  the  .\ssyrians.  he 
was  one  of  three  reiireseiitali ves  of  the  king 
who  were  sent  to  confer  with  the  ralishakeh 
of  Sennacherib  (2  Kin.  xviii.  l.\  2(!,  .'$7 ;  Is. 
xxxvi.  .'{.  11,  22).  Next  they  were  disjuitchetl 
to  lay  the  answer  of  the  nilif>hakeh  before 
Isaiah,  and  ilesire  him  to  obtain  ilivine  di- 
rection ill  the  great  crisis  whiih  ha<l  ariMii 
(2  Kin.  xix.  2;  Is.  xxxvii.  2).  The  pro|die( 
.so  highly  commende<l  Kliakini,  und  made 
him  such  i>roniises  from  (iml.  as  to  Hiiggest 
that  be  must  be  regarded  us  a  tyi)e  of  the 
Messiah  (Is.  xxii.  2(>  2.">i. 

3.  One  of  Josiiih's  sons,  made  king  by 
PhuRKdi-neiho,  who  changed  his  name  to 
.leiioiukim  (2  Kin.  xxiii.  .'U  ;  2  (hron.  xxxvi. 
4). 


Eliam 


194 


EUiah 


4.  One  of  the  priests  who  officiated  at  the 
dedication  of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh. 
xii.  41). 

5.  A  descendant  of  Zerubbaliel  and  au  an- 
cestor of  Christ  (Mat.  i.  13). 

E-li'am  [God  is  one  of  the  family]. 

Father  of  Bath-sheba  (2  Sam.  xi.  3)  ;  by 
transposition  of  the  constituent  parts  of  the 
name  called  Ammiel  (1  t'hron.  iii.  5).  Per- 
haps he  was  Daviil's  mighty  man  of  this 
name,  the  son  of  Ahithophel  (2  8am.  xxiii. 
34). 

E-li'as.     See  Elljah. 

E-li'a-saph  [God  hath  added]. 

1.  The  head  of  the  tribe  of  Gad  in  the  wil- 
derness (Num.  i.  14;  ii.  14  ;  vii.  42). 

2.  A  Levite,  the  son  of  Lael.  and  prince  of 
the  Gershonites  during  the  wilderness  wan- 
dering (Num.  iii.  24). 

E-li'a-shlb  [God  hath  re.stored]. 

1.  The  ancestor  from  whom  the  eleventh 
priestlv  course  took  its  name  (1  Chron.  xxiv. 
12). 

2.  A  Levite  and  singer  whom  Ezra  induced 
to  put  away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  24). 

3  and  4.  Two  men,  a  son  of  Zattu  and  a 
son  of  Baui,  similarly  persuaded  by  Ezra 
(Ezra  X.  27,  3(i). 

5.  The  high  priest,  the  second  in  succession 
from  Jeshua  (Neh.  xii.  10).  He  lived  in  the 
time  of  Nehemiah,  and  with  the  priests  re- 
built the  sheepgate  of  Jerusalem  (iii.  1,  20, 
21).  As  high  priest  he  could  assign  chambers 
in  the  temple  to  whomsoever  he  pleased  (Ezra 
X.  6).  He  was  allied  by  marriage  with  Tobiah 
the  Ammonite,  and  his  grandson  was  son-in- 
law  of  Sanballat  (Neh.  xiii.  4,  28).  Not  being 
strict  in  regard  to  the  separation  of  Jew  and 
gentile,  he  even  assigned  a  chamber  of  the 
temple  to  Tobiah  (.5). 

6.  A  son  of  Elioenai,  a  descendant  of  Zerub- 
babel  (1  Chron.  iii.  24). 

E-li'a-thah  [God  hath  come]. 

A  son  of  Heinan,  and  a  musician  in  the 
reign  of  David  (1  Chron.  xxv.  4). 

E-li'dad  [(iod  hath  loved]. 

A  i)rince  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin  at  the 
time  when  the  Israelites  were  encamped  at 
Shittim  on  tlie  eve  of  entering  the  promised 
land.  He  was  apjtointed  a  member  of  the 
commission  to  divide  the  land  among  the 
tribes  (Num.  xxxiv.  21). 

E-li'e-ho-e'nai,  in  A.  V.  Elihoenai  [to  Je- 
hovah are  my  eyes]. 

1.  A  Korhite  porter,  thesonof  Meshelemiah 
(1  Chron.  xxvi.  3).  A.  V.  has  substituted  the 
variant  form  Elioenai. 

2.  A  son  of  Zerahiah.  He  with  200  fol- 
lowers accompanied  Ezra  from  Babylon  (Ezra 
viii.  4). 

E-li'el  [God  isfJod]. 

1.  A  Levite.  family  of  Kohath,  and  an  an- 
cestor of  Samuel  the  i)rophet  (1  Chron.  vi. 
34).     See  Elihu. 


2.  A  Mahavite,  one  of  Davids  mighty  men 
(1  Chron.  xi.  4(j). 

3.  Another  of  David's  heroes  (vcr.  47). 

4.  One  of  the  (iadites  who  came  to  David 
at  Ziklag  (1  Chron.  xii.  11). 

5.  A  Levite,  a  son  of  lkl)ron.  He  lived  in 
David's  time  (1  Cliron.  xv.  I),  11). 

6.  A  Benjamite,  a  son  of  Shimlii  (1  Chron. 
viii.  20). 

7.  Another  Benjamite,  a  son  of  Shashak 
(1  Chron.  viii.  22). 

8.  A  ciiief  man  of  the  half-tribe  of  ^lanas- 
seh  east  of  the  Jordan  (1  Chron.  v.  24j. 

9.  Au  overseer  of  the  tithes  and  oll'erings 
in  tlie  reign  of  Hezekiah  (2  Chron.  xxxi.  13). 

E-li-e'nai  [probably,  to  Jehovah  are  my 
eyes].     Probably  a  contraction  of  Elihoenai. 

A  Benjamite,  a  son  of  Shimhi  (1  Chron. 
viii.  20). 

E-li-e'zer  [God  is  a  helper]. 

1.  A  man  of  Damascus,  the  steward  of 
Abraham  (Gen.  xv.  2;  cp.  xxiv.  2). 

2.  The  younger  son  of  Moses  (Ex.  xviii.  4  ; 
1  Chron.  xxiii.  15,  17). 

3.  A  Benjamite,  family  of  Becher  (1  Chron. 
vii.  8). 

4.  A  son  of  Zichri.  He  was  a  captain  over 
the  Eenbenites  in  David's  reign  (1  Chron. 
xxvii.  16). 

5.  A  priest  who  blew  the  trumpet  before 
the  ark  in  David's  reign  (1  Chron.  xv.  24). 

G.  A  prophet,  son  of  Dodavah  of  Mareshah. 
He  predicted  the  shipwreck  of  Jehoshaphat's 
vessels  because  he  had  joined  with  Ahaziah, 
of  Ahab's  family  (2  Chron.  xx.  37). 

7.  One  of  tho.se  whom  Ezra  sent  for  Le- 
vites,  when  it  was  found  that  there  were  few 
of  them  among  the  returning  exiles  (Ezra 
viii.  1«). 

8,  9,  and  10.  Three  men,  one  a  priest,  one 
a  Levite,  and  one  a  s<m  of  Harim,  whom  Ezra 
induced  to  put  away  their  foreign  wives  (Ezra 
X.  18,  23.  31). 

11.  An  ancestor  of  Christ  who  lived  be- 
tween the  time  of  David  and  the  captivity 
(Luke  iii.  2S)). 

E-li-ho-e'nai.    See  Elieiioexai. 

E-li-hc'reph  [God  is  a  reward]. 

One  of  Solomon's  .scribes  (1  Kin.  iv.  3). 

E-li'liu  [he  is  God]. 

1.  An  E]ihraimite.  son  of  Tohu  and  an  an- 
cestor oFSanniel  the  proiihct  (1  .Sani.  i.  D.ap- 
parentlv  called  also  Eliab  and  Eliel  [1  Chron. 
vi.  27,  34). 

2.  David's  eldest  brother,  called  also  Eliab 
(cp.  1  Sam.  xvi.  6  with  1  Chron.  xxvii.  lb). 
See  Jesse. 

3.  A  JIanassite  captain  who  with  others 
joined  David  on  his  way  to  Ziklag  (1  Chron. 
xii.  20). 

4.  A  doorkcejier  during  David's  reign,  of 
the  family  of  Obed-edoni  (1  Chmn.  xxvi.  7). 

.").  One  of  Job's  friends,  a  Buzite,  the  son 
of  Barachel  (Job  xxxii.-xxxvii.). 

E-li'jah;  in  A.  V.  twice  Eliah  (1  Chron. 
viii.  27 ;  Ezra  x.  26) ;  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Elias, 


Elijah 

which  is  tlie  Hfhri'W  word  t raiislitcraU'd  into 
(iri'fk  :iii<l  prdvi'.hd  with  :i  ( ircek  tfriniiia- 
tioii  [iiiydtxl  is  .Ichuvah]. 

1.  (»iic  of  the  gri'iitfst  of  tlie  i)roiilicts.  He 
was  a  Tishhitf.  liaviii>;  \)vvn  l)orn  jn-rhaps  at 
Tishheli  in  (ialiloc  ;  l.iil  IumIwcU  in  (iileail  (1 
Kin.  xvii.  1)  ;soc-Tisiinrii;.  Ho  woroapirnicnt 
of  skin  or  of  coarse  canu'l-hair.  wiiich  was  ^ii't 
alxiut  his  loins  witii  a  loatiier  f;inih'  cj  Kin. 
i.  s  ;  1  Kin.  xix.  IM).  When  Ahal),  UTi(hT  tiiu 
intluincc  of  his  wife  Jczebol,  had  f^ivcn  liini- 
si'lf  to  tlio  worship  of  tin-  false  uod  I'.aal, 
Elijah  suddenly  ajijieared  n]ion  the  scene. 
He  presented  liiniself  before  I  lie  erring;  kiiif;, 
and  predicted  a  droUKht  of  indefinite  dnni- 
tion  as  a  penalty  for  the  rijection  of  .Ichu- 
vah. On  account  of  the, famine  he  retired 
first  to  the  lirook  L'heritli.  where  he  was 
miraculously  fed  by  ravens;  see  R.WKX.  When 
the  brook  becamedry  he  went  to  Zareiihath  on 
the  coast  of  tlie  Jledilerranean  between  Tyre 
and  Sidon.  A  poor  widow  there  shared  her 
little  with  him,  and  in  return  her  barrel  of 
meal  and  cruse  of  oil  did  not  fail  until  the 
famine  was  ended;  and  when  her  sou  died 
he  was  restored  to  life  at  the  prayer  of  the 
lirojihet  (1  Kin.  xvii.  1-24;  Luke  iv.  24-2t>). 
.\fler  many  ihiys,  in  the  third  year  (1  Kin. 
xviii.  1  ;  l.uke  iv.  'Sf,  .(as.  v.  17),  Elijah  was 
ilirecled  to  show  himself  to  Aliab.  Tlien  fol- 
lowed the  scene  at  mount  Carniel.  The 
priests  of  Raal  endeavored  to  secure  evidence 
of  Haal's  divinity,  but  failed.  Then  Elijah 
gathered  Ihe  iieojile  about  an  ancient  allar 
of  the  Lord,  which  had  ])rol)ably  l)een  erected 
by  i)ious  Israelites  of  tlie  north  whom  the  de- 
fection of  the  ten  tribes  ])revented  from  wor- 
shiiiing  at  .lerusalem.  It  had  been  thrown 
down.  Elijah  repaired  it,  takinj;  twelve 
.stones  for  tlie  i)urpose,  thus  silently  testify- 
ing that  the  division  of  the  twelve  tribes 
into  two  kinjidoms  was  at  variance  with  the 
divine  will.  To  obviate  every  ]i(issibility  of 
fraud,  he  madi'  the  ]ieople  drench  the  sacri- 
fice and  tiu' altar  with  water.  Then  he  cried 
to  the  Lord,  .lehovah,  by  consuming  Eli- 
jah's .sacrifice,  vindicated  his  (rodhead  ;  and 
Haal's  iirojihets.  having  been  ]iroven  to  be 
n'ligious  imjiostors,  were  taken  down  to  the 
brook  Kishon,  which  washeil  the  northern 
base  of  the  mountain,  and  slain  (1  Kin. 
xviii.  l-4(i;  (■]).  Dent.  xvii. 'jr);  xiii.  13-lG). 
.le/eliel,  furir)us  at  the  destruction  of  her 
lirojihets,  vowed  the  death  of  I'.lijah,  who 
fied  away  to  mount  Horeb,  where,  like  .Moses, 
he  was  miraculously  sustained  for  forty  days 
and  nights  (Ex.  xxiv.  Ks;  xxxiv. 'JH;  Dent, 
ix.  !»,  1^;  1  Kin.  xix.  h).  a  foreshadowing  of 
the  similar  incident  in  the  life  of  Jesus  l  Mat. 
iv.  •-' ;  Luke  iv.  -J).  There  Elijah  w.as  rebuked 
and  sent  baik  to  hi>  duty,  lie  was  directed 
to  anoint  lla/.ael  king  over  Syria,  Jehu  king 
over  Israel,  and  IClisha  ])roplut  in  his  room 
(1  Kin.  xix.  l-'Jll.  When  Je/ebel  .ind  .Miab 
periietrafed  the  Judicial  murder  of  Naboth 
to  obtain  his  vineyard.  EliJ.ih  met  the  king 
in  the  coveted  plot  of  ground,  an<l  di'uouuceil 


195 


Elijah 


Jehovah's  vengeance  against  him  and  his  fe- 
m.ile  jiarticipanl  in  guilt  for  their  great  crinio 
(xxi.  l-2!l).  Elijah  <lid  not  ai)i>ear  at  court 
when  the  expeditio)!  against  kaniolh-gilead 
was  ]>lanned,  but  its  issue  connnenceii  the 
verification  of  the  predictions  which  lie  had 
uttered  against  Ihe  royal  liouse(xxii.  1  40). 
When  .Miab's  successor  Aha/iah,  .seriously 
injured  by  falling  through  a  lattice,  wn't 
messengers  to  Haal/ebub,  the  god  of  Ekron, 
to  ;isk  whether  he  should  recover  of  his  fall, 
Elijah  turned  them  b.ick ;  and  when  twice 
a  captain  of  fifty  with  his  nun  was  .sent  ap- 
liarently  to  arrest  him.  he  called  fire  from 
heaven  and  consumed  the  whole  jiarty.  A 
third  ca]ptain  was  sent,  but  he  did  not  at- 
tem))t  to  arrest  the  nutu  of  God  and  begged 
for  life.  Elijah  went  with  him  ('.»  Kin. 
i.  1-1(1).  Finally  the  i>rophet  obtained  the 
great  honor,  bestowed  liefore  only  (ui  Enoch 
(Gen.  V.  24),  of  being  translated  to  heaven 
witlurtit  dying.  A  chariot  and  horses  of 
fire  appeared  to  him  when  he  had  gone 
witli  his  servant  I'',li>ha  to  the  east  of  the 
.Jordan,  and,  ]iarting  them  asunder,  took 
Elijah  up  in  a  whirlwind  to  heaven  (2  Kin. 
ii.  1-12).  Elijah  ajijiears  to  have  been  trans- 
lated Just  before  Jehonim  of  Isniel  a.s<-ended 
the  throne  2  Kin.  ii.  with  i.  Is  and  iii.  1) 
and  fluring  the  reign  of  Jehoshaphat  of 
.Tudah  (iii.  11);  yet  he  wrote  a  document  in 
which  he  addres.sed  .lehonim  of  Judah.  who 
indeed  was  a  co-rigent  with  Jehoshaphiit, 
and  Uireatened  him  with  divine  judgment, 
not  only  for  sins  committed  during  the  life- 
time of  Jehosluiphat.  but  fer  murder  which 
he  committed  after  .khoshapliat's  death  (2 
Chrou.  xxi.  12:  cj).  l.'!  with  4i.  If  Elijah 
was  translated  at  the  time  indicated,  he 
prophesied  during  his  lifetime  conci'niing 
future  deeds  of  Jehorani.  just  as  In-  foretold 
future  acts  of  Ha/ael  and  Jehu  (1  Kin.  .\ix. 
I'^-M).  Less  in  accordance  with  the  lan- 
guage o{  iii.  11  is  the  ex]ilanalion  that  the 
account  of  Elijah's  tninslation  \f  inserted 
where  it  is  in  2  Kings  simjily  to  complete  the 
narrative  of  his  jiublic  activity,  and  that 
Elijah  wasstill  alive  when  Elisha  was  with  the 
army  of  .lehoshaiihal  in  southern  .ludah,  and 
was  living  when  .lehonim  became  sole  king. 
The  last  two  verses  of  the  O.  T.  preilict  that 
(4od  will  send  Elijah  before  flu-  coming  of 
the  great  and  dreadful  <layof  the  Lord  (Mai. 
iv.  n.  (i).  The  \.  T.  explain-  that  the  refer- 
ence is  to  John  the  Iljiptist.  who  was  like  the 
Tishbite  in  humble  dress  and  ap]H-anincc 
(Mat.  iii.  1;  Mark  i.  «ii.  and  n'.s«'mbled  him 
also  in  his  fidelitv  and  the  work  which  he 
did  (Mat.  xi.  11-14:  xvii.  li>  12;  Murk  ix. 
ll-i:{;  Luke  i.  17).  Th<Te  are  those,  how- 
ever, who  contend  that  while  Jcdin  appean-d 
in  the  sjtirit  and  power  of  Elijah,  the  O.  T. 
prophet  is  yet  to  app<ar.  in  person,  before  I h« 
secoml  advent  of  our  Lonl.      Elijah  appeared 

on  the uut  of  Tninsfigunition  as  the  n  pre- 

st-ntative  <»f  the  <  >.  T.  j>roi>ln<  y  to  do  Imnor  to 
Jesus,  its  theme  (Mat.   xvii.  4;  Murk  ix.   4; 


Elika 


19G 


Elisha 


Luke  ix.  30)  ;  and  his  ascension,  to  which 
there  was  nothing  anahjgous  in  the  history 
of  Jolm  tlie  I5ai)tist,  (loul)tless  foreshadowed 
that  of  our  risen  Loni. 

Tile  mi  rack's  wliidi  were  wrought  during 
the  ministry  of  Elijali  belong  to  the  second 
of  tlie  four  miracle  periods  of  redeni]itive 
history,  the  period  of  the  life  and  death 
struggle  lietween  the  religion  of  .Jehovah  and 
Baal  worshij),  when  the  adherence  of  the  peo- 
jile  of  northern  Israel  to  the  faith  of  their 
fathers  was  at  issue,  and  all  other  ((uestions 
regarding  religious  observances  sank  to  minor 
importance.     See  Mikacle. 

2.  A  Benjamite,  a  son  of  Jei'oham,  resident 
at  Jerusalem  (1  Chron.  viii.  27,  R.  ^'.). 

3.  A  priest,  a  son  of  Harim.  He  married 
a  gentile  wife  (Ezra  x.  21). 

4.  An  Israelite  induced  l)y  Ezra  to  put  away 
his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  26,  11.  V.). 

E-li'ka. 

A  Harodite,  one  of  David's  mighty  men 
(2  Sam.  xxiii.  2.^). 

E'lim  [strong  evergreen  trees ;  such  as  oaks, 
terel)inths,  i)alms]. 

The  second  encampment  of  the  Israelites 
after  the  passage  of  the  Eed  Sea.  It  was  be- 
tween Marah  and  the  desert  of  Sin,  and  had 
twelve  springs  of  water  and  seventy  palm 
trees  (Ex.  xv.  27 ;  xvi.  1 ;  Num.  xxxiii.  9, 10). 
Two  valleys,  wady  Ghurundel  and  wady 
Useit,  or  Waseit,  are  rivals  for  the  honor  of 
representing  the  ancient  Elim.  The  f-urmer 
has  more  water,  and  is  commonly  regarded 
as  the  site.  Both  are  fringed  with  trees  and 
shrubs,  though  the  adjacent  parts  of  the 
desert  are  bare.  The  vegetation  consists  of 
palm  trees,  tamarisks,  and  acacias. 

E-lim'e-lech  [(iod  is  king]. 

A  man  of  Betlilehem  of  Judah,  the  hus- 
band of  Naomi  (Kuth  i.  1,  5). 

E-li-0-e'nai  [my  eyes  (are  turned)  toward 
Jehovah].  The  Hebrew  form  is  a  legitimate 
variant  of  Eliehoenai. 

1.  A  descendant  of  Simeon  (1  Chron.  iv. 
3G). 

2.  A  Benjamite,  family  of  Becher  (1  Chron. 
vii.  8). 

3.  A  Levite  (1  Chron.  xxvi.  3,  A.  V.).  See 
Elieiiokn.\i. 

4  and  5.  Two  Hebrews,  each  of  whom  was 
induced  by  Ezra  to  put  away  his  foreign  wife 
(Ezra  X.  22,  27). 

6.  A  man  of  .Judah,  descended  from  Sheca- 
niah  (1  Chron.  iii.  23,  24). 

E-li'phal  [God  has  judged]. 

One  of  David's  mighty  men,  a  son  of  Vr 
(1  Chron.  xi.  3,"»).  Ap])arently  called  Eliph- 
elet,  the  son  of  Ahasbai  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  34). 
See  L'k. 

E-liph'a-let.     See  Eliphklet. 

E-li'phaz  [God  is  strong]. 

1.  A  son  of  Esau,  by  Adah,  one  of  his  wives 
(Gen.  xxxvi.  4). 

2.  A  Temanite,  one  of  Jol)"s  friends  (Job 


ii.  11 ;  iv.  1 ;  xv.  1  ;  xxii.  1  ;  xlii.  7,  fl).  Prob- 
at)ly  a  descendant  of  No.  1,  who  hail  a  son 
Teman  (Gen.  xxxvi.  11). 

E-liph'e-leli,  in  R.  V.  E-liph'e-le-hu  [(iod 
is  disiinguisiicd  (as  excellent  i]. 

A  Levite,  a  singer  and  a  harper,  wlio  acted 
al.so  as  a  porter  when  Daviil  brought  uj)  the 
ark  from  the  hou.se  of  (Jbed-edom  (1  Chron. 
XV.  18,  21). 

E-liph'e-let,  in  A.  V.  twice  Eliphalet  [God 
is  deliverance]. 

1.  A  son  born  to  David  in  Jerusalem  (1 
Chron.  iii.  (5).  A  correct  Hebrew  alternate 
form  is  Eljiaiet  (1  Cliron.  xiv.  ;">). 

2.  Another  son  of  David's,  born  also  at  Je- 
rusalem, probably  after  the  death  of  the 
foi-mer  (2  Sam.  v.  16;  1  Chron.  iii.  8;  xiv.  7). 

3.  A  son  of  Ahasbai,  and  one  of  David's 
mighty  men  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  34).  Appai-eutly 
called  Eliphal  in  1  Chron.  xi.  35. 

4.  A  descendant  of  Jonathan  and  of  Saul 
(1  Chron.  viii.  39). 

5.  A  son  of  Adonikam.  He  returned  with 
Ezra  from  Babylon  (Ezra  viii.  13). 

6.  A  son  of  Hashnm.  Ezra  induced  him 
to  put  away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  33). 

E-lis'a-beth  [God  is  an  oath,  i.  e.,  a  cov- 
enant maker]. 

A  godly  woman,  a  daughter  of  the  house 
of  Aaron,  and  bearing  the  name  of  Aaron's 
wife  (Ex.  vi.  23,  Elisheba).  She  became  the 
wife  of  the  jn-iest  Zacharias  and  the  mother 
of  John  the  Baptist.  She  bore  him  when  she 
was  of  advanced  years,  his  birth  and  mission 
having  been  comnnmicated  beforehand  by  an 
angel  to  her  husliand.  Though  of  diti'erent 
tribes,  .she  and  ]\Iary  of  Nazareth  were  kins- 
women, and  Mary  visited  Elisabeth  at  a  vil- 
lage (probably  Juttali)  in  the  hill  country  of 
Judjea.  Elisabeth,  inspired  by  the  Holy 
Ghost,  welcomed  Mary  as  the  mother  of  the 
Lord  (Luke  i.  5-4.5). 

E-li'sha,  in  A.  Y.  of  N.  T.  El-i-se'us,  which 
is  an  imitation  of  the  Greek  modification  of 
the  name  [God  is  salvation]. 

One  of  the  two  great  prophets  of  the  older 
period  of  Israelite  history  who  labored  in  the 
northern  kingdom.  He  was  the  son  of  Sha- 
phat,  dwelt  at  Abel-meliolah  in  the  Jordan 
valley,  and  was  well  to  do  ;  twelve  yoke  of 
oxen  i)lowed  his  fields.  He  was  ai)iiointed 
by  God  to  be  the  successor  of  Elijah  (1  Kin. 
xix.  If),  19).  Elijah  found  him  plowing  and 
cast  his  mantle  over  him.  Elisha  understood 
the  significance  of  the  act;  and,  having  oli- 
tained  the  i)ropliet's  permission,  went  lionie, 
gave  a  farewell  feast  to  his  friends,  and  re- 
turned to  ])(>  the  follower  and  assistant  of 
Elijah  (19-21).  When  Elijah  went  beyond 
the  Jordan  to  be  translated  to  heaven,  Elisha 
kept  close  to  his  side  ;  and  when  asked  to 
name  what  he  would  like  to  obtain  as  a  part- 
ing gift  had  the  wisdom  to  petition  for  a 
double  ])orf  ion  of  Elijah's  spirit.  He  saw  the 
fiery  chariot  bear  his  master  away,  and  tak- 
ing the  mantle  which  had  fallen  from  Elijah, 


Elisliah 


197 


Elizaphan 


struck  the  Jordan  with  it,  which  divided  and 
jtiTiiiittcd  liini  to  cross  to  its  western  side 
(•J  Kill.  ii.  1-lS).  His  sul)sc(iiicnt  lilc  was 
uiarki'd  liy  a  scries  of  iniraclis,  some  of  know  I - 
edge,  ot  tiers  of  i)o\ver,exiiressly  wrotiniit  in  t  lie 
nann;  of  the  Lord.  Tliey  lielonj;  to  thi-  sec- 
ond tiroup  nf  miracles  in  ri'di  iMpli  ve  liistory. 
Tiny  occurred  at  a  time  wiien  the  reliniim 
of  .K'liovali  was  enj;:if;ed  in  a  iUsi)erate  stru;^- 
gle  for  existence  ai;ainst  Haal  worship,  and, 
like  the  miracles  liy  (iod  for  l-",lijali,  were  in- 
tended to  accredit  llu-  iirojiliet  and  to  attest 
Jehovah  to  he  the  living  (iod.  In  the  name 
of  the  l.,ord  lii-  healed  the  deleterious  wati-rs 
of  a  spring  near  to  .lericho  (l'J-22).  lie  ju-o- 
nounced  .Jehovah's  curse  on  lads  who  con- 
temjituously  insulted  the  iirojdii't  of  the  ]>ord 
in  him,  and  two  hears  i)resently  tore  forty- 
two  of  them  CJIJ-^i.")).  He  i>redi"cted  the  de- 
liverance and  temporary  succi-ss  of  the  three 
kings  who  were  invading  ^loah  (iii.  11-^7). 
He  multiplied  a  widow's  jiot  of  oil  (iv.  1-7). 
He  jtredicted  t(j  a  Sluinamnute  woman  the 
birth  of  a  son,  and  at  his  i)rayer  that  son  was 
restored  to  life  when  he  had  diid  (.s-.';7).  He 
named  an  antidote  to  a  jioisonous  plant  in 
the  pot  in  which  food  was  hiing  cooked  for 
the  prophets  (3^-41).  As  projihet  of  the  Lord 
he  fed  a  hundred  men  with  twenty  harley 
loaves  and  a  few  ears  of  corn  (4"-;-ll),  told 
Js'aauian  to  wash  in  Jordan  and  he  would  he 
healed  of  his  leprosy  (v.  1-19),  and  foretold 
its  transference  to  Gehazi  as  a  punishment 
of  lying  and  covetousne.ss  (20-27).  Hi'  made 
an  iron  axhead  swim  (vi.  1-7).  He  com- 
nuinicatcd  to  the  king  of  Israel,  without 
heing  informed  of  them,  the  niovonients  and 
intentions  of  his  Syrian  rival  (8-12).  At  liis 
jirayer,  the  Lord  revealed  to  the  pro]ihet's 
.servant  horses  and  chariots  of  tire  surround- 
ing them  for  their  jirotection  (l.'5-17),  and 
caused  hlindness  to  fall  on  the  Syrian  emis- 
saries sent  to  arrest  them  (17-2.'i).  He  inti- 
niati'd.  without  heing  told  it.  that  a  messen- 
ger from  the  king  of  Israel  was  at  the  door 
to  take  his  life  (vi.  :!2,  :i:'>).  He  predicted 
great  jdenty  and  con.se(|Ui'nt  clu'apness  of 
food  in  Samaria,  while  it  wasat  famine  ])rices 
during  a  siege,  adding,  however,  that  an  un- 
helieving  lord  who  discredited  the  jirediction 
should  )iot  ])artici]iate  in  the  hoon,  which  he 
did  not.  for  lie  was  tranii)led  to  death  in  a 
crowd  (vii.  1-20).  He  informed  Menhadad. 
king  of  Syria,  of  his  a]i])roaching  <leath  (viii. 
T-IT)).  He  declared  the  destruction  of  .Miah 
and  his  whole  house,  and  .sent  n  young 
jiroi>het  to  anoint  .lehu  toexecntethe  threat- 
ened judgment  (ix.  1-x.  2M).  He  predicti'd 
three  vi<-tories  over  the  Syrians  (xiii.  11- MM. 
Finally,  after  his  death,  a  man  hastily  cast 
into  the  siinie  .sepulcher  was  at  once  restored 
to  life  on  touching  the  prophet's  hones  (20, 21). 

E-li'shah. 

The  descendants  of  , la  van  colled  ivelv,  who 
inhaliited  the  country  of  Klishah  (<ie:i.  x.  1). 
This   country  was   maritime,    and    exjiorted 


blue  and  purple  dye  stuffs  (Ezek.  xxvii.  7). 
Jt  has  been  variously  «'xplained  »>  Hellas, 
Kli.s,  Ai-olis,  Italy,  and  Carthage.  I'liiloh.gi- 
cal  objections  weigh  against  the  lirst  four; 
and  there  is  no  jiroof  that  (  arlhage  was  ever 
called  Elix<a,  and  this  town  was  besid<  s  iu 
Africa.  Alishiya.  who>e  king  exciianged 
correspondence  with  tin-  I'lianndis  of  the 
eighteenth  Kgyiilian  dynasty,  has  recently 
lieeii  suggested  (K.  1).  Wilson);  but  it  is  U8 
yet  4illered  as  a  mere  conjecture. 
E-lish'a-ma  [(oid  hatli  heard]. 

1.  Son  of  Ammihud,  and  prince  of  the 
Kphrainiil(  s  at  the  beginning  of  the  sojourn 
in  the  wilderness  (Num.  i.  10;  ii.  lb),  aud 
ancestor  of  .Joshua  (1  (hron.  vii.  2(!). 

2.  A  man  of  .Judah,  des<ended  tlirough 
Jerahmeel  ami  Sjieslian  (1  C'hron.  ii.  'M,  41). 

;>.  A  son  (if  David,  born  at  Jerusiilem  (1 
t'liron.  iii.  (i).     See  Ki.isiiiA. 

4.  Another  son  of  Davhl  (2  Sam.  v.  16;  1 
Chron.  iii.  H). 

i").  A  priest,  one  of  tho.se  sent  by  Jehosha- 
phat  to  teach  in  the  cities  of  Judah  (2  Chron. 
xvii.  H). 

(i.  A  jirince  and  scribe  in  the  reign  of  kinp 
Jehoiakim  (.ler.  xxxvi.  12.  2<i.  21).  and  jmil)- 
ably  identical  with  thegnindfalherof  l^hnlBel 
of  the  seed  royal  wlio  murdered  Ciedaliah,  the 
governor  of  .Ju<la-a  under  the  Iljibylonians  (2 
Kin.  XXV.  2.'> ;  .ler.  xli.  1). 

E-lish'a-phat  [(Jod  hath  judged]. 

One  of  the  laptains  of  liundreds  who  sup- 
jiorted  Jehoiada  in  the  revolt  against  Atbaliah 
(2  Chron.  xxiii.  1). 

E-lish'e-ba  [(Jod  is  an  oath]. 

]  laughter  of  Amniiiiadab,  and  sister  of 
Nahshon.  .She  became  the  wife  of  Aaron, 
and  the  motlur  of  Nailab,  Abihu,  Kleazar, 
and  Ithamar  (Kx.  vi.  2.'!). 

E-llsh'u-a  [(iod  is  sidvation]. 

A  son  of  David,  born  at  Jeru-saileni  (2  Sam. 
V.  1.");  1  Chron.  xiv.  .'>i.  In  tlie  correspond- 
ing jiositioii  in  the  thinl  list  <if  David's  .sons 
(1  Chron.  iii.  (i)  the  name  F.lishama  api>ears. 
In  view  of  the  rea<ling  of  the  oiher  cata- 
logues, anil  since  the  name  Llishama  was 
l)orne  by  am)ther  cd'  David's  son.s,  nuiitioupd 
farther  on  in  all  three  li.sts.  it  is  rea.sonablo 
to  hilii  ve  that  Klishama  in  1  Chron.  iii.  Ii  is  a 
misnailing  of  Klishua.  as  it  is  a  tjuite  intelli- 
gil)le  one. 

E-ll'ud  [iierhajis  from  Hebrew  "lit/'hud, 
(io<l  of  .Judah  or  of  tin-  .Jews,  a  luune  which 
does  not  (wcnr  in  llie  ( ).  T.] 

Son  of  Adiim.  and  father  of  Kleazar,  in 
the  ancestry  of  ClirisI  iMat.  i.  14.  l.">). 

E-Uz'a-phan  or  Elzapban,  the  forms  beins 
inten  hangealile  in  lleluew  [tiiKl  hath  con- 
cealed]. 

1.  Son  of  I'/ziel.  and  chief  of  the  Koha- 
thit<s  in  tlie  wihlerness  (Kx.  vi.  l.».2-J:  Num. 
iii.  .'Mil.  He  assisted  in  removing  the  IxMlies 
of  Nadab  and  Abiiiu  from  the  camp  (L*v. 
X.  4). 


Elizur 


198 


Elymais 


2.  Son  of  Parniich,  and  prince  of  the  tribe 
of  Zelnilun  in  tbe  wilderness  (Num.  xxxiv. 
25). 

E-li'zur  [God  is  a  rock]. 

The  jjriuce  of  tbe  Keul)eiiites  in  the  wil- 
derness (Num.  i.  ") ;  ii.  10). 

El'ka-nali  [(Jud  hatli  crcalcd]. 

1.  A  Lcvitc,  lainily  of  Koliath,  house  of 
Izhar,  division  of  Korali.  He  was  l)r()lher 
of  As.sir  and  Abiasaph  (Ex.  vi.  24 ;  1  Cbron. 
vi.  23  and  perliaps  25). 

2,  3,  and  4.  Three  Levites,  links  in  one 
genealogy,  one  the  son  i)f  Joel,  the  second 
tbe  son  of  Mahatb.  and  the  third  tlie  son  of 
Jerohani.  Like  the  preceding,  tliey  were  of 
the  family  of  Kohath,  bouse  of  Izbar,  Kor- 
bite  division  ;  but  they  were  descended  from 
Abiasaph  (1  Cbron.  vi.  3G,  .sou  of  Joel ;  26,  35, 
of  Mabatli ;  27,  34,  and  1  Sam.  i.  1,  of  Jero- 
hani). Tbe  last  of  the  three  belonged  to  the 
hill  country  of  Ephraim,  lived  at  Kamatbaim 
of  the  Zoiiiiites,  was  the  husband  of  Hannah 
aud  Peninnab,  and  tbe  father  of  Samuel  (1 
Sam.  i.  1;  ii.  11,  20). 

5.  Another  Korbitewho  bad  dwell  in  Ben- 
jamin, perhaps  because  tbe  Korbites  were 
doorkec])ers  of  the  tabernacle  which  was 
pitched  in  Benjamin  (1  Cbron.  ix.  19),  and 
who  joined  David  at  Ziklag  (1  Cbron.  xii.  6). 

6.  A  doorkeeper  for  tbe  ark  during  the 
reign  of  David  (1  Cbron.  xv.  23). 

7.  A  high  dignitary  at  tbe  court  of  Abaz, 
second  only  to  tbe  king  (2  Cbron.  xxviii.  7). 

8.  A  Lcvite  who  dwelt  in  a  village  of  the 
Neto])liathites  (1  Cbron.  ix.  l(i). 

El'kosh-ite. 

A  citizen  of  Elkosb  (Nab.  i.  1).  The  tradi- 
tion that  Alkush,  two  days'  journey  north  of 
Nineveh,  was  tbe  birth  and  burial  place  of 
Nabum  is  late,  being  unknown  to  early  Ara- 
bian and  Syrian  writers;  and  tbe  contents 
of  tbe  book  of  Nabum  are  against  it.  A  cred- 
ible, but  uni>roven,  identification  is  with  the 
town  Elcesi  or  HelcesaM  in  Galilee,  which  was 
pointed  out  to  Jerome  as  tbe  birtbj)lace  of 
tbe  proi)bet. 

El'la-sar. 

A  place  in  or  near  Babylonia  (Gen.  xiv.  1, 
9).  Not  improbably  Larsa^  tbe  remains  of 
which  now  constitute  tbe  mounds  of  Seu- 
kereh,  to  the  southeast  of  Erecb. 

Elm. 

An  erroneous  rendering  of  tbe  Hebrew 
•word  'Elah  in  Hos.  iv.  13.  A.  V.  The  word 
is  projjcrly  translated  "oak  "  in  Gen.  xxxv.  4 
and  Judg.  vi.  11,  19,  with  terebinth  on  the 
margin  of  \i.  V. 

El-ma'dam,  in  A.  V.  Elmodam. 

An  aiiccslor  of  Christ,  who  lived  before  the 
exile  (  Luke  iii.  2S). 

El'na-am  [God  is  jdeasantness]. 

The  father  of  certain  valiant  nu>u  in  David's 
army  (1  Cliron.  xi.  46). 

El'na-than  [God  bath  given]. 

1.  The  father  of  Nebushta,  mother  of  king 


Jehoiacbin  (2  Kin.  xxiv.  8).  He  dwelt  at 
Jerusalem,  and  was  proi)ably  tbe  prince  El- 
nathan,  son  of  Achbor  (Jer.  xxvi.  22  ;  xxxvi. 
12,  25). 

2,  3,  and  4.  Three  Levites,  the  first  two 
chief  men,  aiul  the  third  a  man  of  under- 
standing, sent  for  by  Ezra  to  the  brook  Ahava 
(Ezra  viii.  16). 

E-lo'i  [Aramaic,  my  God].     See  Eli,  I. 

E'lon  [an  oak  or  terebinth]. 

1.  A  Hittite,  whose  daughter  Esau  married 
(Gen.  xxvi.  34;  xxxvi.  2J. 

2.  A  son  of  Zebulun,  and  founder  of  a 
tribal  family  (Gen.  xlvi.  14  ;  Num.  xxvi.  26). 

3.  A  Zebulonite  who  judged  Israel  for  ten 
years,  and  was  buried  at  Aijalou,  in  Zebulun 
(Judg.  xii.  11,  12). 

4.  A  village  of  Dan  (Josh.  xix.  43).  Not 
ideutified ;  for  Beit  EUo,  S  miles  northwest 
by  west  from  Bethel,  is  not  in  the  limits  of 
the  ancient  territory  of  Dan. 

E'lon-beth-ha'nan  [Elon  of  Beth-hanan]. 

A  town  in  Dan,  to  judge  from  its  associates 
(1  Kin.  iv.  9),  perhaps  identical  with  Elon. 
Its  site  is  not  Beit  'Anan,  S";  miles  northwest 
of  Jerusalem.  This  place  is  in  Benjamin,  a 
different  tax  district  (18),  aud  tbe  name  is 
differently  spelled. 

E'lotb.     See  Elath. 

El'pa-al  [God  is  a  reward] . 

A  man  of  Benjamin,  son  of  Sbabaraim,  and 
head  of  a  father's  house  (1  C'hron.  viii.  11, 
12,  IS). 

El'pa-let,  in  E.  V.  Elpelet.     See  Elipiie- 

LET. 

El-pa'ran.     See  Elath. 

El'te-keh  [perhaps,  God  is  a  dread]. 

A  town  of  Dan  assigned  to  the  Levites 
(Josb.  xix.  44  ;  xxi.  23).  and  mentioned  in 
tbe  records  of  Sennacherib  likewise  in  con- 
nection with  Timuab  and  Ekron.  In  701 
I?,  c.  Senuacherib  destroyed  tbe  town,  and  in 
its  vicinity  tbe  decisive  battle  between  tbe 
Assyrians  and  Egyptians  was  fought.  Not 
identified  ;  certainly  not  Beit  Likia,  2  miles 
south  of  the  Nether  Beth-boron. 

El'te-kon  [God  is  firmness]. 

A  village  in  tbe  bill  country  of  Judab  (Josh. 
XV.  59).     Exact  site  unknown. 

El'to-lad  [birth,  race]. 

A  town  in  tiu>  extreme  south  of  Judab 
(,Josb.  xv.  30).  assigned  to  tbe  Simconites 
(xix.  4).  Called  in  1  Cbron.  iv.  29  simply 
Tolad,  with  omission  of  what  is  either  tbe 
word  for  God  or  the  Arabic  article.  Exact 
site  UTiknown. 

E'lul. 

Tbe  sixth  month  of  the  year  (Neb.  vi.  15; 
1  'Mac.  xiv.  27),  approximately  September. 
See  Yk.vk. 

E-lu'zai  [perluqis,  God  is  my  strength]. 

One  of  tbe  valiant  meji  who  came  to  David 
to  Ziklag  (1  Cbron.  xii.  5). 

El-y-ma'is.     See  Elam. 


Elymas 


199 


Emerald 


El'y-mas  [appareutlv  from  Aral)ic  'al'tm, 
leariMil]. 

A  Jc'uisli  iiiiiiostor,  Bar-jt'(<iis  l)y  name, 
wliifli  niraus  son  of  Ji'siis  or  Joshua,  who 
prt'teiiiled  to  learn  tlic  I'uturo  throii};h  sor- 
cery. Paul  fMcouutcrcd  liini  in  l'a|)hos,  a 
town  of  Cyprus,  during;  his  lirsl  missionary 
journey.  He  soujihl  to  turn  from  tlie  faith 
yi'rtjius  I'aulus,  the  Roman  dejiuty  or  ]iro- 
consul  of  the  island,  who  seemed  dis])osed  lo 
accept  the  doctrine  of  Paul  and  .si'ek  for  hap- 
tisni.  The  apostle,  therefore,  severely  re- 
huked  the  sorceriT  and  struck  him  with  tem- 
porary hlindness,  the  miracle  removing  the 
last  douht  wliiidi  the  jiruconsul  had  as  to  the 
claims  of  Christian  truth  on  his  acceptance 
(Acts  xiii.  G-l-J). 

EPza-bad  [Cod  hath  hestowed]. 

1.  One  of  tile  valiant  (iadites  who  came  to 
David  (1  Chron.  xii.  12). 

2.  A  Levite  of  the  family  of  Ohed-edom, 
and  a  doorkeeper  at  the  house  of  the  Lord 
(1  Cliron.  xxvi.  7). 

El'za-phan.     See  Elizai-iian. 

Em-balm'. 

To  attempt  to  preserve  a  dead  body  from 
decay  hy  the  use  of  sweet  spices.  The  He- 
brews seldom  embalmed  their  dead  ((ien.  1. 
2,  -'(i;  cp.  2  Chron.  xvi.  11 ;  John  xix.  :{!ll.  but 
the  art  of  enihalniinii  was  practiced  by  the 
Etryptians  from  very  earh'  times.  The  eni- 
balniers  were  a  numerous  guild,  who  dwelt 
at  the  cemeteries.  They  were  divided  into 
three  classes — the  first  made  the  incision  in 
the  liody,  the  second  haiuUed  the  sjiices,  and 
the  third  conducted  the  religious  ceremonies 
when  the  body  was  jjlaced  in  the  tomb.  Hy 
the  tinu-  of  the  eighteenth  dynasty,  shortly 
before  the  time  of  Mos<>s,  they  had  brought 
their  art  to  great  perfection.  The  brain  was 
drawn  through  the  luise  witlt  an  iron  hook 
and  replaced  with  spices.  The  entrails  were 
removed,  and  the  alxlominal  cavity  was 
waslu'd   out   by  the  injection  of  palm  wine, 


l^^'Vpliiiu  KnibahniuK. 

nnd  then  filled  witli  ])rnised  myrrh,  cassia, 
cinnamon,  and  other  si)ices.  Next  the  wliole 
body  was  ]dunge(l  in  natron,  or  more  exactly 
sulxarhonate  of  .soda,  and  left  in  it  for 
seventy  days.  Then  it  was  rolle(l  in  linen 
bandages  oidy  three  or  four  iiu-hes  wide,  Imt 
of  the  extniordinary  length  of  TtK)  or  even 


KXX)  yards.  tJuni  Arabic  was  used  to  keep 
the  bandages  in  tlieir  place,  and  finally  tlie 
corjise,  now  mummified,  was  jplaci'il  in  u 
case  «d"  wood  orcartonnagc.  made  in  the  >lia|K; 
of  a  man,  and  carved  and  painted  to  repre- 
.sent  the  decea.sed  i>erson.  It  was  often  en- 
closed in  a  second  or  outer  ea.se  of  woikI 
or  in  a  stone  sjircoiihagus.  A  less  expensive 
niethod  re(|uired  no  incision  ;  the  intestines 
were  dis.Milved  by  an  injection  of  oil  of  cedar. 
In  the  ea.se  of  the  poor,  the  alulomen  was 
merely  jjurged  and  steeped  in  mitron  (Her<Ml. 
ii.  H,")-Ks,  fully  confirmed  by  Egyptian  reii.nls 
and  nnimmies).  According  to  the  .-Sicilian 
historian  Diodorus,  the  interment  of  a  rich 
nian  cost  the  relatives  the  e(|uivaleiit  of  about 
s^l2(«l.  A  .secoiid-nite  (Mnbalmnient  cost  about 
•*4il(l.  and  there  was  a  much  cheaiiir  kind 
lor  the  common  peoiih-.  l''.udialming  ceased 
about  .v.  D.  TOO.  Many  niunuuio  are  in  the 
British  and  other  musi-unis.  Occasionally 
one  is  unrolled,  but  it  tends  to  fall  to  i>ieces 
when  ex)iii>cd  to  the  air. 

Em-broid'ery. 

(Irnanientation  by  raised  figures  of  needle- 
work, executed  with  colored  silks,  gold  or 
silver  thread,  or  any  similar  material  dilU-r- 
ing  from  that  of  the  original  cloth.  H«zjileel 
and  Aholiab  were  able  to  iirjictice.  among 
other  art.s,  that  of  embroiclering  in  blue, 
imrple.  scarU-t.  aiul  fine  linen  (Ex.  xxxv.  .'t^ ; 
xxxviii.  'JIS).  The  screens  for  the  door  of  the 
tabernacle  an<l  the  gate  of  the  court  i  Ex. 
xxvi.  .'!(!  ;  xxvii.  Ki)  and  tin-  girdle  of  the 
high  jiriest  (xxviii.  :{'J,  R.  ^■. :  xxxix.  •_'!•)  were 
embroidered.  The  wealthy  often  wore  em- 
broidered garnunts  (Judg.  v.  :{0  ;  IV.  xlv.  lit. 

E'mek-ke'zlz,  in  A.  V.  valley  of  Keziz  [a 
vale  cut  oil'  or  vale  of  fissure]. 

A  town  of  Benjamin,  eviilently  in  a  valley 
and  apjiarenlly  near  .lericho  and  Beth-hoglah 
(Josh,  xviii.  21 1.  .Scarcely  to  be  connected 
with  watly  el-Kaziz,  a  branch  of  the  Kidron, 
which  seems  to  lie  too  far  west  and  south. 

Em'er-ald  [(Sret-k  miiinaiiihin]. 

1.  The  ri  ndering  of  the  Hebrew  Mophrk. 
It  was  the  fii>t  stone  in  the  second  row  of 
those  on  the  Jewish  high  priests  breastplate 
(Ex.  xxviii.  IS;  xxxix.  II).  The  Syrians 
imi>orted  pre<-ious  stones  of  this  kind  into 
Tyre  (  Ezek.  xxvii.  lf>»,  and  the  Tyrians  used 
tliem  for  oriuiments  (xxviii.  i:f).  The  exact 
stone  intended  is  doubtful.  It  may  I.e  the 
carbuncle  ( 1{.  \'.  margin:  cp.  S<pluaginli. 

2.  The  rendering  of  the  (Jn-ek  Smiiriiiiilo», 
meatiing  a  jirecious  stone  of  n  light  green 
color.  The  name  was  jurhaps  a)>plied  to  any 
green  erystalli/ed  ndnenil.  It  was  us«d  for 
signets  (Ecdus.  xxxii.fJi  :  a  niinbow  islikened 
to  it  (IJev.  iv.  :?) ;  it  was  to  be  the  fourtli 
foiiiniation  in  the  New  Jerusiileni  (xxi.ll»: 
cp.  Tobit  xiii.  Hi).  The  enieralil  is  a  variety 
of  beryl,  distinguished  by  its  «  ol.ir.  which  is 
bright  green,  from  typical  lierv  I,  which  is 
l)ale  gret-n.  passing  into  light  blue,  yellow, 
or  white.   While  the  IhtvI  is  colored  by  iron, 


Emerods 


200 


En-gedi 


the  emerald  is  colored  by  chromium.  Aii- 
cieutly  it  was  i'oinul  in  Cyprus,  in  Egypt,  and 
in  the  mduntaius  of  Etliioi)ia. 

Em'e-rods  [a  corrupted  form  of  hemor- 
rhoids] . 

Piles;  external  or  internal  tumors  in  the 
anal  region,  formed  of  dilated  lilood  vessels 
(Deut.  xxviii.  27).  They  were  indicted  on 
the  IMiilistines  of  Ashdod  and  Kkron,  tocom- 
])el  them  to  send  liack  the  ark  which  they 
liad  eaptureil  (I  Sam.  v.  tJ ;  vi.  11). 

E'mim,  in  A.  V.  Emims,  a  double  plural. 

Tlu'  ancient  inhabitants  of  territory  after- 
wards occupied  by  the  Moabites.  They  were 
tall  as  the  Anakiin,  and  were  once  a  nu- 
merous and  powerful  people  (Deut.  ii.  9-11). 
Chedorlaomer  snnite  them  in  the  plaiu  of 
Kiriathaim  ((icii.  siv.  5). 

Em-man'u-el.     See  Immanuel. 

Em'ma-us. 

1.  A  village  (50  furlongs  from  Jerusalem,  a 
distance  which  could  be  traversed  on  foot  be- 
tween the  hour  for  sup])er  and  the  time  of  an 
evening  meeting  (Luke  xxiv.  13,  29,  33;  cp. 
Mark  xvi.  14:  John  xx.  19).  Vespasian  lo- 
cated 800  veterans  at  "  Emmaus  distant  sixty 
[according  to  another  reading,  thirty]  fur- 
longs from  Jerusalem''  (War  vii.  (J,  6).  The 
Talmud  states  that  Moza  is  Colonia.  Kubei- 
beh,  meaning  the  little  dome,  7  miles  north- 
west of  Jerusalem  on  the  Eoraau  road,  was 
pointed  out  to  the  Crusaders  as  the  site  of 
Emmaus.  In  the  vicinity  was  the  town  of 
Mozah  (Josh,  xviii.  2l>).  Three  miles  to  tlie 
south  of  Kubeibeh  is  Kulouieh,  that  is  col- 
ony, whose  disbmce  from  Jerusalem  is  4 
miles  or  more  according  to  the  road  followed. 
Probably,  therefore,  tlie  site  of  Enunaus  is 
to  be  found  either  at  Kubiebeh  or  Kulouieh, 
or  in  the  intervening  country.  The  distance 
and  tradition  since  the  time  of  the  Crusaders 
point  to  Kubeibeh ;  the  Eomau  colony  to 
which  Emmaus  was  assigned  may  have  left 
its  name  attached  to  a  village  in  the  southern 
part  of  its  possessions.  Conder's  suggestion 
of  the  ruin  Khaniaseh,  8  miles  southwest  of 
Jerusalem,  is  not  happy.  The  distance  suits, 
but  the  name  does  not  readily ;  for  only  rarely 
does  the  smooth  breathing,  whicli  appears  in 
the  (ireek  form  of  Emmaus,  represent  the 
.strong  guttural  h,  in  Arabic  h,  i.  e.  kh  (cp. 
Huldah  and  Hermon). 

2.  A  walled  town  of  some  note  18  miles,  or 
160  stiides,  westward  from  Jerusalem  by  a 
circuitous  Roman  road  (1  Mac.  iil.  40;  ix.  50; 
War  ii.  20,  4).     Now  'Amwas. 

Em'mor.     See  Hamor. 
E'na-im  [two  spi-ings]. 
A  town  on  tlic  road  from  Adullam  to  Tim- 
nath  [Gen.  xxxviii.  14,  21,  in  A.  V.  open). 

E'nam  [place  of  fountains]. 
A  village  in  the  lowland  of  Judah  (Josh. 
XV.  34)  ;  probably  identical  with  Euaim. 
E'nan  [having  eyes,  seeing]. 


The  father  of  the  prince  of  the  tribe  of 
Xaphtali  in  the  days  of  Moses  (Num.  i.  1.j). 

En-camp'ment.     See  Camp. 

En-chant'er. 

One  wlio  ]iractices  any  form  of  cnchant- 
nient.  In  II.  V.  of  Daniel  (ii.  2)  it  is  the 
rendering  of  the  Aramaic  Anhslutph'un,  and 
denotes  conjurers  and  exorcists  who  used 
incantations  and  pronounced  spells  for  the 
purpose  of  securing  the  aid  of  evil  sjiirits  or 
of  freeing  the  supi)osed  victims  of  evil  sjyirits 
from  their  torments. 

En-chanfment. 

The  practice  of  magical  arts  or  the  utter- 
ance of  certain  words  whereby  the  aid  of 
evil  spirits  is  invoked,  in  order  to  produce 
supernatural  eHects  over  human  beings,  dan- 
gerous animals,  or  luiture  generally.  En- 
chantment is  not  always  distinguished  from 
diviuatiim  in  the  English  versions  (Num. 
xxiii.  23  ;  xxiv.  I ;  and  2  Kin.  xvii.  17,  where 
enchantment  is  rather  omen  ;  and  A.  V.  of 
Jer.  xxvii.  9).  Under  enchantment  are  prop- 
erly included  magic  (Ex.  vii.  11),  conjuration, 
exorcism  (Dan.  ii.  2,  in  A.  V.  astrologer),  sor- 
cery (Acts  viii.  9,  11  ;  xiii.  8,  10).  The  prac- 
ticing of  enchantments  was  forljidden  by  the 
Mosaic  law  (Deut.  xviii.  10).  Enchantments 
practiced  to  prevent  a  venomous  snake  from 
biting  (Eccles.  x.  11 ;  cp.  Ps.  Iviii.  5;  Jer.  viii. 
17)  belong,  of  course,  to  a  ditlereut  category. 
They  require  neither  trickery  nor  the  invo- 
cation of  the  powers  of  evil. 

En'-dor.  [fountain  of  habitation]. 

A  town  belonging  to  the  tribe  of  Manasseh 
(Josh.  xvii.  11 ;  reference  to  En-dor  wanting 
in  Septuagint).  Sisera  and  his  king,  Jabin, 
perished  in  its  vicinity  (Ps.  Ixxxiii.  10).  It 
was  the  residence  of  the  woman  with  a  fa- 
miliar spirit,  whom  king  Saul  consulted  (1 
Sam.  xxviii.  7).  It  has  been  identified  as 
the  village  of  Endor  or  Endiir,  on  the  north- 
ern shoulder  of  Little  Hermon,  6  miles  S.  E. 
of  Nazareth.     See  Saul. 

En-eg'la-im  [fountain  of  two  calves]. 

A  place  on  the  Dead  Sea  (Ezek.  xlvii.  10). 

En-gan'nim  [fountain  of  gardens]. 

1.  A  village  in  the  lowland  of  Judah  (Josh. 
XV.  34).     Site  unknown. 

2.  A  town  on  the  boundary  line  of  Issachar 
(.Tosh.  xix.  21),  assigned  to  the  (4erslioiiite 
Levites  (xxi.  29).  It  seems  to  be  the  Uina'a 
of  Josephus  (Antiq.  xx.  6.  1;  War  iii.  3,  4). 
It  is  the  modern  .Ten in,  a  village  of  about 
3000  inhabitants,  on  the  southern  margin  of 
the  i)lain  of  .lezrei'l,  .">  miles  north(>ast  of 
Dotliau  and  about  7  southwist  from  mount 
(Jilboa. 

En-ge'di  [fouTitain  of  a  kid]. 

A  fountain  and  town  originally  called 
Hazazon-tamar,  meaning  ])runing  of  a  i>alm 
(2  Chron.  xx.  2),  in  the  wilderness  on  the 
western  shore  of  the  Dead  Sea,  in  the  tril)e 
of  .Tudah  (,Iosh.  xv.  02).  A  difiicult  caravan 
route,  crowded  lietween  nunintain  and  sea. 


En-haddah 


jiassed  the  s|ii(t.  In  the  time  of  Abriihiim  it 
was  ()ec-ii|>ie(l  hy  AiiKiriu-s.  wlio  wtTe  smitten 
at  the  spot  l)y  C'lieiloilaomer  ((ien.  xiv.  7i. 
l>avi(l  tiitik  refuge  in  tlie  stronglioids  of  the 
vieiniiy  (1  Sam.  xxiii.  'Jit).  In  one  of  the 
eaves  wliere  lie  was  liiding  lie  cut  oil'  the 
skirt  of  Saul's  robu  (xxiv.  1-22).     The  foun- 


201 

T 


£n-riiumon 


[initiated,  dedieateil].   'rin- s:ime  name,  homo 
liy  oihi  IS.  i>  rendered  lienoi  h  and  ilaiioih. 

1  and  J.  .\  son  of  (  ain.  and  tin-  riiy  whieh 
Cain  built  and  nannd  alter  him  Kieii.  iv.  17, 

IS). 

:i.  A  de.M-enflant   of  .lared,  iiiul  iirogenitor 
of  Methustdiih.       lie    lived   .'{U.")   years,   and 


■^^"' 


\\  i'.ilrnKss  of  Eu-pedi,  Urml 


tain,  whieli  still  bear.s  the  name  of  'Ain  .Tidy, 
is  a  eojuous  hot  siiring  of  fresh  water,  liurst- 
ing  forth  ahoiit  .">()()  or  100  feet  ahove  the  liasc 
tif  a  vast  eliir,  midway  between  the  month 
of  the  .Jordan  ami  the  southern  jioint  id'  the 
sea  {f]t.  K/ek.  xlvii.  10).  The  hot  water 
created  an  oasis,  rieii  with  semi-tropical  vege- 
tation and  celebrated  for  ]talms,  vineyards, 
ami  balsam  (Song  i.  11  ;  Anti(|.  ix.  1,  2). 

En-bad'dah  [fountain  of  vehemence]. 

.\  frontier  village  of  Iss;icliar  (.losh.  xix. 
21).  Not  idciuKied,  though  conjecturally 
near  l-'n-gannim. 

En-hak'ko-re  [fountain  of  him  that  called]. 

A  spring  in  I.elii  which  burst  fortli  when 
Samson  cried  to  the  Lord  i.ludg.  xv.  is,  1!M. 
It  \v;i^  loiiu'  ]ioint<-d  o\iI. 

En-ha'zor  [fountain  of  the  villat:e]. 

.\  fenced  city  of  Na]ihlali  (.IonIi.  .\i\-.:;7t. 
mentioned  in  the  list  between  Katlesh  an<l 
Iron.  Its  sit»-  has  not  been  positively  idcn- 
tilieil. 

En-mlsh'pat  [fountain  of  judgment]. 

The  sjime  as  Kadesh-barnea  Klen.  xiv.  7). 

E'noch,  in  A.  V.  once  Henoch  ( I  Cliron.  i.  .'J) 


walked  with  Cod.  He  is  the  only  one  of  the 
line  of  whom  it  is  not  saitl  that  lie  died.  He 
was  not;  for  (JikI  tfiok  him  ((Jen.  v.  iy-'24). 
He  was  tninslated.  ami  did  not  see  death 
(Kcclns.  xliv.  IC:  xlix.  II:  Heb.  xi.  .'>).  lu 
.hide  M.  l.">  there  is  a  |irophecy  of  Kmxh's  in 
which  he  declares  Cod's  just  Judgment  of 
the  unrighteous.  The  words  of  this  prophecy 
are  found  in  the  ]i-eU(lepignipliical  HiMik  of 
Knoili.  which  is  an  extnivagant  jiiodnction, 
amplifying  the  antediluvian  history,  ami 
even  rendering  it  imndible.  ,Iude  has  either 
made  a  citation  from  this  Ixiok  or  elst-  both 
he  iind  the  author  of  the  book  <|not«d  an  old 
tradition.  The  N.  T.  writers  have  M-veral 
times  ijuoted  nninspired,  and  even  heathen, 
authors. 

E'nosta,  in  .\.  V.  Enos,  e\ce|it  in  I  (liron. 
i.  1  |manl. 

The  son  of  S<th  KJen.  iv.  2<! :  v.  (MI  :  1 
Chroii.  i.  1  :   I.nke  iii.  :i-l. 

En-rlm'mon   [fonnlaiu  of  Kimmon  or  of 

the  Jiolliegmnate]. 

.\  town  of  .liidiih,  inhabileil  after  the  caj*- 
tivitv  (Nell.  xi.  21b,  and  appanntly  eonnist- 


En-rogel 


202 


Ephesians 


iug  of  the  neighboring  villages  of  Ain  and 
Kimmon  (sec  each). 

En-ro'gel  [(■(tuntain  of  the  fuller]. 

A  fountain  Just  outside  Jerusalem  (2  Sam. 
xvii.  17),  near  the  valley  of  Hinnoni  and  on 
the  boundary  line  between  Judah  and  Ben- 
jamin (Josh.  XV.  7  ;  xviii.  Ki).  Ai-cording  to 
Josepluis,  it  was  in  the  kiufj's  garden  (.\ntiq. 
vii.  14,4).  During  Absalom's  rel)ellion  .Jona- 
than and  Ahimaaz  took  up  their  al)ode  there, 
to  be  able  to  collect  and  send  news  to  David 
(2  Sam.  xvii.  17).  Near  by  was  the  stone 
Zoheleth.  where  Adonijah  instituted  festiv- 
ities when  he  conspired  to  seize  the  kingdom 
(1  Kin.  i.  tl).  The  traditional  situation  of 
the  fountain,  almost  universally  accepted,  is 
Bir  Eyub,  tlie  well  of  Jol),  Just  below  the 
Junction  of  the  valleys  of  Hinnora  and  the 
Kidron,  south  of  Jerusalem.  This  is  a  well, 
125  feet  deep,  walled  half  way  down  and 
sunk  the  rest  of  the  distance  into  the  solid 
rock.  That  it  is  a  well  and  not  a  fountain  is 
scarcely  a  serious  objection  to  the  traditional 
identification  (cp.  Gen.  xvi.  7  with  14).  The 
well  was  doubtless  suggested  by  the  copious 
streams  which  at  certain  seasons  are  liable  to 
gush  from  the  ground  at  this  spot.  The 
identification  of  En-rogel  wnth  the  Fountain 
of  the  Virgin  in  the  side  of  Ophel  has  a  few 
advocates,  especially  Grove  and  C'onder. 

En-she'mesli  [fountain  of  the  sun]. 

A  fountain  and  town  on  the  boundary  line 
between  Judah  and  Benjamin  (Josh.  xv.  7; 
xviii.  17).  It  is  commonly  identified  with 
'Ain  Hand,  a  little  east  of  Bethany,  on  the 
road  between  Jerusalem  and  Jericho,  and 
the  last  spring  until  the  Jordan  valley  is 
reached. 

En-tap 'pu-ah.     See  Tappuah  2. 

E-psen'e-tus  [praiseworthy]. 

A  convert  belonging  to  Achaia,  and  the 
firstfruits  of  that  region  to  Christ.  Paul 
called  him  beloved  (Rom.  xvi.  5). 

Ep'a-phras. 

A  Christian  who,  coming  to  Paul  whilst 
he  was  a  prisoner  at  Rome,  gave  a  highly 
favorable  account  of  the  Colossian  church, 
with  which  he  was  connected,  perhaps  as  its 
minister.  He  Joined  the  apostle  in  sending 
it  salutations  (Col.  i.  7,  8;  iv.  12).  He  re- 
mained in  Rome,  and  was  in  some  sense 
Paul's  fellow-prisoner  in  Christ  (Philem.  23). 

See  El'AfllKODITUS. 

E-paph-ro-di'tus  [lovely,  charming]. 

A  Christian  whom  the  church  at  Philippi 
scut  with  a  jjresent  to  the  apostle  Paul,  then 
a  prisoner  at  Rome.  On  arriving  at  that 
capital,  lie  handed  over  the  present,  the 
recei])t  of  which  Paul  gratefully  acknowl- 
edged. Soon  afterwards  he  became  so  sick 
that  bis  life  was  in  danger.  It  grieved  him 
greatly  that  the  news  of  this  had  reached 
Pliili])pi,  and  created  anxiety  among  his 
friends  there.  On  this  account  Paul  thought 
it  well  to  send  him  back  to  Philiiipi  as  soon 


as  his  healtli  permitted  (Phil.  ii.  2.5-30 ;  iv. 
18).  Perhaps  Ei)aphroditus  and  Epaphras 
may  have  been  one  and  the  siime  person,  but 
there  is  a  tlifhculty  in  accepting  this  view, 
for  the  former  seems  clearly  connected  with 
the  church  at  Philippi,  and  the  latter  with 
that  at  Colossa\ 

E'pball,  I.  [darkness]. 

1.  A  branch  of  the  Midiauites  (Gen.  xxv. 
4 ;  1  Chron.  i.  33),  rich  in  camels  and  drom- 
edaries (Is.  Ix.  6).  They  lived  in  northeastern 
Arabia. 

2.  A  concubine  of  Caleb  (1  Chron.  ii.  40). 

3.  A  man  of  Judah,  a  son  of  Jahdai  (1 
Chron.  ii.  47). 

E'phah,  II.  [perhaps  from  Egyptian  oiphi, 
an  old  measure]. 

A  measure  of  capacity  containing  ten  omers 
(Ex.  xvi.  36).  and  used  for  such  articles  as 
flour  (Judg.  vi.  19)  or  barley  (Ruth  ii.  17). 
It  was  equivalent  to  a  bath  or  one-tenth  of  a 
cor(Ezek.xlv.  11,14),  and  ci)ntained  one  Attic 
metre tes  or  seventy-two  sextaries  ( Antiq.  viii. 
2,  9 ;  ix.  4,  5 ;  and  xv.  9, 2,  where  read  metretes 
for  medimnoi),  and,  if  reckoned  at  19r)2.17 
cubic  inches,  contained  a  trifle  more  than  3 
pecks,  5  quarts,  American  measure.  Dis- 
honest traders  sometimes  had  an  ephah  of 
insutficient  capacity  and  used  it  for  fraud 
(Amos  viii.  5). 

E'phai  [fatigued]. 

A  Neto]iliathite  whose  sons  came  with  others 
to  the  Babylonian  governor  of  Juda?a  after  the 
fall  of  Jerusalem,  and  was  promised  protec- 
tion ( Jer.  xl.  8).  All  were  subsequently  ma.ssa- 
cred  by  Ishmael  (xli.  3). 

E'pher  [a  calf  or  mule]. 

1.  A  branch  of  the  Midianites  (Gen.  xxv. 
4;  1  Chron.  i.  33).  Their  exact  location  has 
not  been  determined. 

2.  A  man  of  Judah  descended  from  Ezrah 
(1  Chron.  iv.  17). 

3.  A  chief  man  in  the  half-tribe  of  Manas- 
seh,  east  of  the  .Jordan  (1  Chron.  v.  24). 

E-phes-darn'mim  [end  or  coast  of  Dam- 
mim]. 

A  place  within  the  territory  of  .Judah,  be- 
tween Socoli  and  Azekah  (1  Sam.  xvii.  1). 
Called  Pas-dammim  in  1  Chron.  xi.  13,  a  form 
perhaps  due  to  corruption  of  the  text.  Com- 
monly identified  with  the  ruins  Damuu,  about 
4  miles  to  the  northeast  of  Socoh. 

E-phe'si-ans,  E-pis'tle  to  the. 

This  epistle  was  written  by  the  apostle 
Paul  when  lie  was  a  prisoner  (iii.  1 :  iv.  1  ;  vi. 
20),  probably  at  Rome  \.  D.  62,  though  some 
assign  it  to  the  Ctesarean  imprisonment  (Acts 
xxiv.  27).  It  is  addressed  to  the  saints  which 
are  at  Ephesus  and  the  faithful  in  Christ 
Jesus.  R.  V.  notes,  however,  that  some  very 
ancient  authorities  omit  the  words  "at  Ephe- 
sus."' The  two  chief  X.  T.  manuscripts 
(Sinaitic  ;ind  \'atican)  omit  them,  and  from 
very  early  times  a  diflerence  of  opinion  ap- 
pears as  to  its  intended  readers,  tliough  the 


Ephesians 


203 


Ephesus 


tradition  of  the  church  called  it  "  to  tho 
Kplicsians."  The  most  iinthable  exiilaiiation 
is  that  it  was  a  circular  letter  intended  for 
all  the  eJiurclies  (if  the  province  of  Asia,  and 
that,  since  I'.pliesus  was  tlie  cliief  of  these, 
the  e]iistle  naturally  came  to  he  considered 
as  addressed  to  it.  Perhaps  the  address  was 
blank,  and  copies  left  in  each  city  will)  the 
blank  tilled.  Its  circular  character  seems  to 
lie  coutirmed  by  the  absence  from  it  ol'  local 
allusions  and  discussions.  It  is  a  doctrinal 
and  ethical  treati.se  in  tho  form  of  an  epistle. 
Like  that  to  the  C'olossians,  it  was  sent  by 
'rycliicns  (vi.  "JD,  and  the  siniilavily  of  lan- 
f;uaj,'e  and  tlion}.'ht  sliows  that  the  two  were 
written  at  the  same  time.  Compare  for  e.\- 
aniple 


Eph. 


i.  1,  -2  with  Vo\.  i.  1,  •_' 

i.  3,  20;  ii.  6;  iii.  10;  vi.  I'J  with  Col.  i.  5  ;  iii. 

i.  r.  with  Col.  i.  14 

i.  7     "        "    i.  14 

i.  8     "        "   ii,  23 

i.y;  iii.  '.) ;  vi.  I'J  with  Col.  i.  26;  ii.  2;  iv.  3 

i.  10  with  Col.  i.  20,  25 


i.  11     " 

"    i.  12 

i.l7      " 

"    i.  10 

i.  19,20" 

"   ii.  12 

i.  20      " 

"  iii.  1 

i.  22      " 

"     i.  LS 

i.  23      " 

'•   ii.  "J 

These  are  but  examples,  to  which  even  the 
reader  of  the  Eiif^lisli  Bible  can  add  many 
more.  The  two  epistles  were  evidently  the 
product  of  the  ajiostle's  mind  acting  under 
the  same  circumstances.  Ami  Ephesians  seems 
to  have  l)een  written  just  after  Colossians.  In 
it  the  tlniufrht  is  carried  further.  'J'lie  theme 
of  Colossians  is  the  jireeminence  of  Christ's 
lier.son  and  work.  That  of  Ephesians  is  the 
establishment  of  the  church,  considered  as 
the  entire  nund)er  of  the  redei'Uied.  The 
Ephesians,  in  fact,  may  be  said  to  sum  up  all 
I'aul's  previous  teacliinji  for  the  purjjose  of 
stating  the  purpose  of  God  in  the  mission  of 
liis  Son,  which  was  the  redemption  of  his 
chosen  ]ieo|de  to  manifest  to  all  the  univer.se 
the  riches  of  his  firace.  Hence,  assuming 
salvation  throujih  faith,  the  divinity  and 
tinislied  Work  of  Jesus  and  the  calling;  of  the 
gentiles,  it  advances  to  a  complete  theodicy. 
In  chai).  '•  ^ve  have  what  may  l)e  called  the 
divine  side  of  the  church's  history,  which 
originated  in  (iod's  soveri'ign  and  eternal 
puri)ose  (3-(;).  was  effected  by  Christ's  work 
(7-1'J).  and  is  certified  by  the  sealing  of  the 
Spirit  (i:{,  1  II.  He  pray.s  that  they  may  un- 
derstand the  hoi)e  of  ( 'brist'scalling.  of  which 
the  risen  and  exalted  Saviour  is  the  lirst  fruit 
and  pledge  (I'i-S.i).  In  chap.  ii.  we  have  the 
human  side  of  the  liistory,  being  taught  that 
tlie  elect  are  deliverecl  out  of  sin  and  con- 
demnation by  unmerited  gnu'c  (1-llH,  and 
are  united,  Jew  and  gentile,  through  Christ 
into  one  sjiiritual  temiile  (11-22).  In  chap, 
iii.  the  aj)ostle  states  his  own  jiosition  as  the 
minister  to  the  church  of  this  divine  mys- 
tery (1-13),  and  jirays  that  they  may  realize 


and  enjoy  what  God  ha.s  prepared  for  them 
(14-21).  Chapters  iv.-vi.  are  an  extended 
exhortation  to  walk  worthily  of  their  liigh 
calling  in  all  the  relations  of  the  pre.-ent  life. 
The  i;pistle  to  the  Komans,  atlilressed  from 
the  East  to  the  West,  was  Paul's  complete 
statement  of  the  way  of  salvation.  The  Ejiis- 
lle  to  the  Ephesians,  addressed  from  the  West 
to  the  East,  was  his  complete  statement  of 
the  whole  purjiose  of  God  in  human  history. 
It  may  be  said  to  mark  the  climax  of  liis 
theological  instruction.  <;.  t.  v. 

Eph'e-8U8  [according  to  tradition,  pernii.s- 
sion]. 

A  city  of  Lydia  oti  the  western  coast  of 
Asia  Minor,  nearly  e(iually  distant  from 
Miletus  on  the  south  and  Smyrna  on  the 
north.  It  w;is  one  of  the  twelve  cities  be- 
longing to  the  Ionian  confederation,  and  was 
itself  the  cajiital  of  Ionia.  It  was  situated 
at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Cayster,  and  in  the 
vicinity  of  two  lakes.  Marked  out  by  nature 
for  the  site  (»f  a  city,  its  jirosperity  was  in- 
creasi'd  by  the  nt'ighboring  temjde  of  I  liana 
and  the  influx  of  worshipers  from  all  (jiiar- 
tere.  The  first  inhabitants  were  ejecteil  by 
the  lonians,  a  section  of  the  Greek  race. 
Umler  the  lonians  the  temjde  of  Diana  rose 
into  cidebrity.  ICphesus  was  taken  by  ( 'nesns, 
king  of  Lydia,  whosi-  ca]iilal  was  at  Saiflis. 
Then  it  fell  under  the  Persian  domination. 
When  the  victories  of  Alexander  the  Creat 
overthrew  the  Persian  empire.  Ephesus  came 
under  Macedonian-(ireek  rule.  Hitherto  it 
had  been  coiitined  to  a  hiw  alluvial  plain 
liable  to  be  Hooded.  About  ;{(K»  n.  c,  how- 
ever, Lysimachus  exteniletl  it  to  an  adjacent 
eminence  which  the  water  could  not  reach. 
In  1!H)  n.  ('.  the  Uomans,  after  defeating  An- 
tiochus  thi'  (ireat  at  Magnesia,  took  E|d)esus 
from  him,  and  gave  it  to  Eumenes  IL.  king 
of  Pergamos.  On  the  death  of  Attains  111. 
of  Pergamos  in  I'.i'.i  it.  c.  it  reverted  to  them, 
and  became  the  cai>ital  of  the  Roman  prov- 
ince of  Asia.  Paul  on  his  way  t<i  Jerusa- 
lem, toward  the  end  of  his  .second  mis- 
sionary journey,  jiaid  a  short  visit  to  Ephesus. 
]irea(  lied  in  the  synagogue,  and  left  .Viiiiihi 
and  Priscilla  there,  who  continued  the  work 
(.\cts  xviii.  1!»  21).  On  his  third,  hi'  labored 
at  Eidiesiis  at  least  two  years  and  thni- 
months,  leaving  the  <'ity  after  the  riot  which 
wasstirred  ujiby  Demetriiis.whomade  shrines 
of  Diana,  and  who  found  his  cnifi  endangered 
by  the  preaching  of  the  apostle  (xix.  1  41  : 
cp.  1  Cor.  XV.  .■!2  :  xvi.  f^ :  2  Tim.  i.  \>).  Paul 
left  Timothy  behind  to  iireveni  the  church 
from  being  corrupt<'d  by  false  doctrine  (1 
Tim.  i.  :!).  Suh.se<|uently  at  Miletus,  return- 
ing from  ICurojie.  and  unable  to  revisit  I^phe- 
siis,  be  sent  for  the  eldfrs  of  the  (diiircii  to 
meet  him  at  Miletus,  and  gave  them  solemn 
counsel  (.Vets  XX.  Ki.  17).  Tychiciis  wasafl<r- 
wards  des|)atclied  thither,  carrying  with  him 
the  Eitistle  to  the  Ephesians  ( Eph.  i.  1  :  vi. 
21  ;  2  Tim.  iv.  12).     The  church  at  Ei>lie.sns 


Ephesus 


204 


Ephod 


was  the  firet  of  the  seveu  churches  of  Asia 
adtlivssed  by  tlie  apostle  John  in  the  book 
of  Kevehition  (iiev.  i.  11  ;  ii.  1-7),  and  tradi- 
tion makes  hiiu  si)en(l  the  last  years  of  his 
life  in  the  eity.  The  deeay  of  Ejihesus  arose 
ehiclly  fmni  ihv  siltiiij;  u\t  of  llie  harl)or  by 
mud  brought  down  by  the  t'ayster.  The  de- 
struction of  the  great  temijle  by  the  (ioths 
about  A.  D.  2()0  completed  the  desolation. 
Now  only  a  few  remains  of  the  city  exist, 


tration  under  Diana.  The  theater  was  one 
of  the  largest  known  of  all  that  have  re- 
mained to  modern  times.  The  auditorium 
was  semicircular,  lit.")  feet  in  diameter,  and 
the  orchestra  was  111).  The  stage  was  22  feet 
wide.     The  theater  seated  24,500  persons. 

Eph'lal  [judicious]. 

A  man  of  .1  udali  of  the  family  of  Jerahmeel 
(1  Chrou.  ii.  '67). 


Ruins  of  Theater  at  Ephesus. 


but  they  are  of  great  interest.  These  are 
part  of  the  wall,  a  fine  theater,  probably  that 
in  which  the  natives  shouted  "  Great  is  Diana 
of  the  Ephesians,''  and  finally  portions  of 
the  temple  of  the  goddess. 

The  temple  was  a  magnificent  work  of  Tonic 
architecture,  and  ranked  as  one  of  tlie  seven 
wonders  of  the  world.  It  stood  on  a  platform 
about  425  feet  in  length  and  2.39|  feet  in 
width,  measured  from  the  lowest  step.  A  flight 
of  ten  steps  led  to  the  pavement  of  the  plat- 
form, and  three  more  steps  to  the  pavement 
of  the  temple.  The  temple  itself  was  342i  feet 
in  length  and  1C,1  feet  in  width.  It  consisted 
of  two  rows  of  eight  columns  each  in  front 
and  rear,  and  two  rows  of  twenty  columns 
each  on  either  side  of  the  sanctuary.  These 
with  two  columns  at  each  cTitrance  of  the 
sanctuary  made  one  hundred  in  all.  Each 
was  a  monolith  of  marble  55  feet  in  height, 
and  the  eighteen  at  each  end  were  sculptured. 
The  roof  was  covered  with  large  white  Tiiar- 
ble  tiles.  The  cella  or  inner  sanctuary,  which 
these  columns  surrounded,  was  70  feet  wide 
and  105  long.  Its  internal  ornamentation 
was  of  suri)assijig  sjvleudor,  adorned  with 
works  of  art  by  Pliidias  and  Praxiteles, 
Scopas,  Parrhasius,  and   Apelles.     See  illus- 


Eph'od  [a  covering]. 

1.  An  up])er  garment  worn  by  the  Jewish 
high  priest.  It  was  one  of  six  siicred  vest- 
ments which  he  was  required  to  put  on  when 
about  to  conduct  the  worship  of  God  (Ex. 
xxviii.  4),  and  was  of  gold,  blue,  purple, 
scarlet,  and  fine  twined  linen.  It  consisted 
of  two  shoulder  pieces  .joined  by  the  two 
edges  (xxviii.  (i,  71,  and  falling  over  the  front 
and  back  part  of  the  body.  There  was  a 
hole  in  the  top,  doubtless  for  the  head,  with 
a  woven  border  of  the  same  materials  around, 
to  render  the  cloth  less  liable  to  tear  (8,  cp. 
.32).  On  it,  .so  as  to  stand  ujxjn  the  shoulders 
of  the  priest  when  the  ejthod  was  worn,  were 
two  onyx  stones,  each  having  engraved  upon 
it  the  names  of  six  tribes  (xxviii.  !• :  xxxix. 
6,  7).  In  front,  to  rings  attached  under- 
neath close  to  the  cou])ling,  the  breastplate 
was  bound  with  a  lace  of  blue,  so  that  the 
breastplate  itself  mi<;ht  be  supported  (xxviii. 
2.5,27,  28;  xxxix.  19-21).  When  David  de- 
sired to  ask  counsel  of  (lod  in  the  presence 
of  the  high  priest  Al>iatliar.  he  considered 
it  essential  that  the  ejibod  should  first  be 
brought  out  (1  Sam.  xxiii.  9-12  ;  xxx.  7,  8), 
^or  with  it  were  the  I^rim  and  Thummim 
(Ex.  xxviii.  30).    An  ephod  might  thus  readily 


Ephphatha 


bt'conif  iiii  object  <if  iili>l;itr(>iis  worslii])  (Jiidg. 
viii.  "JT ;  xvii.  ."d.  'I'lu-  nihc  of  tlio  ciiliod  was 
a  ;;ariiRiit  distiiic-t  I'roiii  the  epliod,  was  l)liie, 
and  was  ska- vi' less,  fringi'd  at  tlu-  bottom 
witli  alternate  bells  of  jrold  and  jiouiegran- 
ates  of  blue,  juirple,  aii<l  scarlet  (Ex.  xxviii. 
3 1  -;{.") ;  X  x  i  X .  .') ;  X  X  X  i  X .  22-)H  > ) . 

A  more  sini])le  ejiliod  of  linen,  probably 
without  the  ornamentation,  was  worn  by 
onlinary  priests.  The  eit:hty-live  whom  Doeg 
slew  all  wore  the  linen  ephod  ( 1  Sam.  xxii.  18). 
Samuel,  also,  wore  an  I'pliod  while  he  was  a 
child  in  charge  of  Kli,  the  high  i)riest  (1  Sam. 
ii.  IS).  David  wore  one  ai)parentl.v  of  simi)le 
linen  ("J  .Sam.  vi.  14:  1  Cliron.  xv.  27). 

2.  The  father  of  Hauniel,  jjriiice  of  Manas- 
seh  in  the  time  of  Jloses  (Num.  xxxiv.  '215). 

Eph'pha-tha. 

.\n  Aramaic  imperative  signifying  "be 
oi)en((l  "  (.Mark  vii.  34). 

E'phra-im  [double  fruitfulness]. 

1.  Tile  younger  son  of  Joseph  and  Aseuath, 
daughter  of  I'ciliiiherah,  priest  of  On.  lie 
was  born  while  .Io.sei)h  was  prime  minister 
of  Egyi>t  (Gen.  xli.  4r)-.")2).  When  the  two 
sons  wi're  brought  to  Jacob  on  bis  sickbed, 
to  receive  tlieir  grandfather's  blessing.  Jacob 
intentionally  laid  his  right  han<l  (the  band 
of  greater  honor)  (jn  the  head  of  Ejdiraim, 
the  younger  grandson,  and  his  left  on  that 
of  Manasseh.  the  elder.  IJeing  remcinstrated 
with  by  .biseph,  he  ex]ilaiiK'd  tliat  both  should 
liecome  a  iieojile.  but  Ephraim  should  be 
the  greater  and  should  ))e  the  ancestor  of  a 
multitude  (jf  jieoples  or  tribal  families  (Geu. 
xlviii.  S--J()).  E])hraim  and  Manasseh,  thougli 
only  grandchildren  of  .lacob,  were  treated 
as  if  they  were  his  children,  and  their  de- 
scendants wi're  conseciuently  regarded  as  two 
tribes  instead  of  one.  Ei)hraim  had  the  sor- 
row of  losing  two  of  his  sons,  who  were  slain 
while  making  a  raid  on  the  cattle  of  the 
riiilistines  (1  Cliron.  vii.  -id-'?-.'). 

2.  The  tribe  of  which  E])hraim  was  the 
progenitor  (Josh.  xvi.  4,  1(»;  Judg.  v.  14). 
The  growth  of  the  tribe  was  for  a  time  re- 
tardeil  by  the  death  of  several  of  his  sons  in 
a  fray  against  the  Philistines  (IChron.  vii. 
21-'2.'!).  -Vt  the  lirst  census  in  the  wilderness 
the  I'.idiraimites  numbered  40,.")(M»,  being  the 
lowest  in  number  of  the  tribes  excejiting  only 
Manasseh  and  Henjamin  (Num.  i.  ."51?).  They 
fell  oil'  during  the  wanderings,  and  at  the 
s«'cond  census  numbered  only  .■S"J,.")(I11,  being 
now  the  lowest  of  all  the  tribes  excei)t  Simeon 
(xxvi.  :57)  ;  still  the  double  tribe  of  Jo.sej)!! 
was  the  largest  of  the  tribes,  and  numbered 
8."),20()  men,  liesides  women  ami  children  {'M, 
'M :  <p.  Deul.  xxxiii.  17).  When  .Joshua  was 
the  leader  of  Israel,  the  tribe  rose  rapidly  in 
rejuitation,  for  he  was  himself  an  i;i)hraimite 
(Josh.  xix.  "id;  xxiv.  ;]()).  The  trilie  was  al- 
lotted territory  west  of  the  Jordan.  Its 
southern  Ixiuiulary  line  raji  from  the  Jordan 
at  Jericho  to  I'.elhel.  Euz.  Alaroth-addar, 
■Upper  Beth-boron,  Lower  IJeth-horon,  Uezer, 


205  Ephraim 

and  the  sea  (Josh.  xvi.  1-3,  ."i).  The  north- 
ern line  ran  through  Michnietliatb.  nearShe- 
chem,  eastward  to  Taanath-shiloh,  Jaiioah, 
Ataroth.  and  Naarah,  nacbe<I  Jericho  and  the 
Jordan  Ui.  7),  and  pas.sed  westward  from  .Mich- 
nietbath  to  En-laii]iuah,  the  river  Kanah  and 
the  .Mediterranean  (s  ;  cp.  xvii.  7).  It  had  the 
territory  of  the  half-trilie  of  Manas.seh,  west 
of  the  Jordan,  on  the  north,  and  I'xiijamin 
on  the  south  ;  it  reached  the  Mediterranean 
on  the  west  ami  to  the  Jordan  on  the  ea.st. 
Shechem  was  within  the  territory  of  Ephniim 
(Josh.  xxi.  2i).  21  ;  1  Kin.  xii.  2.")";  1  Chron.  vi. 
(i7).  The  Eiibraimiles  failed  to  expi-l  the 
Canaauitis  fnua  (iezer.  which  was  within  the 
lot  of  ICpbraim  ;  but,  either  alone  or  in  con- 
junction with  their  kindred  the  Mana.s.sites, 
they  cajitured  Hethtl  (Judg.  i.  22-2(>,  29). 
They  acted  patriotically  in  the  fight  cele- 
brated in  song  by  Deborah  (v.  14).  They 
quarreled  witli  Gideon,  who  was  a  Manas- 
site,  for  not  having  called  them  to  aid  him 
in  exiielling  the  Midianites  from  Canaan  (viii. 
1-3).  They  resolutely  encountered  in  battle 
Jephthab,  the  deliverer  of  Israel,  for  not 
having  summoned  them  to  a.s,sist  him  in  the 
Ammonite  war,  42,000  of  the  tribe  falling  in 
tbe  struggle  (xii.  l-()).  .Micah.  of  graven 
image  notoriety,  resided  in  mount  Eiihraiin 
(xvii.  1);  and  the  Levite,  the  ill-treatment 
of  whose  concubine  led  to  the  hostilities 
against  Henjamin,  sojourned  there  (xix.  1). 
Jeroboam  was  a  man  of  E|ihraim.  and  after 
he  hail  become  king  over  ihe  revolted  ten 
tribes,  he  rebuilt  .Shechem  in  mount  Ephraim 
tt>  be  his  cajjital  (1  Kin.  xii.  2r>). 

Tbe  hill  country  of  Ejihraim.  or  mount 
Ei)hraini,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  was  so 
much  of  the  central  range  of  Palestine  as 
was  occupied  by  the  tribe  of  Ephraim.  It 
did  not  in<dude  the  towns  of  Taanach,  Me- 
giddo,  Heth-shean.  and  Ahel-meholah.  on  the 
north  and  east  (1  Kin.  iv.  s,  121,  nor  Kirjath- 
jearim.  (iibeah.  or  the  territory  of  lienjainin 
on  till' south  (.ludg.  x  viii.  12, 1.'5;  xix.  IIJ;  1  .Sjim. 
ix.  4  ;  1  Kin.  iv.  S,  lH;  2Clinin.  xv.  fS).  It  was 
thus  bounded  on  three  sides  by  the  southern 
bonbr  of  the  i)lain  of  Esdraebm.  the  Jonlan 
valley,  and  the  territory  of  lienjaniin.  The 
term  did  not  jiroperly  designate  any  |>art  of 
the  district  occujiied  by  Meiijamin.  Even 
Judg.  iv.  .'i  anil  2  .Sam.  xx.  1.21  do  not  neces- 
sarily im|>ly  any  broader  use  of  the  term. 
But  after  tbe  establishment  of  the  northern 
kingdom  with  its  shifting  southern  frontier, 
the  southern  limits  of  Ihe  hill  country  of 
E])hniim  were  no  longer  clearly  deliiu-d. 

The  Wood  of  I'^.phraim.  in  which  the  battle 
took  jilace  between  the  forces  of  David  and 
those  of  the  rebel  .Vbsiilom  (2.'>am.  xviii.ti;  I'p. 
xvii.  22,  24,  2().  27),  was  evidently  t-ast  of  the 
Jordan,  and  near  .Mabanaim,  but  its  <-xact 
situation  is  unknown.  It  probably  took  its 
name  j-ither  from  the  defeat  of  the  Ephniim- 
it4's  in  the  lime  of  .lejihthab  (Judg.  xii.  1 
st'ij.),  or  becau.se  it  was  opjiosite  to  the  ter- 
ritory and  mountain  of  Epliraim. 


Ephraimite 


206 


Epistles 


For  the  gate  of  Ephraiin,  see  Jerusalem 
II.,  .i. 

3.  The  ten  tribes  of  which  Ephraiin  be- 
came the  head.  Used  in  this  sense  especially 
by  the  prophets  (Is.  vii.  2,  5,  9,  17;  ix.  9; 
xvii.  3  ;  xxviii.  3;  Hos.  iv.  17 ;  v.  3 ;  ix.  3-17). 

4.  A  city  to  which  Baal-hazor  was  adjacent 
(2  Sam.  xiii.  23),  prol)al)ly  the  same  jilace  as 
Ephraini  near  to  the  wilderness  (John  xi.  54), 
and  .^phivrema,  which  at  one  time  belonged 
to  Samaria  (1  JIac.  xi.  34).  The  Ivomau  gen- 
eral Ves]iasian  took  Eithraim  aiid  Hethel  dur- 
ing his  adv.iiu-e  on  Jerusalem  (War  iv.  9,  9). 
Robinson  identifies  it  with  Ophrah  of  Hcn- 
.jamin,  and  locates  it  at  the  modern  village 
of  Taiyilieh,  on  a  conical  hill  standing  on 
high  land  4  miles  east-noi'theast  of  Bethel. 
The  identification  has  met  general  accept- 
ance. 

E'phra-im-ite. 

A  member  of  the  tribe  of  Ephraim  (Judg. 
xii.  5).  ]\Iore  frequently  Ephrathite,  as  in 
the  original. 

E'phra-in.     See  Ephrox  2. 

Eph'ra-thah,  in  A.  V.  Ephratah  [fruitful- 
ness,  fruitful  land].  A  shorter  form, occasion- 
ally used  in  the  Hebi-ew  text  and  preserved 
in  the  versions,  is  Ephrath. 

1.  The  original  name  of  Bethlehem  in 
Judsea  (Gen.  xxxv.  19;  xlviii.  7 ;  Kuth  iv. 
11).  It  is  sometimes  called  Bethlehem-eph- 
ratah  (Mic.  v.  2). 

2.  A  wife  of  Caleb,  son  of  Hezron.  She 
was  the  mother  of  Hur  (1  Chrou.  ii.  19,  50; 
iv.  4). 

3.  The  territory  of  Ephraim  (Ps.  cxxxii.  6 ; 
see  Ephr.^thite2)  ;  or  better,  Kiriath-jearini, 
which  belonged  to  Caleb-ephrathah  (1  Chron. 
ii.  50,  51),  and  where  the  ark  had  been  kept 
for  a  l(jng  time. 

Eph'rath-ite. 

1.  A  native  or  inhabitant  of  Ephrath,  i.  e. 
Bethlehem  (1  Sam.  xvii.  12;  Ruth  i.  2). 

2.  An  E])hraimite,  one  belonging  to  the 
tribe  of  Ephraim  (1  Sam.  i.  1  ;  1  Kin.  xi.  26). 

E'phron  [vituline]. 

1.  A  Hittite.  resident  at  Hebron,  and  owner 
of  the  cave  of  JMachpelah,  which  he  sold  to 
Abraham  (Gen.  xxiii.  8  ;  xxv.  9). 

2.  A  city  which  was  taken  from  Jeroboam 
by  Abijah  (2  Chron.  xiii.  19).  Abandoning  the 
Hebrew  text  for  the  traditional  pronuncia- 
tion of  the  synagogue,  A.  V.  and  the  margin 
of  the  R.  V.  have  Ephrain  [two  calves  or 
fawns],  an  Aramaic  dual.  Commonly  iden- 
tified with  the  town  of  Ephraim. 

3.  A  city  east  of  the  Jordan  in  the  terri- 
tory of  Mana.sseh,  in  a  pass  on  the  road  be- 
tween Karnaim  and  Beth-shean.  It  was  cap- 
tured bv  Judas  Maecabijens  (1  Mac.  v.  46-52 ; 
2  Mac.  xii.  27,  29;  Antiq.  xii.  8.  5). 

4.  A  mountain  ridge  between  Nephtoah 
and  Kirjath-ieariin,  on  the  boundary  between 
Judali  and  licnjamin  (Josh.  xv.  9). 

Ep-i-cu-re'ans. 

One  of   the   leading   philosophic  sects   of 


Greece  and  Rome.     It  derived  its  name  and 

its  existence  from  the  great  philosojiher  Epi- 
curus. He  was  born  341  n.  c.  in  the  i.sland 
of  Sanios,  but  was  of  Athenian  descent,  and 
made  Athens  the  scene  of  his  lifework.  In 
306  15.  c.  he  foinnied  a  school  or  college  with 
a  garden  attached,  in  which  he  taught  for 
the  next  thirty-six  years,  till  liis  death  in 
270  B.  c.  He  is  said  to  have  written  about 
three  hundred  philosophic  books,  nearly  all 
of  which  are  lost.  In  physics  he,  like  Ue- 
mocritus,  attributes  all  nature  to  changes 
among  atoms  in  themselves  eternal.  He 
does  not  recognize  a  Creator;  but,  with  cu- 
rious inconsistency,  finds  a  place  in  his  sy.s- 
tem  for  a  multitude  of  gods,  who,  however, 
supremely  happy  in  themselves,  take  no  part 
in  human  affairs.  With  regar<l  to  his  ethics, 
a  popular  misconception  i>revails.  He  de- 
sires that  pleasure  shall  Ix;  jjursued  and  i)ain 
avoided  ;  but  the  notion  that  l)y  pleasure  he 
meant  only  sensual  gratification  is  erroneous. 
He  included  under  the  term  the  pleasure  de- 
rived from  the  exercise  of  the  intellect  and 
the  moral  faculty.  Personally  he  was  .so  pure 
that  some  thought  he  was  destitute  of  pas- 
siims.  The  Epicureans  were  mostly  men  of  soft 
temperament,  the  very  opposite  of  the  Stoics, 
who  were  cast  in  an  iron  mould.  Both  phil- 
osophic sects  rejected  Paul's  doctrine  at 
Athens,  but  both  showed  their  tolerance  by 
taking  the  apostle  to  the  court  of  Areopagus 
to  have  his  teaching  examined,  in  place  of 
exciting  a  riot  against  him,  as  had  been  done 
at  various  places  where  he  had  preached 
(Acts  xvii.  18-20). 

Ep-i-lep'tic. 

A  ])erson  affected  with  the  falling  sickness, 
a  disease  which  in  its  severe  form  is  charac- 
terized by  recurrent  attacks  of  loss  of  con- 
sciousness with  spasms  (^lat.  xvii.  15,  in  A.  V. 
lunatic  ;  Mark  ix.  18).  In  this  ease  the  disease 
was  occasioned  by  demoniacal  i)ossession. 

E-pis'tles. 

The  name  given  to  twenty-one  hooks  of  tlie 
N.  T.  The  earliest  of  them  antedate  the 
gospels,  Paul  having  written  his  epistles  to 
the  Thessalonians  about  a.  n.  52.  They  are 
letters  which  were  written  by  the  apostles, 
or  which  received  apostolic  sanction ;  and 
they  are  addressed  to  particular  churches, 
and  deal  with  doc'trinal  and  jiractical  ques- 
tions, or  to  individuals,  yet  contain  matter 
of  wid(^  imjjort,  or  to  Christians  gener.illy, 
and  not  to  any  one  ])erson  or  church.  With 
the  exception  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrew.? 
and  1  John,  they  open,  according  to  the 
custom  of  the  time,  with  the  name  or  title 
of  the  wrif<'r  and  that  of  tlie  i)erson  iir 
churcb  addressed,  and  then  follow  words  of 
greeting.  The  first  thirteen  begin  with  the 
statement  that  the  letter  was  sent  by  Paul, 
or  by  him  in  conjunction  with  other  Chris- 
tian workers,  as  Sostluiies  (1  Cor.  i.  1),  Tim- 
othy (2  Cor.  i.  1  :  Pliil.  i.  1  ;  Col.  i.  1  :  I'hile. 
1),  or  Silvanus  and  Timothy  together  (1  Thes. 


Er 


207 


Esar-haddon 


i.  1 ;  2  Thes.  i.  1).  Paul  as  a  rule  emiiloyed 
an  aiiiaiiiiciisis  to  write  rroiii  his  (lictatiini 
(Koiii.  xvi.  'J'i),  tlie  aimstle  adding  the  saluta- 
tion in  liis  own  haml,  which  lie  says  was  the 
token  in  every  ejiislle  (I  Cor.  xvi.  '2\  ;  Col. 
iv.  IM;  2  Thes.  iii.  17).  In  the  ease  ol"  the 
Kliistle  totheGalatians,  however,  hedejiarted 
from  his  rule,  and  wrote  the  wliiile  letter 
with  his  own  hand  (Cal.  vi.  11).  Thrive  ol" 
the  letters  wliieh  are  addressed  to  individ- 
uals are  freiiuenlly  called  pastoral  eiiistles, 
namely,  1  and  2  Timothy  and  Titus.  Tliey 
contain  directions  tor  the  trainin};  and  gov- 
erninji  of  churches  and  the  i)r(p|ier  treat- 
ment of  individual  uuiuliers.  ( >f  the  (ivi^ 
general  epistles  one  bears  the  name  of  James, 
two  that  ol'  Peter,  and  one  that  ot.Iudc.  The 
tii-st  general  epistle  of  John  is  anonymous, 
while  the  two  letters  which  follow  have  for 
their  writer  one  calling  himself  "the  elder" 
(2  John  1  ;  '.i  John  1 ).  The  epistles  were  writ- 
ten at  first  in  reply  to  letters  jjreviously  re- 
ceived, or  were  based  on  verbal  information 
whi(di  had  come  from  some  (piarter  as  to 
matter  recpiiring  attention  in  any  particular 
church  (1  Cor.  i.  11;  1  Thes.  iii."  .'>,  (J).  Hut 
they  are  adai)ted  to  other  ])ersons  in  like  cir- 
cumstances;  Paul  re<|uested  that  certain  of 
his  epistles  be  read  by  others  than  by  those 
only  to  whom  they  are  addri'ssed  (Col.  iv. 
l(j|.  The  aposth's  claimed  that  they  are  the 
word  of  God  (1  Thes.  ii.  lU  ;  1  Pet.  i."  ]-J),  and 
from  the  beginning  they  ranked  with  the 
other  Scriptures.  I'eter  in  A.  D.  I>)<  sjKike  of 
Paul's  epistles  as  ])art  of  the  Scriptures  (2 
Pet.  iii.  1.").  10),  and  Polycarp  in  A.  D.  llo 
((Uoted  the  Psalms  and  I'phesians  side  by  side 
as  eiiually  Scrijiture.  See  C.VNo.N'.  The  titU's 
of  the  ejiistles  were  not  i)art  of  the  original 
comjiosition.  They  were  prefixed  afterwards, 
and  art-  no  part  of  Scripture.  Most  of  them 
are  founded  un  the  lir>t  vei-se  of  the  e])istle, 
and  are  accurate;  but  that  jirelixed  to  the 
epistle  to  the  llelirews  is  not  derived  from 
tlu'  letter  itself,  and  is  of  doul)tful  accuracy. 
The  notices  ajiiiended  as  to  the  place  where 
the  epistle  was  ]ienned  were  also  no  j)art  of 
the  original  com]iosition,  aud  some  of  them 
are  inaccurate. 

Er  [awake,  on  the  watch]. 

1.  .\  son  of  .ludah  wlio  <lied  in  Canaan  by 
a  judgment  of  Cod  for  his  wii-kedness  ((ien. 
xxxviii.  1-7:  xlvi.  12;  1  Chidii.  ii.  ."!). 

'J.  A  des<'eudant  of  Jiidab,  of  the  family 
of  Shelah  (1  Chron.  iv.  2\). 

.'!.  .\n  ancestor  of  Christ,  about  midway  be- 
tween David  and  Zerubbabel  (Luke  iii.  '2M. 

E'ran  [watchfull. 

.\  descendant  of  Kphraim  through  Shuthe- 
lah,  ami  founder  of  a  tribal  family  (Num. 
xxvi.  :!()i. 

E-ras'tUS  [beloved]. 

1.  A  Christian,  one  of  those  who  ministered 
to  Paul.  Me  was  sent  with  Timothy  from 
Epli<-sus  into  Macedonia  .just  before  tlie  riot 
at  the   former  place   (Acts  xix.  22).     He  is 


probably  the  person  mentioned  in  2  Tim.  iv. 
2t)  as  having  aboile  at  Corinth. 

2.  A  Christian  in  jiigli  ofllciai  juisition, 
chamberlain  of  the  city  of  Corintli,  who 
joined  witii  Paul  in  sending  s;ilutations  to 
the  Koman  converts  iPom.  xvi.  2;i). 
E'recb  [.\.ssyrian  Cruk  aud  Arkn]. 
A  city  of  Shinar  or  Lower  Rtbylonia,  one 
of  those  constituting  jiart  of  Nimrod's  king- 
dom ((ien.  X.  HI).  It  is  now  represented  by 
the  mounds  of  Warka.  a  considenible  dis- 
tance south  of  Babylon,  on  a  marsliy  region, 
east  (d"  the  Euphrates.  The  extreme  an- 
tiipiity  of  the  city  has  been  established  by 
the  IJabylonian  inscriptions.  Archevites  were 

I    settled  in  Samaria  by  Asnajtper  (Kzra  iv.  K). 

I       E'ri  [watching]. 

!  A  son  of  (iad  and  founder  of  a  trilial  family 
(tien.  xlvi.  Hi;  Num.  xxvi.  K!). 

j       E-sa'ias.    See  Isaiah. 

I       E-sar-had'don  [A.-hur  hath  given  broth- 

I    ci'-^]- 

I        The  tavorite.  though  not  the  eldest,  son  of 

1  Sennacherib,  king  of  .\ss>ria.  The  jiartiality 
so  annoyed  two  other  brothei-s.  .\drammelech 
and  Nergalsharezi'r,  that  they  as.sis>iruited 
their    father,   escaping   afti-rwards   into   Ar- 

i    nienia   (2  Kin.   xix.  .'Ui,  .'57 :  'J  Chron.   xxxii. 

]  21  ;  Is.  xxxvii.  37,  3b).  When  this  liase  mur- 
der was  jierpetrated.  Ksar-haddon  was  him- 
self conducting  a  canijiaign  in  the  northwest. 
l>robal)ly  in  Armenia.  (In  icceiving  news  of 
the  event,  he  at  once  startetl  with  his  anny 
for  Nineveh,  but  was  met  on  the  way  l>y  the 
rebel  forces.  Tlie  confederates  were,  however, 
defeated,  and  Ksar-haddon  was  able  to  ascend 
the  throne  <d'  Assyria  on  the  ^th  of  Nisjin, 
tJM)  n.  c.  The  Jiartiality  of  the  father  liad 
not  been  misplaced.  Esar-haddon  waseipially 
eminent  as  a  military  general  and  a  political 
ruler.  In  his  first  yvar  he  deteated  the  son 
of  Merodach-baladan  in  southern  Habylnnia. 
Later  he  commenced  the  ri-storation  of  the 
city  of  Habylon  which  Sennacherib,  provoked 
by  its  continual  revolts  against  the  Assyrian 
domination,  had  given  n\>  to  iilunder.  Esjir- 
liaddon  also  wage<l  war  against  the  Cim- 
merian barbarians  who  had  descended  up<in 
the  more  civilized  south  from  beyontl  tlio 
Caucasus;  against  the  mountaineers  of  (ili<ia, 
and  against  the  children  of  Etleii  who  were 
in  Telas.sar  (cji.  Is.  xxxvii.  12).  In  his  fourth 
year  he  ea|)tured  ami  jtillaged  ."^idon,  deported 
its  inhabitant.s.  razed  the  city  to  the  gmund. 
and  erected  a  new  town  on  the  old  site.  Its 
king  bad  escaped  by  sea,  but  he  was  pui-sut<l, 
taken,  and  beheaile<l.  The  .s;ime  fate  beftdl 
his  two  royal  allies.  .Vfterwards  twelve  tribes 
on  the  mainland  and  t«n  in  (yi>rus  submitted 
to  the  .Vssyrian  douiiuion.  .\mong  others 
were  Mauiisseb.  king  of  ,Iiidah,  and  the  kings 
of  ImIoiu,  .Mnab,  .\uimon,  (iaza.  .\shkelon, 
Ekron,  and  Aslulod.  I-lsar-liadilon  success- 
fully accomjilished  two  most  ditlicull  mili- 
tary enterprises,  the  jienetnition  of  the  .\m- 
hian  desert  and  of  far  oil"  Me«lia.    lie  turned 


Esau 


208 


Eshtemoa 


his  attentiou  to  a  yet  greater  undertaking, 
the  concinest  of  Egypt,  but  lie  was  for  a  time 
diverted,  l)eing  compelled  in  his  eiglith  year 
to  war  with  a  trihe  at  the  lieadofthe  I'ersian 
Gulf  and  near  Ur.  At  length  in  his  tenth 
year  his  great  exitedition  against  Kgyjit  took 
place.  Marching  past  Tyre,  he  left  the  city 
under  siege.  He  entered  Egypt,  captured 
Memphis,  and  laid  the  entire  country  and  its 
petty  kings  at  liis  feet.  He  divided  all  the 
valley  of  the  Nile  from  Thebes  to  the  Medi- 
terranean into  twenty  satrapies,  over  the  h'ss 
important  of  which  he  set  governors  of  na- 
tive descent,  while  over  those  which  were 
important  he  i)laced  Assyrian  governors.  It 
is  highly  creditable  to  Esar-haddou  that,  when 
he  found  himself  cou(iueror  of  Egypt,  he  had 
the  wisdom  to  act  in  a  conciliatory  manner 
to  the  vanquished.  He  died  669  or  668  B.  c, 
leaving  his  eldest  son,  Ashurbanipal,  who  for 
a  short  time  previously  had  been  associated 
with  hiui  in  the  government,  to  ascend  the 
throne. 

E'sau  [hairy]. 

Son  of  Isaac  and  Rebekah,  and  elder  twin 
brother  of  Jacob.     Esau  was  so  named  be- 
cause he  was  all  over  like  an  hairy  garment 
(Cieii.  XXV.  21-2G).    As  he  grew  up  he  became 
a  skillful  hunter,  and  was  accustomed  to  bring 
home  venison,  doubtless  the  flesh  of  various 
antelopes,  to  his  father  Isaac.     On  one  occa- 
sion he  returned  from  the  chase  famishing, 
and  asked  for  some  red  pottage  which  Jacob 
had  just  made  i-eady.   Jacob  asked  from  him 
the  surrender  of  his  birthright  as  payment; 
and    Esau,    esteeming   the   higher    blessings 
lightly,  and  caring  more  for  present  gratifica- 
tion, sold  his  birthright  rather  than  wait  for 
the  preparation  of  food.     From  the  red  pot- 
tage, which  was  its  price,  Esau  obtained  a 
second  name,  Edom,    /.  e.  Red   (27-34 ;  Heb. 
xii.  1(5,  17).     When    he  was  40  years  old  he 
married  two  wives,  Judith  or  Oholibamah  and 
Basemath  or  Adah,  both  Hittites  (Gen.  xxvi. 
34,  35;  xxxvi.  1,  2).     Afterwards  he  wedded 
Mahalath,  called  also  Basemath,  the  daugh- 
ter of  Ishmael  (xxviii.  9;  xxxvi.  3).     When 
Isaac  was  old  and  nearly  blind,  he  designed 
to  confer  the  covenanted  blessing  on  Esau, 
who  was  his  fiivorite  son.     But  Jacob  was 
Rebekah's  favorite,  and  she  induced  him  to 
per.S(mate  Esau  and  fraudulently  obtain  the 
blessing.     Esau    resolved   to   kill   his  selfish 
brother,   but  did   not  like  to  carry  out  the 
murder  while  his  father  was  living  (xxvii. 
1-41).     To  give  time  for  this  auger  to  cool, 
Jacob  fled  to  Mesopotamia,  and  for  twenty 
years  was  an  exile  (xxvii.  42-xxxi.  5.')).     On 
his   return   he   took    means   to    ajipcase   his 
justly  oflended  brother  ;  and  Esau,  who  was 
of  a  generous  nature,  dismissed  his  vindictive 
feeling,  and  gave  Jacob  a  fraternal  reception 
(xxxii.  3-xxxiii.  1.5).     Prior  to  this  Esau  had 
taken  uj)  his  abode  in  mount  Seir,  to  which 
he  at  once  returned  (l(j).     The  reconciliation 
between  the  brothers  was   permanent,   and 


both  met  to  bury  their  father  (xxxv.  29). 
Esau's  descendants  increased  and  ultimately 
dispossessed  the  original  inhabitants  of  mount 
Seir  and  became  the  Edoinite  people  (Dent, 
ii.  4,  12,  22).  Mount  Seir  could,  accordingly, 
be  called  the  mount  of  Esau  (Obad.  8,  9,  19, 
21).  For  the  election  of  Jacob  to  be  the 
child  of  promise  and  the  rejection  of  Esau, 
see  Gen.  xxv.  23 ;  Mai.  i.  2,  3 ;  Rom.  ix.  12, 13. 

Es'dras. 

The  Greek  form  of  E/.ra.  It  is  used  in  the 
Septuagint  and  the  Apocrypha,  but  does  not 
occur  in  the  canonical  Scrii)tures.    See  Apoc- 

EYPH.\. 

E'sek  [contention]. 

A  well  dug  by  Isaac  in  the  valley  of  Gerar, 
which  the  Philistine  herdmen  claimed  (Geu. 
xxvi.  20). 

E'shan,  iu  A.  X.  Eshean  [support]. 

A  village  in  the  mountains  of  Judah, 
grouped  with  Dumah  and  Hebron  (Josh. 
XV.  52).  Septuagint  has  Soma  ;  hence  it  may 
be  identical  with  the  ruin  es-Simia,  near 
Uumah,  and  about  8i  miles  southwest  by 
south  of  Hebron. 

Esh'ba-al.     See  Ishbosheth. 

Esh'ban  [reason,  intelligence]. 
A  son  of  Dishon,  descended  from  Seir  the 
Horite  (Gen.  xxxvi.  26 ;  1  Chron.  i.  41). 

Esh'col  [a  cluster;  specially  of  grapes]. 

1.  ()!ie  of  three  Amorite  br()thers,  residing 
near  Hebron  and  confederate  with  Abram 
(Gen.  xiv.  13,  24). 

2.  A  valley  near,  probablv  north  of,  Hebron 
(Num.  xiii.  22,  23;  Deut.  i!  24).  The  region 
round  about  Hebron  is  celebrated  for  its  large 
clusters  of  luscious  grapes.  It  is  uncertain 
whether  the  valley  bore  this  name  before  the 
time  of  Moses  or  not.  At  any  rate  the  name 
henceforth  suggested  to  the  Israelites  the 
spot  where  the  spies,  whom  Moses  had  sent 
to  spy  out  the  land,  cut  the  famous  cluster 
which  two  of  them  carried  suspended  on  a 
pole  between  them  to  save  from  being  dashed 
and  broken  (Num.  xiii.  24). 

E'she-an.     See  Esh.\n. 

E'shek  [violence,  opi)ression]. 

A  Benjamite,  a  descendant  of  Saul  (1  Chron. 
viii.  39).' 

Esh'ka-lon-ite.     See  Ashkelonite. 

Esh'ta-ol  [perhaps  ])etiti()n]. 

A  town  in  the  lowland  of  Judah  (.Tosh.  xv. 
.33),  eventually  allotted  to  the  Dauites  (xix. 
41).  It  is  commonly  mentioned  in  connec- 
tion witli  Zorah  (Judg.  xiii.  25  :  xvi.  31 ;  xviii. 
2,  8,  11  ;  1  Chron.  ii.  53  >.  It  has  been  iden- 
tified as  the  village  of  Esliu'a.  al)out  Ii  miles 
east  by  north  from  Zorah,  and  13  miles  west, 
slightly  north  from  .leru.saUni. 

Esh'ta-ul-ite,  in  R.  V.  Eshtaolite. 

An  inhabitant  of  Eshtaol  (1  Chron.  ii.  53). 

Esh-te-mo'a,    once   Eshtemoh   (Josh.   xv. 

50)  [obedience]. 


Eshton 


209 


Esther 


1.  A  town  in  the  hill  country  of  Juduh, 
given  with  its  subiirlis  to  the  jiriesls  (Josh. 
XV.  ")() ;  x.\i.  11;  1  C'hroii.  vi.  .')7).  David  sent 
it  sttnie  k{  the  spoils  olilained  on  the  reeaii- 
ture  of  Ziivia.i,'  (1  Sam.  xxx.  "is).  Tlie  site 
has  heen  luiiiid  at  Seniu'a,  it  miles  south  of 
Hel>ron,u  considerable  village  with  the  foun- 
dation of  ancient  walls  designed  for  a  large 
town. 

2.  A  Jhiacathitc,  son  of  lludiah  (1  Cliron. 
iv.  lit,  H.  v.). 

Esh'ton  [possibly  uxorious]. 
A  descendant  of  Chelnb,  reckoned  in   the 
genealogy  of  Judali  (1  C'hron.  iv.  12). 

Es'li  [perhaps  from  Hebrew  'cs/i,  at  my 
side  (is  tJod)]. 

An  ancestor  of  Christ  who  lived  after  the 
cajttivity  (Luke  iii.  2o). 

Es'rom.    See  Hezron. 

Es-senes'. 

.\n  order  of  men  among  the  Jews  in  the 
time  of  Christ,  who  lunnbered  about  4()()0, 
and  devoted  themselves  to  a  more  or  less 
ascetic  life.  Hoping  by  isolation  to  escape 
ceremonial  delilement,  they  formed  colonies 
by  themselves.  The  wilderness  of  .Tiidiea 
ni-ar  Kn-gedi  was  a  favorite  i)lace  for  their 
settlements,  but  there  were  colonies  in  va- 
rious towns  of  .Iiida-a  also.  Each  colony  had 
its  own  synagogue,  a  common  hall  for  meals 
and  assi'uddies.  and  ])rovisi()n  for  daily  bath- 
ing in  running  water.  Whoever  became  a 
member  of  the  order  gave  uj)  all  that  he  pos- 
sessed to  it.  They  reatl  the  law  of  Moses 
daily  and  nightly,  and  endeavored  to  regu- 
late their  lives  in  every  detail  according  to 
it.  Their  babits  were  simjile.  Their  food 
and  cbilliing  were  i>lain.  They  jtassed  the 
day  in  husliandry  and  other  useful  industry. 
Money  was  almost  unneces.sary,  as  they  su])- 
plied  their  needs  by  their  own  !a!)or;  and 
when  they  traveled,  they  found  lodging  and 
food  free  of  cost  among  their  brethren.  Tlu'y 
liad  no  slaves,  as  tliey  recognized  no  distinc- 
tion bi'lween  men  .save  that  of  (dean  anil  un- 
clean. They  did  not  deny  the  titiu'ss  of  mar- 
riage ;  but  they  abstained  from  wedlock,  ex- 
cept one  ]>arty  ajiioug  tbem.  Tbeir  morality 
was  bd'ty.  Tiiey  promised  "to  honor  (iod.  to 
be  righteous  toward  man,  to  injure  no  one, 
either  at  the  bidding  of  another  or  of  thi'ir 
own  accord,  to  bate  evil,  to  promote  good,  to 
be  faithful  to  evi'ry  one,  es]>ecially  those  in 
authority,  to  love  tlie  truth,  to  unmask  liars, 
and  to  keeji  the  hand  fnjm  theft  and  tlie 
conscience  from  unrighteous  gain"  (Antiq. 
xviii.  I.  ,". :  War  ii.  «,  2-13). 

Ea'ther  [from  Persian  xitareh,  star]. 

A  biautiful  maiden  whose  Hebrew  tiame 
was  Il'tliissiili.  myrtle.  Early  left  an  orjilian, 
she  was  brought  \i]>  at  Susa,  tbe  Persian 
metroi)olis,  by  Mordecai,  her  cousin,  who 
adopted  her.  Tbe  despotic  Ahasuerus,  i.  e. 
X<rx<s,  king  of  Persia,  was  angered  l)y  the 
refusal  of  his  (|ueen  to  do  at  his  bidding  an 

n 


immodest  act  at  a  great  banquet,  and  on  iho 
advice  of  his  sycoi)hantic  courtiers  divorced 
her.  But  his  advisers  wt-re  afraitl  that  tbe 
monarch  would  repent  of  the  stei>  he  had 
taken,  and  call  them  to  account  for  their 
Itrominent  i)art  in  tlie  cat^istroiilie.  They 
advi.sed  him  to  make  (dioice  of  a  fair  maiden 
to  succeed  the  divorced  (|Ueen,  and  after 
many  bad  been  introduced  to  him,  Esther 
was  preferred  to  them  all,  and  duly  installed 
in  tbe  palace  as  tbe  (|Ueen  consort.  It  was 
not  known  at  tbe  time  that  she  was  a  Jewess. 
She  came  to  tbe  throneat  aeritical  time.  The 
royal  favorite  was  Hainan.  Five  years  after 
Esther's  elevation  (ICsth.  ii.  l(i ;  iii.  7).  Hainan, 
annoyed  by  Mordi'cai's  refusal  todoiiim  obei- 
sance, wished  to  revenge  himself  by  tbe  mass- 
acre, not  simply  of  Mordecai.  but  of  all  the 
large  .Jewish  i)o]iulation  .scattered  throughout 
the  emiiire.  He  cast  Pur,  or  lot,  to  discover 
a  favorable  day  to  present  tlu-  matter  to  the 
king  or  for  executing  the  murderous  design. 
The  lot  fell  on  the  Pith  day  of  .\dar.  He  se- 
cured tiieking'sconseiil  by  theollerofa  heavy 
bribe  (Ksth.  ii.  .">  iii.  1.')).  .Mordecai  urged 
Esther  to  interfere  for  the  iiroteclioii  of  her 
race.  She  was  afraid ;  but,  on  being  .sol- 
emnly addressed  by  her  guardian,  she,  after 
fasting  and  prayer,  risked  her  life  by  reveal- 
ing to  the  monarch  who  doted  ui)on  Iwr  that 
she  was  one  of  the  hated  rai-e.  Tbe  king 
also  discovered  that  Mordecai  the  .Jew  bad 
made  known  a  jtlot  against  tiie  monarch's  life. 
Ahasuerus  ordered  that  Hainan  be  hanged, 
exalted  Mordecai  to  high  honors,  and  per- 
mitted the  Jews  to  defend  themselves,  and 
even  to  take  the  otl'eiisive  against  their  foes. 
The  time  and  manner  of  Esther's  deatli  are 
unknown. 

The  Hook  of  Esther  is  the  last  of  the  his- 
torical books  of  the  »).  T.  In  the  Hebrew 
canon  it  stands  among  the  Hagiograjiha ; 
formerly,  according  to  tin'  Talmud,  between 
Daiii(d  and  I'./.ra,  but  now  .just  aft<r  Ec- 
clesiastes  and  immediately  before  Danii-I. 
This  latter  iiosition  is  due  to  its  being  grouped 
with  four  other  rollswhich  were  u.sed  on  five 
solemn  anniversaries.  The  last  of  these  an- 
niversaries is  Purini,  hence  I-".stlier  has  lieeii 
placed  last  among  the  Five  Rolls.  E.iiig  after 
the  completion  of  tbe  canon,  tbe  right  of 
Esther  to  its  place  in  that  canon  was  called 
in  (|Uestioii  by  the  Jews,  probably,  however, 
not  seriously!  but  to  allord  opportunity  for 
intellectual  "disjilay  in  its  defense.  The  Jews 
now  regard  it  with  si>ecial  honor.  Christians 
liave  been  more  divitled  on  the  subject  of  its 
merits.  Melito  of  .»>ardis  and  Cregory  of 
Nar.ian/.us  omitted  it  from  their  lists  of 
cjinonical  books;  Athanasiiis  clas.sed  it  with 
iion-canonic.il  books,  and  Eiither  denounced 
it.  Opposition  to  it  was  basecl  mainly  on  the 
fact  that  the  name  of  (Jod  does  not  i>ccnr  in 
it  even  once.  Hut  iv.  1  i  im|ilies  the  existence 
of  Providence;  iv.  1<;  recogni/es  fa.sting  :is  a 
religious  i)nu'tice,  and  ix.  :il  not  merely  fa.st- 
ing, but  a  cry  or  jmiyer.    Thi'  great  lesson 


Etam 


210 


Ether 


of  the  })0()k  is,  iu  fact,  the  ovcvruliiif;  power 
of  Providence.  There  is  undesigned  coin- 
cidence between  the  Hook  of  Esther  and  the 
classic  writers.  Xerxes  was  passionate,  ef- 
feminate, cajiricioiis.  and  cruel,  and  easily 
swayed  by  his  courtiers  (Herod,  vii.  3.'),  :57  ; 
ix.  107).  The  feast  wliich  led  to  Vashti"s  di- 
vorce occurred  in  the  third  year  of  the  king's 
reign  (Esth.  i.  3),  while  her  successor,  Esther, 
was  notappointed  til!  the  seventh  year  (ii.  l(i). 
During  the  interval  the  disastrous  expedi- 
tion of  the  king  to  tJreece  took  place,  during 
which  the  battles  of  Thermopylae  and  Salamis 
were  fought,  480  B.  C.  Herodotus  (vii.  7, 
etc.)  tells  that  Xerxes  convoked  a  great  as- 
sembly in  his  third  year  to  i)repare  for  the 
Greek  war  (ix.  lOS),  and  in  his  seventh  tried 
to  forget  his  defeat  iu  the  pleasures  of  the 
harem.  The  most  potent  argument  for  the 
historical  character  of  the  incidents  desci-ibed 
in  Esther  is  the  fact  tliat  the  feast  of  Purim, 
instituted  to  commemorate  them  (Esth.  ix. 
26),  is  still  observed.  Had  they  uever  oc- 
curred it  would  have  been  difficult  to  get 
the  feast  established.  So  early  as  the  Second 
Book  of  the  Maccabees,  the  feast  is  referred 
to  as  the  day  of  Mordecai  (xv.  3tt).  The  lan- 
guage is  Hebrew,  like  that  of  Ezra  and  Ne- 
hemiah,  but  with  more  Persian  words.  From 
x.  2  it  would  seem  that  Xerxes  was  dead 
when  it  was  penned.  Its  date  is  generally 
lixed  about  423  b.  c,  forty  years  after  his 
assassination,  or  at  least  in  the  reign  of  Arta- 
xerxes,  465-425 ;  and  there  is  no  valid  reason  to 
date  it  later.  The  Book  of  Esther  is  neither 
quoted  from  nor  alluded  to  in  the  N.  T. 
Certain  apocryphal  additions  to  Esther  ap- 
pear in  the  Septuagint.  Jerome  separated 
them  from  the  other  portion  of  the  work,  and 
they  now  find  place  in  the  apocrypha. 

E'tam  [place  of  beasts  of  prey]. 

1.  A  village  on  the  border  of  the  south 
country  and  the  lowland,  transferred  from 
Judali  to  Simeon  (1  Chron.  iv.  32;  cp.  Josh. 
XV.  32  and  42).  In  the  cleft  of  a  rock  in  its 
immediate  vicinity  Samson  dwelt  for  a  time 
(Judg.  XV.  8,  11).  He  had  gone  down  to  it 
from  Timiiah.  Conder  fixes  it  at  Beit  'Atab, 
5  miles  S.  E.  by  E.  of  Zorali ;  most  others  at 
'Aitun,  about  11  miles  W.  S.  W.  of  Hebron. 

2.  A  town  in  the  neighborhood  of  Bethle- 
hem, fortified  by  Rehoboani  for  the  defense 
of  Judah  after  tlie  secession  of  the  ten  tribes 
(1  Chron.  iv.  3 ;  2  Chron.  xi.  6 ;  and  ,Josh.  xv. 
60  in  Septuagint).  Acctording  to  the  Talmud, 
the  temple  of  Jerusalem  was  su])iilied  with 
water  conducted  from  the  sjiring  of  Etain, 
and  an  ancient  aqueduct  extends  for  7  miles 
from  the  temple  hill,  past  Bethlehem,  to 
three  i)ools,  the  lowest  of  which  is  fed  by  a 
neighboring  s])ring.  situated  on  the  south, 
called  'Ain  'Atan.  Jose])luis  relates  Ihal  Solo- 
mon was  fond  of  driving  out  in  tlii^  tarly 
morning  to  Etan  (written  also  Etam),  distant 
2  schoinoi  or  7  miles  from  Jerusalem,  where 
there  was  a  delightful   i)rospect  of  gardens 


and  rivulets  (Antiq.  viii.  7,  3 ;  cp.  Song  vi. 
11,  12;  Eccl.  ii.  5,  6).  Here,  then,  at  'Ain 
'Atan,  near  the  village  of  Urtas  and  about  2 
miles  southwest  of  15ethleheni,  was  the  site 
of  Etam.  The  tiiree  reservoirs  were  discov- 
ered l)y  pilgrims  at  (|uite  a  late  date  and 
named  the  pools  of  Solomon.  The  aqueduct 
is  ancient,  anted:itiug  the  Christian  era  and 
the  Roman  period.  Pontius  Pilate  probably 
used  it  as  the  last  section  of  the  great  conduit 
which  he  undertook  to  build  for  tiie  imrjiose 
of  bringing  water  to  Jeru.saleni  from  a  dis- 
tance of  200  stadia  or  23  miles  (Antiq.  xviii. 
3,  2;  or  400  stadia.  War  ii.  9,  4).  Another 
section  extends  from  the  three  j)ools  to  the 
wady  el-'Arrub  near  Hebron,  and  a  third 
reaches  a  few  miles  southward  Irom  the 
pools  to  the  wady  el-Biar. 

E'tham  [perhaps  boundary]. 

The  first  encampment  of  the  Israelites 
after  leaving  Succoth,  as  they  were  depart- 
ing from  Egy])t.  It  was  on  the  edge  of  the 
wilderness  (Ex.  xiii.  20;  Num.  xxxiii.  6).  It 
apparently  did  not  lie  on  the  direct  road 
from  Egypt  to  the  Philistine  countrj-  (Ex. 
xiii.  17).  The  name  was  extended  to  a  por- 
tion of  the  wilderness  of  Shur,  requiring  at 
least  three  days  to  cross  it,  and  apjjarently 
reaching  to  or  even  including  Marah  (Xum. 
xxxiii.  8 ;  cp.  Ex.  xv.  22).  Identifications 
have  been  jn-oposed,  but  are  all  conjectural. 

E'than  [firmness,  perpetuity]. 

1.  A  descendant  of  Judah,  of  the  house  of 
Zerah,  family  of  Perez  (1  Chron.  ii.  (i).  He 
seems  to  have  been  the  jierson  of  this  name 
who  was  celebrated  for  his  wisdom  (1  Kin. 
iv.  31;  Ps.  Ixxxix.,  title). 

2.  A  Levite,  of  the  family  of  Gershom, 
house  of  Libni  (1  Chron.  vi.  42,  43;  cp.  20 
and  Num.  xxvi.  5^). 

3.  A  Levite,  of  the  family  of  Merari,  house 
of  Mushi.  He  was  a  sou  of  Kishi  or  Ku- 
shaiah,  and  was  appointed  a  singer  in  the 
time  of  David  (1  Chron.  vi.  44,  47;  xv.  17, 
19).  His  name,  it  a])i)ears,  was  changed  to 
Jeduthun,  praising  one,  after  his  appoint- 
ment to  service  in  the  tabernacle  at  Gibeon 
(1  Chron.  xvi.  38-41 ;  cp.  xv.  17,  19  with 
XXV.  1). 

Eth'a-nim  [incessant  rains]. 

The  seventh  month  (1  Kin.  viii.  2),  called 
also  Tishri.  It  was  a]iproxiiiiately  October. 
Within  it  fell  the  feast  of  truiniiets,  the 
great  day  of  atonement,  and  the  fea.st  of 
tabernacles.     See  Yeak. 

Eth'ba-al  [with  Baal,  or.  to  judge  from 
the  ({reek  form,  with  him  is  Baal]. 

A  king  of  tlie  Tyriaiis  and  Sidonians,  and 
father  of  .lezebel  (1  Kin.  xvi.  I!l  ;  Anti(|.  viii. 
13,  1  and  2  ;  ix.  (i,  (J).  He  was  priest  of  Ashto- 
reth,  but  slew  his  brother  and  seized  tlie 
throne  (contra  Apion.  i.  IS). 

E'ther  [abundance]. 

A  village  in  the  lowland  of  .ludah  (Josh. 
XV.  42),  but  allotted   to  the   tribe  of  Simeon 


Ethiopia 


211 


Euphrates 


(xix.  7).  It  is  c:ilk(l  Tdtheii  in  1  Chron.  iv. 
3'2.  The  best  siijjjiestion  as  to  its  !«ile  is  the 
ruined  vilhij^e  of  'Atr,  alioiit  a  uiile  north- 
west hy  nortii  of  Heit  Jibrin. 

E-thi-o'pi-a  [(Jreek  .lithiojiin,  sinilHirnt. 
Possibly,  however,  tiiis  may  have  lieen  suli- 
stituled  for  the  iOfiyiUian  Klhuitf^h,  l^tliioiiia, 
wilii  wiiich  it  nearly  aj;r<'es  in  sound]. 

1.  A  eountry  ealled  in  the  Hebrew  ianj^uajic 
C'usli.  whicli  is  eontinualiy  mentioned  in  eon- 
neetionwith  K^iyi'l  (I's.  Ixviii.  Ill  ;  Is.  xx.  .'5  ."> ; 
Ezek.  XXX.  1.  .")':  Dan.  xi.  i;{ :  Nah.  iii.  !))  and 
sometimes  wiiii  l-ibyaortiie  hil)yans(2t'liron. 
XVI.  rt;  Ezek.  xxx.  5;  xxxviii.  5;  Dan.  xi. 
43  ;  Nah.  iii.  St),  and  must  certainly  have  been 
in  eastern  Africa.  It  ran  southward  from 
Syeiie,  the  southein  jioint  of  Ivtrypt  (Kzek. 
xxix.  10,  i:.  V.  marj;in  ;  eii.  .Judith  i.  10).  It 
was  manifestly  the  ujiper  ref^ion  of  the  Nile, 
the  Soudan.  Nubia  with  Kordofan,  .Sennaar, 
and  northern  Al)yssinia,  a  refiion  in  larjio 
measure  desert.  thoUfih  in  jdaees  fertile.  Tliis 
general  re.uion  wa,s  known  to  the  Egyptians 
as  Kes.  The  rivers  of  Ethiojiia  (Is.  xviii.  1 ; 
Zei)li.  iii.  10)  were  jirobably  the  White  an(l 
IJlue  Niles,  with  the  Albaru  or  Taeazze.  Tlie 
toi)azes  of  ICthiojiia  were  eelebraled  (Job 
xxviii.  li>).  Its  inhabitants  were  tall  (Is. 
xlv.  14).  They  were  colored  men.  jjroliably 
black  (Jcr.  xiii.  23).  They  enjiafjed  in  mer- 
cantile tninsaetions,  sellinj;  tlu'  i>roductions 
of  their  country  in  foreijiu  lands  (Is.  xlv.  11), 
ami  as  a  conseciuence  l)t'canie  wealthy  (xliii. 
3).  Wlu'U  the  Ethiojiians,  led  by  Zerah,  in- 
vaded Judah,  they  were  signally  defeated  by 
king  Asa  {2  Chron.  xiv.  K-IT);  xvi.  8).  Au 
Ethioi)ian  dynasty,  the  twenty-fifth,  estab- 
lished itself  in  E};yi)t ;  to  it  belonged  that 
Tirhakah  who  met  Sennacherib  in  battle  at 
Eltikeh  CJ  Kin.  xix.  !t ;  Is.  xxxvii.  {)).  Isiiah 
(xx.  l-(!)  and  Zejihaniah  (ii.  12)  prophesied 
against  the  Ethio)iians,  while  the  psalmist 
l>redicted  that  lCtliio])ia would  haste  tostretch 
out  lier  hands  unto  (!od  (I's.  Ixviii.  .'Jl  :  ci). 
Ixxxvii.  1).  The  projihecy  obtained  fulfiU- 
nu-nt  in  the  conversion  of  the  Ethio]iian 
eunuch  (Acts  viii.  2(i-40)  and  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  gosjiel  into  .\bvssinia,  which  still 
remains  a  Christian  kingdom. 

2.  There  was  an  .\siati<'  as  well  as  an  .Vfri- 
can  Cush.     .See  Cisn  1  and  2. 

Eth-ka'zin,  in  A.  \.  It-tab-ka'zin,  with 
the  case-ending. 

.V  place  on  the  boundarv  line  of  Zebnlun 
(.losh.  xix.  i:{). 

Eth'nan  [gift.  hire]. 

.\  man  of  .ludah.  famil.\  of  llezron  |1 
Chron.  iv.  7;  cp.  .">  and  ii.  "Jl). 

Eth'ni  [bountiful,  munificent]. 

A  (iershonite  Eevite  (1  Chron.  vi.  41).  In 
ver.  2\  he  is  rallid  .lealherai.  The  main 
difference  is  found  in  the  last  consonant.  .V 
scribe  seems  to  havi^  confounded  the  Hebrew 
letters  nun  and  resh. 

Eu-bu'lU3  [well  advised,  jirudent]. 

A  lioinan  Christian  (2  Tim.  iv.  '-'l). 


Eu'me-nes  [well  disposed]. 

King  of  I'ergamos,  l!i7-ir)!»  h.  c.  When  the 
lionians  defeatid  .\ntiochus  the  (ireat  at 
.Magnesia  in  l!i()  it.  c,  they  a.ssigned  the 
greater  ])art  of  the  defeated  king's  realm 
north  of  the  Taurus  mountains  to  iMinienesin 
rilnrn  for  the  services  which  he  had  ren- 
dered them  (1  Mac.  \iii.  (j-t^;  Eivy  xxxvii. 
4l|.  They  bestowed  Lycia  and  (aria  on  the 
Khodians.  The  report,  which  .Juilas  Macca- 
batis  hearil,  that  the  Uonians  bad  taken  India 
and  -Media  also  was  not  true. 

Eu-ni'ce  [ble.s.sed  with  victory]. 

A  i>ious  Jewess,  mother  of  Timothy  (Acts 
xvi.  1  ;  2  Tim.  i.  fi). 

Eu'nuch  [having  the  couch]. 

I'rojierly  a  chamberlain  :  but  in  the  ICiist 
])ersons  who  had  been  rendered  impotent 
weri'  emiiloyed  for  this  ollice.  hence  an  im- 
potent man  (Is.  hi.  3;  .Mat.  xix.  \2).  There 
is  scarcely  a  doubt  tliat  the  word  is  used 
in  thissen.se  throughout  Scripture,  even  when 
it  is  rendered  into  English  by  some  other 
term.  There  have  been,  and  still  are,  mar- 
ried eunuchs  ((ien.  xxxix.  1.  rendered  ofticer, 
and  7).  Eunuchs  often  obtained  high  posi- 
tion and  great  authority.  The  captain  of 
the  guard  of  I'haraoh  and  his  chief  butler 
and  his  chief  baker  were  eunuchs  ((ien. 
xxxvii.  3();  xl.  2,  7,  translated  ollicerl.  Eu- 
nuchs ministered  at  the  court  of  Habylou 
(Dan.  i.  3).  They  served  in  the  presence  of 
the  I'l  isian  king,  and  acted  as  doorkeepers 
of  his  ]iatace  (Estli.  i.  10;  ii.  21)  ;  a  euinn-h 
was  over  his  harem  (ii.  3,  14),  and  a  eunuch 
was  de]>nted  to  attend  hisuneiii  (iv.  .">).  They 
served  also  at  the  court  of  .Miaband  his  .son 
Jehoram,  and  they  waited  ujion  .lezebel  (1 
Kin.  xxii.  !i ;  2  Kin.  viii.  fi;  ix.  32i.  Even 
in  Judah,  although  eunuchs  were  legally  ex- 
clude<l  from  the  congregation  of  the  Eord 
(Dent,  xxiii.  1).  they  were  employed  at  David's 
court  (1  Chron.  xxviii.  1),  and,  in  the  last 
days  of  the  monarchy,  at  the  degenenito 
court  of  the  successors  y(  Josiah  ('2  Kin. 
xxiv.  l.")with  .ler.  xxix.  2;  2  Kin.  xxv.  1!»). 
The  eunuchs  in  Judah  were  probably  in  most, 
if  not  in  all.  cases  foreigners  (Jer.  xxxviii.  7). 
The  cn])bearer  of  Herod  the  (ireat  was  a  eu- 
nuch, as  were  also  the  ollicial  who  brought 
him  his  food  and  the  one  who  us,sist<'d  him  to 
bed  :  and  his  favorite  wife  Mariamne  wa.s 
served  by  a  eunuch  (.Vntiip  xv.  7.  4;  xvi. 
8,  1).  A  enniuh  was  over  the  treasure  of 
(lueen  Candace  of  I'.lhiopia.  and  he  was  ad- 
mitted to  bajitism  (Acts  viii.  '27.  37;  cp.  Is. 
hi.  .31. 

Eu-o'di-a,  in  A.  V.  Euodlas  [f nigra nco]. 

.\  (  lni>iian  woman  at  rhili|)pi  blemi.shed 
liy  bickering  with  Syntyche  il'hil.  iv.  2). 

Eu-phra'tes  [(inik  modification  of  the 
Ilebiew  r'litlli,  which  is  variously  explained 
as  ineaniugsweel  orbroad  or  with  good  fnrds]. 

One  of  the  gnat  rivers  of  we>.tern  Asia 
and  the  world.  It  is  formed  by  the  Junction 
of  twostreams  :  the  Murad,  rising  in  Armenia, 


Eupolemus 


212 


Eve 


between  lake  Van  and  mount  Ararat,  being 
the  more  easterly ;  and  the  Frat  or  Kara, 
rising  about  40  miles  nortlieast  of  Erzeroum, 
the  more  westerly.  Sometimes  the  name  Frat, 
cognate  with  tlie  Hebrew  P'ralh,  is  applied  to 
both  of  these  streams.  They  niu  iu  a  westerly 
direetion  to  about  latitude  ^i)*^  N..  and  longi- 
tude oil"'  Iv,  alter  which  the  foml)iued  waters 
turn  southward,  break  through  the  southern 
ehaiu  ot  the  Taurus  mountains,  and  at  various 
places  are  not  more  than  50  miles  from  the 
Mediterranean.  Then  the  river  bends  south- 
eastward, constituting  the  western  boundary 
of  -Mesopotamia.  About  latitude  '.il°  N.,  lon- 
gitude 47°  E.,  the  Tigris  unites  with  the  Eu- 
phrates, to  constitute  what  is  now  called  the 
Shat  el-Aral),  which,  after  a  course  of  about 
90  miles  moiv,  fulls  into  tlie  Persian  Gulf. 
The  whole  length  of  the  Euphrates  is  about 
1800  miles.  It  was  one  of  the  rivers  of 
Paradise  (Gen.  ii.  14).  It  was  familiarly 
known  to  the  Hebrews  as  "the  great  river" 
or  simjily  "the  river."  It  formed  the  limit 
in  the  northeasterly  direction  of  the  Hebrew 
dominion  when  its  extension  was  at  the 
greatest  (xv.  18 ;  cp.  2  Sam.  viii.  3  ;  1  Chron. 
xviii.  3;  1  Kin.  iv.  21,  24).  It  was  a  bound- 
ary between  ea.st  and  west,  between  Egypt 
and  Assyria-Babylonia,  each  power  desiring 
to  possess  the  country  between  the  brook  of 
Egyiit  and  the  Euphrates.  In  the  Persian 
period  also  it  separated  east  from  west  (Ezra 
iv.  10,  11 ;  V.  3;  vi.  6;  Neh.  ii.  7).  It  was  a 
boundary  of  the  Seleucidan  kingdom  (1  Mac. 
iii.  .32  ;  vii.  8),  and  it  was  regarded  as  the 
eastern  limit  of  the  Roman  empire.  The 
greatest  city  on  its  banks  was  Babylon. 
Another  important  place  was  the  old  Hittite 
capital  Carchemish,  the  scene  of  various  bat- 
tles, especially  of  one  between  the  Baby- 
lonians and  the  Egyptians,  the  latter  led  by 
Pharaoh-necho  (Jer.  xlvi.  2).  In  the  book 
of  Eevelation  certain  angels  are  described 
as  being  "bound  in  the  great  river  Euphra- 
tes" (Rev.  ix.  14),  and  the  sixth  vial  was  poured 
out  upon  the  Euphrates  itself  (xvi.  12). 

Eu-pol'e-mus  [good  at  war]. 

Son  of  that  John  who  obtained  special  priv- 
ileges for  the  Jews  from  Antiochus  the  Great 
(1  Mac.  viii.  17;  2  Mac.  iv.  11).  Eupolemus 
was  one  of  two  ambassadors  sent  by  Judas 
Maccabfeus  to  Rome  to  make  a  treaty  with 
the  Romans.  Some  think  that  he  is  the  Jew- 
ish historical  writer  Eupolemus  whom  Alex- 
ander Polyhistor  quotes  so  frequently. 

Eu-ra'qul-lo  [from  Greek  eurakulon,  the 
northeast  wind]. 

A  tempestuous  northeast  wind  which  blows 
over  the  Mediterranean  (Acts  xxvii.  14;  in 
A.  V.  Euroclydon).  The  wind  from  that 
quarti^r.  now  called  Gregali.  blows  generally 
in  early  sjjring,  ami  is  the  most  viohmt  wind 
on  the  Mediterranean.  It  is  sometimes  termed 
a  Levanter. 

Eu-roc'ly-don  [from  Greek  eurokliidon,  per- 
haps a  wiud  from  the  southeast  or  east]. 


A  tempestuous  wind  which  blows  from  the 
southeast  or  tlie  east.  It  brouglit  the  vessel 
in  which  Paul  was  sailing  toward  Rome 
hrst  into  danger,  and  then  to  shii)wreek 
(Acts  xxvii.  14,  A.  V.).  But  the  revisers 
prefer  the  reading  Eurakulon,  which  is  in 
some  manuscrii)ts,  and  render  Euraquilo. 

Eu'ty-chus  [fortunate]. 

A  young  man  of  Troas,  who,  falling  asleep 
while  Paul  was  preaching  there,  fell  from 
the  third  loft  or  door.  He  was  taken  up 
dead,  but  was  miraculously  restored  to  life 
by  the  apostle  (Acts  xx.  9,  10). 

E-van'gel-ist  [from  Greek  eiiaggelistes,  a 
messenger  of  good  tidings]. 

An  order  of  men  in  the  primitive  church 
distinct  from  apostles,  ])roi)hets,  pastors,  and 
teachers  (Eph.  iv.  llj.  Their  name  implied 
that  their  special  function  was  to  announce 
the  glad  tidings  of  the  gospel  to  tho.se  before 
ignorant  of  them,  and  as  they  were  not 
pastors  of  particular  churches,  they  were 
able  to  go  from  place  to  i)lace  preaching  to 
those  who  as  yet  were  without  the  Christian 
pale.  Philip,  who  was  the  means  of  convert- 
ing and  baptizing  the  Ethiopian  eunuch,  was 
an  evangeli.st  (Acts  xxi.  8),  and  we  find  him 
successively  at  Jerusalem  (vi.  5),  iu  Samaria 
(viii.  5),  on  the  road  between  Jerusalem  and 
Gaza  (2G),  in  the  cities  nortli  of  Ashdod  (40), 
and  finally  at  Cfesarea  (40  ;  xxi.  8).  Timothy 
was  also  commanded  by  Paul  to  do  the  work 
of  an  evangelist  (2  Tim.  iv.  5).  Ata  later  date 
the  name  was  given  to  the  writers  of  the  four 
gospels. 

Eve  [life]. 

The  name  given  by  Adam  to  the  first  wo- 
man because  she  was  the  mother  of  all  living 
(Gen.  iii.  20).  Soon  after  his  creation,  she  was 
brought  into  being  to  be  a  help  meet  for  him 
(21,  22).  The  narrative  has  been  variously 
interpreted  as  meaning  that — 1.  Woman  was 
formed  from  the  rib  of  man,  Adam  being  in 
a  trance  and  beholding  the  operation,  but 
feeling  nothing;  2.  Woman  was  not  actually 
formed  from  man's  rib,  but  Adam  had  a 
vision  by  which  he  was  taught  his  oneness 
of  nature  with  woman  and  lier  rights  and 
privileges ;  3.  Woman's  relation  to  man  is 
set  forth  in  allegory.  From  a  literary  jioint 
of  view  the  third  exi)lanation  is  unlikely. 
It  is  utterly  im]>robable  that  the  writer  in- 
tended to  insert  an  allegory  in  the  midst  of 
historical  narrative  which  includes  the  crea- 
tion of  the  universe,  the  creation  of  man, 
and  the  flood.  The  two  human  beings  were 
placed  in  the  garden  of  Eden  ;  ami  in  order 
to  test  their  obedience,  they  were  forbid- 
den to  touch  or  taste  the  fruit  of  one  i)ar- 
ticular  tree.  Some  time  afterwards  the  ser- 
pent under  Satanic  aid  and  guidance  in- 
duced Eve  first  to  entertain  unjust  suspicions 
of  God,  and  then  to  eat  the  forbidden  fruit. 
She  afterwards  persnadid  Adaui  to  eat,  who 
thus  shared  her  guilt.  The  result  was  the 
fall  of  man  (iii.  1-24 ;  2  Cor.  xi.  3 ;  1  Tim.  ii. 


Evi 


213 


Exodus 


i:i).  After  tlio  cximlsion  of  the  guilty  iiair 
from  the  ^ranhii,  Kve  siiecessively  lieciinie  tlie 
mother  of  t'aiii,  Al)el,  Seth,  willi  other  sons 
and  also  daugblers  (Gen.  iv.  1,  J,  :.'."),  ^(i ;  v. 
1-5). 
E'vi. 

One  of  the  five  kings  of  Midian,  allies  or 
vassils  of  Silum,  slain  in  the  war  waged  hy 
Moses  ajjaiiist  the  Midianites  heeause  they 
sedueed  the  Israelites  to  licentious  idolatry 
(Num.  xxxi.  8;  Josh.  xiii.  21). 
E'vil. 

The  origin  of  evil  is  a  j)rohlem  which  has 
perplexed  speculative  minds  in  all  ages  and 
countries,  (iod  is  not  the  author  of  sin,  but 
he  permits  it.  lie  has  ]iermitted  it,  because 
the  revelation  of  his  inlinite  pi'rfection  is  the 
highest  conceivable  good  and  the  ultimate 
enil  of  all  his  works,  and  there  I'ould  be  no 
manifestation  of  certain  of  his  attributes  if 
sin  were  not  iierniitted.  Were  there  no 
misery,  there  could  be  no  mercy  shown  by 
Ciod  ;  and  there  could  be  no  revelation  of  his 
grace  and  justice,  if  there  were  no  sin  (Kom. 
ix.  'J2,  'Sd).  Sin  is  iierniitted  that  Cod's  jus- 
tice may  be  known  in  its  iiunishinent,  and 
his  mercy  in  its  forgiveness.  Holiness  and 
sin  may  be  nearly  balanced  on  earth  ;  but  in 
the  universe,  sin  is  very  limited  in  compari- 
son with  holiness,  and  the  number  of  lost 
men  and  angels  is  doubtless  small  coiniiared 
with  the  whole  number  of  the  rational  crea- 
tures of  (iod. 

E-vil-mer'o-dach  [in  Ilabylonian,  .li'i?- 
manlnk,  man  of  god  Merodach]. 

Son  and  successor  of  Nebuchadnezzar.  He 
ascended  the  throne  as  early  as  the  seventh 
month  of  r>('>2  K.  c,  and  reigned  only  two 
years.  In  tlie  first  of  these  two  he  took 
Jehoiachin,  the  cajitive  king  of  Judali,  from 
his  prison,  ami  placed  him  above  all  the  other 
rulers  whom  he  had  in  thrall,  giving  him  a 
dailv  allowance  of  food  during  the  remainder 
of  liis  life  (:i  Kin.  xxv.  27-:i() ;  Jer.  Hi.  31-31). 
A  conspiracy  was  formed  against  Evil-mero- 
dach,  his  own  brother-in-law,  Neriglissar  or 
Nergalsliarusur,  being  at  its  head.  The  king 
was  accused  of  lawU'ssness  and  intemperance, 
and  was  put  to  death  in  r>()0  li.  c.  Nerig- 
lis.sar,  the  chief  conspirator,  then  ascended 
the  throne  (Anticj.  x.  11,  2;  contra  Apion. 
i.  2t». 
E'vll  Spir'it.  Sec  Dkmon. 
Ex-e-cu'tion-er.  See  Gtard. 
Ex'ile.  See  C.vptivitv  and  Dispersion. 
Ex'o-dus  fa  going  out.  a  way  out]. 
1.  The  (hparlure  of  the  Israelites  from 
Egypt,  after  they  had  been  divinidy  eman- 
cipated from  bondage  in  that  land.  There  is 
considerable  dilliculty  in  settling  the  exact 
route  of  the  Exodus.  The  miracles  by  the 
hand  of  Moses  were  wrought  at  Zoan,  that  is 
Tanis  (I's.  Ixxviii.  12),  and  Kams<s  was  a 
suburb  of  that  caiutal.  Thence  the  Israelites 
journeyed  to  Succoth  (Ex.  xii.  37),  the  site  of 


which  is  marked  liy  Tell  el-Maskhutah  in 
tlie  wady  Tumilat.  .{2  miles  south-southeast 
of  Tanis  and  11  miles  west  of  Isma'iliya. 
They  did  not  take  the  shortest  route  to  I'al- 
estine,  which  lay  through  the  latid  of  the 
Phili.stine.s.  but  they  went  by  the  way  of  tiie 
wilderness  by  the  Red  .Sea  (  xiii.  17,  l"*i.  Their 
first  encampment  after  leaving  Succoth  was 
Etham.  The  site  has  not  been  identified; 
but  it  was  on  the  edge  of  the  wihlerne.ss 
(20i.  Thence  they  turned  back  and  en- 
cani|ud  before  ri-hahiroth,  between  .Mi^'dol 
and  the  sea,  before  Haal-zejihon  (xiv.  2;  Num. 
xxxiii.  7).  This  camp  has  not  been  deliiiitely 
located.  It  was,  however,  west  of  tlie  Hed 
Sea.  From  this  jilace  they  marched  tlirout'h 
the  Red  Sea  into  the  wilderness  of  Sliur  (Ex. 
XV.  4,  22  ;  Num.  xxxiii.  h),  and  thence  along 
the  coast  of  the  Red  .Sea  toward  mount  Sinai 
(Ex.  xvi.  1  ;  Num.  xxxiii.  10.  1.")).  For  the 
date  of  tlu^  exodus,  see  Cmci).\iii,o(iV. 

2.  The  book  of  Exodus,  the  second  book 
of  the  Pentateuch.  In  the  Hebrew  Scriptures 
the  title  consists  of  the  opening  words,  "  .\nd 
these  the  names."  The  name  Exodus  was 
approjiriately  given  to  the  book  by  the  (Ireek 
translators,  because  it  narrates  the  dejiarture 
from  Egypt  which  was  a  turning  point  in 
Israel's  history. 

The  book  is  a  continuous  narrative,  and 
may  be  divided  into  three  sections:  1.  In 
Egypt  (i.-xii.  3(i).  The  period  of  several  cen- 
turies immediately  following  the  descent  of 
Jacob  into  Egyjit  is  jiassed  over  with  a  single 
remark  about  the  increase  of  the  {iet)ple  after 
the  death  of  Joseph  (i.  7).  Ofipression  of  the 
Israelites  (8  seq.).  Birth,  earlier  life,  and 
call  of  Moses(ii.-iv.).  Strugglewith  I'liaroah 
and  inlliction  of  the  plagues;  in  cuiinection 
with  the  last  plague,  institution  of  the  pass- 
over  (v. -xii.  3H).  2.  From  Egypt  to  Sinai 
(xii.  37-xix.  2).  Dejiarture  from  Ivjim.ses  (xii. 
37-12).  Supj)lementary  regulation  respiH-t- 
ing  the  jiassover,  staling  tlie  condition  ujion 
which  I'oreigneiM  could  partake  of  it  (4.3  51). 
Sanctilication  of  the  firstborn  enjoined  ujion 
Mo.ses  (xiii.  1.  2)  ;  announcement  to  the  peojile 
of  a  seven  days'  festiv;il  to  be  observed  heiice- 
forlli  in  c<iiine(tion  with  the  jiassover.  and 
of  (iod's  conimanil  to  s;inctify  the  lirstborn 
(;}-l(i).  Pa.ssige  of  the  Red  Sea  (xiv.),  song  of 
deliverance  (xv.  l-l!l),  bitter  water  at  Marah, 
manna  and  <iiiails  (211  xvi.).  .\t  R«']ihidim: 
water  from  rock  in  lloreb,  victory  over  .\ma- 
lek,  and  visit  of  Jetliro  (xvii.,  xviii.).  3.  At 
Sinai  (xix.  ;$-xl.  ."{s  and  uninterrujitedly  to 
Num.  X.  10).  Eslabli.shment  <if  (be  theocracy: 
theocr.atic  covenant  projiosed  by  tJod  on  con- 
dition of  obedience  (xix.  .3-ti),  ajiproval  of 
the  terms  by  tli«'  elders  of  the  jieople  (7,  K), 
the  fen  commandnnnls  and  subsidiary  laws 
enact«'d  ami  written  in  the  book  of  the  cove- 
nant, ratification  of  (he  covenant  (xx.-xxiv. 
><);  see  Tiii:o(|{A(\  .  Manifi'station  of  <;od"8 
glory  (!•  11).  .Moses  in  the  mount;  jilan  of 
the  laberna<le  an<l  its  furniture,  tables  of 
stone  (12-xxxi.).      The  golden  calf  (sxxii., 


Exorcist 


214 


Ezekiel 


xxxiii. ).  Moses'  second  sojourn  in  the  mount, 
with  suuimariziug  urgent  repetition  of  cove- 
nant hiws  (xxxiv.).  Con.striictioii  and  erec- 
tion of  tlie  tabernacle  (xxxv.-xl.)-    Hee  Pen- 

TATKLH'II. 

Ex'or-clst  [in  Greek,  administrator  of  an 
oath;  expeller  by  adjuration]. 

One  who  professes  by  using  words  and 
ceremonies  to  eject  evil  spirits,  and  deliver 
from  their  malign  inlhience.  Certain  im- 
postors of  this  sort,  vagabond  Jews,  were  en- 
countered by  Paul  at  Ephesus  (Acts  xix. 
13-19). 

E'zar.     See  Ezkr,  II. 

Ez'bai. 

Father  of  one  of  David's  mighty  men  (1 
Chron.  xi.  37,  possilily  merely  a  variant  read- 
ing of  2  Sam.  xxiii.  35). 

Ez'bon. 

1.  A  son  of  Gad  (Gen.  xlvi.  16).    See  OzNi. 

2.  The  liead  of  a  father's  house,  family  of 
Bela,  tribe  of  Benjamin  (1  Chron.  vii.  7). 

Ez-e-ki'as.     See  Hezekiah. 

E-ze'ki-el  [God  doth  strengthen ;  or,  per- 
haps, God  is  strong] . 

One  of  the  greater  Jewish  prophets,  a  son 
of  Buz),  and  of  priestly  family  (Ezek.  i.  3). 
He  was  carried  captive  from  Judah  with  Je- 
hoiachin,  eight  years  after  Daniel's  deporta- 
tion (xxxiii.  21  ;  xl.  1 ;  cp.  2  Kin.  xxiv.  11- 
16).  Josephus  says  that  he  was  a  youth  at 
the  time  (Antiq.  x.  6,  3).  He  was,  in  fact, 
under  the  age  when  Levites  assumed  their 
duties  and  were  reckoned  in  the  census  as 
men,  but  he  was  not  a  child.  He  lived  with 
the  Jewish  exiles  on  the  river  Chebar  in 
Babylonia,  probably  at  Tel-abib  (Elzek  i.  1,  3  ; 
iii.  15)  ;  had  married  probably  as  early  as  the 
sixth,  at  least  by  the  ninth,  year  of  the  cap- 
tivity, and  had  a  house  (viii.  1  ;  xxiv.  1,  18). 
He  had  grown  up  in  the  home  land  under  the 
ministry  of  the  pro{)liet  Jeremiah.  His  own 
ministry  began  in  the  fifth  year  of  Jehoia- 
chin's  captivity,  seven  years  before  the  de- 
struction of  the  temple  at  Jerusalem,  while 
he  was  dwelling  on  the  Chebar  (i.  1,  2).  He 
was  then  in  his  thirtieth  year  (i.  1),  the  age 
at  which  Levites  entered  upon  service  (Num. 
iv.  3).  The  theory  that  the  thirtieth  year 
does  not  refer  to  ISzekiel's  age,  but  is  a  date 
reckoned  either  from  the  accession  of  Nabo- 
polassar,  Nebuchadnezzar's  father,  or  from 
the  reforms  of  Josiah,  fails  in  view  of  Jer. 
XXV.  1,  3 ;  2  Kin.  xxiii.  36  ;  xxv.  6  ;  Ezek.  i.  2. 
Ezekiel's  proplietic  activity  extended  over  a 
period  of  at  least  twenty-two  years  (i.  2  with 
xxix.  17).  He  uttered  his  iirophecies  with 
freedom,  and  was  resorted  to  for  advice  by 
the  elders  of  the  peoi)le  (viii.  i  ;  xiv.  1  ;  xx.  1), 
though  his  words  wore  not  followed  as  faith- 
fully as  could  have  been  desired  (xxxiii.  30- 
33).  The  time  and  manner  of  his  death  are 
unknown.  The  late  tradition  that  he  was 
slain  by  a  prince  of  the  people  because  he 
denounced  idolatry  is  worthless. 


The  Book  of  the  Prophet  Ezekiel  stands  in 
the  English  Bible  between  Lamentations  and 
Daniel.  As  tlu'se  two  booksare  placed  among 
the  Ilagiographa  in  the  Hebrew  canon,  Eze- 
kiel's i)lace  in  the  Hebrew  Scrijjtures  is  be- 
tween Jeremiah  and  Hosea.  The  prophecies 
are  arranged  marly,  thougli  not  quite,  in 
chronological  order,  and  they  are  dated  ac- 
cording to  the  years  of  Jehoiachin's  captivity 
in  which  they  were  delivered.  The  hook 
falls  into  three  divisions: 

I.  Prophecies  delivered  before  the  capture 
of  Jerusalem,  foretelling  its  overthrow  for 
its  sins.  In  the  fifth  year  the  priest  is  called 
to  the  prophetic  office  and  jjrejiared  for  his 
work  by  a  vision  (i.-iii.  21),  and  then  is  di- 
rected to  i)roi)hesy,  by  symbolical  actions 
and  their  interpretation,  the  destruction  of 
the  city  (iii.  22-vii.).  In  tlie  sixth  year,  are 
denunciations  of  Judah  for  idolatry  (viii.) ; 
symbolical  departure  of  Jehovah  from  the 
temple  because  of  its  profanation  (ix.-xi.  13) ; 
comfort,  the  exiles  are  still  God's  people,  he 
will  be  a  .sanctuary  to  them  (16),  restore  them 
to  the  land  of  Israel  (17),  give  those  that  re- 
form their  lives  a  new  heart  (18-21).  Unbe- 
lief and  adherence  to  false  prophets  are  the 
reasons  for  Jehovah's  forsaking  his  city  (xii.- 
xiv.)  ;  the  event  is  certain  (xv.-xvii.).  but 
the  repentant  shall  enjoy's  God's  favor 
(xviii.).  Lamentation  for  the  princes  of 
Israel  (xix.).  In  the  seventh  year,  it  is  proph- 
esied that,  because  Jehovah's  name  has  been 
profaned  in  the  sight  of  the  heathen,  he  will 
punish  the  peo])lc,  but  will  afterwards  restore 
them  for  his  name's  sake  (xx.  1-44)  ;  the 
doom  is  certain,  the  transgressions  are  come 
to  remembrance  before  God  (xx.  45-xxiii.). 
In  the  ninth  year,  the  siege  of  Jerusalem 
and  the  disiiersion  of  the  people  are  symbol- 
ized by  a  caldron  (xxiv.). 

II.  Prophecies  of  judgment  against  the  na- 
tions: in  the  ninth  year,  against  Ammon, 
Moab,  Edoni,  and  Philistia  (xxv.)  ;  in  the 
eleventh  year,  against  Tyre  and  Sidon  (xxvi.- 
xxviii.)  ;  and  in  the  tenth,  twenty-seventh, 
and  eleventh  years,  against  Egypt  (xxix.- 
xxxii.). 

III.  Prophecies  concerning  the  restoration, 
delivered  after  the  capture  and  destruction 
of  Jerusalem  by  Nebuchadnezzar.  In  the 
twelfth  year,  the  eveniTig  before  the  news 
of  the  fall  of  the  city  reached  the  prophet, 
he  received  a  second  formal  call  to  the  pro- 
jihetic  work  (xxxiii.  1-22).  He  is  further 
taught  that,  after  the  judgment,  the  people 
shall  recognize  that  Jehovah  is  (iod,  and  tliat 
a  true  prophet  has  been  among  them  (23-33) ; 
a  good  she])herd,  even  David,  shall  be  raised 
up  (xxxiv.),  their  ]iresent  foes  jiunished 
(xxxv.),  the  peo])le  sanctilied  and  restored  to 
their  land  (xxxvi.),  revived  as  from  the  dead, 
their  twelve  tribes  re-united  (xxxvii.),  and 
their  foes  finally  overthrown  (xxxviii.- 
xxxix.).  In  the  twenty-lifth  year,  the  rees- 
tablishment  of  God's  church  is  disclosed, 
being   symbolically  exhibited  in  the  vision 


Ezel 


215 


Ezra 


of  the  temple  enlarged  and  holy  throughout 
(xl.-xliii.),  its  holy  services  (xliv.-xlvi.),  the 
river  of  life  issuing  from  it  and  making 
the  desi-rt  to  rejuice  (xlvii.),  and  the  distrilui- 
tion  of  the  huid  anions;  the  trilns  (xlviii.). 
Tiiere  are  un  direct  quotations  from  Ezekiel 
in  tlie  N.  T.,  l)ut  tlie  imagery  seen  in  his 
visions  affects  the  language  of  the  book  of 
Ivevelation. 

E'zel  [separation,  departure]. 

The  place  where  David  hid  until  Jonathan 
could  inform  liim  of  Saul's  disposition  toward 
him  (I  Sam.  xx.  19). 

E'zem,  in  A.  V.  twice  Azem  [a  bone]. 

A  village  near  the  border  of  Edom  in  that 
part  of  tlie  territory  allotted  to  the  tribe  of 
Judah,  which  was  afterwards  assigned  to 
SiuK-on  (.Josh.  xv.  2i) ;  xix.  3  ;  1  Chron.  iv.  29). 
Exact  site  unknown. 

E'zer,  I.,  in  A.  V.  once  Ezar,  an  error  not 
found  in  the  original  etlition  of  Kill  [enclo- 
sure, treasure]. 

A  Ilorite  tribeand  itschicftain  (Gen.  xxxvi. 
21,  .'50;  1  Chron.  i.  3^). 

E'zer,  II.  [help]. 

1.  A  descendant,  probably  son.  of  Ephraim. 
killed  in  a  raid  against  the  Philistines  (1 
Chron.  vii.  21). 

2.  A  man  of  Judah,  descended  from  Hur 
(1  Chron.  iv.  4). 

3.  A  (ladite  who  joined  David  at  Ziklag 
(1  Chron.  xii.  9). 

•I.  A  son  of  Jeshua.  He  was  ruler  of  IMiz- 
l)ali,  and  rei)aired  part  of  the  wall  of  Jerusa- 
lem (Neb.  ill.  19). 

5.  A  iM-icst  who  took  ])art  in  the  ceremony 
at  the  dedication  of  the  rebuilt  wall  of  Jeru- 
siilem  (xii.  \'i). 

E'zi-on-ge'ber,  in  A.  V.  often  Ezion-gaber 
[backbone  of  a  man]. 

\  town  on  the  Ked  Sea,  at  the  northern 
end  t>f  the  gulf  of  .\kaba,  near  Elath,  on  the 
confines  of  liilom  (Deut.  ii.  8  ;  1  Kin.  ix.  2(! ; 
xxii.  48  ;  2  Chron.  viii.  17).  Tlie  Israelites 
encamped  by  tlie  town  as  they  journeyed  in 
the  wilderness  (Num.  xxxiii.  3.">).  As  Hobin- 
son  suggested,  the  name  may  linger  in  el- 
Ghudyan,a  small  valley  with  brackish  water 
opening  into  the  Arabali  from  the  western 
mountain  some  distance  north  of  the  fortress 
of  'A^aba,  the  apjiroximate  site  of  ancient 
Elath.  Tlie  resjx'ctive  letters  correspond  in 
Hebrew  and  Arabic. 

Ez'nite.     See  .\niNo. 

Ez'ra,  in  K.  V.  once  Ezrah  (1  Chron.  iv. 
17),  the  pure  Hebrew  orthography  [bel|i]- 

1.  A  man  who  is  registered  with  .ludah  (1 
Chron.  iv.  17). 

2.  One  of  the  chief  priests  wIk)  returned 
fnmi  I'.abyloM  witli  Zeriibbabel  (Neli.  xii.  1, 
7).  A  father's  house  bore  his  name  in  the 
next  generation  (ver.  13). 

3.  A  priest  descended  from  Zadok  and  from 
Phinehas  (Ezra  vii.  1-6).  lie  was  a  ready 
scribe  in  the  law  of  Moses,  making  the  writ- 


ten law,  which  was  in  his  hand  (14),  the  sub- 
ject of  study  and  teaching  (10,  11).  In  the 
seventh  year  of  .\rtaxerxes  Longimauus,  king 
of  I'lTsia  from  l(i.">  to  42")  h.  c,  lie  was  com- 
missioned by  tlie  king  to  go  to  Jeru.siilem  to 
in(|uire  into  the  civil  and  religious  condition 
of  the  Jewish  community  and  conform  it  to 
the  teaching  oftJod's  law(14i.  He  was  given 
orders  on  the  authorities  in  the  province 
I'eyond-tbe-river  for  money  and  goods  for 
the  temiile  and  for  the  exemption  of  the 
temjde  ollicials  from  taxation  (21,  24).  He 
was  permitted  to  lead  a  fresh  comjiauy  of 
Jewish  exiles  to  Talestine,  in  addition  to 
those  who  had  accom|ianied  Zerubbabel  and 
the  high  jiriest,  Jeshua,  nearly  eighty  years 
before.  In  the  seventh  year  of  .\rtaxerxes' 
reign,  4r)9-4o8  B.  c,  on  the  first  day  of  the  first 
nioiilli,  Nisan  (approximately  March),  he  be- 
gan bis  journey,  accomi)anied  by  IHIMJ  exiles 
(vii.  9).  On  reviewing  his  followers  at  .\hava, 
he  found  a  total  absence  of  Levites.  but  on 
sending  back  for  some,  a  few  were  persuaded 
to  accompany  him  to  Palestine.  After  fast- 
ing at  Ahava,  he  again  set  out,  reaching  Je- 
rusalem on  the  first  of  the  fifth  month,  four 
montbs  after  the  dejjarture  from  Babylon 
(viii.  l.')-32).  On  hisarrival,  he  gave  over  the 
vessels  he  had  received  for  the  temple,  olfered 
sacrifice.  an<l  i>resented  the  king's  orders  to 
the  neighboring  governors  (viii.  3.'5-.3()).  He 
was  grieved  to  discover  that  Jews  of  Palestine 
bad  married  heathen  wives,  even  some  of 
the  priests  having  done  so;  but  he  took  de- 
cisive measures  to  eomjiel  them  to  observe 
the  Mo.'^iic  law  on  the  subject,  and  induced 
many  to  divorce  their  foreign  wives  (ix.,  x.). 
^Ve  know  iiotbiiig  of  his  movements  for  the 
next  thirteen  years,  .\fter  Nehemiah  had 
come  to  Jerusalem,  ami  repaired  its  walls  in 
the  twentieth  year  of  Artaxerxes,  E.zra  took 
the  leading  jiart  in  reading  the  law  of  Moses 
to  the  colony  (Neb.  viii.).  l^/.ni  marks  ibe 
transition  from  the  jirophets  to  the  .scribes. 
For  his  relation  to  the  law  and  to  the  O.  T. 
books,  see  Canon.  .losephus  states  that  Ezra 
died  about  file  time  of  the  succession  of  Elia- 
sbib  to  the  highiiriestbooil  (.Vntiti.  xi.  .">,  ,">).  He 
was  certainly  for  a  while  contemporary  with 
Eliashib  (Neh.  iii.  1  ;  viii.  9). 

The  l)ook  of  Ezra  consists  of  two  parts: 
1.  ,V  naiiative  of  the  return  of  the  .Iiws 
from  Babylonia  under  Zerubbabel  in  the  year 
538  n.  <.'.,  the  restonilion  of  divine  .service, 
and  the  erection  of  the  temjde  in  the  face  t>f 
Samaritan  opi)osition  (i.-vi.).  2.  .\n  account 
of  the  return  of  a  .second  Ixidy  of  exiles 
under  Ezni  in  the  year4."i9  4.'i8,  and  of  Ezr.i's 
energetic  and  suci'essful  measures  to  jmt  a 
stop  to  tlie  marriage  of  Israelites  with  for- 
eigners (vii.  X.).  Till'  book  is  largely  <om- 
posed  of  copies  of  public  records  ami  otlicial 
documents.  The  provincial  tlocuments  and 
history  are  writtiu  in  .Vnimaic  (iv.  H-vi.  18; 
vii.  12-2(i) ;  namely,  copies  of  tlie  letters  sent 
to  the  Persian  kings  by  ollicials  of  the  prov- 
ince Bevond-the-river  (iv.  8-lli;  v.  7-17;  vi. 


Ezra 


216 


Faith 


6-12),  the  royal  replies  and  decrees  imposing 
commands  on  these  officials  (iv.  17-22 ;  vi. 
3-5;  and  vii.  12-2G,  cp.  21,  21),  and  the  brief 
conncctinfj  history  referring  primarily  to  pro- 
vincial adaics  (iv.  23-v.  5;  vi.  1,  2,  1.3-18). 
Aramaic  had  l)cen  for  several  centuries  the 
language  of  international  commerce  and  di- 
plomacy. Tlu'  remainder  of  the  hook  records 
the  proper  domestic  history  of  Judah,  and  is 
written  in  Hebrew.  It  includes  the  royal  edict 
issued  in  behalf  of  the  Jews  (i.  2-4),  copies 
of  .lewish  archives  {ii.  1-67;  viii. ;  x.  18-44), 
and  the  connecting  history.  It  has  been  sup- 
l)o.sed  that  the  Aramaic  narrative  was  writ- 
ten by  a  contemporary  of  Zerubbabel  and 
eyewitness  of  the  events  described  (cp.  v.  4, 
where  the  pronoun  we  is  used)  ;  but,  since 
documents  of  the  time  of  Artaxerses  are  in- 
serted (iv.  i»  IG;  17-22),  the  written  narrative 
cannot  date  earlier  than  Ezra's  time,  and  the 
pronoun  we  was  em])loyed  in  speaking  of  a 
past  generation  because  the  writer  felt  his  i 
identity  with  the  Jewish  people,  past  and  i 
present,  as  in  ix.  6-15  and  Neh.  ix.  29,  33. 
Some  would  date  the  narrative  even  later ; 
but  see  below. 

At  least  a  section  of  the  book  was  written 
bj"  Ezra,  beginning  with  vii.  27,  for  it  is  ex- 
pressed in  the  tirst  person.  Ezra,  therefore, 
wrote  history,  and  he  may  have  compiled  the 
book  which  bears  his  name,  for  the  narrative 
closes  during  his  lifetime.  But  why,  it  may 
be  asked,  if  Ezra  compiled  the  book  which 
bears  his  name,  are  two  passages  in  which 
Ezra  is  prominent,  namely  the  ten  opening 
verses  of  chapter  vii.  and  the  last  chapter  of 
the  book,  which  is  inseparable  from  the  pre- 
ceding ninth  chapter,  not  expressed  in  the 
fir.st  person  ?  The  ten  introductory  verses 
are  primarily  genealogical.  The  use  of  the 
third  person  is  uatural.  As  the  introduction 
was  begun  in  the  third  person,  it  is  with 
propriety  concluded  in  the  tliird  person. 
Parallel  changes  of  person  occur  in  the  book 
of  Daniel,  which  is  regarded  as  the  work  of 
one  author.  As  to  the  last  chapter  of  the 
book,  it  would  seem  that  Ezra's  record  stop- 
ped at  the  ninth  chapter  and  the  narrative 
was  concluded  by  another  person,  though  not 
unlikely  he  was  a  contem})orary  of  Ezra  and 
acted  under  Ezra's  authority,  and  was  the 
scribe  who  drew  up  the  protocol  of  the  pro- 
ceediugs  and  wrote  down  the  official  list  of 
the  men  who  gave  i)ledge  (x.  18-44). 

Some  have  supposed  that  those  sections  in 
which  th(^  pronoun  I  is  not  used  were  in- 
serted in  Ezra's  narrative  by  another  editor, 
whose  hand  is  thought  to  be  discernible  in 
Nehcmiah  and  Chronicles  also,  and  many 
modern  critics  place  the  date  of  the  sup- 
posititious editor  after  330  b.  c.  The  argu- 
ment rests  ultimately  upon  the  fact  that  the 
books  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah  were  reckoned 
as  one  book  in  the  Hebrew  canon,  and  upon 
the  belief  that  the  genealogies  in  the  book 
of  Nehemiah  are  carried  down  until  the  time 
of  Alexander  the  Great ;  hence  Ezra  and  Ne- 


hemiah must  have  been  edited  in  the  Grecian 

period.  Now  it  is  a  credible,  but  not  a  neces- 
sary, su])position  that  the  books  of  Ezra  and 
Nehemiah  were  combiued  and  BUj)plemented 
by  an  editor.  But  ai)art  from  the  possible 
implication  of  the  genealogies  (see  Nehj:- 
MIAH),  there  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  this 
hypothetical  editor  belonged  to  a  younger 
generation  tluiu  K/.ra  and  Nehemiah.  His 
suj)posed  additions  concern  events  in  which 
Ezra  and  Nehemiah  were  participants,  and 
the  history  is  related  as  by  an  ej'cwitness  (cp. 
above  and  see  Nehemi.vh).  And  assuming 
that  the  books  were  not  edited,  and  are  en- 
tirely distinct  from  each  other  in  authorship 
throughout,  as  they  are  confessedly  in  large 
part,  there  was  reason  for  reckoning  them  as 
one.  This  reason  is  scarcely  found  in  the 
purpose  to  conform  the  number  of  books  to 
the  number  of  letters  in  the  Hebrew  alpha- 
bet, twenty-two,  or,  by  peculiar  comi)Utation, 
twenty-four;  but  the  reason  is  found  rather 
in  the  fact  that  the  books  of  Ezra  and  Nehe- 
miah form  a  continuous  narrative  of  post- 
exilic  Jewish  history,  and  are  concerned  with 
the  interrelated  work  of  the  contemporary 
rulers  of  the  comniunitj',  Ezi-a  the  priest  and 
Nehemiah  the  civil  governor.  The  two  books 
were  known  to  be  of  diverse  authorship  (Neh. 
i.  1),  but  were  reckoned  as  one,  just  as  the 
twelve  minor  prophets  were  counted  as  one 
book,  although  it  was  recognized  that  the 
twelve  writings  were  by  twelve  different 
prophets. 

Ez'rah.    See  Ezra  1. 

Ez'ra-hite  [alternate  form  of  Zarhite]. 

A  descendant  of  Zerah,  belonging  to  the 
tribe  of  Judah.  as  Ethan  (1  Kin.  iv.  31 ;  Ps. 
Ixxxix.,  title ;  cp.  1  Chron.  ii.  6)  and  Heman 
(Ps.  Ixxxviii.,  title  :  cp.  1  Chron.  ii.  6). 

Ez'ri  [probably,  (God  is)  a  help]. 

Overseer  of  the  laborers  who  tilled  David's 
fields  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  26). 


F. 


Fair  Ha'vens. 

A  harbor  in  Crete,  near  the  city  of  Lasea, 
where  Paul's  ship  touched  (Acts  xxvii.  8). 
Mr.  Smith  of  Jordanhill  located  it  about  5 
miles  east  of  Cape  Matala,  a  jiromontory  on 
the  southern  shore  of  Candia,  just  west  of 
which  the  coastline  turns  northward. 

Faith. 

As  fiir  as  a  difference  exists  between  belief 
and  faith,  belief  is  assent  to  testimony,  and 
faith  is  assent  to  testimony,  united  with  trust. 
Faith  is  an  active  inincijile ;  it  is  an  act  both 
of  the  understanding  and  the  will.  The  di.s- 
tinction  between  belief  and  faitli  is  that  be- 
tween "  believe  me  "and  "believe  on  me." 
The  verb  lielieve  thus  does  service  for  the 
two  nouns  faith  and  belief.  In  the  Bible 
faith  or  belief  is  confidence  in  the  absolute 


Falcon 


217 


Fan 


trutlifuliu'ss  of  every  statement  which  cotiics 
from  (lod  ((Jen.  xv.  (J;  Dent.  xxxii.L'O;  Mark 
xi.  •-'•J;  Kom.  iv.  3-;")).  In  this  faitli  the  hemes 
of  Scripture  acted  (llel).  xi.).  In  a  sjiecial 
sense,  faith  is  reliance  on  God's  testimony 
refiardiiij;  tlie  mission  and  atonin>.'  deatli  of 
his  Sou,  the  Lord  Jesus  t'iirist  (.lolin  v.  •_*!), 
and  on  the  testimony  of  Jesus  regarding 
himself  (cj>.  John  iii.  18 ;  Acts  iii.  KJ  ;  xx.  'Jl  ; 
Kom.  iii.  ~.")).  Faith  in  the  Redeemer,  where- 
by a  sinner  rests  ui)on  him  alone  for  .salva- 
tion, is  essential  to  salvation  (John  iii.  15,  UJ, 
IS;  Eph.  ii.  s,  et(;.).  Belief  in  his  historical 
existence  and  in  the  truth  of  his  claims  may 
be  produced  by  evidence,  but  faith  in  him,  re- 
liance uj)on  liim  for  salvation,  cannot  be.  It 
is  the  gift  of  (iod  {ll\)h.  ii.  S)  ;  the  Sjiirit  ap- 
plies the  truth  to  the  .soul.  Human  means 
should  be  used,  in  coiijieration  with  his 
Sjiirit,  for  its  production  (Kom.  x.  17).  It 
may  exist  in  larger  or  in  smaller  measure 
(Kom.  iv.  1!),  iiO;  xiv.  1).  The  apostles  when 
they  deplored  the  weakness  of  their  faith 
prayed  to  Jesus  for  its  increase  (Luke  xvii. 
'■>).  It  works  by  love  (Gal.  v.  (j),  and  over- 
comes the  world  (1  John  v.  1).  But  with  all 
its  imjxirtance  it  is  not  the  greatest  of  the 
three  jirimary  Christian  graces,  that  position 
being  occui)ied  by  bivi-  (1  Cor.  xiii.  l.'j). 

The  system  of  doctrine  given  by  revela- 
tion of  God  is  termed  the  faith  (Acts  vi.  7  ; 
xxiv.  24  ;  Rom.  i.  5,  etc.). 

Fal'con. 

.\  diurnal  bird  of  prey  other  than  a  vul- 
ture. The  family  includes  among  its  genera 
falcons  strictly  socalled,  hawks,  kites,  eagles. 
The  word  is  used  in  K.  V.  to  render  the  He- 
brew 'Ayynh  (.lob  xxviii.  7;  in  A.  V.  vul- 
ture), an  unclean  bird  (Lev.  xi.  14;  Dent, 
xiv.  13;  in  A.  V.  kite).  Several  varieties  are 
nientii)ni'd  by  Tristram  as  occurring  in  Pales- 
tine: the  hobby  hawk  (Falco  subbuteu).  the 
red-legged  hobby  (F.  vespertinus),  the  Elea- 
nora  falcon  (/•'.  elennurw). 

Fal'low  Deer  [deer  of  fallow  or  yellowish 
hue]. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Yahmnr  in 
A.  V.  of  Deut.  xiv.  "> ;  1  Kin.  iv.  23.  K.  V. 
has  roebuck  (tj.  v.).  The  genuine  fallow  deer 
(Ihima  nilijdiis)  has  horns,  with  their  upjier 
jiart  palmated.  The  hair  in  summer  is  yel- 
lowish-brown all  over,  with  spots  ;  in  winter 
the  tints  are  less  bright.  The  male  is  about 
three  feet  high  at  the  shoulder.  Its  native 
country  seems  to  be  the  .Mediterranean  region. 
It  occurs  sparingly  in  Cialilee  and  mount 
Lebanon. 

Fa-miriar  Splr'it. 

The  sjiirit  of  a  dead  person  which  profes.se(l 
mediums  claimed  to  summon  to  consultation 
(Deut.  xviii.  11),  and  which  apjieared  to  speak 
from  the  earth  (Is.  xxix.  4),  or  to  dwell  in 
the  controlling  medium  (Lev.  xx.  27,  in  He- 
brew). The  medium  was  called  the  possc-^sor 
or  lord  of  a  sjiirit   (1  Sam.  xxviii.  7,  in  He- 


brew. It  revealed  the  future  (Is.  viii.  I'l). 
It  was  either  a  sjiecial  spirit  wiiich  was  be- 
lieved to  always  respond  to  the  summons  of 
the  medium,  as  the  English  rendering  would 
lead  one  to  suppose,  and  who  miglit  raise 
other  ghosts ;  or  it  was  any  spirit  whom  the 
medium  desire<l.  1  Sam.  xxviii.  H  is  capable 
of  either  interpretation,  "Divine  l)y  the 
ghost  "  in  you  or  '■  whom  I  shall  name."  To 
consult  familiar  sjiirits  was  aposla.sy  from 
Jehovah  (Lev.  xix.  31  ;  Is.  viii.  I'.M.  Under 
the  Mosaic  law  a  iper>on  pretending  to  po.sse.ss 
the  |)ower  of  consulting  a  familiar  sjiirit  was 
to  be  put  to  death  (Lev.  xix.  31  ;  xx.  fi,  27; 
Deut.  xviii.  11).  Saul  carriid  out  this  enact- 
ment, but  when  sorely  troubled  about  his 
fate,  he  sought  out  a  woman  of  Endor  who 
had  a  familiar  sjiirit,  asked  her  to  bring  iiack 
Samuel  to  the  world,  and  believed  her  state- 
ment that  she  had  siu-ceeded  (1  .Sam.  xxviii. 
3,  5-25).  Manasseli  favored  them  that  pro- 
fes.sed  to  have  familiar  sjiirits  (2  Kin.  xxi.  (!; 
2  Chron.  x.xxiii.  (!).  His  grandson  Josiah 
carried  out  the  Mosaic  !aw  against  them  (2 
Kin.  xxiii.24l.  They  jmibably  included  ven- 
trilo(|uists,  and  the  voice  of  the  sjiirit,  which 
apjieared  to  come  in  a  wliisjier  from  the 
ground, emanated  from  the  human  jiretender 
himself. 

Fam'ine. 

Delicieiicy  of  food,  generally  prod\iced 
eitbt  r  by  failure  of  rain  leading  to  the  with- 
ering of  the  crojis.  or  by  the-jireventifin  of 
the  entrance  of  food  into  a  beleaguered  city. 
In  Palestine  and  other  countries  when-  a 
rainy  season  alternates  with  a  dry,  the  only 
sure  jireventive  of  famine  is  to  imjiound  the 
water  when  there  is  an  over-snjijily,  and  use 
it  for  irrigation  when  the  drought  sets  in. 
Famine  compelled  Aliraham  to  leave  C'an:ian 
and  sojourn  in  ICgyj't  [(ivw.  xii.  l(t>.  It  was 
the  first  of  a  series  of  famines  connected 
with  the  history  of  the  jiatri;irch  and  his  de- 
scendants, and  which  led  the  Hebrews  to 
temjiorarily  withdraw  from  Palestine  (xxvi. 
i.  ;  xli.  27  5(1;  xlvii.  13).  (  M  her  famines  oc- 
curred in  the  days  of  the  jtnlges  which  made 
Elimelech  remove  to  Moab  (Ruth  i.  1),  in 
Davids  reign  (2  Sam.  xxi.  1),  in  the  time  of 
Elijah  (1  Kin.  xvii.  1-xviii.  4(;),  in  Elisha's 
time  (2  Kin.  iv.  :>;  viii.  1).  and  in  the  reign 
of  Claudius  (Acts  xi.  2S).  The  chief  famines 
produced  in  besieged  cities  by  tiie  foe  out.sido 
jireventing  jirovisions  from  entering  are  those 
during  the  siege  of  Samaria  by  Benhadad  (2 
Kin.  vi.  24-vii.  2t)i  and  during  the  sieges  of 
Jerusalem  by  Nebuchadne/ZJir  (xxv.  1-3; 
Jer.  Iii.  1-6)  and  by  Titus. 

Fan. 

The  winnowing-fan.  iti  Hebrew  Mi:rfh, 
.still  calletl  viiilhni  by  the  A  nibs,  was  a  fork 
with  six  jirongs  witli  whi<h  grain,  after  it 
had  been  tbre>hed,  was  throwti  uji  again-^t 
the  air  to  clear  it  of  the  clialf  (Is.  xxx.2J; 
Jer.  XV.  7>.  A  shovel  was  al.so  used  for  the 
same  purpose.     Sec  TllKESiiiNO. 


Farthing 


218 


Feast 


Far'tMng. 

1.  A  Ivoiiian  QnadniHs.  a.  small  brass  coin 
eiiiiiil  to  tlio  fourth  part  of  an  as.  Tlii'  (hToks 
used  the  Ivonuin  name,  tailing  the  coin 
kodratiies.  In  the  time  of  Christ  its  value 
■was  about  one-half  of  an  English  farthing,  or 
one-quarter  of  a  cent  (Mat.  v.  26 ;  Mark  xii. 
42). 

2.  An  A.ssariou,  diminutive  of  the  Latin  as, 
a  copper  coin  equal  to  about  one  cent  (Mat. 
X.  2'J). 

Fast. 

Abstinence  from  food,  or  the  period  during 
■which  it  takes  place. 

1.  Liroluntanj,  arising  from  the  fact  that 
nothing  to  eat  is  i)rocurable.  Of  this  type 
^vere  aiiparently  the  forty  days"  fast  of  Moses 
on  mount  Sinai  ( Kx.  xxxiv.  28;  Dent.  ix.  9), 
of  Elijah  on  his  journey  to  Horeb  (1  Kin. 
xix.  8),  and  of  our  Lord  during  his  tempta- 
tion in  the  wilderness  (Mat.  iv.2;  Mark  1.13; 
Luke  iv.  2)  ;  also  of  Paul  (2  Cor.  vi.  5). 

2.  Voluntary,  from  religious  motives.  In 
this  sense  it  is  often  used  regarding  pre- 
scribed periods  of  abstinence.  There  do  not 
appear  to  be  any  injunctions  regarding  fast- 
ing in  the  Mosaic  law,  and  neither  the  verb 
"to  fast,"  nor  the  nouns  ''fast"  and  "fast- 
ing," occur  in  the  Pentateuch.  If  fasts  are 
prescribed  at  all,  it  is  in  the  ambiguous  lan- 
guage '"Ye  shall  afflict  your  souls"  (Lev. 
xvi.  29;  xxiii.  27  ;  Num.  xxix.  7).  The  first 
mention  of  voluntary  fasting  is  in  connec- 
tion with  king  David,  who  refused  food  when 
he  supplicated  God  for  the  life  of  the  child 
borne  to  him  in  sin  by  the  wife  of  Uriah  (2 
Sam.  xii.  22).  Many  instances  of  the  .same 
unprescribed  fasting  are  found  in  the  later 
hooks  of  the  O.  T.  (Ezra  viii.  21  ;  Neh.  ix.  1 ; 
Esth.  iv.  3  :  Ps.  xxxv.  13  ;  Ixix.  10  ;  cix.  24  ; 
Dan.  vi.  18;  ix.  3).  Sometimes  fasts  were 
proclaimed  at  periods  of  calamity  ( Jer.  xxxvi. 
9  ;  Joel  i.  14),  the  object  being  to  chasten  the 
soul  (Ps.  xxxv.  13;  Ixix.  10)  and  make  the 
voice  heard  in  heaven  (Is.  Iviii.  3,  4).  The 
public  fast  signified  that  a  load  of  guilt  was 
resting  on  the  people,  for  which  they  hum- 
bli'd  themselves  before  God  (1  Sam.  vii.  fi  ;  1 
Kin.  xxi.  9,  12).  True  fasting  must  not  be 
confined  to  externals,  but  involves  abstinence 
from  iniiiuity  and  illicit  pleasures  (Is.  Iviii.). 
In  Zechariah's  days  there  were  stated  fasts 
in  the  foui'th,  fifth,  seventh,  and  tenth  months 
(Zccli.  viii.  191.  to  commemorate  the  com- 
mencement of  the  siege  of  Jerusalem  in  the 
tenth  month  (2  Kin.  xxv.  1),  its  capture  in 
the  fourth  month  (3;  Jer.  lii.  6,  7).  the  de- 
struction of  the  temi>le  in  the  fifth  month 
(2  Kin.  xxv.  8,  9),  and  the  nuirder  of  (icda- 
liah  and  the  Jews  that  were  with  him  in 
the  seventh  mojith  (25).  Anna  served  God 
with  fasting  (Luke  ii.  37).  The  Pharisee  did 
so  twice  in  the  week  (Luke  xviii.  12).  When 
in  the  time  of  Jesus  the  religious  formalists 
fasted,  they  sought  to  make  known  the  fact 
Toy  ostentatiously  putting  on  a  sad  counte- 


nance.    This  practice  was  denounced  in  the 

Sermon  on  the  Mount  (Mat.  vi.  Ki.  17).  The 
disciples  of  Julin  the  Hajitist  fasted  ;  those  of 
our  Lord  did  not,  at  least  while  he  was 
among  them  (Mat.  ix.  14.  15;  Mark  ii,  18, 
19;  Luke  v.  33-35),  but  afterwards  in  cer- 
tain circumstances  they  did  so  (Acts  xiii.  3; 
xiv.  23). 

There  are  no  injunctions  laid  upon  Chris- 
tians to  fast ;  and  the  revisers,  on  the  ground 
of  textual  criticism,  have  removed  the  word 
from  Mat.  xvii.  21  ;  Mark  ix.  29:  Acts  x.  30; 
1  Cor.  vii.  5. 

Fat.      ^ 

1.  Abel  oflfered  the  fat  of  the  firstlings  of 
his  flock  to  Jehovah  (Gen.  iv.  4;  cp.  Num. 
xviii.  17).  The  principle  was  laid  down  in 
the  Mosaic  law  that  to  the  Lord  belongs  all 
the  fat  of  sacrificial  animals  (Lev.  iii.  16; 
vii.  23,  25).  Neither  it  nor  the  blood  was 
eaten  (iii.  17),  but  was  burned  as  an  oftering  to 
Jehovah  (Ex.  xxix.  13.  22:  Lev.  iii.  3;  iv.  8, 
9).  In  view  of  the  settlement  in  Canaan 
and  the  remoteness  of  the  majority  of  the 
people  from  the  altar,  this  ])rovisiou  was  ap- 
parently abolished  with  res])ect  to  animals 
slain  solely  for  food  (Deut.  xii.  15, 16  ;  21-24), 
the  animals  of  the  flock  and  herd  being  eaten 
as  were  non-sacrificial  animals. 

2.  A  vat  (Joel  ii.  24).  It  occurs  in  compo- 
sition in  the  word  winefat  (Is.  Ixiii.  2). 

Fa'ther. 

1.  The  immediate  progenitor  of  a  person 
(Gen.  xlii.  13),  or  grandfather  (xxviii.  13),  or 
more  remote  ancestor  (xvii.  4).  See  Parents. 

2.  The  founder  of  a  trade  (Gen.  iv.  20)  or  of 
anything.  The  ancestor  or  head,  or  one  of 
the  heads,  of  the  inhabitants  of  a  town  (1 
Chron.  ii.  51 ;  iv.  14,  18). 

3.  One  who  acts  toward  another  with  pater- 
nal kindness  and  wisdom  (Gen.  xlv.  8 ,  Judg. 
xvii.  10;  xviii.  19).  A  title  of  respect  and 
honor  bestowed  upon  an  authorized  teacher, 
especially  when  aged  (1  Sam.  x.  12;  2  Kin. 
ii.  12),  and  upon  royal  ad\isers  and  prime 
ministers  (Gen.  xlv.  8). 

4.  God,  either  as  the  Creator  of  the  human 
race  (Mai.  ii.  10 ;  Antiq.  iv.  8,  24 ;  cp.  Acts 
xvii.  28),  or  as  the  begetter  and  loving  guard- 
ian of  his  spiritual  children  (Kom.  viii.  15; 
Gal.  iv.  6),  or  as  standing  in  a  more  myste- 
rious relation  to  Jesus  (Mat.  xi.  26 ;  Mark 
xiv.  36;  Luke  xxii.  42).     See  God. 

Fath'om. 

A  measure  nuich  used  in  reckoning  dei)th 
of  water  (Acts  xxvii.  28).  It  is  the  render- 
ing of  the  Greek  Orfiido.  which  denotes  the 
length  of  the  outstretched  arms,  and  was 
estimati'd  at  4  cubits  or  24  palms  (Herod,  ii. 
149).     The  English  fathom  is  6  feet. 

Feast. 

1.  A  sunii)tuous  nu'al  attended  by  mirth 
and  joyfulness  (Dan.  v.  1). 

2.  A  time  set  a])art  by  the  canons  of  some 
religions  for  sacred  joy.  Besides  the  ap- 
pointed seasons,  called  feasts  or  set  feasts  in 


Felix 


219 


Felix 


tho  Kiijilisli  versions  (I.cv.  xxiii.  2.  R.  V. 
niarjiiii),  wliii-li  iiu-lii(lc(l  tlii'  Avcckly  Sah- 
hatli.  tlu'  memorial  of  triimi)et-l)lo\viii<;  on 
the  fii-st  (lay  of  the  si'venth  montii,  ami  the 
day  of  atonement  Ci,  24,  27),  the  Mosaic  law- 
enjoined  three  annual  celelirations  e.\i)ressly 
called  feasts  <ir  rather  festivals.  They  were 
the  i)assover  on  the  eveniuj;  of  the  fourteenth 
day  of  the  first  month,  with  the  aeeomjtany- 
in;;  least  of  unleavened  hread  eommeneinf; 
on  the  fifteenth  and  lastinj;  .seven  days  (.VS) ; 
the  feast  of  weeks,  called  also  feast  of  har- 
vest and  day  of  tirst  fruits  (E.\.  x.xiii.  Kj ; 
xxxiv.  22  ;  Num.  xxviii.  2(j),  and  in  later 
times,  hecause  celehrated  on  the  tiftieth  day 
after  the  jiassover.  I'entecost  (Acts  ii.  1)  ;  and 
the  feast  of  tabernacles  or  in>i:ithering,  which 
commenced  (jii  the  fifteen  th  day  of  the  seventh 
month  and  continued  for  seven  or  eifrlit  days 
(Lev.  xxiii.  .'51—141.  These  three  annual  fes- 
tivals were  deemed  so  imi)ortant,  that  when 
they  came  every  adult  male  not  inca])acitated 
by  disease  or  intirniity  was  reijuired  to  ap- 
]iear  before  the  Lord  at  the  sanctuary  (Ex. 
xxiii.  17 ;  Dent.  xvi.  16).  For  further  de- 
scription  of  these  feasts,  .see  the  ajipropriate 
articles.  As  Jesus  desired  to  fnUill  all  right- 
eousness.  it  may  be  assumed  that  he  was  cus- 
tomarily jiresent  at  .lenisalem  three  limes  a 
Year,  on  occasion  of  the  three  festivals  (,Iohn 
"ii.  2:J;  vii.  2-:J7,  etc. ;  Mat.  xxvi.  17;  Mark 
xiv.  12;  Luke  xxii.  8;  John  xiii.  1).  In  ad- 
dition to  the  festivals  ))rescril)ed  by  the  law. 
a  lestival  calh'd  rurini  was  institiitcil  to  com- 
memorate annually,  on  the  fourteenth  and 
fifteenth  of  Adar,  the  didiveraiice  of  the  Jews 
from  the  plot  of  llaman  (Esth.  Ix.  21-28). 
Later  still  the  festival  of  de(li(ati<iii  was  ap- 
jjointed,  which  was  instiluted  i)y  .ludas  Mac- 
eabanis,  to  be  celebrated  annually  for  eijiht 
days,  from  the  twenty-fifth  day  of  t'hislev, 
in  commemoration  of  the  rededication  of  the 
temph-  after  its  ixiUution  by  the  a.irents  of 
Antiochiis  E,]iiiihaiies  (1  Mac.  iv.  41-.")!l;  .lohii 
X.  22).  'J'he  Lord's  Su])])er,  instituted  by 
Christ,  or  more  broadly  the  Christian's  life 
of  faith,  is  also  a  feast  (1  Cor.  v.  y). 

Fe'lix  [happy! . 

A  freedmaii  of  the  emjieror  Claudius,  who 
wasapi)oiiited  i)rocuratorof  Jiuhva.  The  date 
of  his  ap|>oiiitment  to  ollice  in  I'alestine  is 
disjiuted.  Cumanus  succeeded  the  ])rocura- 
tor  Tiberius  Alexander  in  .\.  i).  4h  (Anti(|.  xx. 
5,  2).  Accordiii.L;  to  Tacitus,  Cumanus  j^ov- 
eriied  (lalilee,  and  Kelix  ruled  i>art  of  Sa- 
maria until,  on  the  deposition  of  Cumanus, 
he  was  a])])ointeil  i>rocurator  of  the  whole 
jirovince  l»y  tiuadratus,  jfovernor  of  .Syria, 
.'oseidius,  who  was  a  boy  in  Jerusalem  in 
.\.  I).  4.">.  antl  became  historian  of  the  .lews, 
r(>|U-esents  Cumanus  as  jirocurator  of  .Juda-ii, 
and  stall's  that  Ftdix  was  sent  as  successor  of 
Cumanus  by  the  emi)eror  Claudius  to  admin- 
ister till-  all'aii-s  of  .ludsea  in  ."i2  (.Vntii|.  xx.  7, 
1:  War  ii.  12.  ^).  l'rol)ably  Cumanus  and 
Felix  exercised  a  joint  jirocuratorship.  with 


Cumanus  higher  in  autliority.  In  this  arti- 
cle .\.  I).  .")2  is  assumed  as  the  date  of  his  sole 
l>rocuratorshii>  in  .Iiida-a.  He  seems  to  have 
obtained  this  a|i|)oiiitnient  jiartly  through 
the  inlluence  of  his  brother  I'allas,  who  was 
a  great  man  at  the  court  of  Claudius.  Nero, 
the  successor  of  Claudius,  tnmsferred  four 
(liililaan  cities  from  Felix  to  Agrijijia.  He 
was  cruel  and  tyrannical.  an<l  in  the  exercise 
of  ])ower  showed  the  dis]iosition  of  a  sUi\*.\ 
(Tacitus,  Hist.  V.  i);  Annal.  xii.  .">4l.  Under 
his  administration  arose  tho.se  collisions  be- 
tween the  Jews  and  the  .Syrians  at  Ca'sarea 
which  weri'  destined  to  recur  and  help  to- 
ward tin-  ruin  of  tiie  Jewish  jiolity  i  Anti(i.  xx. 
S,  7  ;  War  ii.  V.i,  7).  Felix'  first  ellort  was  to 
]>ut  down  the  robliers  who  infested  the  land. 
He  was  successful,  and  capturing  many  of 
them,  crucified  the  ordinary  sort,  but  sent 
their  leader,  Eleazar.  to  Koine  (War  ii.  l.'S.  2). 
Joseplius  charged  him  with  having  encour- 
aged the  robbers  to  munler  .lonathan,  the 
high  ])riest.  Jonathan  had  sujiported  the 
appointment  of  Felix  to  the  prociiratni>bip, 
but  he  had  disjileased  Felix  by  the  lidelity 
with  whicli  he  had  counseled  him  regarding 
his  government  of  the  Jews.  The  inii)unity 
with  which  this  gross  crime  was  committed 
emtxildeiied  the  robbers.  They  became  the 
Sicarii,  peojile  who  conci'aU'd  daggers  about 
theiri>ersonsand,  mingling  with  crowds,  slal>- 
bed  those  to  wliom  they  had  an  antipathy 
(Anti(i.  XX.  .S,  .")).  Next  false  )iro|ihets  aro,-e 
iind  led  iieojile  in  multitudes  into  the  wil- 
derness, where  they  were  told  (iod  would 
show  them  the  signals  of  liberty.  No  signals 
were,  however,  sliown  ;  and  Felix,  lulieving 
these  gatherings  in  the  wilderness  to  he  tiie 
commencement  of  revolt,  attacked  the  peojile 
jiri'seiit  and  slew  them  in  large  numbei>  (War 
ii.  i;{,  '.i  and  4).  An  Egyptian  soon  after- 
wards made  his  ajipearance  as  a  i)rojdiet  and 
led  out  a  great  mob  to  the  mount  of  Olives, 
under  the  jiretense  that  they  would  .see  the 
walls  of  .yerusalem  fall  down,  leaving  them 
every  facility  for  entering  the  city.  Felix 
attacked  them  with  troops,  slaying  about  4<H1 
and  taking  about  2(HI  more  prisoners.  The 
Egy])tian  escajied.  His  insurrection  was  in 
A.  1).  .■).■>,  and  when  about  five  years  later  the 
riot  about  I'aul  arose.  ( 'latidius  Lysias,  the  Ro- 
man commandant  at  .Icriisiilem.  seems  to  have 
half  suspected  that  the  ajmstle  was  the  Egyp- 
tian back  again  to  excite  fresh  troubles  ( .Vets 
xxi.  .'{S  ;  Antiii.  xx.  f^.  <!).  Felix  was  procu- 
rator when  I'aul  was  arrest«'d  on  the  false- 
charge  of  i)rofaning  the  temple,  and  when  to 
jireveiit  tlu-  ajiostle's  as.sjissinatii>n  it  was 
needful  to  send  him  to  Ca'.sjirea.  the  leIt«T 
exiilaining  the  case  was  written  by  Claiulius 
I,ysias  to  Felix,  whose  headi|uart<'rs  were  at 
Ciesjirea  (.Acts  xxiii.  2(ii.  The  trial  took  i>laci' 
before  Felix.  Felix'  wife  Drusilla.  who  was 
a  Jewess,  was  jiresent  at  an  inltrview  when 
Paul  reasoned  of  righteousness,  tenipt'nince, 
and  judgment  to  come,  with  .such  pttwer  that 
Felix  trembled  (  Acts  xxiv.  1- 2(»).     No  won- 


Fenced  Cities 


220 


Field 


der,  for  Felix  had  seduced  her  away  from 
her  rijjhtfiil  hiisl)aud  (Antiq.  xx.  7, 1,"^).  But 
there  was  no  real  rL-pi'iitaiu-e  lor  his  sin  on 
Felix'  i)art.  He  procrastinated,  and  said  to 
the  apostle,  "  Go  thy  way  for  this  time  ;  when 
I  have  a  convenient  season,  I  will  call  for 
thee."  It  does  notapi)ear  that  the  convenient 
season  ever  came.  It  is  discn-ditalilc  to  Felix 
that,  convinced  as  he  evidenily  was  of  the 
apostle's  innocence,  he  failed  to  release  him, 
hoping  that  his  priscmer  would  bribe  him  to 
do  that  justice  which  it  was  his  bounden 
duty  1(1  .urant  without  money.  I)i.sa[iii(iinted 
as  to  the  bribe,  he  attcnipte<i,  when  going  out 
of  office,  to  make  political  capital  out  of  the 
apostle,  by  leaving  him  bound  to  please  the 
Jews.  This  favnr  did  not,  however,  prevent 
them  from  complaining  of  him  after  he  had 
ceased  to  l)e  procurator  and  returned  to  Kome. 
about  A.  D.  HO.  Tliey  represented  that  he  had 
not  acted  well  in  the  Cesarean  riots,  and  he 
would  have  been  punished  l)y  Nero  had  not 
the  powerful  intercession  of  Ins  brother  Pal- 
las, who  was  a  favorite  with  the  reigning  em- 
peror, been  exerted  in  his  favor  (Antiq.  xx. 
8,  9).  He  was  succeeded  in  the  procurator- 
ship  by  Porcius  Festus. 

Fenced  Cit'ies. 

Towns  fortified  by  walls,  towers,  gates,  and 
bars  (Dent.  iii.  5;  2  Chron.  viii.  5  ;  Neh.  iii. 
l-3"2).  Such  were  the  cities  of  the  Cauaanites 
and  the  Amorites  when  the  Israelites  warred 
against  them  (Num.  xiii.  28 ;  Deut.  iii.  5 ; 
Josh.  xiv.  12).  After  the  Israelites  had  oc- 
cupied Canaan,  they,  like  their  predecessors, 
had  fenced  cities  (Deut.  xxviii.  52  ;  2  Sam. 
XX.  6 ;  2  Kin.  xiv.  13  ;  2  Chron.  xii.  4  :  Jer.  v. 
17  ;  Hos.  viii.  14  ;  Zeph.  i.  16).  For  illustra- 
tion and  description  of  the  walls,  see  Jeru- 
salem and  Lachish. 

Fer'ret. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  '"nakah,  a 
ceremonially  unclean  animal,  classed  by  the 
Hebrews  with  reptiles  (Lev.  xi.  30 ;  in  R.  V. 
gecko). 

Fes'tus  [festal,  joyful]. 

Porcius  Festus,  who  succeeded  Felix  as 
procurator  of  Judiea  in  the  reign  of  Nero, 
while  Pallas  was  still  the  emperor's  favorite 
and  Burrus  was  still  alive  (Antiq.  xx.  8.  9). 
Pallas  was  put  to  death  in  x.  D.  62,  and  Bur- 
rus died  not  later  than  February  of  the  same 
year.  Two  years  before  the  arrival  of  Fes- 
tus, Paul  could  say  that  Felix  had  been  for 
many  years  a  judge  unto  the  nation  (Acts 
xxiv.  10,  27).  If  the  procuratorship  of  Felix 
be  reckoned  fi-om  A.  D.  48  (see  Felix),  he 
would  have  be<'n  many  years  in  otiicc  in  Pal- 
estine in  A.  ir.  .")4  or  5"),  and  Festus  may  have 
succeeded  him  in  55  or  56,  the  second  and 
third  years  of  Nero  respectively.  This  date 
is  adojited  by  some  authorities,  with  the  re- 
sult of  putting  the  dates  of  ini]iorlant  events 
in  Paul's  life,  among  others  liis  im]irison- 
ment,  four  or  five  years  earlier  than  the  date 
generally  accepted  by  leading  investigators 


who  date  Felix'  accession  in  52  and  Festus' 
appointment  in  60.  The  commotions  which 
had  arisen  under  the  administration  of  his 
predecessor,  Felix,  went  on  and  increased. 
The  Sicarii  j)roceeded  to  a.ssjissinate  people 
whom  they  disliked.  Sometimes  they  set 
fire  to  the  villages,  having  plundered  them 
first.  Then  an  impostiu-  led  his  adherents 
into  the  wilderness,  where  the  forces  of  Fes- 
tus routed  them  with  great  slaughter.  King 
Agrippa  soon  after  l)uilt  himself  a  large  din- 
ing room  in  the  palace  whicli  overlooked  the 
tem]>le.  Tiie  Jews,  annoyed  to  find  them- 
selves under  supervision,  blocked  his  sight 
by  a  wall  which  also  injured  the  view  hith- 
erto possessed  by  the  Roman  soldiers  on 
guard  near  the  temi)le.  Festus  ordered  the 
demolition  of  the  wall,  but  an  ajipeal  to  Nero 
to  allow  it  to  remain  was  successful  (Antiq. 
XX.  8,  11).  His  character  contrasts  favorably 
with  that  of  Felix  (War  ii.  14,  1).  He  rein- 
vestigated Paul's  case,  and  was  satisfied  of 
his  innocence,  but  committed  one  mistake,  in 
attempting  to  please  the  Jews,  by  asking  the 
apostle  if  he  would  consent  to  be  tried  at 
Jerusalem.  It  was  against  this  injudicious 
proposal  that  Paul  appealed  to  Csesar  (Acts 
XXV.  1-xxvi.  32).  Festus  died  at  his  post, 
and  was  succeeded,  about  a.  d.  62,  by  Albiuus, 
who  is  not  mentioned  in  the  Scripture  nar- 
rative (Antiq.  xx.  9,  1). 

Fe'ver. 

A  disease,  or  rather  a  genus  of  diseases,  at- 
tended by  dryness  and  heat  of  the  body,  with 
consequent  thirst,  a  high  pulse,  and  other 
symptoms.  Fevers  are  of  three  leading  ty])es, 
intermittent,  remittent,  and  continued.  Fe- 
vers of  all  the  tyi)es  now  named  dou))tless 
existed  in  ancient  Palestine,  though  it  is  not 
j)ossible  in  all  cases  to  identify  them  with  cer- 
tainty. Fever  is  the  rendering  of  the  He- 
brew Knthlahath,  burning  (Lev.  xxvi.  16,  in 
A.  V.  burning  ague;  Deut.  xxviii.  22).  In 
the  latter  passage  it  is  associated  with  inflam- 
mation and  fiery  heat,  both  febi-ile  symi>toms. 
Fever  is  likewise  the  correct  rendering  of  the 
Greek  Piiretos,  from  Piir.  fire  (Mat.  viii.  15  ; 
Luke  iv.  38;  John  iv.  52:  Acts  xxviii.  8). 
Galen  and  the  Greek  ])hysicians  divided 
fevers  into  greater  and  lesser.  Luke  in  the 
passage  quoted  does  so  also,  as  might  be  ex- 
pected from  one  who  was  himself  a  medical 
man.  Fever  so  uniformly  attends  certain 
diseases  that  the  two  are  mentioned  together, 
as  in  the  designation  "  fever  and  dysentery." 
When  the  sword,  the  famine,  and  tlie  i)esti- 
lence.  are  mentioned  in  tliis  order  of  succes- 
sion the  pestilence  was  probably  tyi)lius  fever. 

Field. 

In  biblical  usage,  unenclosed  ground,  whetli- 
er  pasture  or  tillage  (Gen.  xxxvii.  7,  14-16), 
of  whatever  extent,  from  a  small  ai-ea  to  the 
territory  of  a  people  (xiv.  7,  margin  of  R.  ^^  ; 
xxiii.  9  :  Ruth  i.  (!,  rendered  country  ;  Mat. 
vi.  28  ;  xiii.  24).  It  might  be  wooded  (1  Sam. 
xiv.  25,  rendered  ground).  Boundaries,  when 


rig 


221 


Firkin 


artificially  marked,  were  indicated  by  stones 
(cp.  Diiit".  xix.  14). 

Fig. 

A  trci'  iiriMliicinj;  f;(«i(l  fi-iiit  (.Fiid;;.  ix.  10) 
and  the  fruit  ilscll'  I  Num.  xiii.  'j:>i,  Imtii  calli'il 
T''futt}i  ill  lli'l)rc\v,  while  in  (iivrk  the  tret-  is 
Snkr  and  tlu'  I'riiit  Siikiiii.  The  tri-e  is  native 
in  western  Asia.  Tlie  yoiiiij;  tree  does  not 
hear  I'ruil  uiiies.s  the  <rrouii<l  is  (•ulli\ated 
(Luke  xiii.  (i-!l).  and  nld  trees  si)ee(lily  de- 
giMierate  and  fail  when  nenleeted  (Trov. 
xxvii.  1^).  The  youn;;  fruit,  or  rather  blos- 
som, ajtjiears  in  spring  liefore  the  leaves  open, 
<tn  branches  of  the  last  yi'ar's  growth,  and 
the  lirst  ripe  fruit  is  ready  in  June,  in  I'avor- 
<;d  localities  earlier  (Is.  xxviii.  4;  War  iii.  10, 
S).  Tile  late  (i-rs  j,'row  on  the  new  wood, 
keep  appeariiifi  during;  the  season,  and  are 
ripe  from  Au>rust  onward.  They  are  dried 
for  preservation,  pressed  into  caki-s,  and  form 
a  staple  article  of  food  (1  Sam.  xxv.  is  ;  xxx. 
I'.').  The  unripe  fruit  of  autumn  often  sur- 
vives the  winter  and  ripens  wlieii  vejretation 
revives  in  the  spring,  before  and  after  the 
leaves  appear  (Song  ii.  13),  The  tree  was 
highly  jirized,  and  is  often  mentioned  along 
with  the  vine  (Deiit.  viii.  S ;  I's.  cv.  '.i'.i;  .Ter. 
V.  17  :  .loel  i.  Ix?),  and  to  sit  under  one's  vine 
and  one's  fig  tree  was  the  symliol  of  jirosjierity 
and  security  (1  Kin.  iv.  2.");  Mic.  iv.  4;  Zech. 
iii.  10).  The  barren  fig  tree  of  our  I^ord's 
jiarable  meant  tlie  .lewish  nation.  Figs  w<'re 
used  in  mediciiu',  and  there  is  mention  of 
tlieir  employment  as  a  poultice  (2  Kin.  xx.  7). 

Tlie  fig,  tho  Ficiis  carica  of  cultivation,  is  a 
tree  •_>()  to  :iO  feet  high.  Tlii'  leaves,  which 
eonie  forth  late  in  sjiring  and  are  shed  at  the 
approach  of  winter,  are  often  H  or  10  inches 
across.  They  are  heart  shaju'd  with  three  or 
four  lobes.  The  fruit  is  of  so  anomalous  a  con- 
struction that  botanists  have  had  to  give  it  a 
distinct  name  and  i)hice  among  fruits.  It  is 
a  hollow  receptacle,  with  minute  Howers  on 
its  inner  side,  which  later  jinxluce  the  true 
fruit.  The  tret;  is  wild  in  soutlierii  Kiiro]>e 
and  the  north  of  Africa.  It  is  indigenous  in 
Palestine,  when'  it  grows  wild  in  fissures  of 
rocks  and  on  walls,  besides  being  everywhere 
cultivated  (Deiit.  viii.  H). 

Fir  and  Fir  Tree. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  B'rnsh,  Ara- 
maic li'nith  {•>  Sam.  vi.  "> :  Song  i.  17).  The 
R.  V.  )ilai'es  cyjin-ss  on  the  margin.  The  tree 
grew  with  the  cedar  in  Lebanon  (1  Kin.v.  S, 
10;  Is.  xiv.  H:  xxxvii.  tJI;  Ix.  l.J;  Zech.  xi. 
2).  It  was  iiscfl  for  the  woodwork  of  Solo- 
mon's temple  along  with  cedar  (1  Kin.  v.  H, 
10;  vi.  1.-,,  :i4  ;  2  Chron.  ii.  H;  iii.  .")),  for  the 
planks  of  ships  (Ezek.  xxvii.  .">),  for  spears 
(Nail.  ii.  .'5,  R.  V.),  and  for  musical  instruments 
(•.;  Sjim.  vi.  .">).  TIk-  stork  ma<le  its  nest  within 
its  bninches  (  Ps.  civ.  17).  The  Vulgate  trans- 
lates the  Hebrew  word  onci'  by  cyjiress  (Song 
i.  17),  but  elsewhere  l)y  aliifs.  fir,  except  2 
Sjun.  vi.  .">:  •_>  Cliroii.  ii.  S;  Nab.  ii.  :;.  The 
Septuaginf  commonly  reiider>  it   by  cyiiress. 


but  also  by  pine  and  juniper.  All  of  these 
trees  liehing  to  the  Cuuifei-.e  (jr  pine  family. 
Tlie  only  true  fir  of  the  region  is  Ah'us  riHru. 
It  grows  on  the  higher  parts  of  Lebanon  and 
in  the  mountains  northward,  attaining  a 
Iii'ight  of  from  :iO  to  7."'>  feet.  'I'be  cypress 
(('iij)ir.ssnn  xenijieyfirciiM)  is  a  tall  tree,  from  'JO 
to  (iO  or  7")  feet.  The  wood  is  reddish  yellow, 
l>leasant  to  the  smell,  and  diinible.  It  was 
much  u.sed  for  cabinet  work.  It  is  extensively 
planted  in  burial  grounds  in  the  I-jist.  for 
which  its  slender  pyramidal  form  and  grace- 
fulness render  it  well  adaptc-d.  See  CvrKKss. 
The  Syrian  or  Alei)po  pine  i  J'iniis  hnlejimxis)  is 
fomnl  in  the  mountains  of  western  Palestine, 
and  is  one  of  the  characteristic  trees  of  tlie 
lower  Lebanon.  It  is  inferior  in  si/e  to  the 
fir  and  the  cypres.s.  The  stone  jiine  {I'itiiin 
miiiitiiiiii)  grows  on  the  coast  and  in  s;indy 
]ilaiiis,  but  is  not  common.  Iii(;ilead  there 
are  extensive  forests  of  I'iiius  rnrirn  on  the 
highest  mountains  above  the  line  where  the 
evergreen  oaks  cease.  A  tall,  fragrant  .juni- 
per (Jnuij)fritx  crcelsn)  grows  abundantly  on 
Lebanon.     For  Is.  xliv.  14,  see  Asii. 

Fire. 

Fire  was  found  to  be  indis|)ensable  (Ecchis. 
xxxix.  2('i).  It  was  used  in  the  arts  ((Jen.  iv. 
22),  in  the  prejiaration  of  fooil  (Kx.  xvi.  2.'{ ; 
Is.  xliv.  l(i),  and  for  warmth  (.ler.  xxxvi.  22; 
.T(din  xviii.  IM:  Acts  xxviii.  2).  (Ulerings 
were  made  to  .bdiovah  by  fire  (tleii.  viii.  20). 
The  lire  carried,  as  it  were,  the  sacrifice  to 
God,  who  took  delight  in  the  olfiring,  or,  to 
speak  figuratively,  smelli-il  a  sweet  sivor  (21). 
The  olferer  kindled  the  fire  himself  Ixxii.  (i). 
Moses  olfereil  burnt  ollerings  on  tin-  gnat 
altar,  newly  erected  (Ex.  xl.  2il),  but  at  the 
conclusion  of  the  consecration  of  Aaron  and 
his  sons  to  the  priesthood,  fire  came  forth 
from  the  iM-e.sence  of  the  Lord  and  consumed 
the  sacrifice  (Lev.  ix.  21 1,  (iod  acce|ited  and 
aiMiropriated  the  offering.  This  fin'  was  not 
allowed  to  go  out  (vi.l)-i;j).  Likewi.se  at  the 
dedication  of  the  temjile  and  the  new  altar, 
firi'  came  from  heaven  and  consumed  the 
sjicrilice  (2  Cliron.  vii.  1).  <  )n  other  occasions 
also(ioil  indicated  his  jicceptance  of  a  sicri- 
fice  by  causing  it  to  kindle  (Judg.  vi.  21  ;  1 
Kin.  xviii.  2.'J,  24;  1  ("hron.  xxi.  2();  as  to 
this  matter,  cj).  (ieii.  xix.  24;  Kx.  ix.  2.'{  ;  2 
Kin.  i.  12).  .\nioiig  the  heatheii  there  were 
fire  worsbiiK'i-s  (Wi.sd.  xiii.  2).  The  wor- 
slii))ers  of  MoIik-Ii  and  some  other  idolaters 
burnt  their  children  in  the  fire  as  an  act  of 
jiiety  (2  Kin.  xvi.:J;  xxi.  (J;  Jer.  vii.:tl  ;  Kzek. 
xvi.20,  21). 

Fire'pan. 

.\  pan  made  of  brass,  gold,  or  silver  (Ex. 
xxvii.  .! ;  1  Kin.  vii.  ."lO;  2  Kin.  xxv.  l.'ii.  and 
used  for  carrying  fire  (Lev.  xvi.  12,  where  it 
is  ren<lered  censer). 

Fir 'kin. 

\  measun'  of  capacity  (.loiiii  ii.  G).  It  is 
the  rendering  of  the  (ireek  Mftrrtfi>,  which, 
reckone<l  at  i!C)2.17  cubic  inches,  held  nearly 


Firmament 


222 


Fishing 


8  gallons,  3i  piuts,  wine  measure,  American 
standard. 

Flr'ma-ment  [Latin  JinnmneHtum,  a  sup- 
jxirt.  a  tirni  fuundatidn]. 

The  sky  or  heaven  (Gen.  i.  b),  an  e.\panse 
beaten  out  as  it  were,  if  we  employ  the  figure 
eml)odied  in  the  Hel)rew  word  (cp.  Ezek.  i. 
•J-J),  which  divided  the  primeval  waterj-  mass 
((ien.  i.  (i),  so  that  i>art  of  the  waters  were 
above  it  and  others  were  below  it  (i.  7;  Ps. 
cxlviii.  4).  The  stars  and  i)lanets  were  placed 
in  it.  where  they  move  unimpeded  (Gen.  i. 
14,  17).  Hirds  t"ly  in  front  of  it  (20,  K.  V. 
margin).  The  heavens,  and  i)resumably  the 
firmament,  are  compared  to  a  tent  spread 
above  the  earth  (Ps.  civ.  2;  Is.  xl.  'i^J),  are 
likened  in  .strength  to  a  molten  mirror  (Job 
x.xxvii.  IS),  and  are  spoken  of  as  tliough 
having  doors  and  windows,  through  which 
the  rain  pours  and  God's  blessings  descend 
(Gen.  vii.  11 :  2  Kin.  vii.  2;  Ps.  Ixxviii.  23; 
civ.  1.3).  This  conception  was  current  in 
ancient  Semitic  thought.  The  doctrine  of 
the  division  of  the  ])rimeval  fluid  chaos  is 
not  unacceptable  to  modern  thought;  other 
features  are  regarded  as  naive.  They  are 
not  tauglit  in  the  Scriptures  as  facts.  They 
lingiTcd  in  Hel)rew  speech  and  imagery  as  an 
inheritance,  and  were  used  in  both  poetic 
and  i)rose  wa-itiugs  even  when,  for  example, 
the  agency  of  the  clouds  in  bringing  rain 
was  understood  (Gen.  ix.  14;  Job  xxvi.  8; 
xxxvi.  27-29;  xxxvii.  11;  xxxviii.  34;  Ps. 
Ixxvii.  17;  cxxxv.  7;  Is.  v.  6;  Jer.  x.  13). 

First'born  or  Firstling,  the  former  being 
used  chiefly  of  men,  the  latter  always  of 
beasts. 

To  the  firstborn  offspring  of  men  and  ani- 
mals God  the  giver  has  the  first  claim  (cp. 
Gen.  iv.  4).  Among  the  Israelites  an  addi- 
tional reason  existed  in  the  fact  that  Jehovah 
had  purchased  the  people  from  Egyptian 
bondage.  The  tenth  and  last  plague  of 
Egypt  had  slain  the  firstborn  of  the  Egyp- 
tians, and  the  firstborn  of  the  Israelites  had 
been  preserved  only  by  sin'inkling  blood  on 
the  lintels  and  door  posts  of  the  houses  with- 
in which  they  resided  (Ex.  xii.  12,  13,  23, 
29).  Saved  in  this  manner,  they  became  con- 
secrated to  Jehovah.  Every  firstborn  male 
of  man  and  beast  was  holy  to  the  Lord  (xiii. 
2;  xxxiv.  19),  and  could  not  be  used  bv  man 
(Lev.  xxvii.  26).  The  firstborn  of  the  "father 
was  obligated  to  service  at  the  sanctuary, 
from  which  he  must  be  redeemed  (Ex.  xiii. 
13,  1.5;  xxxiv.  20;  cp.  Lev.  xxvii.  fi).  On 
this  occasion  he  was  ))rought  to  the  sanctuary 
and  presented  to  th(>  Lord  (Lnkeii.  22;  cp. 
Num.  xviii.  15).  The  Levites  were  after- 
wards substituted  for  the  Israelite  firstborn 
(Num.  iii.  12,  41;  vii.  13-19;  cp.  Ex.  xxxii. 
2fi-29;  Deut.  xxxiii.  9).  Those  of  animals 
also,  against  which  the  tenth  ])lague  was 
partly  directed,  became  similarly  consecrated 
to  Jehovah,  but  there  were  distinctions  among 
them  of  various  kinds.    The  firstling  of  clean 


animals  %vas  sacrificed.  Unclean  animals,  of 
which  the  ass  is  named  as  re])resentative, 
eitlier  had  the  neck  broken  or  were  replaced 
by  a  lamb  I  Ex.  xiii.  13,  1.");  xxii.  30;  xxxiv. 
20).  On  the  establishment  of  the  i)riesthood 
at  Sinai,  the  disposition  of  these  animals  was 
specified.  The  fat  of  the  clean  animal  was 
burned  and  the  fiesh  was  given  to  the  priest. 
The  unclean  animal  was  redeemed  or  sold 
(Lev.  xxvii.  27;  Num.  xviii.  1,")-1S).  Later, 
in  view  of  the  new  circumstances  in  which 
it  was  foreseen  that  the  people  would  bejilaced 
in  Palestine,  and  the  inconvenience  and  ex- 
pense of  the  journey  to  the  sanctuary,  a  de- 
lay was  authorized  in  jiresentiug  the  firstling 
at  the  house  of  God.  The  firstling  might  be 
kept  beyond  the  eight  days  originally  pre- 
scribed until  the  time  of  an  annual  festival; 
and  the  flesh,  instead  of  falling  as  a  jjenjuisite 
to  the  priest,  was  given  to  the  pilgrim  who 
brought  the  animal,  and  to  his  family,  to  eat 
at  the  sanctuary  (Deut.  xv.  19,  20).  But  de- 
fective animals  were  eaten  at  home  without 
religious  ceremony  (21-23). 

For  the  legal  privileges  of  the  firstborn  soD;. 
see  Birthright. 

First'fruits. 

The  fruits  first  ripe,  the  plucking  of  which 
was  an  earnest  of  the  coming  harvest.  First- 
fruits  were  to  be  given  as  an  oflering  to  Jeho- 
vah :  on  behalf  of  the  nation,  a  sheaf  at  the 
feast  of  unleavened  bread  and  two  loaves  at 
the  feast  of  weeks  (Lev.  xxiii.  10,  17)  ;  and 
by  individuals  (Ex.  xxiii.  19;  Deut.  xxvi.  1- 
11).  The  term  is  used  figuratively  in  Eom, 
viii.  23 ;  xi.  16  ;  xvi.  5  :  1  Cor.  x  v.  20,  23 ;  xvi. 
15 ;  Jas.  i.  18 ;  Eev.  xiv.  4.  See  Firstborn. 

Fish'ing. 

Fishing  went  on  largely  in  Egypt  in  the 


Fisliing  with  the  Hook  in  Ancient  Egypt. 


Fitch 


223 


Flea 


main  channel  of  tlic  Nile  and  in  the  several 
brandies  into  wliicli  it  separates  before  reaeli- 
inj;  the  Mediternmean  (Is.  xix.  H),  and  tlie 
Israelites  when  in  bondage  in  Ej:y|>t  did  eat 
fish  freely  (Num.  xi.  '>).  Tlie  lishin;;  ahjnf; 
the  -Mediterranean  eoast  of  I'akstine  was 
larj;ely  in  the  hands  of  the  Tyrians  and 
Sidonians  in  tlie  north  (Xeli.  xiii.  lli)  and  the 
riiilistines  in  the  sonth.  To  the  Israelites 
belonged  the  sea  of  Galilee,  which  was  their 


meadow.  It  was  a  water  plant;  and  grew, 
anioiiK  othtr  i.laci.s.  on  the  etlge  of  the  Nile. 
It  is  not  likely  that  it  was  tlie  llag.  which  is 
an  iris,  with  three  briglitly  colored  jietal.s.  It 
seems  to  have  been  the  KKyptian  designation 
for  the  crowded  mass  of  water  i)lant*i,  rushes, 
reeds,  sedges  found  along  the  margin  of  the 
Nile. 

2.  The  rendering  of  Suph  (Ex.  ii.  3.  .'>;  Is. 
xix.  6),  a  plant  growing  by  the  brink  of  the 


Kishinj;  witli  a  Net  in  Ancient  Kuypt. 


chief  fishing  ground.  Tristram  enumerates 
twenty-two  s]iecies  of  fish  in  its  waters,  many 
of  them  also  pas.sing  down  the  .Jordan.  The 
Di'ad  Sea  was  too  salt  for  fish,  savt-  for  a  very 
few.  In  certain  places  there  were  artificial 
fisli-ponds  (Song  vii.  1).  Fish  were  on  s;ile 
in  .lerusalem  (2  Chron.  xxxiii.  11;  Neh.  xiii. 
16).  For  fishing,  lines,  hooks,  and  spears 
were  used  (.Tob  xli.  1.  7 ;  Is.  xix.  8  ;  Amos  iv. 
2:  Mat.  xvii.  27),  and  nets  were  cast  from 
boats  (Luke  v.  -1-7). 

Fitch  [obsolete  form  of  English  vetch]. 

A  tare  ( ]'iciit),  an  herb  much  cultivated  as 
a  forage  idaiit  (Is.  xxviii.  •2~t,  27,  Hebrew 
Kes(ih).  The  plant  so  designated  was  sown 
broadcast ;  and  when  its  fruits  were  ripe,  they 
were  beaten  out  with  a  stall"  to  sejiarafe  the 
seeds.  1;.  \'..  I'olbiwiug  Septuagiut.  \'ulgate, 
and  the  Habbius,  places  l)liick  cuniniin  {.\i(irll(i 
atitira)  on  the  margin,  and  considers  the  y>laiit 
to  have  been  what  is  now  called,  from  its 
fennel-like  leaves,  fennel  flower.  It  is  of 
the  crowfoot  or  buttercui)  order  (liituuncit- 
hiciir).  It  is  a  foot  and  a  half  high,  with 
yellow  or,  more  rarely,  blue  jietals,  many 
stamens,  and  several  seed  vessels,  with  nu- 
merous black  acrid  and  aromatic  sci'ds.  which 
are  used  in  the  ICast  for  seasouiug  ilisbes  and 
as  a  carminative.  It  grows  wild  in  the  .Medi- 
terranean "lands,  and  is  cultivated  in  Pales- 
tine for  its  seeds. 

The  Hebrew  Knusrmfth  is  likewise  trans- 
lated fitch  in  E/.ck.  iv.  9.  \.  V.;  but  else- 
where in  A.  V.  it  is  rendered  rye.  and  every- 
where in  K.  V    it  is  translated  spelt. 

Flag. 

1.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  'Ahii  in 
.Toll  viii.  11.  On  the  margin  of  K.  V.  it  is 
translateil  reed  gra.ss,  and  also  in  the  text  of 
(Jen.    xli.   2,   K.  V'.,   where   .\.    V.    renders  it 


Nile.  It  also  grew  in  sjilt  water  (Jon.  ii.  5, 
where  it  is  rendered  weeds).  The  lied  .Sea 
in  Hebrew  is  called  the  sea  of  Siijih.  It  is 
evident  that  the  ]ilaiit  meant  is  not  the  Hag, 
which  does  not  grow  in  s;ilt  water.  The  word 
denotes  aipiatic  vegetation,  wlicther  seaweeds 
or  fresh  water  reeds  and  sedges. 
Flag'on. 

1.  A  vessel  for  holding  liquids  (Is.  xxii.2-1, 
in  Hebrew  Nehcl). 

2.  The  rendering  in  A.  V.  of  the  Hebrew 
word  '"nhixlidh.  soiiiethiug  ]iressed  closely 
together  (2  Sam.  vi.  Ill;  1  Chron.  xvi.  3; 
Song  ii.  .") :  Hos.  iii.  1).  The  K.  V.  correctly 
translates  it  cake  of  raisins. 

Flax. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  words  Pi.v/i- 
li'h  and  I'islitnh  and  of  the  (Jreek  l.inon 
{Is.  xiii.  3  with  Mat.  xii.  20);  It  was  a  plant 
cultivated  in  Egyjit  and  el.sewhere  (Ex.  ii. 
31).  It  had  stalks,  which  were  spread  on 
flat  roofs  of  bouses  and  dried  by  exiuisure  to 
the  beat  of  the  sun  (.Io>li.  ii.  ('>).  Its  fibers 
were  fine  (Is.  xix.  !>l.  and  were  woven  like 
wool  (I'rov.  xxxi.  13;  c]».  Hos.  ii.  .">).  It  is 
undoubtedly  the  flax  plant  [Lininn  usitntinai- 
mnm),  the  type  of  the  botanical  order  I.iiiii- 
cc:i:  or  llaxworts.  It  is  a  small  i>lant.  with 
solitary  erect  st<'ius,  five  sepals,  five  fugitive 
jutals.  with  five  i>erfect  and  as  many  rudi- 
mentary stamens.  It  is  now  found  only  in  a 
state  of  cultivation.  The  woody  fiber  of  the 
bark  furiii>bes  the  (lax  liber  of  wbi<li  linen 
is  woven,  Jiiid  the  .seeds  constitut<'  the  lin- 
seed of  commerce,  valued  on  account  of  its 
oil. 

Flea. 

An  insect,  called  in  Hebrew  I'nr'nsh,  leai>cr 
(1  .Sam.  xxiv.  II:  xxvi.  20).  The  s|M.-cies  is 
very  ctmiinon  in  Palestine ;  so  mncli  so  that 


Flesh 


224 


Flood 


it  has  become  a  popular  saying  that  the  king 
of  the  lieas  has  liis  court  at  Tiberias. 
Flesh. 

1.  The  muscles  ortlieauiiiial  l)0(ly,  whether 
of  man,  beast,  i)ir(l,  or  fish  :  or,  less  precisely, 
all  its  softer  parts  ((xen.  xl.  19;  Ex.  xii.  H ; 
xvi.  8;  Lev.  xxi.  5;  Job  x.  11;  Luke  xxiv. 
35);  1  for.  xv.  39).  It  is  distinct  from  the 
spirit  (Job  xiv.  22;  Is.  x.  18,  Hebrew;  xxxi. 
3;  Mat.  xxvi.  41;  Col.  ii.  5). 

2.  All  l)i'iMgs  possessed  of  flesh,  man  and 
tlie  inferior  animals,  especially  man  (Gen. 
vi.  13,  19  ;  viii.  17  ;  Acts  ii.  17  ;   Rom.  iii.  20  ; 

1  Cor.  i.  29) ;  often  in  contrast  with  God  who 
is  spirit  (Ps.  hi.  -i ;  Is.  xxxi.  3  ;  xl.  6-8  ;  Joel 
ii.  28;  Mat.  xvi.  17). 

3.  Human  nature  deprived  of  the  Spirit 
of  God,  dominated  by  the  appetites  and 
obeyed  by  the  mind   (Rom.  vii.  .") ;  viii.  5-7; 

2  C<)r.  vii!  1  :  Gal.  v.  16-20;  2  Pet.  ii.  10),  thus 
includiuj;  the  whole  unre.sjenei'ated  and  un- 
.sanctified  nature  of  man  (Rom.  viii.  8,  9  ;  cp. 
tlohn  iii.  (i). 

Flint. 

In  Scripture,  any  hard  or  intractable  rock 
(Dent.  yiii.  l.o  ;  xxxii.  13;  Ps.  cxiv.  8)  ;  and 
hence  figuratively,  uncompromising  firmness 
in  the  discharge  of  duty  (Is.  1.  7;  Ezek.  iii. 
9).  In  it  the  miner  .sinks  his  shaft  in  quest 
of  gold  (Job  xxviii.  9,  R.  V.).  Broken  frag- 
ments were  used  as  rude  knives  (Ex.  iv.  25  ; 
Josh.  v.  2,  R.  v..  where  in  Hebrew  the  ge- 
neric word  for  rock  is  used). 

Flood. 

A  stream,  especially  a  great  stream  (Job 
xiv.  11 ;  xxviii.  11  in  A.  V.),  as  the  Nile  in 
its  inundations  (Jer.  xlvi.  7  ;  Amos  viii.  8  in 
A.  v.),  the  Euphrates  (Josh.  xxiv.  2,  A.  V.), 
the  Jordan  (Ps.  Ixvi.  6,  A.  V.).  An  inunda- 
tion (Dan.  ix.  26;  Nab.  i.  8;  Mat.  vii.  25,  27; 
Luke  vi.  48).  A  great  restless  mass  of  water  ; 
the  sea  and  its  curn^nts  (Ps.  xxiv.  2;  Jon. 
ii.  3). 

Si)ecially.  the  deluge  in  the  time  of  Noah. 
It  was  sent  as  a  divine  judgment  on  the 
antediluvians  for  their  wickedness  (Gen.  vi. 


5-13).  Secondary  causes  were  employed  to 
bring  on  the  catastrophe.  Two  are  mentioned  : 
the  fountains  of  the  great  dei'p  were  broken 
U]),  and  the  windows  of  heaven  were  openeil. 
Thus  jiart  of  the  water  was  that  of  the  ocean, 
the  rest  was  produced  by  a  down])onr  of  rain 
continuing  forty  days  and  nights  (vii.  11,  12). 
All  the  high  mountains  under  the  wliole 
heaven  were  covered,  iifteen  cubits  ui)ward 
the  waters  i)revailed,  and  all  flesh  died  that 
moved  on  the  earth,  man,  bird,  beast,  and 
creeping  thing.  Noah  only  was  left  and  they 
that  were  with  him  iu  the  ark  (vii.  19-23); 
see  Akk.  The  waters  prevailed  150  days, 
until  at  length  the  ark  rested  on  the  nmun- 
tains  of  Ararat.  Two  and  a  half  months 
later  the  tops  of  the  mountains  were  seen 
(viii.  3-5).  Three  months  later,  after  investi- 
gating the  state  of  the  water  by  means  of 
birds  which  he  sent  forth,  on  New  Year's  day 
Noah  removed  the  covering  from  the  ark 
and  saw  that  the  face  of  the  grouml  was 
dried  ;  but  eight  weeks  more  elapsed  before 
God  gave  command  to  go  forth  from  the  ark 
(yiii.  13-15). 

The  months  are  reckcmed  at  thirty  days 
each,  and  the  number  of  days  which  measure 
an  interval  is  the  ditierence  between  the 
dates  obtained  by  simple  subtraction  (vii.  11 
with  viii.  3,  4).  On  this  mode  of  reckoning, 
and  dating  from  the  day  of  entrance  into 
the  ark  as  first  day,  it  is  interesting  to  note 
the  days  and  weeks.  The  first  day  which 
dawned  fair  and  beautiful  after  the  forty 
days  and  nights  of  rain  was  the  forty-second, 
a  recurring  seventh  day.  fit  reminder  of  di- 
vine rest  and  favor.  Land  was  seen  on  a  re- 
curring first  day,  the  new  world  wherein 
dwelt  righteousness  began  like  the  old  on  a 
first  day.  Noah  released  the  birds,  at  inter- 
vals of  a  week,  either  on  successive  sixth 
days,  in  expectancy  of  the  morrow,  or  on 
seventh  days.  Noah  removed  the  covering 
on  New  Year's  day,  old  reckoning ;  but  it 
was  also  a  recurring  seventh  day.  And  eight 
weeks  later,  on  the  recurring  seventh  day, 
God  released  Noah  from  the  ark. 


vu. 

1,1 

Vll. 

U. 

vii. 

12. 

vii. 

24. 

Vlll 

3. 

vni 

4. 

viii 

n. 

vni 

(1. 

viii.  8. 
viii.  10. 


('()MM.\ND  TO  BEGIN  EMBARKING  THE  .\NIM.^LS, 

Entp..\N(k  of  No.\h  INTO  THE  .ARK,  and  in  the  evening,  as  re- 
lated l)y  the  r)a))ylonian  tradition,  bursting  of  the  storm. 
Kaiu  41)  days  and  10  nights,  so  that 
Rain  ceaskd  toward  evening:, 

The  waters  prevailed  on  the  earth 
l.iO  days,  so  that  the 

Ark  STRANDED 

The  waters  decreased  continually  until 
Tops  of  the  mountains  visible. 

After  seein.ff  the  mountain  tops.  Xoah  waited  40  days: 
expeetinu  tliat.  as  tlie   rain  liad  fallen  10  days,  the  wat"ers 
would  iierliai)s  al>ati'  fVdUi  tlie  .uround  in  40  days  ;  and  then 
(or  on  tlie  followiu'^  ilay  l  tlie 
Raven  released,  wliieli  returned  not, 

After  7  days  ((•]>.  "  yet  other,"  v.  10)  a 
Dove  released,  wliieli  returned. 

After  yet  other  7  days,  the 
Dove  rei.easiod,  which  returned  with  olive   leaf.    s<i  Noah 
knew  that  tlie  waters  were  abated  Iroiii  (ilf  the  earth. 
.\fter  yet  other  7  days,  a  third  time  the 
Dove  relIcased,  which  iliil  not  return,  since  food  and  shelter 
were  now  found  outside  the  ark. 


10th  day. 
17th  day. 
■27th  <lay. 

17th  day. 
1st  d«y. 


11  mo.  11th  ((.rTJth)day. 

11  mo.  isthior  IDtlDday. 

U  mo.  2.'ith  (oriTitliiday. 

I'J  mo.  M  (or  od)  day. 


Flood 


225 


Flood 


NotwithstandiiiK  these  fuvorable  indications,  Noah  did 
not  leave  the  ark.  luit  waited  for  (iod's  command.     After 
nearly  a  inoiitli,  mi  New  Year's  day 
viii.  13.  NoAii  KK.MovKii  11IK  ((iVKiiiNii  OK  TICK  AiiK,  and  .saw  that  the 

waters  were  (Irieil  u|iaiultlie  face  of  the  fjroiind  was  dried,      1  iiio.     l.st  day. 

lint  Noah  still  awaited  tiod's  liidding,  and  eit^ht  weeks 
later,  the  earth  hciiij;  dry,  <;<«!  {,'ave  the 
viii.  14,  15.    ('o.M.M.\Ni)  TO  (_io  Foinii  kho.m  thk  .\hk,  'J  nio.    '.'Tth  day. 


As  is  now  gejienilly  known,  the  aeconnt  of 
tlie  Hood  was  liaiided  down  l>y  tradition.  Tlie 
deseriiitiiin  ori^'iiiated  with  e\cwiliiesses.  Its 
lanjiiuifie  must  lie  understood  in  the  sense 
wliieli  it  hore  to  the  autliors  and  |ironuilf;a- 
tors  of  the  narrative  (^-nturies  hefore  tiie 
days  (d'  Moses.  Tlu-  extent  of  tlie  Hood  can- 
nut  l)e  deterniini'd  from  the  account  of  it 
wiiich  has  lieen  transmitted.  'I'lie  dehifie 
may  have  been  nniversal  and  covered  tlie 
jjlohe.  or  it  may  have  been  confined  to  a 
locality  of  ^'realcr  or  less  extent.  All  tlie 
mountains  under  the  wlioje  heaven,  that  is 
within  the  hori/on  of  the  inmates  of  the  ark 
as  they  drifted  on  the  watei-s,  were  covered 
(compare  the  employment  of  similar  langnajie 
in  Col.  i.  2'.')).  The  purjiose  of  the  flcjod  was  to 
destroy  the  corrujit  race  of  man  ((ieu.  vi.T,  I'.i, 
17;  vii.  4),  and  with  man  all  animals  depend- 
ent ui)on  the  existence  of  dry  land  were  in- 
volved in  destruction.  This  was  also  the  re- 
sult as  discerned  by  those  who  were  saved  in 
the  ark  ( vii. -Jl-^o),  and  as  confirmed  liy  their 
descendants  when  they  mij^rated  in  the  earth. 
They  met  no  survivors.  They  found  the  world 
nniiihabited.  Noah  had  Ixen  instructed  to 
take  the  male  and  female  of  every  kind  of 
animal,  and  to  {ratlier  food  for  them  (vi.  20, 
'21 ).  The  langua.i^e  of  the  command  was  in- 
tendetl  to  be  understood  in  its  usual  sense, 
as  any  man  of  that  a^'c  would  understand  it. 
Noali  doubtless  took  siiecimens  of  every  ani- 
mal of  which  he  liad  knowledj^e  and  fond 
suitable  for  them  (cp.  Dan.  vi.  251 ;  but  there 
is  nil  evidence  that  lie  ln-licved  himself  to  be 
commanded  to  sei'k  for  species  as  yet  un- 
known, or  if  under  supernatural  impulse  the 
animals  nnsoU{;ht  came  to  him  las  some  would 
unnecessarily  iiiter|iret  vii.  M.  !)),  to  {father 
jte^'Uliar  IimkI  and  jirovide  ]ie<iiliar  shelltr  for 
strange  animals  of  diHcreiil  kinds  and  from 
dillerent  climes. 

Tiie    tradition    of    the    Hood    was   current 

aiuiiiii;   the   I jde   from  whom   the   Hebrews 

sjininu'.  In  liie  ancestral  iiome  of  .Mirabam 
tile  flood  was  remembered  as  a  {^reat  crisis  in 
litiman  history.  An  As.syrian  scribe,  record- 
in>;  the  names  of  ancient  kin.t;s,  remarks  con- 
eernint;  certain  of  them,  that  they  "  were 
after  the  llciiid."  .\.shuiliani|ial  rcfi'fs  to  in- 
scri])tions  "of  the  time  before  the  Hood." 
Tlie  liabylonian  jiriest  Herosus  devoted  the 
second  vnlume  of  his  history  to  the  ten  ante- 
diluvian kiii{;s  of  the  Chaldeans.  consiilerinK 
that  the  H(Mid  marked  the  clo.sr  of  the  lii-st 
period  of  human  history.  The  tradition  of 
the  delnjje  which  was  current  in  IJabyUinia 
and  ,\ssyria  dillered  in  some  details  from  the 
Hebrew  account.  The  Hebrews,  As.syrians, 
and  Ikibvlonians  once  dwelt  together  in  l};iby- 
15 


Ionia,  and  were  one  people  witli  one  tnidi- 
tion,  but  ill  course  iii  Iniiismissinn  from  ajje 
to  a;,'e  this  tradition  underwent  slight  changes 
anil  received  unessential  additions.  When 
the  iSemites  of  Habyloiiia  became  three  na- 
tions, dwelling;  apart  and  <liverse  in  religion, 
the  tradition  of  the  Hood  which  each  pre- 
served bon-  the  impress  <d"  the  national  pe- 
euliaritii's.  The  Hebrew  account  was  mono- 
theistic, the  As.syriaii  and  Mabylonian  iiarr.i- 
tive  is  polytheistic,  h  is  furtjicr  observable 
to  the  attentive  reader  that  the  Hebrew  ac- 
count not  only  as  a  whole,  but  in  minute 
jiarticnlars.  is  credible,  and  rellects  the  con- 
ditions of  a  jirimitivi'  ajie,  which  cannot  be 
.Siiid  (d'  the  A.ssyrian  and  liabylonian. 

The  Assyrians  and  Babylonians  tlienis«dves 
had  slightly  diverfreiit  traditions.  The  .story, 
as  cnrreiit  in  Babylonia  in  the  time  of  .\le.\- 
ander  tlie  (Jreat,  was  recorded  by  Berosiis 
(Anti(i.  i.  'A,  <i :  con.  Ajiion.  i.  lit),  and  is 
(pioted  in  full  by  the  (diiin-h  historian  Kuse- 
bius.  A  form  which  is  much  older,  whicdi  in 
fact  is  the  oldest  known  and  the  best  jire- 
.served,  though  even  variations  of  it  were 
current,  is  embodied  in  the  e]iic  that  cele- 
brates the  deeds  of  I/.dubar  or  (Jil^'aniesh, 
kinjrof  Erech.  l/.dnbar  had  been  smitten  with 
disease,  and  he  determined  to  seek  help  from 
h  is  ancestor  Si  tnaiiislitim,  who  had  been  trans- 
lated to  the  {,'o(is,  was  dwelliiij;  "at  the 
mouth  of  the  rivei"s,"  and  had  knowledge 
(d'  life  and  death.  After  a  lonj;  Journey,  in 
whi(di  he  encountered  many  diHiculties  and 
daubers,  Izdutiar  found  Silua]pishlini.  He 
beloii'red  to  a  >;em-ration  lon^'  past,  but  still 
enjoyed  the  freshness  and  vif;or  of  youth. 
Astonished,  I/.<lubarexclainied  :  "  Howcamest 
thou,  Sitnapishtim,  to  see  life  amid  the 
gods.'" 

'■  I  will  open  to  yon,  Izdiibar,"  rcpliol  Sitnan- 
islitiin,  "  the  conc("ah'd  story,  anil  also  tlu'  oracle 
of  thepxls  Iwitli  reference  to  the  ciiri' of  your 
disease]  will  I  declan-.  Yoii  know  tlie  city  of 
Snri)>pak,  which  stands  on  the  Kiipli rates.  'Ihal 
citv  was  old  when  the  pids  who  dwelt  then-in 
we're  iiioveil  at  lieiirl  to  l)rim.'iil.(ait  a  IliM.d  storm. 
Cod  .\iiii  was  tliere  anions  others,  and  Hel  and 
Niiiib.  The  pul  Ka.  however,  delilienited  w  ith 
them,  ami  he  revealed  unto  nie  thi'ir  purinise 
[liv  means  of  a  dream  (1.  1771).  •  Man  of  .-^iirip- 
pak,son  of  ll.aratutii,'  said  he, '  tear  down  the 
house,  liiiild  a  ship,  ilespise  property,  and  save 
life.  KriiiK  into  llie  ship  seed  of  life  of  every 
kind."  I  paiil  attention,  and  saiil  ti- uod  Kji.O 
my  loril.  wliat  thoii  hast  eoiiiiuaiided  I  will  re- 
spect liv  carryim;  out.' 

"On  "the  iiiorrow  Iprepanitions  were  beinin]. 
(in  the  lirth  dav  I  laid  the  fniiiiework-l  Uieiibils 
its  lieiu'lit.  1 10  eiitiits  it-  extent  above.  I  divMed 
its  interior.  I  provid.ed  a  rudder.  ( »ver  llu' out- 
side I  jiiaired  three  measures  (.snrjtl  of  l.itmnen 
and  likewise  over  the  inside.    When  the  ship 


Flood 


226 


Flood 


was  comi>lcted  I  filled  it  with  all  that  I  pos- 
sessed—with silver,  gold,  and  seed  of  life  of 
every  kind.  I  took  on  board  all  my  nien-ser- 
vanis  ami  maid-servants,  the  eattle  and  the  beast 
of  tlie  field,  and  the  artisans. 

"  The  snn-god  set  a  time.  '  When  the  sender 
of  violent  rain  causes  a  heavy  rain  to  ]>onr  down 
in  the  evening,  enter  into  the  slii)!  an<l  shut  the 
door.'  The  set  time  came.  He  who  sends  vio- 
lent rain  caused  a  heavy  rain  to  fall  in  the  even- 
in.;;.  The  dawnin^'  of  tlie  day  I  feared,  I  trem- 
bled to  behold  the  morninir.  I  entered  the  ship, 
closed  the  door  to  shut  it  in,  and  committed  the 
immense  structure  with  its  cargo  to  I'uzur-bel, 
the  pilot. 

"  As  soon  as  the  dawn  appeared,  a  dark  cloud 
ascended  on  the  horizon.  In  the  midst  of  it  the 
storm-god  rolled  the  thunder.  The  gods  Nebo 
and  Marduk  marched  on  before,  went  as  guides 
over  hill  and  dale;  the  mighty  pest-god  tore 
loose  the  ship,  the  god  Ninil)  caused  the  streams 
to  overflow  their  banks.  The  Anunnaki,  spirits 
of  the  subterranean  regions,  lifted  torches  and 
made  the  land  flicker  by  the  light.  The  storm- 
god  raised  billows  which  readied  to  heaven. 
All  light  was  turned  to  darkness.  Man  saw  not 
his  fellow,  human  beings  were  not  discerned  by 
those  in  heaven. 

•■  The  gods  also  were  terrified  at  the  flood- 
storm,  sought  refuge,  ascended  to  heaven,  and 
crouched  at  the  wall  like  a  dog  In  his  lair.  Then 
the  goddess  Ishtar,  like  a  woman  in  travail, 
cried  (mt— she  of  beautiful  voice  called  :  '  Man- 
kind which  was  is  become  mud,  the  very  evil 
which  I  foretold  in  the  presence  of  the  gods  and 
just  as  I  foretold  it  to  them.  A  storm  for  the 
annihilation  of  my  people  I  declared  It  would 
be.  I  brought  fortli  men,  but  to  what  purpose? 
Like  fry  offish  they  fill  the  sea.'  Thegods  over 
the  spirits  of  the  suliterranean  regions  wept 
with  her,  sitting  bowed  in  tears,  their  lips  cov- 
ered. 

"Six  days  and  six  nights*  wind,  flood-storm, 
and  rain  yjrevailed  :  on  the  seventh  day  the  rain 
abated  :  the  flood,  the  storm  which  had  writhed 
like  a  woman  in  travail,  rested  ;  the  sea  with- 
drew to  its  bed.  and  the  violent  wind  and  the 
flood-storm  ceased. 

"  I  looked  on  the  sea.  at  the  same  time  shout- 
ing :  but  all  men  were  become  mud.  I  opened 
a  window  ;  and.  as  the  light  fell  upon  my  face, 
I  shrank  back  and  sat  down  weeping;  over  my 
cheeks  the  tears  coursed.  I  had  looked  on  every 
side— a  wide  expanse,  sea. 

"  \  bit  of  land,  however,  rose  to  the  height  of 
twelve  measures.  To  the  country  of  Nisir  the 
ship  took  its  course.  A  mountain  of  that  land 
stranded  the  vessel  and  kept  it  from  moving 
farther.  On  the  first  day  and  on  the  second 
day  mount  Nisir  held  the  ship,  on  the  third  day 
and  on  the  fourth  day  likewise,  on  the  fifth  and 
sixth  days  likewise."  When  the  seventh  day 
came  I  released  a  dove.  The  dove  flew  hither 
and  thither;  there  was  no  resting  place,  so  it 
returned.  Next  I  sent  forth  a  swallow.  The 
swallow  also  flew  hither  and  thither,  and,  as 
there  was  no  resting  place,  returned.  Then  I 
sent  forth  a  raven.  The  raven  flew  away,  and, 
when  it  saw  that  the  waters  bad  fallen,  it  ap- 
proached, alighting  but  not  returning. t 

*  Mentioning  the  nights  as  well  as  the  days,  as 
does  the  Hebrew  narrative  at  the  same  point. 
Delitzsch  reads  "six  days  and  seven  nights." 
His  text  thus  contains  a  formtila  often  found 
elsewhere,  e.  (/.,  1.  188.  The  majority  of  Assyr- 
iologists  who  have  examined  the  tablet  discern 
the  marks  for  six  days  and  six  nights,  not  for 
seven  nights. 

+  (»r,  the  raven  flew  away  and  saw  the  abate- 
ment of  the  waters;  [thereupon]  he  eats,  alights 
carefully,  but  does  not  return. 


"  I  then  sent  forth  [all  the  animals]  to  the  four 
winds.  I  poured  out  a  libation,  1  made  an 
offering  on  the  summit  of  the  mountain.  1  set 
vessels  by  sevens,  and  underneath  them  spread 
sweet  cane,  cedar,  and  herbs.  The  gods  smelled 
the  savor  and  like  files  gathered  about  the 
offerer. 

"  When  the  goddess  Ishtar  arrived,  she  raised 
aloft  the  great  ornament  which  the  god  of  the 
sky  had  made  at  her  ricpiest.  'By  the  ornament 
of  my  neck,  never  will  I  forget;  I  will  think  of 
these  days,  and  to  eteriuty  not  forget  them.  Let 
all  the  gods  come  to  tlie  ofiering  except  liel,  for 
he  Inconsiderately  caused  the  deluge  and  con- 
signeil  my  people  to  the  judgment.'  But  Bel 
came  also  ;  and,  when  he  saw  the  ship,  was  filled 
with  wrath  against  the  gods  of  the  heavenly 
spirits.  '  What  soul  has  escaped  ?'  he  cried  ;  '  not 
a  man  shall  survive  the  judgment.'  Then  god 
Ninib  ojieiRMl  liis  mouth  and  si)ake  to  the  valor- 
ous Bel ;  '  Who  else  than  god  La  has  done  this 
thing'.'  Ea  knows  surely  every  ex(U-clsm.'  Ea 
also  opened  his  mouth,  and  said  to  the  valorous 
Bel:  'Tliou,  valorous  (dileftain  of  the  gods,  so 
utterly  without  refiection  hasi  thou  acted  and 
caused  the  flood.  On  the  sinner  lay  his  sin,  on 
the  evil  doer  his  evil  deeds.  Uesist  ffrom  wrath] 
that  he  be  not  cut  off;  be  gracious  also.  Instead 
of  causing  a  flood-storm,  send  the  lion  and  the 
hyena,  famine  and  pestilence,  and  let  them  di- 
minish men.  And  as  for  me,  I  did  not  reveal 
the  purpose  of  the  great  gods;  I  sent  Atrahasis* 
a  dream  and  he  perceived  the  purpose  of  the 
gods.' 

"  Then  Bel  became  reasonable,  and  went  up 
into  the  ship,  grasped  my  hand  and  led  me  up. 
He  led  up  my  wife  also,  and  made  her  kneel  at 
my  side.  Tlien  turning  to  us  he  placed  himself 
between  us  and  blessed  us,  saying:  '  Heretofore 
Sitnaplshtlm  was  a  [mere]  man;  now  let  him 
and  his  wife  be  exalted  to  equality  with  the 
gods,  and  let  him  dwell  afar  off  at  the  mouth 
of  the  livers.'  Thereupon  he  took  me  away  and 
placed  me  afar  off  at  the  mouth  of  the  rivers. "t 

The  account  of  the  flood  exi.sted  in  this 
form  among  the  Assyrians  and  Babylonians 
before  the  seventh  century  b.  c,  for  the 
colophon  affixed  to  the  tablet  on  which  it  is 
recorded  states  that  the  document  is  the 
property  of  Ashnrbanipal,  who  reigited  over 
Assyria  from  668  to  about  626  b.  o.  ,  and  that 
the  words  were  copied  from  an  older  tablet. 
It  existed  in  the  same  form  centuries  earlier, 
for  fragments  of  it  have  been  found  wlych 
were  written  in  the  time  of  .\nimizadnga, 
the  fourth  successor  of  Haniniurabi,  king  of 
Babylon,  who  is  believed  on  good  evidence 
to  have  been  Abraham's  contemporary  Am- 
raphel. 

A  coin  bearing  a  picture  of  tlie  flood  was 
struck  at  Apaniea  in  Phrygia  in  the  reign  of 
the  Roman  emjieror  Seittiniius  Severus.  193- 
211  A.  D.  Aboat.inscribed  with  the  letters  NllE, 
the  Greek  s]ielling  of  Xoah.  floats  on  the  waves. 
A  man  and  a  woman  are  in  it.  A  bird  iicrches 
on  it ;  and  another  bird  flies  toward  the  ves- 

*  In  the  account  which  Berosus  wrote  in  Oreek, 
this  name  is  written  Xisuthrus,  the  constituent 
parts  being  transposed.  It  Is  another  name  of 
Sitnapishtim. 

t  Such  is  essentially  the  cuneiform  story.  As 
here  reproduced,  it  is  slightly  abridged;  chiefly, 
however,  by  the  omission  of  mutilated  lines  and 
of  sentences  whose  translation  Is  still  uncer- 
tain. 


Flute 


227 


Fountain 


sel.  bearing  a  branch  between  its  feet.     Be- 
fore the  ark  the  former  inmates  are  seen, 


-:/ 


-j:i^i:;itdSiyy-'-:^^^ 


Coin  of  Aiiiiiucu,  representing  Noah  mid  the  Ark. 

havinf;  (|uittetl  itand  {lot  on  dry  land.  Apamea 
was  fiiniicrly  called  Kiliotus.  tlif  Ark.  'I'he 
coins  of  towns  fri'(iMi'ntiy  cxhihitcd  some 
jirominent  event  in  their  liistory  or  local 
traditions. 

Flute. 

A  musical  instrument  used  in  Babylon  (Dan. 
iii.  ;">)  :  in  Aramaic  MnKhroh'ithn',  whistle,  pipe. 
Pipes  consisting  of  oiu-,  two,  or  more  reeds 
were  in  use.  Accordinj;  to  tlie  Sejitnajjint.  it 
was  Pan's  ]iipe,  which  consisted  of  several 
reeds,  joined  side  by  side  in  a  series,  and  grad- 
ually diminishinj;  in  k'ngth. 

A  lliite  or  pipe,  in  tireek  .Ih/o.s-,  was  i)layed 
in  the  liou.se  of  mourning  (Mat.  ix.-J.'i)  anil  on 
oecasi((ns  of  joy  (Uev.  xviii.  22).     See  Pipk. 

Flux,     ."^oe  Dysextery. 
Fly. 

1.  A  (lying  insect:  a  two-winged  insect, 
one  of  the  order  Dipfeni.  specially  the  do- 
mestic fly  ( }fiii>ra  domrsfica).  So  troublesome 
are  flies  of  various  kinds  in  hot  cipuntries  (Is. 
vii.  IS;  Kcc.  \-.  1)  that  the  Ekninites  wor- 
shiped a  go<l  Haal-zebuh.  lord  of  Hies,  who  was 
snppo.sed  to  be  able  tti  keej)  the  annoyance 
within  bonn<ls  (2  Kin.  i.  2). 

2.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  'Aroh.  a 
voracious,  biting  insect  of  Kgyjit  (Ex.  viii. 
21  :  Ps.  cv.  .'51  I.  It  devoured  ( Ps.  Ixxviii.  -I.'>) 
and  destroyed  (Ex.  viii.  24,  margin).  Accord- 
ing to  the  Sei>tuagint,  the  dog  fly. 

Fol'ly. 

The  absence  of  wisdoui,  disregard  of  the 
true  nature  of  things  in  their  relation  toman 
anil  (iod.  Hence  injudicious  action  or  con- 
duct (I'rov.  XV.  21;'Ecc.  i.  17;  x.  1;  2  Cor. 
xi.  1).  and  wickedness  (Gen.  xxxiv.  7:  Dent, 
xxii.  21  ;  .Tosh.  vii.  1.");  .Tudg.  xix.  2:?:  xx.  (i). 

Food. 

The  food  of  the  Hebn\v>.  when  tliey  lived  a 
siiuple  nomadic  life.  coii>isteil  larirely  of  bread 
;nid  the  jproducts  of  the  herd,  such  as  luilk. 
I'urds.  and  occasion;illy  meat  ((ien.  xviii.  7,  s  ; 
.Tud-r.  v.2.">l.  Wild  honey  was  also  eaten  (.Iinlg. 
xiv.  S,  <)).    When  they  ailojited  a  settled  life  in 


Palestine,  the  products  of  k;ii'o n.  Mueyard, 
and  olive  yard  were  added,  such  as  lentils, 
cucumbers,  lieans  (2  Sam.  xvii.  -j-^i,  jiome- 
gniiuites,  figs,  grapes  (  Num.  xiii.  2.'5;  xx.  ."»; 
Mat.  vii.  K!).  Sweet  and  sour  wine  were  im- 
jiortant  articles  of  food.  Kish  were  eaten, 
locusts  also,  and  fowl  and  eggs  (1  Kin.  iv. 
23;  Neh.  xiii.  K!;  Mat.  iv.  1>:  Enke  xi.  12). 
A  simple  repast  consisted  of  bread  and  len- 
tils ((ien.  XXV.  ;{4)  or  other  pottage  (2  Kin. 
iv.  :!S),  or  bread  and  win(!  ((ien.  xiv.  1m.  or 
roasted  gr.iin  and  sour  wine  (Putii  ii.  111. 
Abraliam  honored  his  unexpected  guests  with 
a  more  jnetentious  meal,  consisting  of  butter 
and  milk,  cakes  made  of  fine  Hour,  and  the 
flesh  of  a  calf  ((ien.  xviii.  :i-Hi.  A  greater 
variety  of  foods  came  on  the  tables  of  the 
rich  and  great  (1  Kin.  iv.  22.  2.'J ;  Neh.  v.  IH). 
See  Mk.vls. 

Fool. 

One  destitute  of  understanding  or  wisdom 
(2  Cor.  xi.  l(i)  ;  especially  a  wicked  man, 
the  doctrine  taught  bi'ingthat  nothing  shows 
a  greater  want  of  understandiuu  than  for  a 
man  to  commit  wickedness.  The  jii-eater  the 
talents,  the  greater  the  responsibility,  and 
consequently  the  folly  of  misusing  tlu'm  for 
evil  ends  (1  Sam.  xxvi.  21  ;  2  Sam.  iii.  :{.! ; 
xiii.  i:?;  Ps.  xiv.  1  ;  cp.  2,  3,  etc. ;  Prov.  xxvi. 
10;  Mat.  V.  22).  See  Folly,  Phii.<isoi>iiy, 
and  Wisdom. 

Fool'ish-ness. 

The  same  as  folly  (2  .'^am.  xv.  151  ;  Pmv. 
xxii.  l.">|. 

Foot'man. 

1.  .\  soldier  who  marches  and  fights  on 
foot,  in  contradistinction  to  one  on  horseback 
(Nuni.xi.21  ;  2  Kin.  xiii.  7:  1  Chron.  xviii.  41. 

2.  A  runner  (1  Sam.  xxii.  17). 

For'est. 

.\n  extensive  wood  (Is.  xliv.  14).  One  grew 
on  Lebanon,  famed  for  its  cedars  and  firs  (1 
Kin.  vii.  2)  ;  another  si  retched  from  the  Medi- 
terranean .Sea  well  into  the  hill  country  of 
Eiibraim  (.Josh.  xvii.  1.").  IS)  ;  a  third  was  in 
.Tudah  (1  .^am.  xxii.  fi)  ;  and  a  fourth  existed 
bevond  .Jordan  near  Slahauaim  (2  ."sam.  xviii. 

ti  it). 

For-tu-nat'uB  [fortunate]. 

( >ne  of  three  mes.sengers.  ai>|>arently  from 
Corinth,  who  reache<l  Paul,  and  supplii>d 
what  was  lacking  on  the  part  of  the  cJiurch 
in  that  city  (1  Cor.  xvi.  17). 

Foun'tain. 

.\  sjiriug  arisiug  from  under  a  nn-k  or  a 
bank,  or  welling  up  from  the  ground  tlVut. 
viii.  7).  In  the  geogniphy  of  Palestine  if  re- 
quires to  be  carefully  distinguished  from  mere 
wells.  )>ools.  and  cisterns.  SiroUL'  fountains 
are  numerous  in  Palestine.  'I'liey  .-ire  the 
permanent  source  of  rivers,  and  give  life  and 
fertility  to  the  soil.  Many  towns  are  mimed 
from  tln'iu.  as  En-ilor  and  the  other  com- 
])ounilsof  En.  Fignrjitively.  fonntaiii  symbol- 
izes the  jiernmnent  and  inexhuustible  source 


Fountain  Gate 


228 


Frontlet 


of  spiritual  blessings  (Ps.  xxxvi.  9  ;  Jer.  ii.  13 ; 
Rev.  vii.  17 :  xxi.  (i).  Children  are  also  de- 
.scribed  as  a  fountain  proeeeding  from  the 
parents  (I)eut.  xxxiii.  US;  l*s.  Ixviii.  2t>). 

Foun'tain  Gate.     See  .Jkkusalem  11.  3. 

Fowl. 

Any  bird  ((ien.  i.  2(j ;  Lev.  xi.  13-19). 

Fowl'er. 

One  who  catches  birds  by  a  uet  or  other 
snare  (Ps.  cxxiv.  7  ;  Prov.  vi.  .'J)  ;  hence  figu- 
ratively one  who  ensnares  the  innocent  or 
unwary,  and  takes  their  life,  or  lures  them 
tu  moral  and  spiritual  ruin  (Ps.  xci.  3;  cxxiv. 
7  ;  Hos.  ix.  8). 

Fox. 

An  animal  which  dwells  in  holes  (Mat.  viii. 
20;,  especially  among  solitary  ruius  (Lam.  v. 
18),  and  is  sly  and  careful  for  its  own  safety 
(Luke  xiii.  32  ;  Ezek.  xiii.  4).  Tristram 
enumerates  two  species  as  occurring  in  Pales- 
tine, the  Egyptian  fox  ( Vnlpes  uilotic.a),  and 
the  tawny  fox  (Vulpes  flavescens).  The  former 
is  abundant  in  central  and  southern  Pales- 
tine, as  well  as  east  of  the  .Jordan,  and  the 
latter,  which  is  .somewliat  larger,  and  may 
jierhaps  be  only  a  variety  of  the  common 
fox  {]'Hlp('s  vnhiaris),  in  the  wooded  parts  of 
the  country. 

Under  the  general  name  of  fox,  l^lm'al,  the 
Hebrews,  like  the  modern  inhabitants  of 
Palestine,  appear  to  have  com])rehended  the 
jackal,  which  belongs  to  the  dog  family,  al- 
though they  had  a  special  name  for  the 
jackal.  The  jackal  is  jxrhaps  intended  in 
Judg.  XV.  4  (cp.  K.  V.  margin) ;  for  it  abounds 
in  the  lowland  of  Philistia,  goes  about  by 
night  in  bands,  and  spends  the  day  as  a  pack 
in  stmie  cave.  It  is  thus  easily  caught ;  where- 
as the  fox  is  a  solitary  animal  and  difficult  to 
capture.  The  jackal  also  devours  carrion 
(Ps.  Ixiii.  10),  which  the  fox  is  loath  to  do. 
The  jackal  eats  fruit  as  well  as  flesh,  and 
may  be  intended  in  Song  ii.  15,  yet  the  fox 
tramples  and  destroys  vineyards. 

Frank'in-cense. 

A  fragrant  gum  of  a  tree  (Ecclus.  1.  8; 
Song  iii.  (i).  It  is  white  in  color,  as  its  He- 
brew name  iJbonah  denotes.  It  was  an  in- 
gredient in  the  holy  anointing  oil  with  which 
priests  were  consecrated  to  their  sacred  func- 
tions (Ex.  XXX.  34).  It  was  added  with  oil  to 
the  meal  offerings  (Lev.  ii.  1,  2,  1.^.  l(i,  R.  V.), 
and  ultimately  burned  (vi.  1.")).  No  frankin- 
cense was  added  to  sin  offerings  (Lev.  v.  11) 
and  offerings  of  jealousy  (Num.  v.  1.")).  Pure 
frankincense  was  ]ioured  upon  the  twelve 
loaves  of  showbread  (Lev.  xxiv.  7;  cp.  also 
1  Chron.  ix.  2!>;  Neb.  xiii.  .5).  The  drome- 
daries of  Midian,  Ephah,  and  Shebii,  brought 
it  to  Palestine  from  Arabia  (Is.  Ix.  (J;  ,Ter.  vi. 
20).  A  hill  of  frankincense  is  mentioned  in 
the  Song  as  existing  ai)iiareutly  in  Palestine 
(Song  iv.  (5;  cp.  Ecc.  ii.  .5;  Antiq.  viii.  (5,  (i; 
ix.  1.  2).  Watt  (Economic  Products  of  India, 
vol.  i.   pi>.   14,   !.">)   considers   that    tlie    true 


frankincense  of  antiijuity,  the  olibanum  of 
European  conmierce,  comes  from  Boifwcllia 
florihiindii,uno  of  the  Am;/ridnceie  (Amyrids), 
growing  in  India,  or  from  other  species  of 
the  genus,  especially  Ii.  Carteri,  B.  Frereuna, 
and  B.  neirata,  of  which  there  are  two  va- 


Frar^incense  (Boswellia  Carteri). 

rieties,  B.  serratn  proper,  the  B.  thnrifera  of 
Roxburgh,  and  the  variety  7>.  glabra.  The 
first  and  fourth  species  are  Indian;  the  sec- 
ond and  third  occur  on  the  Somali  coast  of 
Africa  and  on  the  south  coast  of  Arabia.  The 
frankincense  itself  is  gum  resin,  which  is 
dry,  consists  of  tears  often  an  inch  long, 
with  a  balsamic  odor,  especially  when  burnt. 
A  poor  quality,  reddish  in  color,  is  obtained 
in  spring.  The  best  quality  is  gotten  later 
and  is  white. 

Frog. 

An  atui)hibious  animal  (Ex.  viii.  3;  Ps. 
Ixxviii.  4.");  cv.  30;  Rev.  xvi.  13)  ;  probably, 
in  tin'  former  passages,  Eana  jjimctata,  the 
dotted  frog  of  Egypt. 

Front 'let. 

A  band  for  the  forehead  ;  then,  figuratively, 
the  constant  jiublic  exhibition  of  a  trait  or 
obedience  to  a  command  (Ex.  xiii.  KJ ;  Deut. 
vi.  8,  •):  xi.  18;  cp.  Prov.  iii.  3).  The  in- 
junction was  interpreted  literallj'  by  the 
later  .Tews;  aiul  in  ol)edience  to  it,  a  small 
box,  divided  into  four  comiiartments.  each 
with  a  short  i)assage  from  tlu>  l)ooks  of  Moses, 
was  jdaced  between  the  eyes  and  ke])t  in  po- 
sition i)y  a  baiul  or  fillet  ("ucircling  tlie  head. 
Frontlets  were  a  kind  of  ]ibylactery. 


Fuller 


229 


Gad 


Full'er. 

<  )Mf  wlmsi'  o(-('ii|)ati(>ii  is  I'ithiT  to  full  un- 
dressed eliitli,  cleansiiis;  it  fnmi  oil  and  ;;rease. 
and  ri'nderin>;  it  tliiek  or  compact  l)y  tlieappli- 
eation  of  |iressuri-  to  it.  orelse  cliielly  to  tlior- 
on^ilily  cleanse  soiled  };arnients  (Mark  ix.  '.i). 
The  clotliiuL;  was  steeped  in  soap  and  water 
(Mai.  iii.",')and  trodden,  as  the  llehrew  name 
denotes.  The  fuller's  fountain,  l''-n-ro<;el,  was 
situated  to  the  southeast  of  Jerusalem.  The 
fuller's  tield  was  lu-ar  .U'ru.salein,  and  had 
lieside  it  a  hi;,'liway  and  the  conduit  of  the 
upper  ]iool  (Is.  vii.  :{ ;  .\.\xvi.  "J),  which  was 
so  near  the  wall  of  the  city  that  the  .\ssyrian 
amhassadors,  standing  there  and  sjieaUin;;, 
were  heard  ami  understood  by  the  people  on 
tlie  city  wall  c,'  Kin.  .wiii.  IT^.  The  conduit 
is  conimonly  re<;arded  as  the  channel  which 
conducts  the  water  from  the  Hirket  Mamilla, 
in  the  upper  Hinnom  valley  northwest  of 
Jerusalem,  into  the  city.  If,  however,  the 
comluit  referred  to  is  the  tuniul  coiniectinf; 
the  fountain  of  tlu'  Viririn  with  the  ]m)o1  of 
Siloam.  the  fuller's  fuld  lay  near  Kn-rogel. 

Fur'long. 

The  reniU'rinj;  of  the  Cireek  noun  Sfadion 
(Luke  xxiv.  13;  John  vi.  19;  xi.  18;  Rev.  xiv. 
•Jill.  The  (Jreek  slitdion  was  CtHMireek  and 
(>(l(ii)  Hnglish  feet,  or  about  ^  of  a  Unman  mile. 
It  is  a  little  less  than  an  Kni;lisli  furlong, 
which  is  (ilitt  Knglish  feet,  or  J  of  an  English 
mile.     See  Mk.vsukk. 

Fur'nace. 

1.  .\u  oven  for  smelting  iron  from  the  ore 
(I)eut.  iv.  2(1;  I  Kin.  viii.  51).     See  Ikon. 

2.  A  crucible  for  relining  gold  and  silver, 
and  for  melting  gold,  silver,  lira.ss.  tin,  and 
lead  (I'rov.  xvii. :{ ;  Ezek.  xxii.  20).  See  S.mith. 

3.  A  bake  oveu  ;  so  in  Xeh.  iii.  11  ;  Is.  xxxi. 
9.     See  Bki;.\i>. 


G. 


Ga'al  [loathing]. 

.\  son  uf  i;iied.  and  an  antagonist  of  Abim- 
clech,  whom  llie  men  of  Shechem  had  made 
king.  During  Abimelech's  absence  the  Sho- 
chemites  dealt  treacherously  against  him,  and 
.set  an  and>ush  for  him  in  the  mountains.  At 
tliis  Juncture  <laal.  at  (he  lu'ad  of  a  band  of 
followers,  canu'  to  the  city,  and  having  gained 
the  conlidence  of  its  inhabitants,  began  to 
vilify  him  jmblicly  iind  to  a.ssunu'  authority. 
Zebul.  .Vbimelech's  governor  in  Shechem, 
sent  him  wmil  of  what  was  going  on.  an<l  ad- 
vised him  to  lay  an  and)Ush  against  the  city 
by  night,  and  altaik  the  rebels  in  the  morn- 
ing. The  as.sault  was  successful.  (Jaal  was 
driven  out,  but  was  neither  captured  nor 
slain  (Judg.  ix.  2(i-41). 

Ga'asti  [treud>ling,  earllniuakc]. 

A  hill  ill  (lie  hill  country  of  i'.phraim,  .south 
of  TimiiMth-serab  (.losli.  xxiv.  :!••;  .ludg.  ii. 
!l;2Sam.  xxiii.  :!(i;  1  Chroii.  xi.  .'i.'i.  Exact 
situation  unknown. 


Ga'ba.    S<'e(JKn.\. 

Gab'bal  (tax  gatherer]. 

.\  Ki'iijamite  who  consented  to  live  in  Je- 
rusjihiii  after  the  captivity  (Nell.  xi.  b). 

Gab'ba-tha  [an  elevated  place]. 

The  ((luivalent  in  Aramaic  of  tlie  fJreek 
word  Litho.strotoii.  a  pavement  of  tes.sidlated 
work  (John  xix.  i:?).  On  it  stood  the  imlilic 
tribunal  on  which  Pontius  I'ilate  sit  to  decide 
cases,  rrobably  it  was  an  open  sjiace  in  front 
of  Herod's  jialace  (cp.  War  ii.  11,  H).  There 
is  no  reason  to  believe  that  I'ilate,  like  ('asar 
on  his  cam|iaigns.  carried  a  tr:ins]iortabI<* 
liavemeiil  about  with  him.  which  he  laid 
wherever  he  wished   to  erect   his  tribunal. 

Ga'bri-el  [man  of  <iod]. 

.\ii  aiigel  of  high  rank  sent  to  interpret  a 
vision  to  the  prophet  Daniel  (Dan.  viii.  l(j- 
27).  He  was  cotnmissioned  again  to  visit  the 
prophet  to  give  him  skill  and  understand- 
ing, and  ri'Veal  to  him  the  )irophecy  of  tlie 
.seventy  weeks  (ix.  l(i-27).  \{  a  long  subse- 
(lueiit  ]ieriod  he  was  dispatched  to  .leriisjileni 
to  announce  to  Zacharias  the  birth  of  John 
the  Haiilist  (Luke  i.  11-22),  and  to  Na/Jireth 
to  hail  the  \'irgin  Maryas  <-hosen  to  tlu-  high 
jtrivilege  of  being  motlier  of  the  Messiah  i2<>- 
:J1).  (iabriel  described  himself  as  habitiuilly 
standing  in  the  presence  of  tJod  (l!i).  Thence, 
doubtless,  he  departed  at  longj-r  or  shorter 
intervals  to  carry  the  divine  me.s.siiges  to  and 
from  this  earth  or  other  worlds. 

Gad  [good  fortune]. 

1.  A  son  of  .lacob  by  Zilpah.  Leah's  liaiiil- 
niaid.  .\t  his  birth  Leah  said.  "  I'ortiinate  1" 
and  she  called  his  name  (iad  i(ien.  xxx.  Ill, 
11  ;  cji.  i::,  K.  v.).  Jewish  tradition  adoptid 
a  diiferent  ri-ading  from  the  text,  and  inaile 
Leah.siiy,  "  .\  troopor  fortunecometh."  Jacob 
prophesied:  "(ia<l.  a  troop  shall  i>ress  upon 
liim  :  but  he  shall  (ire.ss  upon  their  lieel " 
((!en.  xlix.  1!»,  II.  V.l.  Moses  bles.sid  (JikI 
■who  eidarged  (lad,  and  jmiised  tlie  valor  of 
the  tribe  and  its  fidelity  t4>duty  (Deut.  xxxiii. 
2(t.  21).  (iad  had  .seven  sons  KJeii.  xlvi.  Ki). 
each  of  whom,  with  the  possible  exception  of 
Ezhon,  founded  a  tribal  family  iNiim.  xxvi. 
15-lH). 

2.  The  tribe  of  which  (iail  was  the  jiro- 
genilor,  the  (iadites  (Num.  i.  II  ;  Dent,  xxvii. 
i:{;  Ezek.  xlviii.  27,  2",  .'Mi.  .\l  the  first  cen- 
sus in  the  wilderness  the  (Jailitcs  cai>able  of 
bearing  arms  weri'  l.">,(!.".i)  (Num.  i.2l,  2.'>); 
at  the  .second  there  were  |(»..-.(H)  (xxvi.  l.V 
l.s).  Valiant  (Iadites  joined  David  at  Ziklag 
(1  Chron.  xii.  H).  The  territory  occtiiiied  l>y 
the  tribe  was  east  of  the  .lordan.  and  was  a.s- 
siglied  thiiii  by  Moses,  but  with  the  proviso 
that,  before  (iiially  settling  down  in  it.  the 
warrioi-s  of  the  trilu-  should  cross  tlie  river 
with  tlu'ir  brelhren,  and  give  assistance  in 
the  comimst  of  Canaan  (Num.  xxxii.  21-:<2  . 
'I'he  territory  of  the  (iadites  was  situated  be- 
tween that  of  Kciibeii  on  the  south  and  th<' 
half  tribe  of  Manavseh  on  the  north.  It  in- 
cluded  (he  southern   |>art   of  mount  (iilea<l 


Gadarenes 


230 


Galatia 


from  tlie  Jabhok  soutliward  to  Hoshbon,  and 
from  tlu'  vicinity  of  Kal)l)ath-aniniou  on  the 
east  westward  to  the  Jordan  valley.  lu  the 
valley  it  took  in  the  entire  eastern  hank  from 
Beth-niinrah,  near  the  nortliern  i-nd  of  the 
Dead  Sea,  to  the  lake  of  (lennesaret  (Josh. 
xiii.  21-28;  Deut.  iii.  12,  1(J,  17).  The  country 
was  adapted  to  pasturage  (Num.  xxxii.  1-4). 
Eamoth  in  (lilead  was  in  the  territory  of 
Gad,  and  was  ai)i)()iuted  a  city  of  refuge  (Josh. 
XX.  8).  2  Sam.  xxiv.  .">  i)rol)al)ly  means  that 
the  enumerators  i)a.ssed  from  the  Arnon  to- 
ward Gad  and  unto  Ja/.er. 

3.  A  prophet,  David's  seer,  who,  when 
David  was  in  the  cave  of  Adullam,  advised 
him  to  quit  that  i)lace  of  refuge  and  seek 
safety  elsewhere  (1  Sam.  xxii.  5),  and  who 
later  gave  the  king  the  option  from  God  of 
three  kinds  of  i)unishment  for  his  having 
numbered  the  ])eoi)le  (2  Sam.  xxiv.  11-14). 
He  aided  in  arranging  the  musical  service 
of  the  sanctuary  (2  Chmn.  xxix.  25),  and  he 
wrote  an  account  of  David's  reign  (1  Chron. 
xxix.  29). 

4.  Perhaps  a  heathen  deity  was  known  by 
the  name  of  Gad,  for  Isaiah  represents  the 
Israelites  as  engaging  in  idolatrous  worship, 
and  setting  a  table  for  Fortune  [Hebrew  Gad] 
and  filling  up  mingled  wine  unto  Fate  [He- 
brew Meni]  (Is.  Ixv.  11,  R.  V.). 

Gad-a-renes'. 

Natives  or  inhabitants  of  Gadara,  which 
Josephus  calls  the  metropolis  of  Persea  and  a 
place  of  strength,  adding  that  it  had  wealthy 
inhabitants  (War  iv.  7,  3).  He  also  describes 
it  as  a  Greek  city  (Antiq.  xvii.  11,  4).  Eu- 
sebius  places  it  east  of  the  Jordan,  nearly  op- 
posite to  Tiberias  and  Scythoijolis.  It  has  been 
identified  as  Umm  Keis,  about  5i  P]nglish  miles 
southeast  from  the  southern  side  of  the  sea 
of  Galilee,  with  the  river  Yarmuk  between. 
There  are  remains  of  two  theaters,  a  ceme- 
tery with  rock-hewn  tombs,  and  sarcophagi, 
the  former  cut  in  the  limestone  rocks,  the 
latter  made  of  basalt.  The  hot  springs  be- 
longing to  (xadara  are  north  of  the  Yarmuk, 
while  Umm  Keis  lies  to  the  south  of  that  river. 
Gadarenes  is  the  reading  approved  by  textual 
criticism  in  Mat.  viii.  28  (cp.  Mark  v.  1 ;  Luke 
viii.  21!,  37,  A.  V.).     See  Gergesenes. 

The  designation  "  country  of  the  Gada- 
renes" may  jjcrhaps  have  been  used  by  the 
evangelist  in  a  broad,  general  sense  and  have 
been  adopted  because  (Gadara  was  a  well- 
known  city,  and  sufiiciently  indicated  the 
locality. 

Gad'dl  [fortunate]. 

The  spy  who  re])resented  the  tribe  of  Ma- 
nasseh  in  the  exjiloralion  of  Canaan  (Num. 
xiii.  11). 

Gad'di-el  [God  hath  given  fortune]. 
The  si)y  rei)resentiiig  Zebulun  in  the  ex- 
ploration of  Canaan  (Num.  xiii.  10). 

Ga'di  [a  Gadite]. 

Father  of  king  Menahem  (2  Kin.  xv.  14). 


Ga'ham  [fiamiug,  t)urnt]. 
A  sun  (if  Naliorand  Keumah  (Gen.  xxii.  24). 
Ga'har  [liiding  place]. 

Head  of  a  fanjily  of  Nethinim  who  returned 
from  captivity  (Ezra  ii.  47;  Neb.  vii.  49). 

Ga'ius  [a  common  lioman  name,  sometimes 
written  Cuius]. 

1.  A  ^Macedonian,  one  of  Paul's  companions 
in  travel  wlio  were  dragged  into  the  amjihi- 
theater  during  the  riot  at  Ephesus  (Acts  xix. 
29). 

2.  A  man  of  Derbe,  who  accompanied  Paul 
into  Asia  Minor  on  his  last  journey  thither 
(Acts  XX.  4). 

3.  A  Christian  of  Corinth,  bai^tized  by  Paul, 
noted  for  hospitality  to  his  fellow  Christians 
(Rom.  xvi.  23  ;  1  Cor.  i.  14).  Perhaps  he  was 
the  person  to  whom  John  addressed  his  third 
epistle  (3  John  1). 

Gal'a-ad.     See  Gilead. 
Ga'lal   [a  rolling,  as  e.  g.,  the  rolling  of 
one's  way  ou  the  Lord]. 

1.  A  Levite  (1  Chron.  ix.  15). 

2.  Another  Levite,  the  son  of  Jeduthun 
(1  Chron.  ix.  16;  Nell.  xi.  17). 

Ga-la'tia. 

A  district  of  central  Asia  ]\Iinor,  bounded 
on  the  north  by  Bithynia,  Paphlagonia,  and 
Pontus,  on  the  east  by  Pontus  and  Cappa- 
docia,  on  the  south  by  Ca])padoeia  and  Ly- 
caonia,  on  the  west  byPhrygia  and  Bithynia. 
Its  name  was  derived  from  the  fact  that  cer- 
tain Gallic  tribes,  after  having  about  280 
B.  c.  invaded  Macedonia  and  Greece,  mi- 
grated to  Asia  Minor  and  received  this  ter- 
ritory from  Nicomedes,  king  of  Bithynia,  in 
return  for  services  rendered  him  in  war. 
Other  Gallic  tribes  passed  onward  through 
central  Europe,  finally  settling  in  Gaul,  i.  e. 
France.  The  Gauls  were  commonly  called 
Gahdai  by  the  Greeks.  The  chief  cities  of 
Galatia  were  Pessinus,  Ancyra,  and  Tavium. 
The  territory,  however,  varied  in  size  at 
different  times  according  to  the  fortunes  of 
war.  In  189  b.  c.  the  Cialatians  were  sub- 
dued by  the  Romans,  but  retained  their  self- 
government,  and  were  favored  by  their  con- 
querors, since  they  were  valuable  allies. 
Hence  under  their  last  king,  Amyutas.  their 
territory  was  much  extended  to  the  .south, 
so  as  to  include  part  of  Phrygia,  Pisidia.  Ly- 
caonia,  and  Isauria  ;  and,  after  the  death  of 
Amyntas  (25  B.  c).  this  enlarged  region  be- 
came the  Roman  province  of  Galatia.  In  7 
B.  c.  Paphlagonia  and  jvart  of  Pontus  were 
added  on  the  north,  and  after  A.  n.  f)3  other 
territorial  clianges  were  freciuently  made. 
During  the  travels  of  Paul  therefore  the 
term  Galatia  was  ap)>licable  both  to  the  orig- 
inal Galatic  territory  and  to  the  large  Ro- 
Tuan  province.  In  which  sense  it  is  used  in 
Acts  xvi.  (J  (where  the  A.  V.  has  "  when  they 
had  gone  throughout  Phrygia  and  the  region 
of  Galatia,''  and  the  K.  V.  "they  went 
through  the  region  of  Phrygia  and  Galatia.'' 
but    which    Prof    Ramsav   translates   "  thev 


Galatians 


231 


Galbanum 


weut  throuf^h  the  Phrygo-Galatic  region  "), 
and  in  Ads  xviii.  23  (wliicli  translation  is 
open  to  similar  (litliTences  of  <>])inion),  and 
in  Paul's  oi)istle  tu  Ihv  "  churcla's  of  CJala- 
tia,"  is  disputed.  If  (ialatia  meant  the  Ivo- 
num  i)rovince.  then  Paul  evangelized  it  on 
his  first  missionary  journey  (Aets  xiii.,  xiv.) 
in  com])any  with  J{arnal)as.  If  it  meant  the 
old  territory  of  (Jalatia,  then  he  evangelized 
it  on  his  second  journey  (Aets  xvi.  (i).  The 
ehurelies  of  Cialatia  are  also  mentioned  in 
1  tor.  xvi.  1.  In  2  Tim.  iv.  10  we  read  that 
Crc.seens  had  gone  to  (Jalatia,  whieh,  how- 
ever, many  think  nu'ant  (iaul  (now  I^'ranee). 
1  Peter  was  addressed  to  the  Christians  of 
Cialatia  among  others  (i.  l),and  there  (ialatia 
clearly  means  the  Roman  province.  Tliere 
are,  however,  serious  dillieulties  in  so  under- 
standing it  in  The  Acts  and  in  the  Ei)istlu  to 
the  tialatians.  G.  T.  V. 

Ga-la'tians,  E-pis'tle  to  the. 

A  letter  addressed  to  the  churches  of  (Jala- 
tia (i.  '2),  showing  that  there  were  a  number 
of  tliem  in  dill'erent  parts  of  the  territorj'. 
What  churches  are  thus  described  dejiends 
on  the  meaning  we  attach  to  the  term  (iala- 
tia ((].  v.).  The  date  of  the  epistle  also  turns 
on  this  jioint.  If  (Jalatia  he  the  Konuin  ])rov- 
ince,  and  the  churches  of  (Jalatia  those  found- 
ed on  Paul's  first  journey  (Acts  xiii.,  xiv.), 
then  the  ei)istle  was  prol)ably  written  toward 
the  latter  part,  or  at  the  close,  of  I'aul's  sec- 
ond journey,  since  Gal.  iv.  13  ("  tlie  first 
time,"  K.  V.)  imjdies  that  lie  had  visited 
them  twice,  and  sim-e  it  sei-ms  necessjiry  to 
date  the  ejjisth'  later  than  those  to  the  Thes- 
salonians.  If,  however,  (Jalatia  means  (Jala- 
tia proper,  and  if  it  was  evangelized  on  the 
second  journey  (Acts  xvi.  6),  tlien  the  ejiistle 
could  not  have  been  writti'n  before  the  apos- 
tle's soj<iurn  in  Kplu/sus,  since  .\cts  xviii.  'J3 
mentions  his  second  visit,  (Jii  this  interju'eta- 
tion,  to  (Jalatia.  Most  scholars  take  this  latter 
view,  and  date  the  epistle  in  A.  d.  .'>.")  or  .")(>. 
Others,  however.  ])Ut  it  still  later,  thinking 
that  its  resemblances  to  Koiiians  show  that 
it  was  written  shortly  before  that  I'liistle,  say 
in  the  winter  of  .")7-r)8.  W'hativer  its  readers 
and  date,  it  was  occasioned  by  the  operations 
of  certain  ,Iudaizing  teachers  among  the  (Ja- 
Intians.  who  assailed  I'aul's  authority,  ami 
taught  the  iK'ci'ssity  of  ol)serviug  the  Mosjiic 
laws.  They  di'clared  that  Paul,  not  being 
one  of  the  original  ajiostles,  was  dependent 
on  others  for  his  knowledge  of  the  gosjiel. 
They  seem  also  to  have  charged  him  witli 
being  himself  inconsistent  iti  his  preaching 
of  gentile  freedom  from  the  law.  They  also 
attacked  his  (bx  t  rine,  and  jiersuaded  his  con- 
verts to  ado]it  .((wish  observances.  The  very 
pos])el  being  thus  at  stake,  Paul  wrote  this 
epistle  with  great  intensity  of  feeling  and 
vigorous  argument,  .\fter  the  introduction 
(i.  1-llt),  in  which  he  ojiens  the  subject  of 
their  error  in  listening  to  fal.se  teachers,  an<l 
vehementiv  a.sserts  the  <livineuess  of  the  gos- 


pel whieh  he  had  preached,  he  defends  his 
ajMjstolic  authority  (i.  11-ii.  21 1  as  given  di- 
recMy  by  Christ  and  not  dependent  on  man. 
He  al.so  shows  that  the  .hrusiilem  church 
and  the  original  apostles  agreed  with  his 
po.silion  (ii.  l-KM,  and  that  (ii.  11  21)  he  had 
never  changed  his  teaching,  even  when  Peicr 
at  Antioch  hail  seemed  by  his  conduct  to  <ip- 
jio.se  it.  In  chap.  iii.  and  iv.  he  defends  his 
doctrine  of  justilication  by  faith  alone,  aji- 
Iiealing  in  proof  to  their  o"wn  experience  of 
salvation  through  faith  (iii.  1  .".).  to  the  teach- 
ing of  Scrijiture  (iii.  ti  -Jiti,  to  the  analogy  of 
sonshiii  and  its  rights  under  the  civil  law 
(iv.  1-11),  to  their  personal  atlection  for  him- 
self (iv.  12-2(1),  and  to  the  illustration  which 
the  narrative  of  (leiiesis  provided  in  the 
account  of  llagar  and  .Sirah  and  their  sons 
(iv.  21-31).  In  v.-vi.  Ki  lie  ajiplies  the  doc- 
trine of  freedom  from  the  law,  bidding  them 
to  maintain,  yet  not  to  abuse,  their  liberty, 
and  to  exercise  it  with  meekness  and  a  sense 
of  responsibility.  \i.  11-lfs  is  a  conclusion, 
I)robably  in  the  a])ostle's  own  handwriting 
(see  ver.  11  in  K.  V.I,  in  whieh  he  summarizes 
the  substance  <if  his  instruction.  This  ejiis- 
tle  is  the  iniuntd  chnrin  of  Christian  liberty. 
It  is  of  siiecial  value  also  for  the  details  it 
gives  about  the  ajiostle's  life.  Its  harmony 
with  the  account  in  The  Actsof  Paul's  life,  anil 
of  his  relation  to  the  church,  lias  been  much 
contested,  but  may  be  coni]pletely  proved. 
The  epistle  proves  also  that  the  older  ajios- 
tles  were  in  accord  with  Paul,  though  to  him 
was  allotted  the  work  among  the  gentiles.  It 
gives  in  briefer  outline,  ami  with  sjiecial  ap- 
plication, the  same  scheme  of  lialvation  and 
the  same  view  of  the  Hebrew  tlispensation 
wliich  is  more  elaborately  ami  calmly  pre- 
sented in  the  Epistle  to  the  Komans.  All  men 
being  under  law,  and  comlemned  as  sinners 
by  the  law.  salvation  is  impo.ssible  by  the 
works  of  the  law.  Christ  alone  can  .save, 
since  lie  has  by  his  death  met  the  claims  of 
the  law  against  those  who  believe.  The  law 
was  never  inti'iided  to  .sjive.  but  to  be  a 
schoolmaster  (i.  c.  a  slave  who  led  children 
to  school)  to  bring  us  to  Christ.  l!y  faith 
Abraham  was  saved,  and  by  faith  alone  do 
we  become  children  of  A])raham.  jiartakers 
of  the  blessing  and  heirs  of  the  jiromise. 
Judaism,  as  a  method  of  salvation.  wa<  there- 
fore ;i  mi-iiiteriiretatioii  even  of  the  (I.  T., 
and  the  distinction  between  .lew  and  gentile 
has  been  done  away.  The  <leclaratioii  of 
tlie.se  truths  made  Christianity  »  world  re- 
ligion inst<ad  of  a  .Jewish  sect.         <i.  T.  r. 

Gal'ba-num. 

A  fragrant  spice  (Ex.  xxx..'!l  :  Ecclu>.  xxiv. 
l.'i),  in  Hibrew  Hill/inih.  in  (Jreek  fhiilhuue. 
The  (Jreek  ami  Koinan  dnlhiiuiim  was  a  gum 
brought  from  Persia.  It  is  giiierally  sup- 
Jiosed  to  have  come  from  two  umbelliferous 
plants,  h'lrnto  (iiilhuiiilliio  and  /•'.  ruliiiiiiulis. 
Tin-  Eivant  galbanum  of  European  com- 
merce  is   a   dill'erent  jilant.      The  undullif- 


Galeed 


232 


Galilee 


eroiis  plant  from  which  it  comes  is  imper- 
fectly known. 

Gal'e-ed  [huap  of  witness]. 

A  ciiirn  cri'ctcd  by  Jacob  in  mount  (tilead, 
north  of  the  Jabbok.  The  exact  situation  is 
unknown.  It  was  between  the  respective 
homes  of  Laban  and  Jacob, and  was  intended 
as  a  memorial  of  the  covenant  concluded  be- 
tween them  there,  that  neither  woiihl  pass 
that  place  to  do  the  other  injury  ((Jen.  xxxi. 
45-54)  ;  see  MiZP.\H.  The  two  names  (iilead 
and  (ialeed  are  never  eonfu.sed  in  Hebrew. 
Their  i>ronunciation  is  different;  and  the 
former  is  a  common  noun  rather  than  a 
liropcr  luime.  and  took  the  detinite  article. 

Gal'ga-la,  in  R.  \'.  Gilgal. 

A  i)lace  (1  Mac.  ix.  2),  presumably  one  of 
the  towns  known  as  Gilgal. 

Gal-i-lse'an. 

A  native  or  inhabitant  of  Galilee  (Mark 
siv.  70;  I^ukt-  xiii.  1). 

Gal'i-lee   [Hel)rew  gnlil,  circle, 
region,  district]. 

Originally  a  district  in  the  hill 
country  of  Naphtali  (2  Kin.  xv. 
29;  1  Chron.  vi.  76),  Kedesh  being 
one  of  its  cities  (Josh.  xx.  7  ;  xxi. 
32).  The  twenty  unimi)ortaut 
towns  given  by  Solomon  to  Hiram 
were  in  the  land  of  Galilee  (1  Kin. 
ix.  11).  In  this  region  many  of 
the  Canaanites  remained  (Judg.  i. 
30-33 ;  iv.  5),  and  the  expression 
"(xalilee  of  the  nations"  or  "gen- 
tiles" implies  that  the  district  or 
region  so  called  was  inhabited 
chiefly  by  a  non-Jewish  popula- 
tion (Is.  ix.  1 ;  cp.  1  Mac.  v.  15  and 
Mat.  iv.  15).  The  name  Galilee 
gradually  extended  until  it  in- 
cluded the  country  as  far  south 
as  the  plain  of  Esdraelon  (1  Mac. 
V.  55;  X.  30;  xii.  47.  49).  Many 
of  its  inhabitants  had  been  car- 
ried away,  especially  during  the 
Assyrian  wars  (2  Kin.  xv.  29;  1 
Kin.  XV.  20),  and  the  few  Jews 
who  settled  in  Galilee  after  the 
return  were  taken  to  Jnds^a  by 
Simon  Maccabajus  about  1()4  b.  c. 
(1  jMac.  v.  2.3)  ;  but  Galilee  soon 
after  became  thoroughly  .Jewish. 
It  formed  part  of  tlie  kingdom  of 
Herod  the  Great,  and  on  his  death 
passed  under  the  authority  of 
Herod  the  tetrarch.  It  wa.s  the 
most  northerly  of  the  three  jirov- 
inces  west  of  the  Jordan  into  whi(da 
(if  Phfpnicia  be  ignored)  Palestine 
was  divided  in  the  times  of  the 
Romans.  At  the  period  of  the 
Jewish  war,  a.  i>.  70,  it  was  di- 
vided into  Fijjier  and  Lower  Gal- 
ilee, and  was  liounded  on  tlie  north  by  'I'y- 
rian  territory,  (tn  the  south  by  the  nortli- 
ern    boundary  line  of  Samaria   and    Scyth- 


opolis  to  the  Jordan,  on  the  east  by  Hippene, 
Gadaris,  Ganlonitis,  and  the  kingdom  of 
Agrippa  ;  that  is,  by  the  .Ionian  and  its  lakes, 
and  on  the  west  hj-  IMiu-nicia.  J^ower  (ialilee 
lay  to  the  south  of  Ujiijcr  (.ialilee,  and  ex- 
tended from  Til)erias  to  near  I'tolemais,  now 
Acri',  on  the  Mediterranean  Sea  (\Variii.3,  1  ; 
Life  13,  11,  37;  cp.  also  .luditli  i.  ^).  It  was. 
at  that  time  densely  populated.  It  furnished 
an  army  of  1(10,000  "men  (War  ii.  20,  (i).  There 
were  240  cities  and  villages  within  the  limits 
of  the  two  (ialilees  (Life  45).  The  smallest 
of  them,  it  is  incorrectlv  stated  el.sewhere, 
had  15,000  inhabitants  (War  iii.  .3,  2).  The 
largest  city  was  Sepi)horis,  and  the  largest 
village  Jajiha  (Life  45).  The  mixture  of 
races  tended  to  produce  a  distinct  accent  or 
even  dialect  (Markxiv.  70;  Luke  xxii.  .59; 
cp.  Acts  ii.  7j.  The  peojjle  also  was  sup- 
posed to  be  one  which  never  would  produce 
a  prophet  (John  vii.  41,  .52).  Nevertheless, 
nearly  all  the  apostles  of  Jesus  were  natives 


of  Galilee,  and  he  himself  was  brought  up  in 
it.  In  his  maturer  years  he  made  it  the  chief 
scene  of  his  ministry,  for  on  its  eastern  limits; 


Galilee,  Sea  of 


233 


Galilee,  Sea  of 


was  the  lake  of  (ti'iiiu'saret,  or  sea  of  (iali- 
lif,  wliilf  witliiii  its  aiva  wi'iv  Chtira/.iii, 
licilisaida,  t  aperiKiiini,  Naiii,  Caua  <)f(iali- 
\vv,  and  Nazaielli  il.scll'.  (ialili'u  is  aljoiit  (iO 
iiiili-s  long  liy  "J.")  broad  ;  it  is  m-iiiTall.v  iiuniii- 
laiiuiiis,  wilii  tV-rtilc  valleys  hetwecii.  Its 
sceiiiTV  is  iiicturesciiu".  Low  er  tialilcc.  wliiili 
is  divided  Iroiii  L']iiier  (ialilee  on  a  line  I'liii- 
iiiiig  almost  due  west  from  the  northern  I'lid 
of  the  lake  to  Aere,  is  really  at  a  less  eleva- 
tion alxive  the  sea  levid  than  I'pixr  ( ialilee, 
its  mountains  luiug  all  under  l^.'iO  feet  high. 
It  is  a  eorn-growing  country.  The  higher 
jirovinee  has  summits  of  20(M)'  litMlO.  and  4<MH) 
leet  altitude.  It  is  characterized  hy  olive 
groves. 


It  is  inclo.sed  l.y  hills,  s:ive  where  tlie  Jor- 
dan enters  and  leaves.  The  liills  on  the 
eastern  side  ri.se  to  the  height  of  ItMK)  \\vi 
and  more  ;  tiiose  t)n  tlie  westt-rn  side  towanl 
the  southern  end  of  tlie  lake  are  of  like 
charaeter,  hut  towanl  the  northwest  theyare 
lower  and  less  stee]).  It  is  <lesignated  a  .sea. 
from  its  e(jnsiderahle  i-.\tent,  though  it.-,  water 
is  fresh.  Its  length  from  the  entnmee  t«  tlie 
exit  of  the  .Ionian  is  VSi  miles  :  its  gn-atest 
lireadth,  whirli  is  o|i|iosile  to  .Magdala.  is  7i 
miles.  Its  eastern  siili'  is  ile>iiiiitc-  of  eon- 
si)icuous  indentations,  while  on  the  western 
si<le  there  is  a  swelling  hay  extending  from 
Tell  Hum  on  the  north  to  Tiberias  on  the 
south.    The  depression  of  the  surface  of  the 


^     ^! 


-..utliiTii  I"n(l  I'f  .'^(■a  <>(  iiiililee. 


Gal'i-lee,  Sea  of. 

.\  fresh-water  lake,  fed  hy  the  river  .Jor- 
dan. It  was  called  (jriginally  the  .sea  of  C'hin- 
nereth  (Num.  xxxiv.  11),  later  the  lake  of 
(ieiMH'saret  (Luke  v.  1  :  .\nti(i.  xviii.  'i.  1  ; 
<|i.  xiii..").  7:  1  Mac.  xi.  (iTi.  and  sea  of  ( ialilee 
or  Tiherias  (.lohn  vi.  1:  xxi.  ll.  The  latter 
nanu-  is  preserved  in  the  .\ral)ic  form  liahr 
Tahariva. 


lake  helow  that  of  tlie  Mediterranean  is  GS'^.-I 
feet.  Lying  .so  low.  it  has  a  semitnipienl 
climate,  and  ice-cmwned  Iliriiion  being  at 
no  great  di>tance.  smlden  and  violent  stoims 
at  times  rush  down  the  mountain  slopj-  antl 
terminatt'  on  the  lak<.  The  wati-r  abounds 
in  lish.  Tristram  enumenites  twenty-two 
species;  two  of  Jili-niii'nlir.  seven  of  rhro- 
iniilir,    one   of    Siliiiithr,    and    twelve    of   <'y- 


Galilee,  Sea  of 


234 


Gall 


-;e;i  (if  CJalik'c  I'roni  IjuIow  Tiberias,  witli  Hurmoii  in  tlie  distiuu'u. 


prinidx.  Some  are  called  after  biblical  per- 
sonages, viz.,  Chromis  Andrew.  C.  Simonis.  and 
C.  Ma<id,ilriiii'.  The  best  fish  for  the  table  of 
all  now  in  the  lake  are  the  sheattish  (Carias 
macraciDithus)  and  the  barbel  (Bnrbns  longi- 
ceps).  The  sheatfish  belongs  to  the  same  fam- 
ily as  the  American  catfish,  and  attains  a 
length  of  three  feet.  It  is  called  by  .Tosephus 
Corac'nius ;  and  as  it  occurs  in  the  Upper  Nile 
also,  a  copious  spring  by  the  lake  was  sup- 
posed to  be  a  vein  of  the  Nile  (War  iii.  10,  8). 


Fish  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee  (CUromis  Simonis). 

The  most  abundant  fish  is  Chromis  tiherindis. 
Tristram  has  seen  them  in  shoals  of  over  an 
acre  in  extent,  so  closely  packed  that  it 
seemed  iinpossiltle  for  them  t(t  move.  Their 
dorsal  fins,  rising  above  the  water,  give  it  at 
a  distance  an  appearance  as  if  a  heavy  shower 


were  pattering  on  one  spot  of  the  glassy  lake. 
These  fishes  are  taken  both  in  boats  and  from 
the  shore  in  nets.  Of  course,  most  of  tlie 
fishes  of  the  lake  are  found  in  the  .Jordan 
and  its  tributaries  also.  For  illustrations  of 
the  shore  of  the  lake,  .see  Capekn.\um,  Gen- 
NESARKT,  and  Magdal.x. 

Gall  [remotely  from  Greek  chole,  bile]. 

1.  The  bitter  secretion  of  the  liver,  bile 
(Job  xvi.  i;{:  XX.  25).  In  Helirew  M'rrrah 
and  3Prnrah.  as  being  fluid  or  hitter.  The 
poison  of  asps  was  anciently  believed  to  come 
from  their  bile  (xx.  14).  Venomous,  malig- 
nant feeling  against  what  is  good  was  called 
the  gall  of  l)ittcrncss  (Acts  viii.  2'.',). 

2.  A  jxiisonous,  liitter  herb  (Deut.  xxix. 
IS  ;  xxxii.  32,  :« :  Ps.  Ixix.  21),  called  in  He- 

)rew  Rosh,  in  Greek  Choi?.  It  grew  up  spon- 
taneously in  the  furrows  of  fields  (  Hos.  x.  4, 
where  tlie  Knglish  versions  translate  it  hem- 

ock,  though  in  all  otiier  ])ass;iges  tlieycall  it 
gall).  It  was  associated  in  rhetorical  lan- 
guage with  wormwood  (Dent.  xxix.  18).  A 
sore  ])uuishment  was  likened  to  a  drink  of 
gall  water  (.ler.  viii.  11  ;  ix.  1.');  xxiii.  ir»).  A 
stupefying  drink,  made  of  wine  mingled  with 
gall,  was  mercifully  ortered  to  Jesus  at  the 
place  of  crucifixion  (Mat.  xxvii.  'M).  The 
characteristics  do  not  well  agree  with  hem- 
lock, which  is  not  bitter,  nor  with  the  poiipy. 
They  suit  the  colocynth,  which,  however,  is 
called  in  the  Bible  the  wild  gourd. 


Gallery 


235 


Games 


Gal'ler-y. 

A  Ion;;  rudin  fir  corridor,  or  a  partial  story 
in  a  l)iiil<liii;i  (Kzck.  xli.  15,  !(>;  xlii.  ;{,  5).  A 
<lillt'rciit  llulirrw  word.  riMidori'd  gallcrirs  in 
A.  \'.  of  Song  vii.  ,">,  doiilitk-ss  lueaus  tresses, 
as  it  is  traiislaU'd  in  K.  V. 

Gal'ley, 

A  low  llat-huilt  vessel  with  one  or  more 
l)anks,  i.  <■.  rows  of  oars  (Is.  xxxiii.  21  ;  2  Mae. 
iv.  -JO). 

Gal'lim  [li(a|>s]. 

1.  A  village  near  tJilieali  of  Saul  and  Ana- 
tliotli  (Is.  .\.  -Jii.  :!()),  apparently  not  a  great 
distance  from  Hahurim  (1  Sam.  xxv.  44  ;  2 
Sam.  iii.  I'-l-Hi). 

2.  A  town  of  .Iiidah  called  (iallim,  men- 
tioned by  tlie  Sei)tiiagint  in  a  group  with 
Tekoa,  Uethleheni.  Etam.  and  especially  in 
connection  with  towns  southwest  of  Jerusa- 
lem (Josh.  XV.  Iii'tween  ait  and  (JU). 

Gal'li-0. 

Koman  jjrocoiisul  of  Achaia  at  the  time  of 
Paul's  tirst  visit  to  Corinth.  His  original 
name  was  Marcus  Annanis  Novatus;  but  he 
was  adopted  into  the  family  of  Lucius  Junius 
(iallio,  and  took  the  name  .lunius  Anna'us 
Ciallio.  He  was  the  brother  of  the  Koman 
pliiloso]iher  Seneca,  and,  like  him,  was  put 
to  death  by  the  emjieror  Nero.  When  the 
Jews,  maddeni'd  by  the  suc- 
cess of  I'aiil  at  Corinth,  drag- 
ged him  before  the  jirocon- 
sul's  trit)unal,  (iallio  refused 
to  take  notice  of  religious 
(piestions.  and  summarily 
dismis.sed  the  case.  Hi^  re- 
mained ef|ually  inditl'eront 
when  the  riotous  Jews  took 
Soslhenes,  the  ruler  of  the 
synagogue,  evidently  one  of 
Paul's  converts,  and  beat 
liim  before  the  judgment 
seat  (Acts  xviii.  12-17). 

Gallows. 

Hainan  had  a  gallowsmade 
fiftv  cubits  high,  on  which  to 
hai'iL:  Mordecai  (  Esth.  v.  14.  K.  V.  margin  tree). 
Hanging  by  a  rojie  about  the  throat  was  not 
a  rtisian  liiethod  of  imnishinent.  Haman  no 
doubt  intended  to  im])ale  Mordecai  (cp.  ii. 
23;   Herod,  iii.  1.'>!)V 

Ga-ma'11-el  [(lod's  reward]. 

1.  Son  of  l'e<lah/.ur  and  bead  of  the  tribe 
of  Manasseh  in  the  wilderness  (Num.  i.  10; 
ii.  20;  vii.  51.  5<». 

2.  A  member  of  the  Jewish  sanbedrin.  of 
the  Pharisee  sect,  and  a  doctor  of  the  law, 
held  in  high  rei.utatioTi  by  the  Jewish  peo- 
ple. He  showed  bis  superiority  to  Ids  col- 
leagues in  counscding  them  not  to  persecute 
I'cter  ;ind  the  other  aiiostles.  on  the  ground 
that  if  I  heir  work  wen- simjily  man's,  it  would 
Dually  come  to  nothing,  even  if  they  took  no 
ineastires  against  it;  while  if  it  were  from 
tJod  and  they  persecuted  it,  they  would  be 


fighting  against  (TO{l,and  the  inevitable  is.sue 
\yould  lie  their  defeat  (Acts  v.  34- :{il).  Gama- 
liel had  Paul  for  one  of  his  ])Upils,  and  taugiit 
him  ,ludaism  most  etrectively  (xxii.  3).  Tra- 
dition, as  end)odied  in  the  'lalmud.  makes 
(iamaliel  the  grandson  of  the  celel>rated 
rablii  Hillel.  It  states  also  that  (iamaliel 
long  jiresided  over  the  sanbedrin,  which  is 
improbable,  for  at  this  time  the  presidency 
was  In  Id  by  the  high  jiriests.    He  died  about 

A.  I>.  .")(). 

Games. 

In  the  N.  T.  there  are  numerous  allusions, 
more  or  less  clear,  to  the  games  of  ancient 
Greece.  The  most  imjiortant  <if  these  were 
four  in  number:  the  Olympic  games,  at  Olym- 
])ia,  in  the  district  of  Elis.  in  the  I'elojion- 
nesus;  the  Pythian  games,  at  Delphi,  in 
Phocis;  till'  Nemean  games,  at  Argos.  in  Ar- 
golis,  in  the  IVdoponnesus;  and  the  Isthmian 
games,  on  the  isthmus  of  Corinth.  The  con- 
tests carrie<l  on  were  chariot,  horse,  and  foot 
racing,  (juoiting.  boxing,  wrestling,  hurling 
the  spear.  The  intending  comjietitors  went 
through  a  longcoursi-  of  severe  training.  Im- 
mense mult  it  ndes  were  spectatorsoftheirskill. 
and  though  the  direct  rewards  of  the  vi<'tors 
were  but  slight,  the  honor  given  to  them  by 
their  fellow  citizens  and  countrymen  was  be- 
yond measure  great.    Similar  games  were  in- 


Grecian  (ianies  of  I'ldling  ami  Wrestling. 


traduced  into  Jmla'a  by  helleiiizing  Jews  in 
the  reign  of  Antiochus  K]iiphanes,  and  were 
fostered  by  Herod  the  (iriat  (1  Mac.  i.  Id.  14; 
.\ntiq.  XV.  s.  1);  see  (ivMNAsuM.  .\s  tlie 
Isthmian  games  were  held  in  the  vicinity  of 
Corinth,  and  the  other  three  at  no  great  dis- 
tance, it  is  natural  for  Paul's  two  ejii.stles  to 
the  Corinthians  to  contain  metaphors  or  com- 
parisons born.weil  from  the  games.  In  1  Cor. 
ix.  21  27  there  is  allusion  to  tin-  training  of 
a  comiielitor  in  the  games,  to  running,  and 
to  lighting,  the  object  in  view  being  to  gain 
a  prize.  There  are  scattered  allusions  of  a 
similar  kind  through  other  epistles  ((ial.  ii. 
2;  V.  7  :  Phil.  ii.  1'!;  iii  M  ;  '-'  'I'im-  ii-  5).  In 
Hebrews  tlu're  is  a  notable  pa.ssage  (xii.  1,  2). 
The  vast  multilmle  of  men  and  women  whi> 
have  borne  t4>stimony  to  their  faitli  in  (Jod 
is  likened  to  the  immense  concourse  of  spec- 


Gammadim 


236 


Garrison 


tators  at  a  foot  race.  The  competitor  lays 
aside  every  wei^lit  to  iiiai<e  himself  lighter, 
and  tile  lonj;  fiowiiif;  fjaniieiit,  wliicli  else 
would  l)eset  him  and  i>erhaj>s  throw  him 
down,  lie  re(iuires  ]iatienee  to  an  forward 
perseveriiiffly,  hut  obtains  it  by  lookiiif;  at 
the  lunpire  seated  at  the  end  of  the  course, 
ready  to  confer  the  prize  if  it  be  fairly  won. 
Every  one  of  the.se  details  had  a  distinct 
si)iritual  reference,  which  would  come  home 
with  great  power  to  every  reader  of  the  ejiis- 
tle  who  had  seen  any  of  the  Grecian  games. 

Gam'ma-dim,  in  A.  V.  improperly  Gam- 
madims  [valorous  men]. 

Certain  brave  ]ieoi)le  who  garrisoned  the 
towers  of  Tyre  (Ezek.  xxvii.  11). 

Ga'mul  [recompensed]. 

A  descendant  of  Aaron  wliose  family  in 
David's  reign  was  made  the  twenty-second 
course  of  the  priests  (1  Chrou.  xxiv.  17). 

Gar'den. 

The  first  garden  of  which  we  read  in  Scrip- 
ture was  that  of  Eden,  which  God  caused  to 
grow  for  man  in  his  state  of  innocence  (Gen. 
ii.  8-iii.  24 ;  E/.ek.  xxviii.  13 ;  xxxi.  8,  9). 
Gardens,  specially  of  herbs,  were  watered  by 
the  foot  in  Egypt  with  water  obtained  from 
the  Nile  (Deut.  xi.  10).  The  reference  is  jirob- 
ably  to  irrigation  by  means  of  a  wheel  over 
which  an  endless  rope  with  t)uckets  pa.ssed, 
and  which  was  turned  by  the  foot.  Artificial 
irrigation  was  practiced  in  Palestine  also  (Ecc. 
ii.fi:  Is.  Iviii.  11  ;  Jer.  xxxi.  12).  Aha))  desired 
to  have  a  garden  of  herbs  near  his  ])alace  at 
Jezreel,  and  it  was  to  ol)tain  land  for  the 
purpose  that  he  coveted  Naboth's  vineyard 
(1  Kin.  xxi.  2).  Lilies  and  other  flowers 
were  cultivated  in  gardens  (Song  v.  1 ;  vi.  2). 
So  also  were  fruit  trees  (Jer.  xxix.  5,  28; 
Amos.  ix.  14).  The  garden  of  Gethsemaue 
seems,  from  its  name,  to  have  been  planted 
mainly  with  olive  trees,  and  to  have  had  a 
press  in  it  wlierewith  to  express  the  oil  from 
their  fruit.  There  was  a  royal  garden  at 
Jerusalem  (2  Kin.  xxv.  4).  another  at  Etam 
near  Bethlehem  (Antitj.  viii.  7,3;  cp.  Song 
vi.  11 ;  Ecc.  ii.  5),  another  in  the  palace  at 
Shuslian  (Esth.  i.  .5).  To  protect  gardens 
against  de]iredators  they  were  enclosed  with 
fences  (Song  iv.  12;  Is.  v.  2,  ;i),  and  occa- 
sionally a  lodge  was  i)laced  within  them,  at- 
tended by  a  watcher  (Is.  i.  s).  In  the  seclu- 
sion and  coolness  of  gardens  peojile  walked 
(Hist,  of  .Susanna  i.  7),  sometimes  bathed  (!.")), 
spread  re])asts  (Esth.  i.  r>),  engaged  in  devo- 
tion (Mat.  xxvi.  3fi),  practiced  idolatrous  rites 
(Is.  i.  29;  Ixv.  3;  Ixvi.  17;  cp.  2  Kin.  xvi.  4), 
and  occasioiiallv  liuried  their  dead  (John  xix. 
41). 

Ga'reb  [rough,  scabby]. 

1.  .\n  Ithrite.  one  of  David's  mighty  men 
(2  Sam.  xxiii.  38;  1  t'hron.  xi.  40). 

2.  A  hill  near  Jerusalem  on  the  west  (Jer. 
xxxi.  39;  cj).  38,  40).  Exact  situation  un- 
known. 


Gar'lic. 

A  bull)ous  plant  resembling  the  onion,  and 
in  Hebrew  called  from  its  odor  Shorn.  It  was 
much  eaten  in  Egypt  (Herod,  ii.  12.")),  and 
the  Israelites  when  there  used  it  for  food 
(Num.  xi.  .")).  It  is  Allium  miivum,  of  the 
same  genus  as  the  onion,  but  with  more  taste 
and  scent  than  that  I'sculeiit.  It  is  a  native 
of  central  Asia,  is  grown  largely  in  the  Medi- 
terranean region,  and  is  eaten  by  the  com- 
mon iieoi)le  as  a  reli.sh  to  their  bread. 

Gar'ment.     See  Clothing. 

Gar'mite  [pertaining  to  Gerem,  or  bony]. 

An  appellati<m  of  probably  the  father  of 
Keilah  (1  Chron.  iv.  19). 

Gar'ner. 

A  place  for  storing  grain,  a  granary  (Ps. 
cxliv.  13  ;   Joel  i.  17;  Mat.  iii.  12). 

Gar'nisti. 

To  adorn,  to  decorate  with  ornamental  ad- 
ditions (2  Chron.  iii.G;  Job  xxvi.  13;  ^lat.  xii. 
44  ;  xxiii.  29  ;  Luke  xi.  25 ;  Kev.  xxi.  19). 

Gar'ri-son. 

A  military  post ;  a  body  of  troops  stationed 
in  a  fort  (1  Sam.  xiv.  1,  I.t;  2  Sam.  xxiii.  14- 
16 ;  2  Cor.  xi.  32).  A  dittereut  Hebrew  word 
from  tliat  used  in  the  foregoing  passages  from 
the  O.  T.  is  also  rendered  garrison  by  the  Vul- 
gate and  English  versions  in  1  Sam.  x.  5  ;  xiii. 
3.  But  this  word  certainly  means  a  pillar  in 
Gen.  xix.  26,  and  an  officer  stationed  at  a 
place  in  1  Kin.  iv.  19.  What  does  it  mean  in 
1  Sam.  X.  t') ;  xiii.  3?  There  is  no  authority 
for  rendering  it  by  garrison  except  that  that 
meaning  yields  good  sense  in  these  and  some 
other  ])assages.  The  author  of  the  Books  of 
Samuel,  however,  uses  a  different  word  for 
garrison.  Pillar  is  suital)le  in  the  first  of 
these  ]tassages.  If  this  is  the  true  meaning, 
then  the  Philistines  had  erected  memorial 
columns  in  the  land  of  Israel  as  monuments 
of  their  victory  or  domiuion,  such  as  the  He- 
brews set  up  at  Miziiah  (1  Sam.  vii.  12).  It 
was  quite  cu.stomary  for  conquerors  to  erect 
memorials  in  the  conquered  country.  Egyp- 
tian and  Assyrian  kings  carved  records  of 
their  conquests  on  the  cliff  at  the  Nahr  el- 
Kelb  near  Beirut,  which  were  never  effaced, 
not  even  when  the  Phoenicians  regained  their 
independence,  but  exist  to  this  day.  Driver 
believes  that  the  word  means  ])inar  in  xiii.  3 
also,  and  cites  Amos  ix.  1  in  proof  that  Jona- 
than could  be  said  to  have  smitten  a  pillar. 
But  as  the  word  means  officer  in  1  Kin.  iv. 
19,  as  this  atti'sted  meaning  yields  good  .sense, 
not  only  in  1  Sam.  x.  .">  and  xiii.  .3,  but  al.so 
in  2  Sam.  viii.  fi,  14,  and  as  a  diflerent  word  is 
evidently  used  to  denote  a  garrison,  it  is  better 
to  believe  that  the  author  of  the  double  Book 
of  Samuel  always  uses  it  in  the  sense  of  officer. 
The  smiting  of  a  Philistine  officer  by  Jona- 
than was  an  act  of  rebellion  and  a  just  cause 
of  war.  It  was  so  regarded  by  the  Philis- 
tines. His  overthrow  of  a  pillar  would  have 
been  a  mere  act  of  wanton  violence,  unless 


Gashmu 


237 


Gaza 


there  was  a  body  of  Philistines  i>oste(l  in  its 
vicinity  to  protect  it  from  desecration  ;  and 
it  was  not  customary  to  guard  such  muuu- 
ments. 

Gash'mu.     See  ( i Ksii km. 

Ga'tam  fi)uny]. 

A  ili'scenilaiit  of  Kliphaz  (Gen.  xxxvi.  11  : 
1  t'hron.  i.  ■Mi),  and  cliief  of  a  tribe  of  the 
sons  of  Esiiu  ((ien.  xxxvi.  l(i). 

Gate. 

In  walled  cities  or  palaces  a  gate  was  e.s- 
sential  for  the  egress  and  ingress  of  the  in- 
habita)its,  and  lor  defense  against  the  en- 
trance (jf  an  enemy.  It  was  often  protected 
by  a  strong  tower  ("i  Cliron.  xxvi.  !»),  indeed 
the  gateway  frequently  led  through  the 
tower.  There  were  bars  to  place  across  the 
gates,  and  render  them  stnniger  against  as- 
sjiult  (Dent.  iii.  5  :  1  Kin.  iv.  i:j  ;  2  Cliron. 
viii.  "> ;  xiv.  7).  The  gate  was  a  i)lace  of  i)ub- 
lic  concourse  where  business  was  carried  on 
(1  Kin.  xxii.  10;  2  Kin.  vii.  1  ;  Ezek.  xi.  1)  ; 
legal  transactions  conilucted  and  witnes.sed 
(<;en.  xxiii.  10,  IS;  Hutli  iv.  1-1 1) :  cases  tried 
and  judgment  i)ronounced  (l)eut.  xxi.  19; 
xxii.  lo;  XXV.  7-9;  Job  xxxi.  21;  Amos  v. 
15).  There  were  gates  in  the  enclosures 
<'onnected  with  the  mansions  of  the  aristoc- 
racy (Luke  xvi.  -JO),  wluM-e  love  of  magnifi- 
cence and  display  found  expression  (Prov. 
xvii.  19). 

Gath  [wine  press]. 

One  of  the  five  great  Philistine  cities  (Josh, 
xiii.;};  Judg.  iii.  :{ ;  1  Sam.  vi.  17:  vii.  11;  xvii. 
5:2).  It  was  noted  as  the  residence  of  a  remnant 
of  the  -Viiakim,  men  of  great  stature  (,F<fs1i.  xi. 
2-J  ;  cp.  Num.  xiii.  :{:5 ;  Deut.  ii.  Id,  11).  To 
this  race,  (ioliath  and  the  other  gigantic  war- 
riors probably  belonged  (1  Sain,  .xvii.  4  ;  2 
8am.  xxi.  \'t-22;  1  Cliron.  xx.  4-s).  The  town 
was  capturi'd  by  David  (1  Cbron.  xviii.  1). 
During  Soldiiion's  reign,  it  bad  a  king  of  its 
own  who  was  probably  subject  to  the  king  at 
Jerusalem  (1  Kin.  ii.  39,  12).  It  was  fortified 
by  Relmbipam  (2  Cbron.  xi.  8),  but  soon  again 
reverted  to  the  I'bilistines.  It  was  cajitured 
by  Ilazael  (2  Kin.  xii.  17).  I'zziab  l)roke 
down  its  wall  (2  Cbron.  xxvi.  (i)  ;  and  hence- 
forth it  dro])s  out  of  history.  Micah.  indeed, 
names  it,  but  he  uses  an  ancient  form  of 
speecli  (i.  1(1;  cp.  2  Sam.  i.  20).  Wlieii  after- 
wards the  I'hilistiiu'  cities  arc  mentioned, 
(latli  is  missing  (Jer.  xxv.  20;  Zeph.  ii.  4; 
Zech.  ix.  r>) ;  and  it  is  not  referred  to  in  Mac- 
cabees, nor  by  .fose])lius,  when  he  relates 
events  suliseqiieiil  to  the  year  7.")()  ]i.  c.  Nu- 
merous tlieories  have  been  oll'ered  as  to  its 
site.  It  lias  been  located — 1.  Near  the  .sea; 
at  Yebnab  (so  the  Crusaders)  ;  2.  In  or  on  the 
border  id'  the  Slieplielali.  at  Heit  Jilirin;  or 
Deir  Diibb.in,  l]  miles  north  of  Brit  .liluin  ; 
or  Kefr  Dikki'rin,  1  miles  to  the  northwest 
of  Heit  .Fibrin  ;  or,  following  the  same  high- 
way 4  miles  farther,  at  Tell  es-Satiyeh  on  the 
vale  of  i:iah,  at  the  junction  ot"  the  Slie- 
plielali with  the  maritime  ]>lain  ;  or  Tell  Zaka- 


riya,  .5  miles  east  up  tin-  valley.  All  that  is 
known  is  that  (iath  lay  inland,  on  the  bor- 
ders of  the  Hebrew  territory,  anil  in  a  .serist- 
between  Ashdod  and  Kkron,  but  ai)pareiitly 
southwest  of  the  latter  town  and  nearer  the 
mountains  (1  Sam.  v.  S;  vii.  14;  xvii.  .">2i. 

Gath-he'pher,  in  A.  V.  once  through  nii.s- 
ajiiuelii  n>ioii  Git-tah-he'pher  [wine  press 
of  the  well]. 

A  town  on  the  boundary  line  of  Zebiilnn 
(Josh.  xix.  i:;).  It  was  the  birthplace  of  the 
projibet  Jonah  (2  Kin.  xiv.  2.")|.  In  Jerome's 
day  it  existed  as  a  small  village,  2  Koniaii 
miles  east  of  Sepplioris.  This  location  cor- 
resiHinds  with  the  village  of  el-Meshlied  or 
.Meshhad,  :{  miles  nortluast  of  Nazjintli. 
Here  one  of  Jonah's  tombs  e.vists,  its  chief 
rival  being  at  the  site  of  ancient  Nineveh. 

Gath-rim'mon  [i>(>megranate  press]. 

1.  A  town  on  the  boundary  line  of  the  tribe 
of  Dan  (Josh.  xix.  45),  as.signed  to  the  Kolia- 
thite  Levites  (xxi.  24;  1  C'hron.  vi.  69).  Ex- 
act site  unknown. 

2.  A  town  ill  Manas.seh  west  of  the  Jordan, 
assigned  to  the  Kohathite  Levites  (Jo.sh.  xxi. 
25) ;  jirobably  an  erroneous  truuscriptiun  of 
Ibleam  or  Hileani  (q.  v.). 

Gauls.     See  (iAi..\Ti.\. 

Ga'za,  in  A.  V.  thrice  Azzali,  according  as 
one  or  other  (ireek  niodilication  of  the  He- 
brew word  Mriff/i  is  iniilati-d  [strong]. 

The  most  southerly  of  the  live  Philistine 
cities  (Josh.  xiii.  '.i;  1  Sam.  vi.  17;  Jer.  xxv. 
20).  It  was  very  ancient  ((Jen.  x.  19).  It 
was  situated  on  the  great  highway  between 
Mesoiiotaniia  and  Kgypt,  at  the  very  edge  of 
the  desert  ;  and  it  was  the  terniiiius  of  a  trade 
route  from  southern  Arabia.  It  was  assigned 
to  Jiidah  (Josh.  xv.  47),  and  wascajitured  by 
the  men  of  that  tribe  (Judg.  i.  IS).  It  re- 
verted to  the  Philistines  (cp.  .Iiidg.  vi.  4). 
Samson  carried  otl'  the  doors  of  the  city  gate 
(.ludg.  xvi.  1-3).  When  his  eyes  were  put 
out,  it  was  in  the  prison  bou.se  of  (iaai  that  he 
had  to  griiul  (20.  21).  The  tutelary  god  of 
Caza.asof  .Vsbdod,  was  Dagoii.  The  last  act 
of  Samson's  life  was  to  how  with  his  strength 
against  the  two  middle  ]iillars  of  the  tenijile 
of  Dagon  and  throw  them  from  their  jilaee 
(2.'!-:{l).  (Jaza  was  the  limit  of  .S,,lomon'8 
dominion  toward  tbi'  southwest  (1  Kin.  iv. 
24).  Hezekiah  smote  the  Philistines  as  far 
as  (iaza's  gates  i2  Kin.  xviii.  S).  Pharaoh 
took  the  city  (.ler.  xlvii.  l),])robably  Phunioli- 
neclio  or  Pbaraoh-hoplir.i,  i.e.  .\pries  (HeriMl. 
ii.  15!>,  101 1.  .Iiidgnieiit  wasileiioiinced  against 
it  and  the  other  Philistine  cities  by  the 
lirophets  (Jer.  xxv.  20;  xlvii.  1.  5:  Zeidi. 
ii.  4  ;  Zech.  ix.  5).  One  sin  siM'cified  was  its 
sjile  of  caiitureil  Hebrews  to  the  Kdomit«-s 
(.\nios  i.  (i).  It  held  out  against  .MexandjT 
the  (ireat  for  five  months,  and  when  it  fell 
its  inhabitant.s  were  ma.s.siu're<l.  .loicithan 
Maci-abieiis  was  shut  out  of  (iaza.  and  burnt 
its  suburbs;  but  In-  eventually  made  peace 
without  storming  the  |>lace   (1    Mao.   xi.  HI. 


Gazara 


238 


Gedaliah 


62).  It  was  afterwards  caiiturcd  by  his 
brother  Simon  (xiii.  43-48;  Antiq.  xiii.  .">,  5). 
About  SH)  B.  V.  it  was  captured  after  a  year's 
siefje  and  destroyed  l)y  Alexander  Janiiaius 
(AiUiti-  xiii.  i:j,  ."5).  It  was  taken  liy  l'om])ey 
in  (J2  B.  c.  (4,  4;  War  i.  7,  7).  Gahiniiis,  tlie 
Roman  president  of  Syria,  rebuilt  it  in  57 
K.  ('.  on  a  new  site  (Antiq.  xiv.  5,  3).  The 
old  town  had  acquired  the  designation  Desert 
(iaza  (cp.  Anti((.  xiv.  'y,  3;  Acts  viii.  2() ;  and 
see  Smith,  Ilisturiail  Gconrapli!/).  About  A.  D. 
().")  the  Jews  destroyed  it;  but  it  soon  rose 
anew,  and  there  are  coins  belongini;  to  it 
struck  in  lionor  of  Titus  and  Adrian.  It  after- 
wards became  the  seat  of  a  Christian  bislu)pric. 
In  A.  D.  G34  it  was  taken  by  the  Arabs,  and, 
with  the  exception  of  one  or  two  brief  inter- 
vals during  which  it  was  held  by  the  Cru- 
.saders,  has  since  remained  in  Mohammedan 
hands.  (laza,  called  by  the  Arabs  Ghuzzeh, 
still  exists  as  a  town,  witli  some  thousand  in- 
habitants. It  is  situated  on  a  low,  round  hill, 
about  ')(}  or  (iO  feet  al)ove  the  plain,  l)ut  ex- 
tends from  the  hill  across  the  plain  to  the 
east  and  north.  On  the  north  there  are  im- 
mense olive  groves,  the  finest  in  Palestine ; 
and  the  great  staple  of  the  city  is  soaji,  manu- 
factured from  the  olive  oil.  (tIiu/./a'Ii  is  not 
now  fortified  ;  but  there  are  indications  where 
the  ancient  walls  existed,  and  slight  remains 
of  buildings  exist  on  the  hill.  It  is  about  2\ 
miles  from  the  Mediterranean,  the  interme- 
diate space  being  occupied  by  sandhills,  with 
sandy  tracts  between. 

Ga-za'ra.     See  Gezer. 

Ga'zath-ite.    See  Gazite. 

Ga-zelle'. 

A  small  antelope,  called  in  Hebrew  ^'bi. 
Where  A.  V.  renders  this  word  by  roebuck, 
E.  V.  substitutes  gazelle  ;  and  where  A.  V. 
renders  it  by  roe,  R.  V.  generally  places  ga- 
zelle on  the  margin.  There  is  no  doubt 
that  the  gazelle  {Gnzella  dorcns)  is  intended. 
It  was  ceremonially  clean  (Dent.  xii.  22  ;  xiv. 
5),  was  hunted  (Prov.  vi.  5;  Is.  xiii.  14),  and 
was  swift-footed  (2  Sam.  ii.  18 ;  1  Chron.  xii. 
8).  Its  beauty  and  grace  rendered  it  a  term 
of  endearing  comparison  (Song  ii.  9,  17;  viii. 
14).  It  is  about  3  feet  6  inches  long  by  1  foot 
9  inches  high.  The  horns  are  larger  in  the 
male  than  in  the  female  :  the  limbs  and  whole 
form  in  both  sexes  graceful;  the  fur  mostly 
fawn  colored  about  the  head,  more  fulvous 
on  the  other  jiarts.  It  is  found  in  Syria, 
Egyi)t,  and  Arabia,  mostly  in  small  groups  or 
nearly  solitary.  It  is  timid,  and  flees  from  a 
l)ursuer  rapidly  and  with  great  bounds.  Tris- 
tram found  a  second  species  of  gazelle  (Gasvlla 
arabicn),  larger  than  the  common  one,  east  of 
the  Jordan. 

Ga'zer  and  Ga-ze'ra.     See  Gezer. 
Ga'zez  [shearer], 

A  son  and  perhaps  also  a  grandson  of  the 
elder  Caleb  (1  Chron.  ii.  40). 

Ga'zite,  in  A.  V.  once  Gazathlte. 


A  native  or  inhabitant  of  Gaza  (Josh.  xiii. 
3;  Jndg.  xvi.  2). 

Gaz'zam  [devourcr]. 

Founder  of  a  family  of  Xethinim  who  re- 
turned with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra  ii.  48). 

Ge'ba,  in  A.  V.  thrice  Gaba  [a  hill]. 

A  city  within  the  limits  of  Benjamin  (Josh, 
xviii.  24),  which  was  allotted  to  the  priests 
(xsi.  17j.  It  must  be  distinguished  from 
Giheah  of  Saul  (I.s.  x.  29).  (ieba  was  the 
northern  extreme  of  the  kingdom  of  .Judali 
(2  Kin.  xxiii.  8;  Zech.  xiv.  10).  A  village, 
still  bearing  the  old  name,  marks  the  site,  6 
miles  N.  N.  E.  of  Jerusalem  and  2  miles  S. 
W.  of  Michmash. 

Ge'bal  [mountain]. 

1.  An  ancient  city  on  the  Mediterranean 
Sea,  17  miles  north  of  Beirut  (Ezek.  xxvii.  9; 
cj).  Josh.  xiii. .") ;  1  Kin.  v.  18,  R.  V.).  It  was  a 
great  seat  of  the  lascivious  worship  of  Adonis. 

2.  The  northern  portion  of  the  mountains 
of  Edom  (Antiq.  ii.  1.2;  ix.  9,  1 ;  Ps.  Ixxxiii. 
7) ;  known  also  as  Teman. 

Ge'ber  [a  man,  a  hero]. 

Solomon's  ])urveyor  for  the  territory  of 
southern  Gilead  (1  Kin.  iv.  19),  and  probably 
father  of  the  purveyor  for  northern  Gilead 
and  Argob  (13). 

Ge'bim  [cisterns,  locusts]. 

A  village  north  of  Jerusalem  (Is.  x.  31). 
Exact  site  unknown. 

Geck'o. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew-  '"vahah,  a 
ceremonially  unclean  animal  which  the  He- 
brews classed  with  creeping  things  (Lev.  xi. 
30,  R.  v.).  The  gecko  is  a  wall  lizard.  It 
has  white  spots  on  its  back  ;  and  it  emits  a 
plaintive  wail,  whence  the  Hebrew  name.  The 
common  gecko  or  fan-foot  (Ptj/odacti/lus  (jecko) 
is  very  common  in  Palestine.  It  frequents 
houses,  running  over  the  walls  and  ceiling. 
It  is  able  to  do  this  by  reason  of  the  peculiar 
construction  of  its  toes,  which  are  provided 
with  plates  under  which  a  vacuum  is  created 
when  the  animal  walks,  thus  causing  it  to 
adhere. 

Ged-a-li'ah  [.Tehovah  is  great]. 

1.  A  harper,  son  of  Jeduthun  (1  Chron. 
XXV.  3),  and  head  of  the  second  of  the  twenty- 
four  companies  of  twelve  mu.sicians  each 
which  David  appointed  for  the  service  of  the 
sanctuary  (9). 

2.  An  ancestor  of  the  i>rophet  Zephaniah 
(Zeph.  i.  1). 

3.  A  .son  of  Pashhur  in  Jeremiah's  time 
(Jer.  xxxviii.  1). 

4.  A  man  of  Judah  of  high  birth,  son  of 
Ahikam,  son  of  Shaphan.  He  was  apiiointed 
by  Nebuchadnezzar  governor  of  Judah  after 
the  capture  of  Jerusalem.  He  fixed  his  resi- 
dence at  Jlizpah,  where  he  was  treacherously 
assassinated  by  Islimael  of  the  seed  royal  (2 
Kin.  XXV.  22-2(i ;  Jer.  xxxix.  14  ;  xLH-xli.  18). 

5.  .\  priest  whom  Ezra  induced  to  divorce 
his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  18). 


Gedeon 


239 


Genealogy 


Ged'e-on.    See  Gideon". 

Ge'der  [a  \v:ill]. 

A  town,  :«iiiiiirc'iitly  in  the  cxtrciiR'  south 
of  .Iiiil;ili  (.losli.  xii.  i:{l.  Exiict  site  uiileiiowii. 
It  may  lir  t'le  same  as  Hetli-jiadi  r  ortk-dor  ."J. 

Ge-de'rah  [wall,  eiielosure,  sheeiifohl]. 

1.  A  town  in  the  htwlanil  of  .Indah  (.Josh. 
XV.  ;{(>).  fonder  locates  it  at  .Jedireii.  a  ruin 
I  miles  and  1'  miles  res]ieetively  to  the  iKjrth- 
west  of  Zorah  and  Eshtaol  (33).  See  Gkuk- 
i;<iTU. 

2.  A  vilhifie  of  Hciijaniin  (<p.  1  Cliron.  xii. 
1 1.  Conder  su^fjests  .ledireh,  a  ruin  aliout  (i 
iinlcs  north  hy  west  of  .h'rusjilein. 

Ge'der-ite. 

A  man  of  (iederor  (iederah  (1  Chron.  xxvii. 
2.>^:  (p.  Josh.  XV.  :;(!). 

Ge-de'roth  [enelosiires,  sheepfolds]. 

A  town  in  or  near  the  lowland  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  41).  In  .\ha/.'  reijiii  it  was  taken 
)iy  the  I'hilistines  CJ  t'hron.  xxviii.  is.).  Its 
site,  or  that  of  (Jederah,  is  eommonly  fixed 
at  Katrah,  called  in  1  Mac.  xv.  ;!!i  Kidron, 
in  the  niarilinie  iilain  ahout  1  miles  south- 
west hy  south  of  I\kron. 

Ged'e-ro-tha'im  [two enclosures,  twoshcep- 
folds]. 

A  town  wil  hin  the  territory  of  Judah  (Josh. 
XV. :'()),  otluMwise  unknown.  The  Septuaiiint 
rt'^'ards  it  as  a  common  noun,  and  translates 
it  "'its  eattU'-endosures."  It  is  in  favor  uf 
this  rendering  that,  while  the  towns  are 
re(d<oned  up  as  hut  fourteen,  fifteen  names 
are  t;iven.  iiicludint;  this  one.  Still  this  word 
nnist  not  he  summarily  rejected. 

Ge'dor  [wall,  fortress,  walled  enclosure]. 

1.  A  son  of  Jehiel,  and  a  hrothcr  of  Ner, 
tlie  ancestor  of  Saul  (1  Chron.  viii.  liO,  31; 
ix.  3.V37). 

2.  A  town  in  the  liill  country  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  5» ;  1  Chron.  iv.  4,  18)."  Its  site  is 
marked  hv  tlie  ruins  Jedur,  7i  miles  N.  by 
W.  of  H.-hrou. 

3.  A  town,  appaicutly  in  the  tcriitory  <>f 
Simeon,  not  far  from  the  southwestern  hound- 
ary  of  Palestine  (1  Chron.  iv.  3!»)  :  see  Gkuek. 

The  Scii(iuij;int,  however,  reads  Gerar. 

I.  A  village,  apparently  in  lienjaniin  (1 
<  hron.  xii.  7  :  cp.  1 ). 

Ge-har'a-shim.     See  Ciiauasiiim. 

Ge-ha'zi  [valley  of  vision]. 

The  servant  of  Elisha.  lie  informed  the 
lirojdiet  of  the  desire  which  the  Shunamniile 
Woman  had  f(»r  a  son  :  l)Ut  when  the  son 
;;ranteil  died,  and  the  alUieted  motlier  seized 
the  feel  of  i:ii--lia  lo  snpplicali'  him  to  pray 
<!od  for  her,  Gehazi  would  have  thrust  her 
awiiy  (2  Kin.  iv.  14,  27).  Elisha,  in  order  to 
teach  that  it  i.s  not  mafjie,  hut  faith  and 
prayer  which  avail,  sent  Gehazi  to  lay  the 
projdu-t's  slatf  on  the  dead  <hild.  He  did 
so.  hut  without  ellect  CJil  37).  When  Naaman 
the  Syrian  oheyed  the  directions  of  Elisha, 
and  was  cureil  of  leprosy,  he  wished  to  nuike 
the  ]>ro)du't  a  i>resent.  The  man  of  G'oil  re- 
fu.sed  ;  hut  Gehazi  IhouKlit  it  a  pity  that  his 


master  had  sjiareil  the  Syrian,  and.  therefore. 
followiuK  him,  asked  for  a  talent  of  silver 
and  two  changes  of  niinuiif,  and  was  ea.sily 
jxrsuaded  to  take  two  talents  instead  of  one. 
On  liein-i  tpustioned  hy  his  master  ;is  to 
where  he  had  been,  he  denied  that  he  had 
been  anywhere,  and  as  a  jienalty  for  his 
avarice  and  lyin;;,  and  for  briiiKiii);  the 
pidldietic  oHice  into  contcin]it,  the  leprosy 
of  Naaman  the  .Syrian  cleaveil  unio  liiiii 
(2  Kin.  V.  •_'()  27).  More  sayings  and  doings 
of  Elishas  servant  are  suhseciuently  reported, 
hut  the  individual  referred  to  was  jtrobably 
(iehazi's  successor,  rather  than  himself. 

Ge-hen'na.     See  Hki.l  2. 

Geri-loth  [circles,  regions]. 

A|i|iai(iilly  the  .sime  place  as  fiilgal.  op- 
liosite  llie  ascent  of  Adummim  (ep.  Josh.  xv. 
7  and  x  viii.  17). 

Ge-mal'li  [prii)>ablv,  iios.se.s.sor  or  rider  of 
a  camel]. 

Father  of  the  s]>y  .\mmiel  (Num.  xiii.  12). 

Gem-a-ri'ah  [.lehovah  hath  eomideted  or 
lierfeeled]. 

1.  .\  son  of  llilkiah.  lie  was  one  of  two 
messengers  sent  by  Zedekiah  to  Nebuchad- 
nezzar. Jeremiah  took  advantage  of  theop- 
]iortunity  to  send  by  them  a  letter  to  the 
cajitives  in  Babylon  (.ler.  xxix.  3|. 

2.  A  prince,  son  of  Shajihan  the  .scribe,  and 
brother  of  Ahikam.  He  occiii>ied  a  chamber 
in  the  teni])le.  He  jctined  in  re(iuesting  Je- 
hoiakim  not  to  burn  Jeremiah's  writings  (Jer. 
xxxvi.  1(1,  11.  12,  25). 

Gen-e-al'o-gy. 

The  tracing  liackward  or  forward  of  the 
line  of  aiK  istry  of  an  individual  or  a  family. 
The  regulations  of  the  eonnnonwealth  of 
Israel  necessitated  this  being  done  to  a  large 
extent.  Succession  to  the  royal  sovereignty, 
the  high-iirieslhond,  the  headship  of  tribe, 
tribal  family,  and  father's  hon.se,  dejieiuled 
njion  lineage.  There  was  general  kiuiwledge 
on  the  subji'ct  from  the  earliest  jieriod.  tJen- 
i-alogy  was  revealed  of  itself  by  reason  of 
the  constitution  ol'  tribes,  which  were  di- 
vided on  the  lines  of  growth  into  j^reat  fam- 
ilie.s,  and  these  in  turn  into  smaller  familiei> 
and  so-called  houses.  Hirth  in  a  household 
declared  one's  relation  to  the  siviral  divisions 
ot'  the  tribe  as  distinctly  as  the  native  place 
det<'rmined  one's  clas>ilication  according  to 
the  geographical  divisions  and  subdivisions 
of  a  kingdom.  Delinite  ginealogical  records 
are  traceable  from  the  beginning  of  the  He- 
brew nation  (Num.  i.  2,  \>:  1  Chron.  v.  7, 
17).  Claimants  in  the  days  of  Ezni  sought 
their  register  among  those  that  were  reck- 
oned hy  genealogy,  but  could  not  lind  it,  on 
which  account  tiuy,  as  polluted,  were  ex- 
lielled  from  the  luieslhood  (Ezra  ii.  <il,(>2; 
Nih.  vii.  (13,  (ill.  The  endless  genealogies 
against  which  Timothy  and  Titus  were  warn- 
ed seemed  to  have  been  Gimslic  genealogies 
of  K'ons  and  other  imaginarv  beings  il  Tim. 
i.  4  ;  Tit.  iii.  9). 


Genealogy 


240 


Genealogy 


Two  jjeiicalogies  of  Christ  are  given  ;  one 
by  Matthew  in  tlie  direct,  and  one  by  Luke 
in  the  reverse,  order  of  descent  (Mat.  i.  1- 
1(3  and  Luke  iii.  23-38).  Matthew's  pur- 
pose is  to  show  Christ's  legal  title  to  the 
throne  of  David  and  to  the  covi'iiant  with 
Abraham  (Mat.  i.  1).  Luke  begins  witli  tlie 
second  Adam,  the  eternally  begotten  Son  of 
God,  and  ascends  to  the  tinst  Adam,  the  son 
of  God  by  creation  (Luke  iii.  :i8).  A]ii)ar- 
ently  to  lielp  tlic  memory,  cither  Matthew 
or  the  otlicial  record  from  which  he  quoted 
made  3  X  1 4  =  42  generations  for  the  period 
between  Abraham  and  Jesus ;  viz.,  fourteen 
generations  between  Abraliam  ami  David, 
fourteen  l)etween  David  and  the  lialiylonian 
captivity,  and  fourteen  more  between  the 
Babylonian  captivity  and  Jesus  Christ.  To 
carry  out  this  artificial  division  Ahaziah, 
Joash,  and  Amaziah  are  omitted  between 
Jorara  and  Uzziah  in  the  second  fourteen. 
There  may  be  similar  omissions  iu  the  last 
fourteen.  In  Luke  there  are  forty -one  names 
in  the  line  of  descent  from  David  to  Jesus, 
against  twenty-eight,  or,  with  the  omitted 
tiiree,  thirty-one  iu  Matthew.  If  the  Sheal- 
tieland  Zerubbabel  of  Matthew  are  the  same 
as  those  of  Luke,  as  can  scarcely  be  ques- 
tioned, the  difficulty  arises  that  in  Matthew 
Shealtiel  is  the  son  of  Jechoniah,  but  in 
Luke  the  son  of  Neri ;  indeed,  the  two  lines 
of  descent  from  David  to  Jesus  are  different 
in  the  two  evangelists.  They  diverge  from 
David  ;  one  line  passes  through  Solomon  and 
the  other  through  his  brother  Nathan.  Put- 
ting both  in  the  direct  order  of  descent,  they 
stand  thus: 


From  Matthew's 

From  Luke's 

genealogy. 

senealogy. 

David. 

David. 

Solomon. 

Natbiui. 

Mattatha. 

Rehoboam. 

Menna. 

Abijah. 

Melea. 

Asa. 

Eliakim. 

Jonam. 

Jehoshaphat. 

Joseph. 

Joram. 

Judas. 

Symeon. 

Levi. 

Matthat. 

Uzziah. 

Jorim. 

Jotham. 

Eliezer. 

Ahaz. 

Jesus. 

Hezekiah. 

Er. 

Manasseh. 

El  madam. 

Amon. 

Cosara. 

Josiah. 

Addi. 

Jechoniah. 

Melehi. 

Neri. 

Shealtiel  (Salathiel). 

Shealtiel  (Salathiel) 

Zerubbabel. 

Zerubbabel. 

Rhesa. 

.loanan. 

Abiud. 

Joda. 

Josech. 

Scmein. 

Eliakim. 

Mattathias. 

Maath. 

Azor. 

Naggai. 

Esli. 

Sadoc. 

Nahum. 

Amos. 

Achim.  Mattathias. 

Joseph. 
Eliud.  Jannui. 

Melehi. 
Eleazar.  Levi. 

Matthan.  Matthat. 

Jacol).  Heli. 

Joseph,  the  husband        Josej)!),  the  husband 
of  Mary.  of  Mary. 

Two  explanations  of  these  divergent  gen- 
ealogies are  possible. 

I.  The  early  church  generally  explained 
both  tables  as  recording  the  genealogy  of 
Jo.seph.  Julius  Africauus  (A.  D.  220;,  the 
first  known  investigator  of  the  question, 
adoi)ti'd  the  theory  that  Joseph's  grand- 
fathers in  the  two  genealogies,  Melclii  [Afri- 
cauus has  a  corrupt  text]  and  Matthan,  had 
married  successively  the  same  woman,  and 
that  consequently  Heli  and  Jacob  were  half- 
brothers,  having  the  same  mother  but  ditl'er- 
ent  fathers.  Heli  married  and  died  child- 
less; and  Jacob,  according  to  the  law  of 
Levirate  marriage  (Deut.  xxv.  6),  took  the 
widow  to  wife,  and  raised  up  seed  to  his 
brother  Heli  by  begetting  a  .son  Jose])li. 
Hence  Matthew  can  say,  "Matthan  liegat 
Jacob,  and  Jacob  begat  Joseph;''  and  Luke 
can  say,  "Joseph  the  son  of  Heli,  the  son 
of  Matthat." 

A  readier  solution  of  the  prolilem  on  the 
lines  of  this  theory  is  that  the  table  in  Mat- 
thew contains  the  legal  successors  to  the 
throne  of  David,  while  that  in  Luke  gives 
the  paternal  ancestors  of  Joscjih.  The  line 
of  Solomon  became  extinct  in  Jechoniah, 
otherwise  known  as  Jehoiachin ;  and  the 
succession  passed  over  to  the  collateral  line 
of  David  which  sprang  from  David's  son 
Nathan.  The  representative  of  this  line  was 
Shealtiel.  For  a  brief  space  the  royal  line 
and  the  natural  lineage  of  Joseph  were  iden- 
tical ;  but  after  Zerubbabel  the  two  lines  sep- 
arated. The  family  of  tlie  elder  son,  in 
whom  the  title  to  the  throne  inhered,  at 
length  became  extinct,  and  the  descendants 
of  the  younger  son  succeeded  to  the  title. 
Matthat  of  this  line  (by  some  identified  with 
Matthan)  became  heir  apparent.  He  is  sup- 
posed to  have  had  two  sons,  Jacob  and  Heli. 
The  elder  Jacob  had  no  son,  but  probably  a 
daughter,  the  Virgin  Mary.  The  younger 
Heli  had  a  son  Joseph  ;  and  .Joseph,  since  his 
uncle  Jacob  liad  no  male  descendant,  became 
heir  to  his  uncle  and  to  the  throne.  Broad 
genealogical  terminology  enables  Matthew  to 
say  "Jacob  begat  Joseph,"  and  Luke  to  say 
".Joseph,  the  son  of  Heli." 

II.  Since  tlie  Ki't'ormation  a  different  con- 
ce])tion  of  the  two  genealogies  has  won  favor, 
and  is  ])robably  correct.  According  to  this 
o])iuion,  the  table  in  Matthew  gives  the  gen- 
ealogy of  Joseph,  and  exhibits  him  as  lieir  to 
the  throne  of  David,  while  the  ta)>le  in  Luke 
gives  the  genealogy  of  Mai-y.  and  shows, Jesus 
to  be  the  actual  son  of  David.  With  the  clear 
declaration  of  Luke  that  Jesus  had  no  human 
father,  with  the  customary  Hebrew  usage  of 


Generation 


241 


Gennesaret 


the  word  son  for  descendant  liowevcrrpniotc, 
ami  (111  the  Inisis  of  the  aiijiroved  (Ircck  text, 
tlie  advocates  of  tliis  view  reiidiT  Luke  iii. 
'S.i,  "Jesus,  being  son  (as  was  sui)i)osed  of 
Joseph)  of  Ileli,  etc."'  Jesus,  according  to 
Luke,  is  grandson  of  lleli,  Mary's  fatlier, 
and  tiiiis  a  lineal  descendant  of  David.  A 
ditliculty,  not  however  jiecnliar  to  tliis  theory, 
l)Ut  lying  equally  against  the  lirst-iuentioned 
liypothesis  is  >Iatthew's  record  that  Sheal- 
tiei  was  hegotten  hy  king  Jechoniah.  whereas 
Luke  makes  Shealtiid  the  son  of  Neri.  I'er- 
liaps  the  simplest  solution  is  the  following: 
Jechoniah,  who  spent  years  in  cai)tivity,  ap- 
jiears  to  liave  been  the  surviving  nomiiuil 
king  of  Judah  in  tlie  year  r>(!-2.  twenty-five 
years  after  the  fall  of  .leriisalem  CJ  Kin.  xxv. 
27).  lie  aiijiarently  had  no  sons  when  car- 
ried olf  captive  iu  598  h.  c.  He  was  com- 
))aratively  young,  and  children  are  not  men- 
tioned in  the  enumeration  of  his  family  (2 
Kill.  xxiv.  M,  12,  15).  ,)eremiali  proi)hesied 
that  no  son  of  his  should  occupy  the  throne 
(Jer.  xxii.  30;  cji.  what  is  siiid  of  his  father, 
xxxvi.  30).  In  the  genealogy  as  given  in 
^lat.  i.  ap]>ears  the  entry,  "After  the  carry- 
ing away  (o  IJahylon,  Jechoniah  begat  S^lieal- 
tiel."  All  Scripture  references  are  in  har- 
mony, and  the  two  genealogies  are  intelligi- 
ble, if  this  notice  in  Matthew  be  understood 
as  a  broad  declaration  in  genealogical  form 
denoting  legal  succession  to  the  throne.  Tlie 
title  ]>as.sed  from  .lechoniah  on  his  death  to 
Shealtiel.a  lineal  desct'udant  of  David.  There 
may  of  course  have  been  close  kinsliip  be- 
tween .Fechoniah  and  Shealtiel.  If  Jechoniah 
had  no  son  surviving  him.  but  only  a  daugh- 
ter, the  inheritance  ])assed  to  her  cliildren 
according  to  the  law  (Num.  xxvii.H-11).  The 
])hraseology  of  the  genealogies  is  therefore 
exi)lained  on  the  assumiition  that  Neri  mar- 
ried the  daughter  of  .Uchoniah  and  begat 
Shealtiel  by  her.  Shealtiel's  lineage  was  reck- 
oned as  usual  through  his  father  back  to 
Nathan  and  David,  but  his  title  to  the  throne 
was  reckoned  through  his  maternal  grand- 
father Jechoniah  to  Solomon  and  David. 

In  1  Chron.  iii.  17  is  the  record  :  "  The  sons 
of  .leconiali  :  .\ssir  [not  to  be  rendered  "the 
cajitive,"  for  the  definite  article  is  not  used], 
Shealtiel  liis  son,  and  Malchiram.  etc."  ■  Tlie 
epithet  "  his  son  "  is  jieculiar  to  Shealtiel,  jic- 
culiar  also  in  that  it  is  di'enied  necessary  to 
api>ly  it  to  one  of  a  grou]i  already  daKignaled 
as  sous  of  Jeconiah.  It  marks  Shealtiel  as 
the  king's  successor.  He  could  be  called  liis 
son,  if  his  daughter's  son.  Just  as  Abiezer,  son 
of  the  sister  <if  (Jilead.  son  of  Manas.seh,  is 
reckoned  aiiiong  the  sons  of  Manasseh,  and 
appiirciitly  even  among  the  sons  of  tiilead 
I  Clirou.'vii.  14,  18;   Num.  xxvi.  .JO). 

Gen-er-a'tion. 

1.  .\  begelliiig  or  i)rodiicing,  or  the  person 
or  thing  produced  ((Jen.  ii.  1;  v.  1)  ;  in  He- 
brew only  i)lunil  Tol'iloth. 

2.  Eju-li  succession  of  jiersous  from  a  coni- 

lii 


men  ancestor  if  mil  1.  .i.'J :  Kx.  xx.  o;  Deut. 
xxiii.-J):  in  Hebrew  ex pres.sed  by  a  ni(Mlitica- 
tion  of  the  luoper  iiiiiiieral  or  by  7/(//  with  au 
ordinal  number. 

3.  The  age  or  jieriod  of  a  body  of  contem- 
poraries, not  ill  the  modern  .sens*-  of  the 
average  lifetime  of  all  who  survive  infancy, 
but  the  average  period  of  the  activity  of 
any  body  of  conteniiioraries  as  dettTmined 
hy  the  normal  sjian  of  life.  The  generation 
lasts  as  long  as  any  of  the  nieuibers  survive 
(Ex.  i.  (i ;  Num.  xxxii.  13;  Judg.  ii.  10;  Ecc. 
i.  1)  ;  in  Hebrew  Dor. 

Gen'e-sis  [(ireek  (jnieiiis.  origin  (of  the 
world)]. 

The  name,  borrowed  from  the  Sejituagint, 
of  the  first  ().  T.  book,  called  by  the  Hebrews 
from  its  initial  word  ll'iesliilh,  "In  the  be- 
ginning.'' It  naturally  divides  itself  into 
three  sections:  lirst,  the  history  of  the  uni- 
verse, showing  (iod's  relation  to  it,  and  intro- 
ducing human  history  (i.-ii.  3) ;  second,  a 
sketch  of  human  history  before  Abraham, 
showing  (iod's  relation  to  the  human  race, 
and  introducing  the  history  of  the  chosen 
people  (ii.  4-xi.  2i)) ;  ami  third,  the  history 
of  the  covenant  ]ieople  down  to  the  descent 
into  Egyjit  (xi.  2~-\.).  The  second  section 
includes  the  creation  of  man  aiul  his  original 
condition  (ii.  4-25),  the  fall  (iii.),  the  i>rogre.ss 
of  sin  (iv.  1-15),  the  worldly  race  (KI-'JI),  the 
godly  line  (25-v.  32),  the  increa.se  of  wicked- 
ness (vi.  1-S),  the  flood  (vi.  !>-ix.  17),  the  re- 
peojding  of  the  earth  (ix.  18-x.  ."{2),  the  build- 
ing of  the  tower  of  Rabel  (xi.  1-!M,  and  the 
Semitic  race  in  its  earliest  germs  (xi.  10-2(i). 
The  third  section  includes  the  early  history 
of  Abraham,  his  call,  and  his  sojourn  in 
Canaan  (xi.  27-xxv.  10).  the  life  of  Isaac 
from  his  father's  death  to  the  dei>arture  of 
.lacob  for  Mesoiiotainia  (xxv.  H-xxvii.  40), 
the  life  of  Jacob  from  his  dejiarture  for  Me.so- 
jiotamia  to  the  death  of  Isjiac  (xxvii.  41-xxxv. 
2!i).  till' descendants  of  l-'sau  (xxxvi.),  the  early 
history  of  Joseiih  to  the  time  when  he  wassold 
into  Egyjtt  (xxxvii.).  .ludah's  sin  and  shame 
(xxxviii.).  Josejdi  in  Egyjit  (xxxix.-xlv.), 
Jacob  and  his  whole  household  with  Jo.sejth 
in  Egyjit  (xlvi.-xlix.),and  the  death  of  Jacob 
and  .Fosei>h  (1.). 

The  writer  of  the  book  has  enibiiu-ed  his 
narrative  after  the  introduction  in  ten  suc- 
cessive sections,  each  under  a  caption  begin- 
ning with  the  formula,  "These  are  the  gen- 
erations of"  (ii.  I :  V.  1  ;  vi,  !);  x.  1  ;  xi.  10; 
xi.  27;  XXV.  12,  10;  xxxvi.  1;  xxxvii.  2). 
E(U-  unity  and  authorshiii,  see  I'knt.vtkicH. 

Gen-nes'a-ret ;  in  .\.  X.  of  I  Mac  Oen- 
nesar,  in  11.  \'.  of  sjime  Gennesareth  [I'cr- 
haps,  garden  of  Haztir], 

A  land  adjacent  to  the  lake  of  (Jenno.saret, 
on  its  western  >liore  (Mat.  xiv.  :M  :  Mark  vi. 
5;i)  :  des(  ribed  by  ,loseii|iu>  a--  a  fertile  plain, 
.'{0  stades  in  length  by  2il  in  breadth,  watered 
by  a  fountain  called  (apharnauni,  and  pm- 
ducing  walnuts,  |Hilnis,  fig  trees,  olives,  and 


Gentiles 


242 


Gerar 


riain  of  (iennesaret,  viewed  from  the  Northeast. 


grapes  (War  iii.  10,  8).  It  is  almost  certainly 
ideutical  with  the  plain  called  el-Ghuweir, 
formed  hy  a  recession  of  the  hills  from  the 
shore  just  north  of  Magdala. 

The  lake  of  (iennesaret  (Luke  v.  1  ;  Antiq. 
V.  1,  22 ;  xviii.  2,  1  and  3)  or  Gennesar  (War. 
ii.  20,  6),  or  the  water  of  Gennesareth  or 
Gennesar  (1  Mac.  xi.  fiT  ;  Autiq.  xiii.  o,  7),  was 
a  common  name  for  the  sea  of  Galilee. 

Gen'tiles. 

All  nations  of  the  world  other  than  the 
Jews  (Is.  xlix.  (i :  Eom.  ii.  14  ;  iii.  29).  The 
Jews  were  the  chosen  jicople  of  (4od  ;  their 
relifiion  was  sublime,  and  its  truth  stood  in 
strong  and  favorable  contrast  to  the  untruths 
of  the  gentile  religiims;  and  strict  laws  were 
enacted  to  i)revent  the  corruption  of  manners 
and  of  the  true  religion  through  contact  with 
idolaters.  These  things  led  the  Jews,  though 
unjustly,  to  feel  contempt  for  the  gentiles. 
The  Israelites  had  been  chosen  for  a  purpose. 
They  were  to  be  a  light  to  the  gentiles  (Is. 
xlix.  l-()).  The  gentiles  were  embraced  in 
the  promises  (Is.  ii.  2-4;  Amos  ix.  12;  Zech. 
ix.  7).  The  attitude  of  the  Jews  recalls  tliat 
of  the  Indian  Brahmins,  who  will  not  eat 
with  their  countrymen  of  inferior  caste,  and 
much  less  with  those  of  no  caste  at  all,  or 
with  strangers  of  another  nation.  When 
Peter,  taught  by  the  vision  at  Joppa,  broke 
through  caste  restriction,  visiting  and  eating 
with  Gornelius,  it  gave  offense  to  some  even 
of  tlie  Christian  Jews  (  Acts  x.  2S  ;  xi.  .'5)  ;  and 
when  Paul  in  his  defense  before  Claudius 
Lysias,  after  narrating  his  ccmversion,  inti- 


mated that  Jesus  had  said  unto  him  "  Depart : 
for  I  will  send  thee  f;\r  hence  unto  the  gen- 
tiles," the  people,  who  had  given  him  au- 
dience unto  this  word,  lifted  up  their  voices 
and  said,  "  Away  with  such  a  fellow  from  the 
earth  :  for  it  is  not  fit  that  he  should  live  " 
(Acts  xxii.  21.  22).  The  early  churches  con- 
sisted to  a  much  larger  extent  of  gentiles 
than  of  .lews,  and  the  first  Council  of  Jeru- 
salem declined  to  impose  on  the  former  the 
burden  of  the  Mosaic  law  (Acts  xv.  1-29). 

Ge-nu'bath  [tlieft,  robbery]. 
The  son  of  the  Edomite  prince  Hadad  and 
the  Egyptian  queen's  sister  (1  Kin.  xi.  20). 

Ge'ra  [a  grain], 

1.  A  son  of  Rela  and  grandson  of  Benja- 
min (Gen.  xlvi.  21;  1  Cliron.  viii.  ?>). 

2.  Another  descendant  of  Bela.  iierh.aps  re- 
moter than  sou  (1  Chron.  viii.  3,  and  prob- 
ably 7). 

3.  A  Benjamite,  father  of  Ehud  (Judg.  iii. 
15).        * 

4.  A  Benjamite,  father  of  that  Sliimei  who 
cursed  David  (2  Sam.  xvi.  .")). 

Perhaps  3  and  4  denote  the  founder  of  the 
family  to  which  Ehud  and  Shimei  belonged, 
and  are  identical  with  the  grandson  of  Ben- 
jamin. 

Ge'rah.     See  WiCKiHTS. 

Ge'rar  [water  pot  or  a  course  or  dry]. 

An  ancient  city  on  tlie  southern  bonier  of 
Palestine  ncartiaza  ((Jen.  x.  lit:  2  Chron.  xiv. 
1.3),  and  early  occu]iie(l  by  Pliilistines  ((ien. 
xxvi.  1).    The  country  subject  to  it  extended 


Gerasenes 


243 


Gershonites 


toward  Katk'sli  and  Sliiir  (xx.  l.Dwitli  xxvi. 
(i.  17,  1.*^).  It  is  (((miudiily  idcntiticil  with 
the  ruins  I'nini  Jcrrar,  ti  miles  soiilli  (iTCia/.a 
on  tlie  wady  Uiiuzzeh.  A  h)eati()ii  ahoiit  ">(» 
miles  south,  in  the  immediate  vieinity  of 
Kadesh.  hasheen  less  plaiisilily  iir^ed,  namely 
the  wady  Jenir.  a  hraneli  <if  the  wady  esh- 
Sheraif  which  drains  into  wady  el-'Arish. 
Pdssihly  this  indicates  the  eonsiderahle  ex- 
tent of  the  rejjion  dominated  by  Cierar. 

Ger-a-senes'. 

The  ]ii'o|ile  of  (ienisa  (R.  V.  of  Mark  v.  1 
and  Luke  viii.  2(i,  M7  ;  manuscripts  vary  he- 
tween  (Jerasenes,  (iadarenes.  ( ierj^esenes)  ; 
see  (ii;ii(;KSEXi':s.  Gerasa  was  one  of  the  ten 
cities  which  formed  the  Decaiiolis.  It  was 
situated  37  miles  southeast  of  the  sea  of 
Galilee  and  '.i2  miles  southeast  of  Gadara. 

Ger-ge-senes'. 

The  iieople  of  (Jer^resa  (Mat.  viii.  '2^.  A.  V., 
but  in  U.  \'.  (iadareiies).  (ieruesa  is  perhaps 
Still  echoed  by  Kersa,  the  name  of  a  ruin 
on  the  eastern  shore  r)f  the  sea  of  tialile*', 
opposite  Majidala,  r>  miles  from  the  entrance 
of  the  .Ionian  into  the  lake.  A  short  distance 
south  of  the  site  is  the  only  jilace  on  this 
coast  where  the  steej)  hills  come  down  close 
to  the  water.  The  introduction  of  the  name 
(icrfjesenes  into  the  text  is,  however,  ascribed 
to  ( )rif;en,  who  is  said  to  have  felt  that  ( Jadara 
was  too  fur  from  the  lake,  and  was  told  b_\- 
])eopIe  acijuainted  with  the  rej^ion  that  an 
old  town  named  (iergesa  existed,  and  near 
it  was  the  declivity  down  which  the  swine 
rushed. 

Ger'l-zim  [idural  of  Gerizzi,  Gerizites;  op. 
Girzite]. 

A  mountain  which  rises  in  steep  rocky 
preci))ices  so  as  to  constitute  the  soutliern 
lioundary  of  the  valley  in  which  \ahlus,  the 
ancient  ."^hechem,  lies,  and  to  face  tlie  more 
elevated  mount  Kbal.on  the  northern  side  of 
the  valley.  Mount  (ierizim  rises  'JMil  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  .Mediterranean,  aiul 
700  feet  above  the  town.  When  the  Israelites 
conquered  central  Palestine  .loshua  carried 
out  the  direction  j^iven  to  Moses,  and  jilaeed 
half  of  the  tribes  in  front  of  mount  (ieri/.im 
to  jirouounce  ble.ssinjfs.  and  the  other  half 
over  a};;ainst  mount  Ehal  to  pronounce  curses 
(Dent.  xi.  -J!*:  xxvii.  \±  \^^\  Josh.  viii.  3.3- 
.3.")).  .Totham,  the  son  of  (Jideon.  standinu  on 
mount  (ieri/.im.  proclaime<l  his  ](arable  to 
the  men  of  .'^hechein  (.hid;:,  ix.  7l.  .losephus 
(.\nti(i.  xi.  S. -2,7)  .says  that  .Manasseh.  brother 
of  .Ia<ldua,  the  hiuh  jiriest  in  the  time  of 
.-Mi'Xander  the  Great,  had  married  the  (laugh- 
ter of  a  I'oreiv'uer.  Sanballat.  The  elders  at 
.lerusalem  commanded  him  either  to  divorce 
her.  or  no  longer  to  ai)iiroach  the  altar. 
Manas.seh  thon^'ht  of  <Iivorein^  her.  though 
she  was  still  dear  to  him  ;  but  her  father,  San- 
ballat, deprecatiii),'  Ibis  ste]i,  i)romise(l  to  build 
for  his  .son-in-law,  if  be  retained  his  wife,  .-i 
rival  temi)le  to  that  of  .lerusalem.  He  ke|)t 
his  word,  erecting  one  on   mount  (ierizim. 


This  was  the  ori^'in  of  the  Samaritan  temide 
on  that  mountain,  and  must  be  dated  before 
330  n.  c.  If  .Sanballat  was  the  Samaritan  of 
that  name  who  was  an  opponent  of  the  .lews 
in  the  time  of  Nehemiah.  about  M.">  n.  c.  (Neh. 
iv.  I  ;  xiii.  -JS),  anil  not  an  otlieial  .sent  by 
Darius  Codoinannus  (.\ntii|.  xi.7.  "J:  xii.  .">,."i), 
the  temple  was  built  considerably  before  3.'{0, 
perhaps  about  .3S0  n.  c.  It  was  destroyed  by 
John  Ilyrcanus,  1-J!»  u.  c.  The  erec  lion  of 
the  edilice  made  (ierizim  the  .Samaritan  sa- 
cred mountain.  It  was  to  it  that  the  woman 
of  .S;imaria  and  .lesus  referred  as  "  this  moun- 
tain ■'  (John  iv.  "JO,  2\);  and  Jacob's  well,  at 
which  tiny  were  conversin>;,  was  on  a  spur 
of  mount  (ierizim.  (ierizim.  nowcalle<l  .leiiel 
et-Tor,  constitutes  a  tract  of  bi^'h  tableland 
stretching  far  toward  the  west  and  southwest 
of  Nablus.  There  is  a  smooth  sheet  of  rock  on 
the  top  of  the  mountain,  with  a  cave  beside 
it.  From  tlie  days  of  Heiijamin  of  Tudela.  a 
Jewish  rabbi  who  traveled  in  I'alotine  about 
A.  1).  IKid,  on  to  <|uite  recent  times,  the  view 
was  held  that  ( ii'rizim,  the  mountain  of  bles.s- 
iiiKS,  was  fertile,  and  I-Lbal.  that  of  curses, 
barrj'U,  till  Robinson  ])ointed  out  that,  with 
the  exception  of  a  small  ravine  cominj;  down 
from  (ierizim  o|ii>osite  the  west  of  Nablus, 
both  mountains  are  e(|Ually  barren.  See  il- 
lustration under  Sni:<  iikm. 

Ger'sbom  [often  interpreted  as  meaning 
"strani;er  there;"  l)ut  the  vocaliaition  and 
the  valiant  form  ( iershon  with  its  patronymic 
show  that  the  Hebrews  did  not  re>.'anl  the 
word  as  havinj;  that  meaning.  It  nither sig- 
nifies "banishment."  In  Kx.  ii. '-'"J,  the  au- 
thor, according  to  custom,  jdays  uiion  the 
general  sound], 

1.  (iershon,  the  son  of  Levi  (1  t'hron.  vi. 
1(),  17,  'JO.  43,  ()2,  71).     .See  Gkhshox. 

'2.  The  elder  .son  of  .Moses,  horn  to  him  in 
Midian  (Ex.  ii.  22:  xviii.  3).  He  gave  rise  to 
a  father's  house  which  was  reckoned  among 
the  Ix'vites,  not  among  the  ])riests  (1  I'hrou, 
xxiii.  14-1()). 

.■{.  A  descendant  of  I'hinehas  the  priest, 
and  head  of  a  father's  house  in  that  line  in 
the  time  of  Ezra  (Ezra  viii.  2). 

Ger'shon  [banishment]. 

A  son  of  Levi,  and  fouiKlerof  thcCJershonito 
family  (Gen.  xlvi.  11  ;  Ex.vi.  Ki;  Num.  iii. 
17).  H«'  is  sometimes  called  (iershom,  which 
is  formed  by  a  dilferent  atlix,  but  has  the  sjimo 
meaning.  His  two  sons.  Libni  and  Shimei, 
gave  rise  to  two  subdivisions  of  the  greater 
trilial  family  (Ex.  vi.  17;  Num.  iii.  IH ;  1 
Chron.  vi.  17). 

Ger'shon-ites. 

The  childrt  n  antl  descendants  of  (iershon, 
constituting  one  of  the  three  great  division-^ 
of  the  Levitical  body.  In  the  wildernes,s 
they  enc:im|pe<l  on  the  western  side  of  the 
tabernacle,  and  had  charge  of  tin-  tabernacle 
itself,  the  tent  with  its  hangings,  nnd  those 
of  tlw  courtyard  (Num.  iii.  'J.'{-'J(! ;  iv.  '21-'2H). 
To  aid  them  in  moving  the  tabernacle  there 


Gerzites 


244 


Gethsemane 


were  assigned  them  two  wagons  and  four 
oxen  (vii.  7).  They  consisted  of  two  families, 
tliose  of  thi'  Lihiiites  and  thoso  of  Xhv  Shini- 
eitcs,  and  at  the  first  rensiis  in  the  wilder- 
ness numbered  7500  males  (iii.  21,  22).  Of 
the  thirteen  cities  assitfiied  to  them,  two  were 
in  the  half-trilic  of  Manassch  beyond  the 
Jiirdan,  four  were  in  Issacliar,  four  in  Ashcr, 
and  three  in  Naiditali  (Josh.  .x.\i.  27-3:5). 
They  were  reorganized  by  David  (1  Chron. 
x.xiii.  7-11). 

Ger'zites.     See  (iiKZiTE. 

Ge'shan,  in  A.  V.  Gesliam,  an  error  which 
crept  into  the  later  editions,  the  original  of 
Itjll  having  (Tcshau. 

A  man  of  Judah,  a  son  of  Jahdai  (1  Chron. 
ii.  47). 

Ge'shem  and  Gashmu,  the  latter  l)eing  the 
Arabic  form,  of  which  (xcshem  is  the  regular 
Hebrew  nioditication  [rain,  body]. 

An  Arabian,  a  great  opponent  of  the  >Tews 
after  their  return  from  captivity.  He  ridi- 
culed the  proi)Osal  of  Nehemiah  to  rebuild 
the  wall  of  Jerusalem,  as  if  this  were  tanta- 
mount to  rebellion  (Neh.  ii.  19).  Not  suc- 
ceeding in  deterring  the  Jew  by  this  means, 
he  joined  with  others  in  plotting  violence,  if 


Josh.  xii.  .5 ;  xiii.  11,  13 ;  1  Chron.  ii.  23).    Evi- 

ilently  it  was  situated  to  the  eastward  of 
-Maacali.  for  Maacali  bordered  on  Xaiditali. 
It  constituted  an  Arannean  kingdom  (2  Sam. 
xiii.  37  ;  xv.  H).  Here  IJavid  obtained  a  wife, 
and  hither  his  son  Absalom  fled  after  the 
murder  of  Amnon  (2  Sam.  iii.  3;  xiii.  37). 

Gesb'u-rites,  in  A.  V.  twice  Geshuri,  the 
Hel)rew  instead  of  the  English  term  lieing 
employed. 

1.  The  people  of  Geshur  (Deut.  iii.  14  ; 
Josh.  xii.  5;  xiii.  11,  13). 

2.  A  peoi)le  who  dwelt  in  ancient  times  in 
the  countrj^  south  of  I'hilistia  in  the  direc- 
tion of  Egypt  (Josh.  xiii.  2  ;  1  Sam.  xxvii.  8). 

Ge'ther. 

A  family  of  the  Aramaans  (Gen.  x.  23;  1 
Chron.  i.  17).  Their  locality  has  not  been 
determined. 

Geth-sem'a-ne  [an  oil  press]. 

A  garden,  presumably  of  olives  and  fur- 
nished with  a  press  to  squeeze  oil  from  tlie 
fruit.  It  was  east  of  Jerusalem,  a  little  be- 
yond the  brook  Kidron,  and  at  or  near  the 
foot  of  the  mount  of  Olives  (Mat.  xxvi.  30 
with  36 ;  Mark  xiv.  26  with  32 ;  John  xviii. 
1).   It  was  a  favorite  spot  with  our  Lord,  who 


C'i^^ 


The  Traditiiiiial  (Jarden  of  Gethsemane. 


noteven  actual  murder. against  him.  I'^ailingin 
this  purjjose  also,  he  albiwi  d  the  rejiurt  to  be 
circulated  far  and  wide  on  his  authority  that 
Nehemiah  was  fortifying  the  city  prejjaratory 
to  rebelling  against  Persia  and  proclaiming 
himself  king  (vi.  1  seii.). 

Ge'shur  [a  bridge]. 

.\  district  lying  between  Heriium  and  Ba- 
shan  anil  marching  on  Argob  (Dent.  iii.  14  ; 


often  resorted  to  it  for  retirement  (Luke  xxii. 
:i9 ;  .Tolni  xviii.  2),  and  it  is  now  forever 
sacred  as  liaving  been  the  scene  of  his  agony 
and  of  his  betraval  and  arrest  (Mat.  xxvi. 
.36-.=56  ;  Mark  xiv".  32-."v2 ;  Luke  xxii.  39-.^3 ; 
Jolm  xviii.  1-12).  The  traditional  site  of 
(iethsemane  lies  a  little  east  of  the  bridge  by 
which  the  road  from  St.  Steiihen's  gate  of 
I    Jerusalem  crosses  the  Kidron.     The  garden 


Geuel 


245 


Gibea 


is  situated  at  the  aufile  made  by  the  division 
of  tlio  road  into  two  l)raiu'ht'S,  one,  the  most 
northerly,  leading  directly  up  the  faee  of 
the  mount  of  Olives,  while  the  more  south- 
erly one  winds  gently  around  tin-  southern 
hrow  of  the  hill.  The  garden  is  nearly 
square, aiul  the  Latins  have  recently  iiu-losed 
it  with  a  wall,  its  northern  side  ir>()  feet  and 
its  western  one  Ititt  feet.  Kight  venerable 
olive  trees  are  within,  on  which  it  is  s;iid 
the  ta.K  levy  can  be  traced  back  to  the  occu- 
jiatiou  of  Jerusalem  by  the  Arabs  in  the 
seventh  century;  aiul  many  equally  old  are 
outside  on  the  sh)]>e  of  the  mount.  These 
trees,  however,  did  not  witness  our  Lord's 
agony,  for  all  the  trees  around  .Jerusalem 
were  cut  down  during  the  siege  of  the  city 
by  Titus  (War  v.  12,  4).  Robinson  thinks 
that  the  spot  is  the  .same  as  that  described  by 
Kuscbius  as  at  the  mount  of  Olives,  and 
afterwards  nu)re  di-finitely  by  Jerome  as  at 
the  foot  of  the  mount;  but  he  is  doubtful  if 
it  is  the  genuine  (lethsemane.  Thomson  says, 
"The  iiosition  is  too  near  the  city,  and  so 
dose  to  what  must  have  always  ]wvn  the 
great  thoroughfare  eastward,  that  our  I^ord 
would  scarcely  have  selected  it  for  retire- 
ment on  that  dangerous  and  dismal  night.'' 
lie  believes  (iethsemaue  to  have  been  in  a 
secluded  vale  several  humlred  yards  north- 
east of  the  traditional  site.  Barclay  thinks 
it  evident  that  the  present  indosure,  from 
its  narr(»w  dimensions,  can  occujjy  onlj'  in 
part  the  site  of  the  ancient  garden,  and  finds 
a  better  jiosition  higher  up  in  the  valley. 
I'orti'r  states  that  the  (ireeks,  envious  of 
the  Latins,  have  recently  inclosed  a  piece 
of  ground  a  little  iU)rth,  beside  the  Virgin's 
tomb,  and  contend  that  this  is  the  true  garden. 

Ge-u'el  [majesty  of  God]. 
The  spy  who  represented  the  tribe  of  f4ad 
in  the  exploration  of  Canaan  (Num.  xiii.  l,")). 

Ge'zer  (in  A.  V.  twice  Gazer)  [a  jjlace  cut 
off].  In  A.  V.  of  1  .Mac.  the  (Jreek  forms 
(iazera  and  (Ja/.ara  are  used. 

A  Canaanite  town  not  far  from  Lachish 
and  the  lower  Hethiioron  (Josh.  x.  3:5).  It 
was  on  the  boundary  line  of  Ei>hraim  (xvi. 
'■i :  ep.  1  (.'hron.  vii.  2N),  and  with  its  suburbs 
was  assigned  to  the  Kohatiiiti'  Levites  (.losh. 
xxi.  "Jl  :  1  Cliron.  vi.  ()7).  The  Ljihniimites 
failed  toexpel  the  Canaanite  inliabitants,  and 
occu]iied  the  city  with  them  at  least  for  a 
tinu-  (Josh.  xvi.  id;  Judg.  i.  -Jf)).  More  than 
one  battle  in  David's  reign  was  fought  at  or 
m-ar  (Je/er  {'2  Sam.  v.  2.");  1  Cliron.  xiv.  Ki ; 
XX.  1 1.  One  of  the  I'haraohs  captured  (iezer 
from  the  Canaanites,  who  sei'Ui  again  to  have 
jiosses.sed  it  iti  every  part,  .\fter  burning  it,  | 
he  gave  the  ruins  over  to  Solomon  as  a  dowry 
with  his  daughter  when  she  was  married  to 
the  Hebrew  king.  Tlu'  city  was  at  once  re- 
built. It  was  an  important  i)lace  in  the  wars 
of  the  Maccabees.  Macchides  strengthened 
its  fortitications  (1  Mac.  ix.  jVJ).  It  was  be- 
sieged   and    taken    by    f^mou,    and    made 


stronger  than  before  (xiii.  43,  R.  V.  4H,  53 ; 
xiv.  ;{4).  M  Clermont  (ianneaii  identified 
the  site  by  inscriptions;  one  of  whi(  h,  per- 
haps as  old  as  the  llerods.  marked  ihc  limit.s 
of  ( iezer,  ami  gave  in  Hebrew  lett<is  the 
actual  name.  It  is  now  called  Tell  Jezarand 
is  situated  about  IfS  miles  we.st-northwest  of 
Jerusalem,  and  o.-i  east  of  Ekron. 

Gez'rite.     See  (Jikzitk. 

Gi'ab  [breaking  forth,  as  of  a  spring]. 

A  village  s(miewhere  between  (iibeon  in 
Benjamin  and  the  ford  of  the  Jordan  near 
the  Jabbok  CJ  Sam.  ii.  24,  cp.  Ki,  29). 

Gi'ant. 

A  man  of  abnormally  tall  stature  ;  like 
Og  king  of  Ba>ban.  whose  bedstead  was  nine 
cubits  in  length  by  four  in  breadth  (l)eut. 
iii.  11),  (ioliath  of  (lath,  who.se  height  was 
six  eubits  and  a  span  (1  Sam.  xvii.  4),  and 
the  man  whom  Menaiah  slew,  whose  height 
was  five  cubits  (1  (hron.  xi.  •-*:!l.  \  stalwart 
race  of  nu'ii  like  the  Aiuikim  and  other  early 
nations  of  Caiutan  and  the  country  east  of 
the  Jordan  (Deut.  i.  2H ;  ii.  10,  11.  20,  21  ;  ix. 
2).  When  Hebron  was  captured  by  the  He- 
brews, the  .\naliini  who  es<-ai>ed  destruction 
took  refuge  in  the  I'biiistine  towns,  (ioliath 
of  Giitli,  Ishbi-benob.  and  other  Philistine 
giants  were  probably  of  this  exjielled  race  of 
the  Anakim  (1  Sam.  xvii.  4  ;  2  .Sam.  xxi.  1.")- 
22).  The  valley  of  the  Ike]ihaim  or  giants 
near  Jerusalem  was  a  per[ielual  reminder,  by 
its  name,  of  the  early  race  which  long  in- 
habited it  (Josh.  XV.  8  ;  xviii.  16).  Tlie  ex- 
act nu'aning  of  Wphilim.  the  word  rendered 
giants  in  (ieii.  vi.  4;  Num.  xiii.  3.'{.  A.  V., 
is  uncertain,  and  accordingly  it  is  left  un- 
translated in  K.  V.  It  may  refer  to  large- 
ness of  stature  or  fierceness  of  dis])ositinn  or 
debased  character  or  ilK'gilimacy  of  birth. 
In  the  latter  pa.ssage  the  word  descrilies  the 
Anakim.  In  the  former  iias.sage  the  Nephi- 
lim,  as  the  name  is  transliterated  in  R.  V., 
are  described  as  mighty  nu'n.  men  of  renown. 
The  description  is  the  .sjime  as  tliat  given  of 
David's  most  noted  warriors  (1  Chrou.  xi.  10. 
21). 

Glb'bar  [mighty  man,  hero]. 

A  man  wlio.se  children,  or  a  place  of  whose 
former  inhabitants  some  desi'endants,  re- 
turned from  captivity  with  Zerid)babel 
(Vy/.r.\  ii.  20).  In  the  i)ariille]  pas.siige  in  Neb. 
vii.  25  Gibeon  stands  in  jilace  of  Gil)l)ar. 

Glb'be-tbon  [iierhajis.  conical  height]. 

.\  town  of  Dan  I. losh.  xiv.  Ill  assigned  to- 
the  Levites  of  the  family  of  Koliath  (xxi. 
20-23).  The  riiilistines  gaini'd  |ios.session  of 
it.  Nadal>  was  assassinated  there  while  lay- 
ing .siege  to  the  place  (1  Kin.  XV.  27).  Oniri 
before  be  ascendi'd  the  throne  also  besieged 
the  town  (xvi.  l.">.  17). 

Gib'e-a  [a  hill]. 

I'robably  a   village   (1   (hron.  ii.  4;») ;  cp. 

(iniKAII   1. 


Gibeah 


246 


Gibeon 


Gib'e-ah  [a  liill]. 

1.  A  villuije  ill  the  hill  country  of  Jiidali 
(Josli.  XV.  57)  ;  probably  soiilli  or  soiitliL-ast 
of  Hebron.  Jcb'ah  (Jeb'a),  ou  au  isolated 
hill  eight  miles  west  by  south  from  Bethle- 
hem, lies  outside  the  group  included  in  verses 
55-57. 

2.  A  town  of  Benjamin  near  Ramah  (Judg. 
xix.  13,  14)  ;  called  also  Geba,  the  masculine 
form  of  the  same  name  (xx.  10,  R.  V.  margin, 
with  4).  It  is  designated  Gibeah  of  Benja- 
min (ibid.  ;  1  Sam.  xiii.  2  ;  xiv.  Itj),  and  Gibeah 
of  the  children  of  Benjamin  (2  Sam.  xxiii. 
29) ;  and  appears  to  be  identical  with  Gibeah 
of  Saul  (1  Sam.  xi.  4;  xv.  34;  Is.  x.  29). 
Its  inhabitants  by  their  misbehavior  brought 
down  punishment,  not  merely  on  themselves, 
but  on  the  whole  tribe  of  Benjamin  (Judg. 
xix.,  XX.).  Gibeah  was  Saul's  place  of  resi- 
dence when  he  was  called  to  be  king  (1  Sam. 
X.  2()),  and  it  served  as  the  political  capital 
of  his  kingdom,  though  the  ecclesiastical 
center  was  at  Shiloli.  Gibeah  still  existed 
in  the  days  of  Isaiah  and  of  Hosea  (Is. 
X.  29;  Hos.  ix.  9;  x.  9).  The  town  was 
situated  on  the  highway  from  Jerusalem  to 
the  north,  about  midway  between  Jerusalem 
and  Ramah  (Judg.  xix.  13  ;  Antiq.  v.  2,  b,  cp. 


west-southwest  of  Seilun  (Shiloh),  and  3i 
miles  east  l)y  south  of  Tibneh  (Timnatb).  The 
tradition  of  the  Samaritans,  which  locates 
the  grave  at  'Awertah,  4i  miles  south  of  She- 
cheni,  is  late. 

4.  Gibeah  or  hill  of  God  (1  Sam.  x.  5). 
Probably  essentially  the  same  as  Gibeah  of 
Saul,  for  it  appears  to  have  been  Saul's  home 
(11,  14).  For  the  reason  of  the  name,  see 
ver.  5.  Its  identity  with  Ram  Allah,  height  of 
God,  4  miles  northwest  by  north  of  Ramah, 
has  been  proposed.  The  determination  de- 
pends largely  upon  the  identiticatiou  of 
Rachel's  sepulcher  and  Zuph  (cp.  ver.  2-5 
with  xiii.  3). 

Gib'e-ath  [a  hill]. 

A  town  of  Benjamin,  mentioned  in  imme- 
diate connection  with  Jerusalem  (Josh,  xviii. 
2b).     The  name  is  a  mere  variant  of  Gibeah. 

Gib'e-ath-ite. 

A  native  or  inhabitant  of  Gibeah  (1  Chrou. 
xii.  3). 

Gib'e-on  [pertaining  to  a  hill]. 

The  chief  city  of  the  Hivites,  a  people  of 
Canaan  (Josh.  xi.  If)),  included  in  the  gen- 
eral designation  Amorite  (2  Sam.  xxi.  2). 
They  possessed  also  Chephirah,  Beeroth,  and 


Gibeon. 


viii.  12,  3;  War  v.  2,  1).  Tt  is  commonly 
identified  with  Tell  el-Ful,  2i miles  north  of 
■Ternsalem,  although  no  ancient  remains  have 
been  discovered  except  the  ruins  of  a  watch- 
tower. 

3.  A  hill  or  town  in  the  hill  country  of 
Ei)hraim,  ])elonging  to  Phinehas ;  where 
Eleazar  the  high  iiriest.  tlie  son  of  Aaron, 
was  buried  (Josh.  xxiv.  33;  Aiitii].  v.  1.  29). 
Perhaps  Ji])ia  with  ancient  ruins,   8h  miles 


Kirjath-jearim  (Josh.  ix.  17).  They  obtained 
a  treaty  with  .Tosliua  by  false  pretenses.  The 
deceit  was  discovered,  and  they  were  made 
slaves  of  the  Israelites  (ix.  1-27).  But  the 
treaty  was  respected  :  the  Gibeonites  were 
aided  against  their  enemies  (x.)  ;  and  sev- 
eral centuries  later,  when  Saul  violated  its 
provisions  by  a  massacre  of  Gibeonites,  the 
sense  of  justice  was  satistied  by  the  execu- 
tion of  seven  of  Saul's  sons  (2  .Sam.  xxi.  1-9). 


Gibeonites 


247 


Gideon 


Gibeon  was  within  the  territory  assigned  to 
the  Ben.jamites  (Josh,  xviii.  25) ;  and  was 
given,  witli  its  sul)urbs,  to  tlie  family  of 
Aaron  (xxi.  17).  Saul's  ancestors  dwelt  for  a 
time  in  the  town,  and  were  men  of  inlliienee 
(1  Cliron.  viii.  'J!( ;  ix.  35).  In  the  contest  be- 
tween Ish-hoshetli  and  David,  a  battle  took 
nlace  here  cJ  Sam.  ii.  H-17,  21;  iii.  .'iit).  Here 
baviil  gaini-d  a  victory  over  the  I'hilistines 
(1  C'liron.  xiv.  l(i;  in  2  Sam.  v.  25  Geba).  In 
its  vicinity  Joab  murdered  Aniasa  (2  Sam. 
XX.  S).  In  David's  rei^n,  and  in  that  oC  Sol- 
omon, jirior  to  the  biiildinj;  of  the  temple, 
the  tabernacle  was  erected  there  for  a  time. 
Here  Solomon  received  a  connnunication 
from  (iod  in  a  dream  (1  Kin.  iii.  5-15  ;  ix. 
2;  1  C'hron.  xvi.  :{!l ;  xxi.  2!);  2  Chron.  i.  :{. 
i;{).  (jibeonites  returned  from  the  exile 
(Nell.  vii.  25),  and  aided  in  rebuilding  the 
wall  of  Jerusjilem  (iii.  7).  According  to  Jo- 
sephus,  Gibeon  was  40  or  50  stadia  (about  4!. 
to  (!  miles)  from  .Terusalem  (.Vntiq.  vii.  11.  7; 
War  ii.  1!».  1 ).  Its  site  is  found  at  the  modern 
village  of  el-Jib,  5.^  miles  uorlhwesl  by  north 
of  Jernsiilem,  Jib  lieing  simply  a  contraction 
of  (xibeon.  It  is  an  oblong  hill  or  ridge, 
comiiosed  of  horizontal  layers  of  limestone 
rock  forming  almost  regular  stejis  from  the 
]dain  upward.  Tlu'se  are  in  ])arts  steep  of 
ascent,  and  the  ])lace,  which  is  naturally 
strong,  could  be  easily  fortified.  The  hill 
stands  in  th(>  nndst  of  a  basin  consisting  of 
broad  valleys  in  a  high  state  of  cultivation. 
The  houses  of  the  village  number  forty  or 
fifty,  are  scatt«'red  over  the  broad  summit  of 
the  hill,  and  are  almost  all,  in  whole  or  in 
part,  ancient,  though  now  sadly  dilapidated. 

On  the  southeast  of  the  ridge  on  which 
Gibeon  stands  is  a  fine  fountain  of  water, 
which  (lows  into  a  subterranean  reservoir 
artificially  cut.  Not  far  from  it,  among  olive- 
trees,  is  an  o])en  reservoir  5!)  feet  huig  by  'M 
feet  broad  ;  it  was  doubtless  inteinlcd  to  re- 
ceive tlu'  suiierfluous  waters  of  the  cavern. 
On  the  west  is  a  tank,  11  by  7  feet  in  si/.e,  cut 
in  the  rock,  and  called  el-Hirkeh,  the  juiol. 
In  the  iilain  a  little  lake,  <i  to  8  acres  in  ex- 
tent, is  formed  during  the  winter.  One  or 
other  of  these  was  doubtless  the  pool  or  great 
wat(>rs  of  (;ibeon  (2  Sam.  ii.  l.'i :  .ler.  xli.  12). 

The  wilderness  of  (iibeon  was  i(erha])s  sim- 
l)ly  the  uncultivated  plateau  between  (iil)eon 
ami  IJ^imah.  If  a  desert  is  meant,  it  was  at 
considerable  distance  east  from  the  city  (2 
Sam.  ii.  21). 

Gib'e-on-ites. 

The  inhabitants  of  fiilieon  or  fif  that  city 
with  its  three  dependent  towns  (2  Sam.  xxi. 
1-4,  !»). 

Gib'Utes,  in  K.  V.  Gebalites. 

The  p<.()|>le  of  the  town  an<l  kingdom  f>f 
(iebal  (,Iosh.  xiii.  5;  1  Kin.  v.  18;  in  text  of 
.\.  y.  stonescimirei-s). 

Gld-dal'tl  [I  have  magnified]. 
A  singir,  a  son  (d'  Ileman  (1  Chron.  xxv.  Ii, 
and  head  of  the  twentv-second  of  the  twenty- 


four  companies  of  twelve  muHicians  each 
which  were  ajuiointcd  in  Dsivid's  reign  for 
the  .service  of  liie  .S4inctuary  (29). 

Gid'del  [he  hath  magnified]. 

1.  Head  of  a  family  of  Netliinim  (Ezra  ii. 
47;  Neb.  vii.  4!)). 

2.  Head  of  a  family  of  Solonu)n's  servants 
(Ezra  ii.  5G;  Neh.  vii.  5f<). 

Gid'e-on,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Gedeon  in  imi- 
tation of  the  Greek  pronunciation  [a  cutting 
oil',  a  hewing  down]. 

A  son  of  .loasli,  f.nuily  id'  Abiezer.  tribe  of 
Manasseh,  who  dwelt  at  Ophrali  (.ludg.  vi. 
11).  He  was  divinely  summoned  to  deliver 
the  Israelites  from  the  tyrainiy  (»f  the  Mid- 
ianites,  who  had  invaded  and  seized  I'ales- 
tine.  As  he  was  threshing  wheat  in  the  wine 
press  at  Oplirah,  to  hide  it  from  the  Midian- 
ites,  an  angel  saluted  him,  and  commissioned 
him  to  undertake  the  deliverance  of  his  ]teo- 
jile.  The  fii-st  steji  was  directed  against  his 
father's  altar  id'  Baal,  which  he  threw  down. 
The  idolatrous  worshijiers  demanded  his 
death  ;  but  his  father  .loasli  called  on  liis 
opj)onents  to  haml  ovi'r  the  ])leading  for  Haal 
to  Baal  himself.  If  he  was  a  god,  of  cnurse 
this  was  within  his  jiower.  Tlie  multitude 
were  pacified,  and  (iideon  receivi-d  a  si'cond 
name,  Jerubbaal,  "  Let  Baal  jilead,"  ami,  as 
Baal  was  regarded  as  abominable,  Jerubbe- 
sheth,  "Let  the  shameful  thing  jileail  "  (2 
Sam.  xi.  21  :  c]).  Ish-bosheth).  Having  sum- 
moned the  men  of  Manasseh,  Aslier,  Zebulun, 
and  Naiditali  (Judg.  vi.  35),  he  yet  hesitated 
until  his  call  had  been  confirmed  by  tlu» 
miracle  of  the  fieece  (3()-40).  (Joing  forward 
to  the  battle  with  his  followers  intentimuilly 
reduced  to  300.  that  the  glory  of  the  victory 
might  be  not  with  num  but  with  Jehovali.  he 
made  a  night  attack  on  the  Midianite  canij), 
which  was  ]iitched  in  the  valley  <d"  .lezreel 
(33),  by  the  hill  of  .Moreh  (vii.  li.  In  the 
confusion  thus  jiroduced  the  Midianite  scd- 
dicrs  slaughtered  each  other.  Then  inducing 
the  Ephraimites  to  seize  (he  fords  of  Jordan, 
who  inflicted  fresh  los.ses  on  the  fugitives  as 
they  atlemi)ted  to  cross,  he  himself  with  the 
tribesmen  of  Manasseh.  Asher.  Zebulun,  and 
Xaiilitali  (vii.  23),  juirsued  the  enemy  across 
the  .lordan  to  the  confines  of  tlie  desert.  In 
this  llight  Orel)  ami  Zeeb.  Zebah  and  Zal- 
niunna  were  captured  and  slain.  This  vic- 
tory was  the  celebrated  day  of  Midian  (Is. 
ix.  4:  X.  20;  Ps.  Ixxxiii.  11).  Having;  deliv- 
ered the  northern  Israelites  from  the  foreign 
yoke,  and  having  pacified  the  Ephraimites, 
who  were  angry  becau.se.  as  they  supposed, 
he  had  slighted  them,  (iideon  sjiw  the  land 
at  rest.  He  refu.sed,  Imwever,  to  l)e  made 
ruler,  but  returne<l  to  his  own  house  (.ludg. 
viii.  22.  20).  It  is  painful  to  add  that  tlie  vic- 
tor took  the  earrings  of  the  Midianites  and 
made  them  into  an  ephod.  If  it  was  jiat- 
terned  after  the  ephod  of  the  high  priest,  it 
was  ciistly,  for  it  was  wrought  with  goM 
thread  and  bore  precious  stones  set  in  gold. 


Gideoni 


248 


Gilboa 


Gideon  put  it  in  his  own  city,  where  the 
an^el  of  the  Lord  had  appeared  unto  him, 
wliure  he  liad  erected  an  altar,  and  where  lie 
had  heen  divinely  authorized  to  oll'er  a  sac- 
rilice  (vi.  -^1-28;  'cp.  Ex.  xx.  24,  25).  These 
hijih  privilej^es  led  him  to  consider  the 
jiriestly  ottice  open  to  him,  and  he  made  the 
oflicial  ephod,  and  prohahly  the  Urim  and 
'riiuiuinim,  in  (U'der  to  use  them  to  inquire 
of  the  Lord  ;  and  the  thing  hecame  a  snare 
to  Gideon  and  his  family  and  a  means  of 
seduction  to  Israel  (Judg.  viii.  24-27).  He 
had  many  wives,  and  seventy  sons,  hesides 
one  son  l)y  a  coucuhine.  Ahimelech.  who 
made  himself  king  on  the  death  of  his  father. 
Gideon  died  in  a  good  old  age  (vi.-viii. ;  Heb. 
xi.  32). 

Gid-e-o'ni  [a  cutting  off]. 

Fath(>r  of  the  prince  of  the  tribe  of  Benja- 
min in  the  time  of  Moses  (Num.  i.  11). 

Gi'dom  [a  cutting  off]. 

A  village  apparently  in  Benjamin,  between 
Gibeah  and  the  rock  of  Eimmon  (Judg.  xx. 
45). 

Gier'  Eagle. 

1.  The  rendering  in  the  A.  V.  of  the  He- 
brew Rdham,  so  named  from  its  affection  for 
its  young.  In  R.  V.  the  word  is  translated 
vulture,  which  is  the  meaning  of  gier.  It 
was  ceremonially  unclean  (Lev.  xi.  18;  Deut. 
xiv.  17).  Undoubtedly  the  Egyptian  vulture, 
I'haraoh'shen  or  chicken  (Neophron  perciiopte- 
rns).  is  meant,  which  the  Arabs  still  call 
raham.  Its  general  color  is  white,  but  the 
])rimary  feathers  of  the  wings  are  black.  The 
young  are  brown.  The  length  of  the  adult 
is  a  little  over  two  feet.  It  ranges  in  sum- 
mer from  the  south  of  France,  by  southern 
Europe  and  northern  Africa,  to  the  west  of 
India,  where  it  is  replaced  by  a  closely  al- 
lied species.  The  Egyptian  vulture  is  a 
funereal-looking  bird,  generally  seen  acting 
as  a  scavenger  in  Eastern  cities,  camps,  and 
outside  hospitals.  It  is  common  in  Palestine 
during  its  northern  migration,  and  breeds  in 
that  country. 

2.  The  rendering  in  the  R.  V.  of  the  He- 
brew Peres  (Lev.  xi.  13;  Deut.  xiv.  12).  See 
()ssifka(;k. 

Gifts. 

Gifts  were  given  by  fathers  to  sons  (Gen. 
XXV.  6),  or  as  dowry  to  daughters  on  their 
marriage  (xxxiv.  12),  or  by  people  present  by 
invitation  at  a  wedding  (Ps.  xiv.  12).  They 
were  )>estowed  tijion  fellow  men  out  of  good 
will  (Esth.  ix.  22)  or  to  secure  favor  (Prov. 
xviii.  16).  It  was  forbidden  to  offer  them  to 
judges  for  the  purpose  of  bribery  (Ex.  xxiii. 
8;  Deut.  xvi.  19;  Prov.  xxix.  4).  !Monarchs 
bestowed  them  as  a  reward  for  .service  (Dan. 
ii.  48),  or  as  a  gracious  favor  to  cause  ]iublic 
rejoicings  (Esth.  ii.  18).  They  were  brought  by 
subjects  as  tribute  (2  Sam.  viii.  2,  6  ;  2  Chnm. 
xxvi.  8;  Ps.  xiv.  12;  Ixxii.  10;  Mat.  ii.  11). 
Gifts  were  retiuired  for  the  exi)enses  of  re- 
ligious worship  (Mat.  v.  23.  24  ;  viii.  4  ;  Luke 


xxi.  5).  Essentially  the  same  customs  as  to 
gifts  still  jirevail  throughout  the  East. 

The  gift  of  (iod  is  eternal  life  through 
Jesus  Christ  (John  iv.  10;  Kom.  vi.  23). 
Christ  received  gifts  for  men  (Eph.  iv.  8). 
He  not  only  opened  up  a  way  for  them  to 
God,  and  enables  them  to  stand  before  the 
just  and  holy  One,  but  he  has  obtained  for 
them  the  gift  of  the  Holy  (iliost  (John  xiv. 
1(> ;  xvi.  7  ;  Acts  ii.  ,38),  and  all  the  manifesta- 
tions of  the  Spirit  in  the  hearts  and  lives  of 
believers,  repentance  (Acts  v.  31),  faith  (Eph. 
ii.  8),  love  (Kom.  v.  5),  joy,  peace,  long  suffer- 
ing, gentleness,  goodness,  meeknes.s,  temper- 
ance (Gal.  V.  22).  All  Christian  virtues  are 
graces,  that  is  gifts.  God  bestows  various  gifts 
upon  men,  <iualifying  them  severally  as  he 
will  for  different  torms  of  work  in  the  king- 
dom (Rom.  xii.  (j;  1  Cor.  vii.7;  xii.4,  9:  Eph. 
iv.  7-16).     See  Miracle,  Tongue. 

Gi'hon  [bursting  forth,  as  a  fountain  or 
stream;  a  stream,  river]. 

1.  One  of  the  four  rivers  of  Paradise  (Gen. 
ii.  13).     See  Eden. 

2.  A  spring  in  a  valley  outside  the  walls  of 
Jerusalem  from  which  the  city  obtained  part 
of  its  water  supply  (2  Chron.  xxxii.  30 ; 
xxxiii.  14  ;  Antiq.  vii.  14,  5).  It  was  not 
in  sight  of  the  stone  of  Zoheleth,  near  En- 
rogel ;  but  the  sound  of  the  trumpet  and  the 
noise  of  the  shouting  at  Gihon  were  heard 
at  Eu-rogel  (1  Kin.  i.  40-45).  There  was  an 
np])er  and  presumably  a  lower  Gihon,  as  early 
as  the  time  of  Hezekiah  at  least  (2  Chron. 
xxxii.  30).  LTpper  Gihon  is  commonly  iden- 
tified with  Birket  Mamilla,  and  lower  Gihon 
with  Birket  es-Sultan.  The  former  of  these 
pools  is  less  than  half  a  mile  west,  the  latter 
not  the  third  of  a  mile  south,  of  the  .Jaffa 
gate.  These  pools,  however,  are  not  now 
fed  by  living  springs.  Largely  on  this  ac- 
count the  question  has  been  raised  in  recent 
years  whether  (Tihon  should  not  be  identified 
with  the  fountain  of  the  Virgin,  on  the  east- 
ern slope  of  Ophel,  and  distant  some  400 
yards  from  the  pool  of  Siloam.  with  which  it 
is  connected  by  an  ancient  tunnel. 

Gil'a-lai  [perhaps  weighty]. 

A  I>evite,  a  nnisician  who  took  part  in  the 
dedication  of  the  wall  of  .Tcrusalem  when  re- 
built under  Nehemiah  (Xeh.  xii.  36). 

Gil-bo'a  [a  bubbling  fountain]. 

The  mountain  on  which  Saul  sustained  de- 
feat by  the  Philistines  and  met  his  death  (1 
Sam.  xxviii.  4  ;  xxxi.  1,  8  ;  2  Sam.  i.  (i,  21  ; 
xxi.  12;  1  Chron.  x.  1,  8).  It  is  tlie  north- 
eastern spur  of  mount  Eithi-aim.  and  forms 
the  watershed  between  the  Kishon  basin  and 
the  Jordan  valley.  The  ridge  lies  west-north- 
west and  east-southeast,  ))eing  about  8  miles 
long  and  3  to  5  miles  in  breadth  ;  and  is  di- 
vided by  ravines  into  several  plateaus.  The 
highest  point,  which  is  at  .Tebel  Abu  JIadwar, 
is  1()48  feet  above  sea  level,  and  about  1200 
feet  higher  than  the  iilain  of  Esdraelon  at  its 
foot.     The  western  slopes  of  the  range  are 


Gilead 


249 


Giloh 


gradual,  but  tliose  facing  north  are  steep  and 
riifiged,  with  i)ri'fii)iees  in  many  places.  The 
e;istcru  sldpe.s  over  the  Jordan  vaMey  are  also 
stffp,  in  ]plaics  iircciiiitous.  csprciiilly  toward 
tile  scmth.  Oil  the  taMc-lands  and  j;tiitle 
western  sluiies  pasture  hiiid  is  I'uiind,  wiieat 
and  barley  ji row,  and  olives  and  ligs  are  cul- 
tivated. The  rest  (d'  the  ridge  is  naked  rock, 
or  is  covered  witli  wild  grass  and  brusliwood. 
.\  vill:i;,'e.  .lelhoii,  preserve.s  the  memory  of 
ihe  name  ( iilhoa. 

Gil'e-ad,  in  A.  V.  of  Maceahees  Galaad 
[hard,  rugged,  rough]. 

1.  The  son  of  Machir  and  grandson  of  Ma- 
nasseh.  Jle  founded  a  tribal  family  (Num. 
x.wi.  -Jif.  :«);  .Tosii.  .wii.  1). 

•2.   Father  of  .lejihthah  (Judg.  si.  1). 

:;.   A  (iadite  (1  Ciiron.  v.  14). 

I.  The  mountainous  country  east  of  the 
•Jordan,  extending  from  tlie  tal>le  land  of 
.Moali  northward  to  the  Yarmuk  at  least 
(Deiil.  iii.  I(i,  17;  1  Sam.  x.xxi.  11),  and  per- 
haps further,  since  the  ruggedness  of  the 
land  continues  unchanged  north  of  that  river. 
It  is  divided  by  llie  Jal)l)ok  into  two  jiarts 
(.Josh.  xii.  2}.  Tile  southern  half  was  as- 
signed to  the  tribe  of  (Jad,  and  the  nortliern 
half  was  included  in  the  territorv  of  half 
Manasseh  (Deiit.  iii.  12,  13;  .Josli.  xiii.  24-:il). 
Tiie  name  is  still  connected  with  a  mountain 
south  of  the  .labbok  in  its  designation  .Tebel 
.lil'ad.  The  last  interview  between  I^aban 
and  .lacob  took  jilace  in  mount  (iileiid  ((ten. 
xxxi.  21).  It  was  a  ])lace  well  suited  for 
cattle  (1  C'hron.  v.  9,  10 ;  .Songiv.);  and  the 
sight  of  (iilead  and  tiie  land  of  .Tazer  ((•]).  1 
Cliron.  xxvi.  :>1 )  suggested  to  tlie  Kenbenifes 
and  tlu'  (Jadites,  who  liad  large  flocks  and 
herds,  the  ex]>ediency  of  a]>]ilying  to  Moses  for 
jiermission,  wliich  was  comlitionally  granted 
them,  of  settling  jiermanently  on  the  eastern 
side  of  the  .Ionian  (Num.  xxxii.  1-42:  .losii. 
xiii.  ^-11).  Within  the  limits  (d' (iilead  grew 
tlie  celebrated  balm  (.Ter.  viii.  22;  cj).  Gen. 
xxxvii.  251.  In  an  extended  sense  the  term 
(iileinl  includes  the  whole  region  east  of  the 
.birdan  (Dent,  xxxiv.  1  :  .losh.  xxii.  !);  .ludg. 
XX.  1  ;  2  Sam.  ii.  9;  1  .Alac.  v.  17,  24-27,  :{<; ; 
.\nti(|.  xii.  H. ;? ;  in  ix.8, 1,  Gilead  and  Bashau 
are  distinguished). 

.").  .\  mountain  abutting  on  the  valley  of 
.lezreel  l.luilg.  vii.  .'{ ;  c)).  ver.  1  and  vi.  :!I5). 
While  (iilead  in  tliis  jiassage  may  be  a  niis- 
reailiiig  for  (iiiboa,  it  must  be  remembered 
that  tile  sjiring  which  best  corresponds  in 
position  with  that  at  which  (Jidt'on's  men 
dr.iiik,  and  the  mountain  from  wliich  it 
issues,  and  the  river  down  which  the  dis- 
eomfiled  Midiaiiites  lied,  are  calleil  resjiect- 
ively  the  s]>riiig.  mountain,  and  river  .Falud, 
whieli  is  .\nibic  for  (ioliath.  Tosi)ring,  moun- 
tain, and  river,  are  thus  attached  a  name 
which  possibly  jierpetuates  (iilead  in  a  cor- 
nijit  form.  There  is  jierbaiis  l)etter  evidence 
than  the  present  name,  (iilead  was  ]iarl  of 
Nai.blali  (2  Kin.  xv.  2!l).  If  may  be  that 
Naphtali  extended  acros.s  the  .lordan  to  the 


east,  but  it  is  (piite  pos.sil)le  that  Gilead  de- 
noted a  rugged  district  of  Napiitali  west  of 
the  .Jordan  :  and  if  so,  tlie  correctness  of  the 
text  of  .Judg.  vii.  3  is  eonlinned. 

().  A  city  in  the  region  of  Gilead  (IIos.  vi. 
8:  cp.  xii.  11). 

Gll'gal  [act  of  rolling,  wheel,  a  circle]. 

1.  The  first  encani]iment  «d'  the  Isnielifes 
after  crossing  the  .Jordan,  and  their  liead- 
quartersdtiring  the  coiniuest  of  (  anaan  i.losh. 
iv.  ]!l-24).  The  special  association  which 
they  had  with  the  name  was  the  rolling  away 
of  their  reproach  by  their  circumcision  afti'r 
long  neglect  of  the  ordinance  in  the  wilder- 
ness {.Josh.  V.  7-!»).  The  canii)  was  pitched 
between  the  .Ionian  and  .Jericho.  On  its  site 
arose  a  town,  which  was  on  the  northern 
border  of  .Jiidah  (xv.  7).  There  were  (iiiar- 
ries  in  its  vicinity  (Judg.  iii.  19).  The.se  la.st 
two  references  are,  however,  believed  by 
some  authorities  to  indicate  the  existence  of 
another  (iilgal  at  the  foot  of  the  mountains. 
It  is  uncertain  whether  this  town  or  another 
jilace  of  the  name  was  on  Samuel's  circuit 
(1  Sam.  vii.  1<>).  and  where,  it  may  be 
judged,  Saul,  the  ojiiiosition  to  him  having 
ceased,  was  made  king  and  the  kingdom  re- 
newed (xi.  1.")).  At  any  rate,  it  was  at  (iilgal 
in  the  Jordan  vsilley  where  a  muster  of  the 
peojile  took  place  to  form  an  army  which 
should  encounter  the  I'liilistines  then  o|i- 
jiressing  the  land,  when  Saul,  finding  it  ditli- 
ciilt  to  hold  the  iieojile  together  until  Sannu-l 
should  come  and  offer  sacrilice,  himself  of- 
fered burnt  otlerings  I  xiii.  4,  7,  H  :  cp.  12.  l'>i. 
Ffu-  his  disobi'dience  the  forfeiture  of  his 
kingdom  was  announced  to  him  (1.3.  14). 
There,  too,  Saul  incurred  a  second  relmko 
for  his  disobedience  in  sparing  Agag  (xv.  12, 
21,  :i:{ :  cp.  .34).  it  was  to  (iilgal  also  that  the 
representatives  of  the  tribe  of  Jiidah  went  to 
welcome  David  back  after  the  death  of  Absa- 
hmi  (2  .Sam.  xix.  l.">.  10).  Like  other  holy 
places,  it  became  a  focus  of  idolatry  under 
the  kings  whosuci'ceded  .Jeroboam,  and  it  wa.s 
in  consecjuence  denounced  by  the  |>ro|ihets 
(Hos.  iv.  1.") :  ix.  l."> ;  xii.  11 :  Amos  iv.4  ;  v.  .'i). 
It  is  iirobabiy  the  bouse  of  (iilgal  or  Heth- 
gilgal  mentioned  after  the  captivity  (Nth. 
xii.  !i9).  Its  site  is  Jiljnlieh,  a  ruin  2  niile.s 
east  of  Jericho. 

2.  A  village  from  which  Elijah  and  Elisha 
went  down  to  Rethel  (Dent.  "xi.  30 ;  2  Kin. 
ii.  1-4  :  iv.  .3S  (?)).  It  was  jirobably  the  jires- 
ent  village  of  Jiljilia,  on  the  tojt  of  a  high 
hill.  7  miles  nortii  by  west  of  Hethc  1 :  though 
when  tlu'  lev<ls  are  taken,  its  site  is  actual!)' 
lower  than  that  of  Metliel. 

3.  A  town  as.sociated  with  Dor  !ind  Tirzah 
(Josh.  xii.  2.3);  jirobably  .liljulieli.  a  little 
north  of  the  brook  Kanah.  and  .">  miles  north- 
east by  north  of  Antipatris. 

Gl'loh  [exile]. 

A  village  in  the  hill  country  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  .")!) ;  enumenited  with  towns  iyinj! 
to  the  south  of  Hebron. 


Gilonite 


250 


Gnat 


Gi'lo-nite. 

A  native  or  iiilial>itaut  of  (iiloh,  as  Ahith- 
opliel  {2  Sam.  xv.  12;  xxiii.  34). 

Gi'mel. 

Till'  tliird  letter  of  tlie  IIe])re\v  al])ha))et. 
Tlie  lireek  letter  jiaiiiina,  and  coiiseciiieutly 
the  English  ('  have  thcsanic  t)rigin  ;  but  in  the 
spelling  of  Helirew  and  Greek  names  in  the 
Englisii  ver.sions,  gimel  and  gamma  (though 
not  these  letters  only)  are  represented  by  G, 
their  approximate  iMjuivalent  in  sound  and  a 
form  fal)ricated  out  of  C. 

Gimel  stands  at  the  head  of  the  third  sec- 
tion of  Ps.  cxix.  in  several  versions,  since 
each  verse  of  the  section  begins  with  this 
letter  in  the  original. 

Gim'zo  [al)ounding  in  sycomores]. 

A  town  with  dependent  villages  situated 
in  Judah.  It  was  taken  by  the  Philistines 
during  the  reign  of  Aliaz  (2  Chron.  xxviii. 
18).  Eobinson  identified  it  with  Jimzu,  on 
an  eminence  about  3  miles  east-southeast  of 
Lydda. 

Gin. 

A  noose  or  trap,  laid  on  the  ground,  in 
-which  birds,  beasts,  and  even  men  are  caught 
(Job  xviii.  9;  Amos  iii.  5).  The  two  words 
Mokesh  and  Pah,  of  which  it  is  the  ti'ausla- 
tion,  are  usually  rendered  by  snare. 

Gi'nath. 

Father  of  Tibni  (1  Kin.  xvi.  22). 

Gin'ne-tlioi,  in  A.  V.  Ginnetho  [gardener]. 

A  cliief  of  the  priests  who  returned  with 
Zerubbabel  from  Babylon  (Xeh.  xii.  4,  7).  In 
the  next  generation,  a  father's  house  among 
the  priests,  which  occupies  the  same  position 
in  the  corresjionding  catalogut',  bore  the 
name  Ginnethon  (ver.  Ifi).  The  ditference  is 
merely  that  between  a  jod  and  a  final  nun. 
Probably  Ginnethon  stood  originally  in  ver.  4. 

Gin'ne-thon  [gardener]. 

1.  A  fatlier's  house  among  the  priests  in 
the  days  of  the  high  priest  Joiakim  (Neh. 
xii.  l(i);  see  Ginnethoi. 

2.  A  priest  who,  doubtless  in  behalf  of  a 
father's  house,  sealed  a  covenant  to  worship 
Jehovah  (Neh.  x.  6). 

Girdle.  See  Clothing  and  High  Prikst. 

Gir'ga-sMtes,  in  A.  V.  once  Girgasites 
[pcrhajjs,  dwellers  on  clayey  soil]. 

A  tribe  of  Canaan  (Gen.  x.  15,  16;  xv.  21  ; 
Deut.  vii.  1  ;  Josh.  iii.  10  ;  xxiv.  11 ;  Neh.  ix. 
8).  It  is  not  known  what  part  of  the  coun- 
try they  inhabited.  They  must  not  be  con- 
founded with  the  ( Jergest'nes. 

Gir'zite,  in  \.  V.  Gezrite  ;  in  margin  Giz- 
rites  and  Gerzites  respectively,  following  a 
Hebrew  tradition. 

A  ])eoi)le  living  south  of  the  Philistine 
country  and  mentioned  with  the  Anialekites 
and  Geshurites  (1  Sam.  xxvii.  S). 

Gish'pa,  in  A.  V.  Gispa  [blandishment]. 

An  overseer  of  the  Nethinim  in  Nehemiah's 
time  (Neh.  xi.  21). 


Git  tab-he 'pher.     See  G.\th-hkpher. 

Git'ta-im  [two  wine  presses]. 

A  village  of  Henjamin  (Neh.  xi.  31,  33),  to 
which  the  Keerothites  (led  probably  at  the 
time  of  Saul's  cruelty  (2  Sam.  iv.  3;  cp.  xxi. 
1,  2).     Exact  site  unknown. 

Git'tite  [of  (iath]. 

A  native  or  inhabitant  of  Gath  (2  Sam.  vi. 
10,  11  ;  XV.  18,  19,  22). 

Git'tith  [Gittite]. 

A  nuisical  term  (Ps.  viii.,  Ixxxi.,  Ixxxiv., 
titles).  It  is  the  feminine  form  of  the  He- 
brew adjective  for  Gittite,  and  it  denotes 
either  a  musical  instrument  in  use  in  Gath, 
or  a  vintage  song  to  the  tune  of  which  the 
psalm  should  be  sung,  or  a  march  of  the  Git- 
tite guard  (2  Sam.  xv.  18). 

Gi'zo-nite. 

The  designation  of  Hashem,  one  of  David's 
mighty  men  (1  Chrou.  xi.  34).  It  points 
either  to  his  paternity  or  to  his  birthplace,  it 
is  uncertain  which.  Neither  man  nor  place 
with  a  name  like  Gizoh  is  found  in  the 
Bible. 

Giz'rite.     See  Gikzite. 

Glass. 

1.  A  mirror  (Ex.  xxxviii.  8;  Job  xxxvii. 
18 ;  1  Cor.  xiii.  12,  all  A.  V.) ;  see  Mirror. 

2.  The  rendering  of  Hebrew  Z'kid-ith  (Job 
xxviii.  17,  E.  Y.,  where  A.  V.  has  crystal) 
and  of  Greek  'Ualos  and  its  adjective  (Rev. 
iv.  6  ;  XV.  2;  xxi.  18,  21).  It  is  probably  real 
glass.  Glass  was  known  to  the  Greeks  as 
early  as  the  time  of  Herodotus,  and  to  the 
Egyptians  long  before  the  exodus. 

Gleaning. 

Gathering  the  grain  which  the  reapers 
have  failed  to  remove,  or  the  grapes  which 
remain  after  the  vintage  (Judg.  viii.  2;  Ruth 
ii.  2,  7,  9,  16;  Is.  xvii.  6).  For  the  benefit  of 
the  poor,  the  fatherless,  the  widow,  and  the 
stranger,  the  owner  was  instructed  by  the 
law  not  to  glean  his  harvest  field  or  vine- 
yard, nor  return  for  a  forgotten  sheaf,  nor 
gather  fallen  fruit  (Lev.  xix.  9,  10:  xxiii.  22; 
Deut.  xxiv.  19). 

Glede  [the  glider]. 

The  common  kite  (Deut.  xiv.  13).  The 
word  is  used  to  render  the  Hebrew  Ra'ah  ; 
which,  however,  is  a  copyist's  error  for 
Da'ah;  see  Daleth.  A  later  scribe  seems  to 
have  written  Dui/i/nh  on  the  margin  as  a  cor- 
rection, which  afterwards  crept  into  the  text 
(for  it  is  not  mentioned  in  the  corresponding 
list  in  Lev.  xi.),  and  is  rendered  kite  in  R.  V., 
vulture  in  A.  V. 

Gnat. 

The  rendering  of  the  Greek  Konops,  a  small 
insect  (Mat.  xxiii.  24).  abounding  in  marshes 
and  vexatious  by  reason  of  its  bite,  from 
which  the  Egyjifians  jirotected  themselves  at 
night  by  sleeping  under  nets  (Herod,  ii.  95). 
It  is  evidently  some  sjiecies  of  Culex,  a  genus 
known  by  its  hairy  antennte,  plumed  in  the 


Goad 


251 


God 


males,  its  ijroboscis,  its  slender  body,  its  two   | 
giiuzy  wiiiKS,    its   long   legs,  and    its   hloocL^ 
sinking  |)r(i|H'nsities.     "To  strain  nt"  in  tlio» 
A.  \ .  is  a  misprint  in  the  original  e(litiun  of 
Kill   lor  "strain  dkI."     Tiie  earlier  Knglisli 
versions  have  "out,"  and  the   K.  \'.  eorrects 
the  error  of  A.  V.,  and  translates  "to  strain 
out  the  gnat,  and  swallow  the  camel."     To 
anxiously  strain  out  any  small  inseet  whieh 
has  accidentally  fallen  into  the  water  one  is 
ahout  til  drink,  hut  unconcernedly  to  swallow 
aeaniel,  is  to  he  particnlarahout  ndnute  jxtints 
of  ceremony  or  of  duty,  while  practicing  gross 
violations  of  tlie  moral  law. 

Goad. 

\  long  pole  sharpened  at  theitoint  or  iron- 
tijiped,  used  to  urge  cattle  forward  (1  Sam. 
xiii.  21).  With  one  Shanigar  slew  (iOO  I'hilis- 
tines  (Judg.  iii.  31).  "  It  is  hard  for  thee  to 
kick  against  the  pricks"  (Acts  ix.  5,  A.  V.) 
is  the  metaidior  of  a  recalcitrant  animal  in- 
juring itself  against  the  ox  goad.  The  words 
of  the  wise  are  compared  to  goads  (Eecles. 
xii.  11>. 

Go' ah,  in  A.  V.  Goath  [lowing]. 

A  place  near  Jerusalem  to  the  west  or  south 
(Jer.  xxxi.  39). 

Goat. 

The  rendering  of  quite  a  number  of 
Hebrew  words  in  the  Old  Testament,  and  of 
more  than  one  Greek  word  in  the  New: 
Wtiiid,  be  goat,  probably  as  leader  of  the 
flock;  Tatjixh,  he  goat,  jjcrhaps  as  butting ; 
Snj>hir,  he  goat,  as  the  leapcr  ;  'Es,  she  goat, 
also  a  goat  without  regard  to  sex  ;  Sa'ir,  he 
goat,  and  S''iriili.  she  goat,  as  shaggy  ;  and  the 
(ireek  words  Trafios,  he  goat;  'Aix,  goat,  as 
the  sin-inger ;  'Eriiihu.i  and  'Eriphion,  a  young 
goat,  kid.  Goats  were  tended  with  the 
sheep  by  the  same  she])hcrd  ((Jen.  xxvii.  9; 
XXX.  .■!•-'),  but  in  sei)arale  comjjanics  (Mat. 
XXV.  'i2).  Their  hair  was  woven  into  cloth 
(Ex.  XXV.  4;  XXXV.  2C>),  the  flesh  and  milk 
were  used  for  food  (Lev.  vii.  23;  Dent.  xiv. 
4;  Prov.  xxvii.  27),  and  in  oxtreunty  their  ' 
liairy  skin  servi'd  as  clothing  (Ileb.  xi.  37). 
They  wt're  an  imjiortant  item  of  a  cattle 
owner's  wealth  ((Jen.  xxx.  33,  43;  xxxi.  1;  I 
1  Siim.  XXV.  2;  2  Vhrim.  xvii.  11).  The  goat 
was  a  sacrificial  animal,  used  for  burnt  oU'er-  ' 
ing  and  sin  otl'eiing  ((Jen.  xv.  9;  Ex.  xii.  5; 
Lev.  i.  HI;  iv.  21;  Num.  vii.  17;  xv.  27;  I's. 
Ixvi.  1.") ;  is.  i.  11  ;  Ezra  vi.  17;  viii.  3") ;  Hcb.  I 
ix.  12).  The  domestic  goat  (Cajyra  hirciis) 
belongs  to  the  great  family  of  Borifhr.  or 
liollow-Iiorneil  ruminants.  The  closest  af- 
finity is  bi'lieved  to  be  to  tlie  sheep,  and 
there  is  a  series  of  connecting  links  between  i 
the  two  animals.  Oiu^  of  the  few  jioints  of  i 
dill'erence  is  that  in  the  goat  the  liorns  are 
simjily  curved  liackwanl.  Their  habits  are 
ditVerenl.  In  ralesline  the  sheep  may  be 
seen  grazing  tlu-  tender  herbage  and  grass, 
while  the  goats  brow.se  tender  twigs  and  ] 
leaves.  Every  flock  of  goats  has  its  own 
stately  leader  (cp.  Jer.  1.  8).     The  goat  was  ] 


very  abundant  in  ancient  Palestine,  as  was 
t<i  be  exjiected  in  a  hilly  and  somewhat  dry 
country.  It  is  now  more  numerous  than  the 
sheep,  and  constitutes  the  chief  wealth  of 
the  country.  The  orilinary  goal  of  Syria  is 
black  in  color,  and  has  pendant  ears  a  foot 
long  hanging  down  below  the  recurved  horns. 
It  is  Linna-us'  Capva  mambriai.  His  Cupra 
hirciia,  variety  (nifioirnsix,  the  Mohair  goat, 
is  also  occasionally  bred  in  the  north  of 
Palestine. 

Goat,  Wild. 

An  animal,  in  Hebrew  Ya'rl,  eminent.  Its 
refuge  is  among  the  high  bills  tps.  civ.  18) 
and  rocks  I. lob  xxxix.  1),  En-gedi  being  its 
sjjecial  haunt  in  Palestine  (1  Sam.  xxiv.  2). 
It  is  a  sjjecies  of  ibex  Wnpyu  bnlt'ii).  called 
by  the  .\rabs  betlen.  It  is  of  a  much  lighter 
color  than  the  European  ibex.  Its  horns  are 
more  slemler  and  recurved,  wrinkle<l,  and 
knotted  on  the  front  face  only.  It  is  found 
in  Egy]it,  Arabia,  Pi'rsia,  .Moab.  and  in  the 
wilderness  of  Juda-a  near  the  Dead  .Sea. 
Tristram  met  with  it  twice  at  its  favorite 
spot,  En-gedi,  and  found  its  teeth  fosvsil  in 
cave  breccia  on  Lebanon,  where  it  does  not 
now  occur.  Wild  goat  is  also  the  rendering 
of  the  Hebrew  'AhLo,  jierhaps  meaning  grace- 
ful neck  (l)eut.  xiv.  .">).  It  may  be  the  sjime 
species. 

Go'ath.    See  Goah. 

Gob  [small  pit,  cistern,  or  locust]. 

A  ))lace  at  which  war  was  waged  with 
the  Philistines  twice  in  the  reign  of  David 
(2  Sam.  xxi.  18,  19).  .Site  unknown.  The 
text  is  uncertain.  In  1  C'hron.  xx.  1  the  seat 
of  war  is  Gczer. 

God. 

The  English  word  God  is  derived  from  a 
root  meaning  to  call,  and  indicates  simply  the 
object  of  worshi]),  one  whom  men  call  njion 
or  invoke.  The  Greek  word  which  it  trans- 
lates in  the  i)ages  of  the  N.  T.,  however, 
describes  this  object  of  worship  as  .Spirit ;  and 
the  O.  T.  Hebrew  wonl,  which  this  word  in 
turn  repiH'sents,  conveys,  as  its  jirimary 
meaning,  the  idea  of  jiower.  On  Christian 
lips,  therefore,  the  word  God  designates  fun- 
damentally the  ahnighty  .Spirit  who  is  wor- 
shiped and  wlios<'  aid  is  invoked  by  nn-n. 
This  ]irimary  itba  of  (iod.  in  which  is 
summeil  up  what  is  known  as  theism,  is  the 
product  of  that  genenil  revelation  wliich 
God  makes  of  himself  to  all  nu'ii,  on  the 
jilane  of  nature.  The  truths  involved  in  it 
are  continually  n'iti'ralt'<l.  enricheil.  and 
deepeneil  in  the  .Scriptures;  but  they  are  not 
so  miuh  revealed  by  them  as  jiresniiposed  at 
the  foundation  of  the  six-cial  revelation  with 
which  the  .Scriptures  busy  themselves— the 
great  revelation  of  the  gnice  of  (  JimI  to  sinners. 
( )n  Ihejilaiicof  uatui-emencan  learn  only  wiiat 
(iod  neces.sjirily  is,  and  what,  by  virtue  of  liis 
es.sential  attributes,  lie  must  do  ;  a  special  com- 
munication from  him  is  rei|uisit<'  toa.ssureus 
what,  in  his  inlinito  love,  he  will  do  for  the 


God 


252 


God 


recovery  of  sinners  from  their  guilt  and  mis- 
ery to  the  l>liss  of  coninninion  with  him.  And 
for  tlie  full  revelation  of  this,  liis  grace  in  the 
re(lemj)tion  of  sinners,  there  was  reciuisite  an 
even  more  i)rofound  unveiling  of  the  mode 
of  his  existence,  l)y  whicli  he  has  heen  ulti- 
mately disclosed  as  including  in  the  unity  of 
his  heiug  a  distinction  of  jter.sons,  hy  virtue 
of  which  it  is  the  same  God  from  whom, 
through  whom,  and  l)y  whom  are  ail  things, 
who  is  at  once  tlie  Father  who  provides,  the 
Son  who  accomiilishes,  and  the  .Sjjirit  who 
ajiplies,  redemption.  Only  in  the  uncovering 
of  this  sui)ernal  mystery  of  tlie  Trinity  is 
the  revelation  of  what  (Jod  is  completed. 
That  there  is  no  hint  of  the  Trinity  in  the 
general  revelation  made  on  the  iilane  of  na- 
ture is  due  to  the  fact  that  nature  has  noth- 
ing to  say  of  redemption,  in  the  process  of 
which  alone  are  the  depths  of  the  divine  na- 
ture made  known.  That  it  is  explicitly  re- 
vealed only  in  the  N.  T.  is  due  to  the  fact 
that  not  until  the  N.  T.  stage  of  revelation 
was  reached  was  the  redemption,  which  was 
being  prepared  throughout  the  whole  O.  T. 
economy,  actually  accomplished.  That  so 
iueffiible  a  mystery  was  placed  before  the 
darkened  mind  of  man  at  all  is  due  to  the 
necessities  of  the  plan  of  redemption  itself, 
which  is  rooted  in  the  trinal  distinction  in 
the  Godhead,  and  can  be  apprehended  only 
on  the  basis  of  the  Trinity  in  Unity. 

The  nature  of  God  has  been  made  known 
to  men,  therefore,  in  three  stages,  corre- 
sponding to  the  three  planes  of  revelation, 
and  we  will  naturally  come  to  know  him, 
lirst,  as  the  infinite  Spirit  or  the  (xod  of  na- 
ture; then,  as  the  Redeemer  of  sinners,  or 
the  God  of  grace ;  and  lastly  as  the  Father, 
Son.  and  Holy  Ghost,  or  the  Triune  God. 

1.  God,  the  Infinite  Spirit. — The  conviction 
of  the  existence  of  God  bears  the  marks  of 
an  intuitive  truth  in  so  far  as  it  is  the  uni- 
versal and  unavoidable  belief  of  men,  and  is 
given  in  the  very  same  act  with  the  idea  of 
self,  which  is  known  at  once  as  dependent 
and  responsible  and  thus  implies  one  on 
whom  it  depends  and  to  whom  it  is  responsi- 
ble. This  immediate  pei'ception  of  God  is 
confirmed  and  the  contents  of  the  idea  de- 
veloped by  a  series  of  arguments  known  as 
the  "theistic  proofs.''  These  are  derived 
from  the  necessity  we  are  under  of  believing 
in  the  real  existence  of  the  infinitely  perfect 
Being,  of  a  sufficient  cause  for  the  contingent 
universe,  of  an  intelligent  author  of  the 
order  and  of  the  manifold  contrivances  ob- 
■servjible  in  nature. and  of  a  lawgivcrand  Judge 
for  dependent  moral  beings,  endowed  with 
the  sense  of  duty  and  an  ineradicable  feeling 
of  responsibility,  conscious  of  the  moral  con- 
tradictions of  the  world  and  craving  a  solution 
for  them,  and  living  under  an  intuitive  per- 
cejition  of  right  which  they  do  not  see  real- 
ized. The  cogency  of  these  ]>roofs  is  eur- 
rcptly  recognized  in  the  Scriptures,  while 
they  add  to  them  the  suiiernatural   manifes- 


tations of  God  iu  a  redemptive  process,  ac- 
companied at  every  stage  by  nnraculous 
attestation.  From  the  theistic  jn-oofs,  how- 
ever, we  learn  not  only  tiiat  a  God  exists, 
but  also  necessiirily,  on  tlie  principle  of  a 
sufficient  cause,  very  nuich  of  the  nature  of 
the  (iod  which  they  prove  to  exist.  The  idea 
is  still  further  deveio])cd,  on  the  princijilcof 
interpreting  hy  the  highest  category  within 
our  reach,  hy  our  instinctive  attriliution  to 
him,  in  an  I'mimnt  d-'gree,  of  all  that  is  the 
.source  of  dignity  and  excellence  in  ourselves. 
Thus  we  come  to  know  (4od  as  a  personal 
Spirit,  infinite,  eterrial,  and  illimitable  alike 
in  his  being  and  in  the  intelligence,  sensi- 
bility, and  will  which  helong  to  him  as  per- 
sonal spirit.  The  attributes  which  are  thus 
ascribed  to  him,  including  self-existence,  in- 
dependence, unity,  uniqueness,  unchange- 
ahleness,  omnii)rescnce.  infinite  knowledge 
and  wisdom,  infinite  freedom  and  power,  in- 
finite truth,  righteousness,  holiness  and  good- 
ness, are  not  only  recognized  but  richly  illus- 
trated in  Scripture,  which  thus  puts  the  seal 
of  its  .special  revelation  ujiou  all  the  details 
of  the  natural  idea  of  God. 

2.  God,  the  Redeemer  of  Sinners. — While  re- 
iterating the  teaching  of  nature  as  to  the  ex- 
istence and  character  of  the  personal  Creator 
and  Lord  of  all,  the  Scriptures  lay  their 
stress  upon  the  grace  or  the  undeserved  love 
of  God,  as  exhibited  in  his  dealings  with  his 
sinful  and  wrath-deserving  creatures.  So 
little,  however,  is  the  consummate  divine 
attribute  of  love  advanced,  in  the  scrijitural 
revelation,  at  the  expense  of  the  other  moral 
attributes  of  God,  that  it  is  thrown  into 
prominence  only  ujion  a  background  of  the 
sti'ongest  assertion  and  fullest  manifestation 
of  its  companion  attributes,  especially  of  the 
divine  righteousness  and  holiness,  and  is  ex- 
hibited as  acting  only  along  with  and  in  en- 
tire harmony  with  them.  God  is  not  repre- 
sented in  the  Scriptures  as  forgiving  sin  be- 
cause he  really  cares  very  little  about  sin ; 
nor  yet  because  he  is  so  exclusively  or  pre- 
dominatingly the  God  of  love,  that  all  other 
attributes  shrink  into  desuetude  in  the  ju'es- 
ence  of  his  illimitable  benevolence.  He  is 
rather  represented  as  moved  to  deliver  sinful 
man  from  his  guilt  and  i)ollution  because  he 
pities  the  creatures  of  his  hand,  immeshed 
in  sin,  with  an  intensity  which  is  born  of 
tlie  vehemence  of  his  holy  abhorrence  of  sin 
and  his  righteous  determination  to  visit  it 
with  intolerable  retribution  ;  and  by  a  mode 
which  brings  as  complete  satisfaction  to  his 
infinite  justice  and  holiness  as  to  his  un- 
bounded love  itself.  The  biblical  ])rcsenta- 
tion  of  the  God  of  grace  includes  thus  the 
richest  development  of  all  his  moral  attri- 
butes, and  the  God  of  the  Bible  is  conse- 
quently set  forth,  in  the  com]ileti'ness  of  that 
idea,  as  above  everything  else  the  ethical 
God.  And  that  is  as  much  as  to  .say  that 
there  is  ascribed  to  him  a  moral  sense  so 
sensitive  and  true  that  it  estimates  with  un- 


God 


2.53 


Gog 


failing  accuracy  the  exact  moral  cliaracter 
of  fvory  iK-rsou  or  deed  presented  for  its 
euiit(Mii|iliiti(iii,  and  resjionds  to  it  with  the 
l)ri-(iM'ly  aiiprojiriate  dc;;re('  of  satisfaction 
or  rciinittaliiin.  Tlie  infinitiKlc  of  his  h»ve 
is  exhihited  to  us  itreciselv  in  tliat  whiU-  we 
were  yet  sinners  lie  loved  us,  tiiouuh  with 
all  the  force  of  his  inlinite  natnre  he  reacted 
a;j;ainst  our  sin  with  illiniital)le  alilun-rence 
and  indijiiialion.  The  nivstery  of  ^crace  re- 
hiiles  jnst  in  the  inii)nlse  of  a  sin-hating 
God  to  show  mercy  to  such  guilty  wretches  ; 
and  the  suj)reme  revelation  of  (iod  as  the 
(iod  of  holy  love  is  made  in  the  diselosurc  of 
the  nicide  of  his  jirocedure  in  redeniiitiou, 
hy  which  alone  lie  might  reiiiain  just  while 
justifying  tlie  ungodly.  For  in  this  pro- 
cednre  there  was  involved  the  mighty  jiara- 
dox  of  the  inrniitely  just  Judge  himself  he- 
i'omiug  tlie  sinner's  suhstitule  before  his  own 
law  and  the  infinitely  blessed  (iod  receiving 
in  his  own  jierson  the  ])enalty  of  sin. 

I>.  (iod.  the  lutther.  Sou,  (Uid  llolij  Ghost. — ■ 
The  eleUK  Ills  of  the  jilan  of  salvation  are 
moted  in  the  mysterions  nature  of  tlie  tiod- 
head.  in  which  there  coexists  a  tiiual  dis- 
tinction of  persous  with  absolute  unity  of 
essence:  and  the  revelation  of  the  Trinity 
was  accordingly  incidental  to  the  execution 
of  this  i)lan  of  salvation,  in  which  the  Fiitlier 
sent  the  Son  to  be  the  proi)itiation  for  sin,  and 
the  Son,  when  he  returned  to  llie  glory 
which  he  had  \\ith  the  Father  before  the 
world  was,  .sent  the  S])irit  to  apjdy  his  re- 
deni]ition  to  men.  The  disclosure  of  this 
fundamental  fact  of  the  divine  natnre,  there- 
fore, lagged  until  the  time  had  arrived  for 
the  actual  working  out  ol'  the  long-promised 
re<lem]>tioii ;  and  it  was  accomjilislied  first  of 
all  in  fact  rather  than  in  word,  liy  the  actual 
aiiiiearance  <if  (!od  the  Son  on  earth  and  the 
snb>ci|iieut  manifestations  of  the  S]iiiit,  who 
was  sent  forth  to  act  as  liis  re]>resentative  in 
hisahsence.  At  the  very  beginning  of  Christ's 
ministry  the  three  persons  are  dramatically 
exhibited  to  our  sight  in  tlu'  act  of  his  ba])- 
tism.  And  though  llieie  is  no  single  jiassjige 
in  Scripture  in  which  all  the  details  of  this 
great  mystery  are  gatliered  npandex])onnded, 
there  do  not  lack  jias-sages  in  which  the  three 
persons  are  brought  together  in  a  manner 
which  exhibits  at  once  their  unity  and  dis- 
tinctness. The  most  iM'ominent  of  these  arc 
])erhaps  tlie  formula  of  baptism  in  tlie  triune 
name,  put  into  the  mouths  of  his  followers 
by  tile  resurrected  Lord  (Mat.  xxviii.  IJI). 
and  the  apostolic  Ix-nedictioii  in  which  a 
divine  blessing  is  invoked  from  eacii  jierson 
in  turn  (2  Cor.  xiii.  II).  The  e.s.sential  ele- 
ments wliicli  enter  into  and  togetlier  make 
U|i  this  great  revelation  of  tlie  Triune  (rod 
are,  however,  most  connuouly  sc'jiarately  in- 
sist<'<l  upon.  The  ciiief  of  these  are  the 
tiiree  coustilutive  facts:  (1)  that  there  is  Imt 
<ine  <i(»d  (Deut.  vi.  J;  Is.  xliv.  (i :  1  Cor.  viii. 
•I  :  James  ii.  lOi;  (2)  tliat  the  Father  is  Cod 
(Mat.  xi.  25 ;  John  vi.  27  ;  viii.  -11 :  Honi.  xv. 


a ;  1  Cor.  viii.  6  ;  Gal.  i.  1,  3,  4  ;  Eph.  iv.  6; 
vi.  23  ;  1  Tlies.  i.  1  ;  Jas.  i.  27  ;  iii.  i) ;  1  Pet. 
i.  2;  Jude  1)  ;  the  Son  is  (iod  (Jolin  i.  1,  IH  ; 
XX.  2M  ;  Acts  XX.  2.S;  Kom.  ix.  5;  Hcb.  i.  h  ; 
Col.  ii.  9;  I'hil.  ii.  (i ;  2  Pet.  i.  1);  and  the 
Sjiirit  is  (iod  (Acts  v.  :i,  i  ;  1  Cor.  ii.  10,  11; 
El)h.  ii.  22),  and  CI)  that  the  Father,  Son,  and 
Holy  (ihost  are  ])ersonally  distinct  from  one 
another,  distinguished  by  iiersonal  i>roii.iun>. 
able  to  send  and  be  sent  by  one  another.  ti« 
love  and  honor  each  the  other,  and  the  like 
(John  XV.  26  ;  xvi.  1:5,  14  ;  xvii.  h,  IH.  s.i :  xvi. 
14  :  xvii.  1).  The  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  is 
but  the  synthesis  of  these  facts,  and,  adding 
nothing  to  them,  simply  recoj;ui/.es  in  the 
unity  of  the  Godhead  sucli  a  Trinity  of  ]ier- 
sons  as  is  involved  in  the  working  out  of  the 
plan  of  redemption.  In  the  prosecution  of 
this  work  there  is  imjilicated  a  certain  rela- 
tive subordination  in  the  modes  of  ojieration 
of  the  .several  jiersons,  by  which  it  is  the 
Father  that  .sends  the  .Sou  and  the  Son  who 
sends  thi'  .Sjiirit  :  but  the  three  ]iei-sons  are 
uniformly  represented  in  Scrijitureasin  their 
essential  nature  each  alike  God  over  all, 
blessed  forever  (Kom.  ix.  'u ;  and  we  are 
therefore  to  conceive  the  subordination  as 
rather  economic:il,  (.  r.  relative  to  the  func- 
tion of  each  in  the  work  of  redl'inptiou.  than 
essential,  /.  e.  involving  a  dillerence  in  nature. 

H.  n.  w. 
Gog. 

1.  A  Rcubenite  (1  Chron.  v.  4). 

2.  The  jirince  of  Rosh,  Meshech,  and  Tubal 
(Ezek.  xxxviii.  2.  R.  V.),  who  is  i)roi)heti(  ally 
described  as  invading  the  laud  of  Israel  in  the 
last  times,  and  being  defeateil  on  the  moun- 
tains with  immense  slaughter  (  Kzek.  xxxviii., 
xxxix.).  He  and  his  peojile  and  his  allies 
serve  tlie  i)ro]>het  as  a  tyjte  of  heatheni.sm 
contending  against  the  kingdom  of  (iod.  Tiie 
name  was  iirobably  borrowed  frniii  (iyges.  tlie 
chief  of  a  Lydian  lu-iucely  family  called  the 
Mcrmnadic.  It  is  .said  that  about  7<KI  k.  c. 
they  murdered  the  reigning  sovereign  of 
Lydia.  who  bi'longetl  to  a  rival  house  calle<l 
the  Ileracliila',  and  ]ilaii(l  (iyges  on  tiie 
throne.  He  was  ceU'l)rated  by  tlie  (ireeks  for 
his  wealth,  and  gained  jiojiiilarity  by  sending 
large  donations  to  the  temple  of  Ajiollo  at 
Delphi.  He  made  war  on  the  Greek  cities  in 
Asia  Minor.  In  his  old  age  his  country  was 
invaded  by  an  aiijiareiitly  Celtic  horde  calle<l 
the  Cimmerians,  who  canie  from  the  Crimea. 
He  defeated  them  in  battU-,  eajituring  s<-v- 
enil  of  their  chiefs.  Hut  fearing  a  repetition 
of  the  invasion,  he  sent  presents  to  .Vslinr- 
lianijial,  the  .\.ssyrian  king.  Fc.r  a  long  time 
no  one  could  he  found  wlm  understood  tiie 
Lydian  language  spoken  by  the  amlias.-adors. 
At  length  a  man  was  obtained  wlm  compre- 
hended what  they  .siiil.  and  the  frienilshiji 
of  (iyges  was  accepted.  It  was  only  ih-ceji- 
tive,  for  in  a  short  time  (iyges  aided  Egypt 
in  its  revolt  against  the.Xssyrian  ruler,  who  in 
retaliation  stirred  ii]i  (he  Cimmerians  to  a 
fresh  invasion  of  Lvdia,  in  which,  about  (»(>2 


Grolan 


254 


Gorgias 


B.  c,  Gyges  was  killed,  leaving  his  son  Ardys 
to  ascend  the  throne  (Herod,  i.  7-15).     See 

GOMER,  M.\GO«. 

3.  A  mystic  personage,  akin  in  character 
to  the  (iog  of  Ezekiel,  to  appear  immediately 
before  the  close  of  the  present  dispensation 
(Kev.  XX.  8-1.-)). 

Go'lan  [exile,  emigration]. 

A  city  of  Hashan,  within  the  territory  of 
the  half-tribe  of  Manasseh  east  of  the  Jordan. 
It  was  assigned,  with  its  subnrljs,  to  the  (ier- 
shonite  Levites  (Josh.  xxi.  27;  1  Chron.  vi. 
71),  and  was  one  of  the  cities  of  refnge  (Deut. 
iv.  43;  Josh.  xx.  8;  xxi.  27).  Alexander  Jau- 
nteus  sustained  a  severe  defeat  near  this 
place,  and  on  a  later  campaign  demolished 
the  town  (War.  i.  4,  4  and  8).  The  town 
gave  name  to  the  small  i)rovince  of  Gaulanitis, 
orGaulonitis,  as  the  name  was  also  pronounced 
(Anti(i.  viii.  2,  3,  various  Greek  texts).  This 
region  was  .situated  between  Hermon  and  the 
Yarmuk,  and  extended  from  the  neighbor- 
hood of  the  .lordan  eastward.  The  eastern 
border  has  not  been  determined.  The  di.s- 
trict  is  divisible  into  a  southern  and  more 
arable,  and  a  uortliern  and  more  rocky  half. 
It  was  surveyed  by  Schumacher,  who  with 
other  authorities  considers  that  the  site  of 
the   town   was  at   Sahem   ej-Jaulan,    about 

17  miles  east  of  the  sea  of  Galilee,  where 
there  are  extensive  ruins.  Gaulonitis  is  now 
known  as  Jaulau.  Porter  describes  it  as  a 
table-land  watered  by  streams  from  Hermon 
and  numerous  fountains,  and  with  pastures 
which  are  among  the  richest  in  Syria ;  yet  it 
is  now  almost  wholly  desolate. 

Gold. 

A  precious  metal  anciently  obtained  in 
Havilah  (Gen.  ii.  11.  12)  ;  Sheba  (1  Kin.  x.  2; 
Ps.  Ixxii.  15),  and  Ojjhir  (1  Kin.  xxii.  48;  2 
Chron.  viii.  18  ;  Job  xxii.  24;  Ps.  xlv.  9).  It 
was  lavishly  used  for  overlaying  the  furni- 
ture of  the  tabernacle  and  the  temple,  and 
ornamenting  the  latter  edifice  itself  (Ex.  xxv. 

18  ;  1  Kin.  vi.  22,  28).  It  was  made  into  idols 
(Ex.  XX.  23 ;  xxxii.  31  ;  Ps.  cxv.  4 ;  Is.  xl.  19 ; 
Acts  xvii.  29),  crowns  (Ps.  xxi.  3),  chains 
(Gen.  xli.  42),  rings  (Song  v.  14),  earrings 
(Judg.  viii.  2fi).  It  was  used  for  coinage  at  a 
comparatively  early  date  (Ezra  ii.  (i9,R.  V.  ; 
cj).  Acts  iii.  () ;  xx.  33).  Its  figurative  mean- 
ing ai>pears  in  Rev.  iii.  18,  etc. 

Gol'go-tha  [Greek  from  Aramaic  qnhjalia'', 
Hebrew  iiulgoleth,  a  skull].     See  C.\lvary. 

Go-li'ath  [exile,  or  an  exile]. 

The  giant  from  the  Philistine  city  of  Gath 
who  was  slain  by  David  ll  Sam.  xvii.  1-58; 
xxi.  9,  10;  xxii.  10;  cj).  Josh.  xi.  22;  Xum. 
xiii.  33).  Perhaps  nnother  giant  of  Gath,  be- 
sides the  one  slain  by  David,  bore  the  name 
of  Goliath  (2  Sam.  xxi.  19),. just  as  two  heroes 
of  the  time  were  called  Elhanan  ;  but  see  1 
Chron.  xx.  5. 

Go'mer.  I.  [perfection]. 

Daughter  of  Diblaim,  and  wife  of  Hosea 
the  prophet  (Hos.  i.  3). 


Go'mer,  II. 

A  peojile  descended  from  .Tapheth,  and  in- 
habiting the  north  (Gen.  x.  2,  3  ;  1  I'liron.  i.  5, 
(i;  Ezek.  xxxviii.fi).  They  were  probably  the 
Cimmerians  of  classical  history.  They  are 
mentioned  by  Homeraspeo]>le  of  the  far  north 
(Odys.  xi.  14).  They  entered  Asia  from  the 
Crimea,  which  itself  ])reserves  their  name,  and 
the  regions  l)eyond  the  Caucasus  (Herod,  iv. 
11,  12),  settled  in  ('a])padocia,  and  threatened 
the  Assyrian  emjjire,  but  were  defeated  by 
Esarhaddou.  Turning  westward,  they  overran 
part  of  Asia  Minor,  tighting  more  than  one 
battle  with  Gyges,  king  of  Lydia,  whose  name 
is  probably  preserved  in  the  Scripture  Gog. 
Him  they  killed.  They  were  afterwards 
driven  out  of  Asia  (Lydia)  by  Alyattes  ( Herod, 
i.  l(j).  They  are  generally  considered  to  have 
been  identical  with  the  Ciml>ri  of  Kimian 
times,  and  tlie  Cymry  of  Wales.  Cambria 
and  even  Cumberland  still  preserve  the  mem- 
ory of  their  name. 

Go-mor'rah,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Gomorrha 
[accumulation  or,  perhaps,  submersion]. 

One  of  the  cities  of  the  plain  (Gen.  x.  19; 
xiii.  10).  Its  king  was  defeated  by  Chedor- 
laomer  (xiv.  2,  8,  10,  11).  It  was  one  of  the 
cities  destroyed  on  account  of  their  wicked- 
ness by  fire  from  heaven  (Gen.  xviii.  20;  xix. 
24-28  ;  Deut.  xxix.  23  ;  Is.  i.  9  ;  xiii.  19  ;  Jer. 
xxiii.  14;  xlix.  18;  Amos  iv.  11 ;  Zejih.  ii.  9  ; 
Mat.  X.  15).  Conder  points  out  that  there  is 
a  great  Iduflf  called  Tubk  'Amriyeh.  and  near 
it  a  wady  called  Wady  'Amriyeh,  whose 
stream  falls  into  the  northwestern  part  of 
the  Dead  Sea,  about  9  miles  in  a  direct  line 
from  the  entrance  of  the  Jordan.  The  con- 
sonants are  the  same  as  in  Gomorrah,  and  the 
modern  name  may  perhaps  echo  the  ancient 
name. 

For  the  vine  of  the  fields  of  Gomorrah 
(Deut.  xxxii.  32).  see  Vine. 

Go'pher  Wood. 

The  wood  of  which  the  ark  was  made  (Gen. 
vi.  14).  Gesenius  suggested  that  the  Hebrew 
gopher  is  an  altered  form  of  kopher,  pitch, 
and  refers  to  trees  of  the  pine  family,  and 
specially,  perhaps,  to  the  cypress,  the  three 
first  consonants  of  the  Greek  knparissos  being 
nearly  those  of  the  word  gopher. 

Gor'gi-as. 

A  Syrian  general  under  Antiochus  IV.  In 
Ififi  H.  <-•.  he  led  a  detachment  of  troops  from 
Emmaus,  in  the  Philistine  ])lain,  where  the 
main  army  was  encamped,  to  make  a  night 
attack  on  Judas  Maccaba-us  ;  but  .ludas,  hav- 
ing learned  of  the  plan,  withdrew  his  forces 
and  led  them  to  a  successful  attack  on  Gor- 
gias' own  camp.  When  Gorgias  rcturne<l. 
his  followers  saw  their  camp  in  fiames  an<l 
fied  (1  Mac.  iii.  38-iv.  25).  A  little  more  than 
a  year  later  Gorgias  was  cdinuianding  at 
Jamnia.  and  he  met  and  defeated  Josei)h  and 
Azarias.  who  in  the  absence  of  Judas  had 
charge  of  the  troops  in  Juda>a.  and  were  ad- 
vancing to  attack  the  town  (v.  55-G2). 


Gortyna 


Gospel 


Gor-ty'na. 

All  iiii]H>rtaiit  rity  in  tlic  suiitherii  jiart  of 
("rttc-  (1  Mac.  xv.  2:1). 

Go'shen. 

1.  A  ilistrict  of  Kfjyjit,  adajiti'd  for  fioi'ks 
anil  litnls,  situatid  in  tlie  delta,  a  ftw  inik-s 
to  the  northeast  of  On.  It  l>eloii};ed  to  the 
uoiiie  called  Araliia  Kieii.  xlvi.  .'il,  Sejitiia- 
niut),  and  formed  part  of  tlie  land  of  Kaiiises 
(xlvi.  2t*;  xlvii.  11,  27,  Septuagint).  Thither 
.lo.seidi  went  iiji  in  his  chariot  to  meet  his 
father  who  was  coiniiif;  from  Canaan  (xlvi. 
2t>.  2!)).  The  llehrews  were  allowed  to  set- 
tle there  (xlvii.  (>),  and  the  mass  of  the  iieople 
were  still  there  at  the  time  of  their  oi)i)res- 
sion  (Ex.  viii.  22;  ix.  G). 

2.  A  region  in  the  south  <>f  .Tudah  (Josh. 
X.  41  ;  xi.  l(i).     Exact  situation  unknown. 

3.  A  town  in  the  hill  country  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  .^1).     Exact  site  unknown. 

Gos'pel. 

Tlic  Ijitrlish  word  frospol  is  derived  from 
the  Anglo-Saxon  tiodsjiel,  which  meant  good 
tidings.  This  etymology  is  found  in  the 
Oriiiithtiii,  Introduction,  line  157.  Later 
it  hecame  godspel,  wliich  meant  (lod-story. 
i.e.  the  story  al)oiit  (iod.  i.e.  Christ.  The 
word,  as  now  usi'd,  descrihes  hoth  tiie  mes- 
sage which  Christianity  announces  and  the 
books  in  which  tlie  story  of  Christ's  life  and 
teaching  is  contained.  A  similar  transition 
in  meaning  was  experienced  by  the  Greek 
word  eiin(i<ielion  (whence  the  Liitin  emnqe- 
liiim  and  our  evangel)  which  go.s])el  was  and 
is  used  to  translate.  In  the  N.  T.  it  n(>ver 
means  a  hook,  but  the  message  which  Christ 
and  his  apostles  announced.  It  is  called  the 
gosjiel  of  God  ( Horn.  i.  1  ;  1  Thes.  ii.  2.  9 ; 
1  Tim.  i.  11)  ;  the  gospel  of  Christ  (Mark  i. 
1;  Kom.  i.  Ki ;  xv.  lit;  1  Cor.  ix.  12,  18;  (ial. 
i.  71  :  the  gosjiel  of  the  grace  of  God  (Acts 
XX.  211;  the  gosiiel  of  i)eace  (Eph.  vi.  15)  ; 
the  gospel  of  your  salvation  (Ejih.  i.  13); 
and  the  glorious  gospel  (2  Cor.  iv.  4).  It  was 
I)reache(l  bv  our  Lord  (Mat.  iv.  23;  xi.  5 ; 
Mark  i.  m";  Luke  iv.  1^;  vii.  22);  by  the 
ajiostles  (Acts  xvi.  10;  Hum.  i.  15;  ii.  K! ; 
1  Cor.  ix.  1(),  etc.),  and  by  evangelists  (Acts 
viii.  25).  Hut  in  the  post-ai)ostolic  age  the 
term  was  also  aiiplied  to  the  writings  in 
which  the  apostolic  testimony  to  Jesus  was 
conlained.  l-^acli  one  nf  Iheni  was  called  a 
gos))el  and  the  four  together  were  called  the 
gospel.  Our  jiresent  English  usage,  there- 
fore, exactly  corresjionds  with  that  of  tlie 
early  Christians  of  tlie  age  immediately  siie- 
eeeding  tlie  apostolic. 

Tlir  Four  ^'(i.s/jf'/.v. — Historical  evidence 
shows  tliJit  our  four  gosjiels  liave  been  attrib- 
uted fmm  the  earliest  times  to  Matthew. 
Mark,  Luke,  and  .Fnhn,  resiiectivcly,  and  that 
from  the  very  beginning  of  the  juiihl-apostulic 
age  they  were  receive<l  by  the  chiinh  as 
niithoritative  documents  and  as  containing 
the  apostolic  testimony  to  the  life  and  teach- 
ings of  Christ.     In  the  second  century  tliey 


were  t|iioted,  commented  upon,  and  de- 
scribed ;  so  that  there  need  be  no  doubt  of 
their  authenticity.  An  examination  of  the 
N.  T.  epistles  also  shows  that  our  gosjiels  de- 
scribe Jesus  as  the  s<ime  kind  of  person, 
doing  the  .same  kind  of  works,  and  liaving 
the  .same  history  to  wliicli  the  epistles  allude. 
They  may,  therefore,  be  confidently  accepted 
as  trustworthy  re])orts.  The  first  three  have 
much  in  coninion  and,  in  general,  pre.st-iit  the 
life  of  the  Lord  from  the  .Siime  point  of  view. 
They  are  called  the  synojitic  gos](els  (from 
the  Greek  siiiiopsis.  a  seeing  togetlieri,  and 
in  particular  are  (juite  different  from  Jnhn'.s. 
The  synoptics  take  for  their  chief  theme 
Christ's  mini.stry  in  Galilee;  the  Fourth  (tos- 
jiel  gives  ]ironiinence  to  his  laVxn-s  in  Juda-a; 
though  his  betrayal,  arrest,  trial,  crucifix- 
ion, and  resurrection  are  so  important  that 
they  are  narrated  by  all.  The  only  jirior  in- 
cident recorded  by  all  the  evangelists  is  the 
feeding  of  the  five  thousand.  The  synojitics 
also  say  eomjiaratively  little  of  the  divinity 
of  Christ,  while  John  especially  records  the 
Lord's  self-testimony  to  it.  They  jire.sent 
mainly  Christ's  teaching  about  the  kingdom 
of  (xod,  his  parables,  his  instruction  of  the 
common  peojile ;  while  John  records  liis 
teaching  about  him.self  and  this  usually  in 
the  form  of  extended  discourses.  At  the 
same  time  the  Fourth  (iospel  assumes  and 
imiilies  the  other  three,  and  they  in  turn  are 
often  made  intelligible  only  by  the  facts 
which  John  records.  Thus  .John  i.  15  im])lies 
the  fact  recorded  in  Mat.  iii.  11,  etc.  ;  .John 
iii.  24  the  fact  given  in  ^lat.  iv.  12;  John  vi. 
2,  15,  the  whole  syno]itic  story  of  the  Gali- 
hean  ministry,  etc.  So  in  turn  Christ's  re- 
cejitiou  in  Galilee  and  the  willingness  of 
Peter,  Andrew,  James,  and  John  to  leave  all 
and  follow  him  are  only  exiilicable  by  siuh 
evints  as  :ire  recorded  in  .lobii  i.  and  ii. ; 
and  the  sudden  rise  of  the  Sabbath  contro- 
versy in  the  synoptics  (.see  Mark  ii.  23,  etc.) 
is  likewise  to  be  exjdained  by  the  events  of 
John  V.  Moreover,  whili'  the  synojitics  have 
the  .same  general  point  of  view,  each  of  them 
has  its  individual  characteristics,  determined 
by  the  writer's  purpose  and  the  readers 
whom  he  had  in  mind.  Matthew,  writing 
from  till'  .Jewish  jtoint  of  view,  sets  Jesus 
forth  as  the  royal  Messiah.  He  constantly 
cites  in  jiroof  o.  T.  jiroiihecies,  and  is  inter- 
ested to  give  Christ's  teaching  concerning 
the  true  kingdom  of  (iod  in  contrast  to  the 
false  views  of  current  .ludaism.  Mark, 
writing  evidently  for  gentiles,  and  po.ssibly 
for  tlie  Romans  in  jiarticular,  represents 
mainly  Christ's  power  to  s;tve  as  shown  in 
his  miracles.  Luke,  long  the  comjianion  of 
raiil,  sets  the  Loril  forth  as  the  gracious 
.Saviour,  and  is  fond  of  exhiliitiiig  his  favor 
to  tile  fallen,  tlie  outcast,  and  the  jMior.  So 
.lohu  has  his  special  purjiose.  which  is  to 
represent  Jesus  as  the  incarnate,  divine 
Word,  revealing  the  Father  to  those  who 
would    receive   liiin.      None  of    the   gospels, 


Gospel 


25G 


Gospel 


however,  aims  at  being  a  complete  bi()grai)hy 
of  our  Lord.  They  are  collections  of  his 
acts  and  words,  made  for  the  purpose  of  i)rac- 
tical  and  doctrinal  instruction.  Tlie  student 
must  construct  his  conception  of  the  history 
of  .[('sus  out  of  Uic  materials  furnished  t)y 
the  gospels.  They  themselves  were  prepared 
with  other  olyects  in  view. 

The  question  has  often  been  asked  from 
wliat  sources  the  four  evangelists  derived 
their  information.  Matthew  and  .John  weie 
apostles  and  therefore  possessed  jiersonal 
knowledge  of  the  events  they  record  or  were 
in  a  position  to  obtain  it  from  those  who  had  it. 
But  Mark  also  was  a  companion  of  Paul  and 
Peter,  and  is  said,  liy  very  early  tradition,  to 
have  embodied  in  his  Gospel  the  preaching  of 
Peter  about  .Tesus.  Luke  himself  assures  us 
(i.  1-4)  that  his  knowledge  was  obtained  from 
"  eyewitnesses  ....  of  the  word  "  and  that  he 
had  made  him.self  well  acquainted  with  the 
facts.  Thus  the  gospels  give  us  the  testi- 
mony of  the  apostles.  The  many  coinci- 
dences of  language  in  the  synoptics  confirm 
this.  If  any  itiut'rant  speaker  or  preacher, 
such  as  a  foreign  missiunai'y  home  on  furlough, 
relates  at  diticrent  places  incidents  of  his  ex- 
perience abroad,  he  gradually  settles  into  a 
fixed  narrative  through  his  very  desire  to  be 
accurate,  repeating  the  same  stories  in  the 
same  form,  though  now  and  then  adding 
particulars  which  he  liad  omitted  elsewhere. 
It  is  pro])able  that  the  apostles  and  early 
evangelists  acted  in  much  the  same  way  ;  so 
that  their  recital  became  largely  stereotyped. 
After  a  while  parts  of  this  narrative  were 
put  into  writing  for  use  in  the  newly  founded 
churches.  Thus  a  gospel  narrative  became 
current  which,  while  doubtless  differing  in 
extent  in  different  places,  had  much  of  its 
matter,  even  to  the  very  words,  in  common. 
The  verbal  coincidences,  therefore,  of  our 
synoptic  gospels  attest  that  they  give  us  the 
common  apostolic  testimony  to  Jesus.  The 
Fourth  Gospel,  on  the  other  hand,  contains 
material  which  at  first  was  not  so  widely 
called  for,  but  which  John  finally  wrote,  out 
of  his  own  knowledge,  when  the  needs  of 
the  church  seemed  to  demand  it.  The  coin- 
cidences between  the  synoptics  have  raised, 
however,  the  further  question  whetherany  of 
them  have  directly  coijied  from  the  otliers. 
This  question  is  often  called  the  synojitic 
problem.  The  facts  which  enter  into  its  so- 
lution are  very  many  and  complex.  While 
the  three  have  much  in  common,  Matthew 
and  Luke  Jiave  nuu'h  that  is  not  in  Mark, 
and  each  of  them  has  much  that  is  not  in 
the  others.  ICven  Mark  has  some  material 
peculiar  to  himself.  Moreover,  even  in  the 
sections  which  are  in  common  the  language 
of  one  evangelist  often  diti'ers  as  remarkably 
as  in  other  i)oints  it  agrees  with  that  of  his 
colleagues.  In  the  ancient  church  it  was 
thought  that  iMark  abbreviated  Matthew  and 
Lnke.  IMany  modern  writers  think,  on  the 
other  hand,   that  Matthew  and    Luke  drew 


from  Mark  his  historical  narrative.  But  it 
seems  to  I)e  nu)re  probable  that  all  three  were 
independent,  but  used  largely  the  language 
of  the  gospel  narrative  which  had  become 
current;  while  at  the  same  time  they  felt 
free  also  to  use  tlu-ir  own  words  because  they 
were  conscious  of  being  fully  acijuainted 
with  the  facts.  In  attemi)ting  to  trace  the 
literary  hi.story  of  tiie  synoi)tics  we  should 
not  forget  also  the  i>rouiise  maih;  by  Christ  to 
the  ajiostles,  and  meant  douhtU'ss  for  others 
who  nnght  be  employeil  in  the  proclamation 
of  the  gospel,  "  But  the  Comforter,  even  the 
Holy  Spirit,  whom  the  Father  will  send  in 
my  name,  he  .shall  teach  you  all  things,  and 
bring  to  your  remendjrance  all  that  I  said 
unto  you"  (John  xiv.  2(),  11.  V.). 

To  obtain  a  clear  idea  of  the  life  of  Christ 
it  is  necessary  to  construct  a  harmony  of  the 
go.spels.  This,  of  cour.se,  should  be  done  with 
fidelity  to  the  chronological  indications,  few 
though  they  are,  which  the  gospels  contain. 
But  it  should  also  be  remendjered  that  the  in- 
dications of  time  and  relation  are  not  only 
few,  but  also  often  doubtful,  and  that,  there- 
fore, a  harmony  must  be  regarded  in  manj' 
points  as  merely  a]>proximate.  Jlatthew's 
method  is  mainly  topical,  and,  therefore,  he 
seldom  provides  a  basis  for  a  harnu>ny.  Mark 
appears  to  be  much  more  chronological,  and 
his  order  may  generally  be  followed  ;  but 
there  is  much  that  he  does  not  give  at  all. 
Luke  follows  in  the  first  half  of  his  work 
nearly  the  order  of  Mark,  though  with  im- 
portant differences,  and  he,  too,  is  often  top- 
ical in  his  method.  But  John's  Gospel  by 
noting  successive  feasts  which  Jesus  attended 
provides  the  general  framework  into  which 
the  other  material  should  be  fitted.  It  is  on 
this  basis  that  the  following  outline  and  har- 
mony have  been  prepared  :  We  believe  that 
the  feast  of  .John  v.  1  was  a  passover ;  that 
therefore  Christ's  ministry  included  four 
passovers  (John  ii.  1.3;  v.  1  ;  vi.  4;  xiii.  1),  at 
the  last  of  which  he  died.  The  ministry 
was  thus  about  three  years  and  a  quarter  in 
length, since  John  i.  showsthat  Christ  was  bap- 
tized a  few  months  l)efore  his  first  passover. 
Others  however,  denying  that  John  v.  1  was 
a  passover,  make  the  ministry  two  and  a 
quarter  years  in  length.  On  this,  as  on 
many  similar  points,  absolute  demonstration 
is  im])ossible.  In  the  following  talile,  more- 
over, the  dates  a.ssigned  to  some  of  the  events 
must  likewise  be  regarded  as  open  to  C|ues- 
tion.  It  appears  clear  to  most  students  that 
Herod  the  Great  died  about  April  1,  4  I?.  C. 
If  so,  Christ  was  ]n-obably  born  in  December, 
5  B.  c,  or  Janiuiry,  4  n.  c.  We  assume  the 
date  to  be  December  2.1,  5  B.  c,  without,  how- 
ever, meaning  to  affirm  that  there  is  any 
evidence  for  the  exact  day  of  the  month. 
If  then,  when  he  was  bapti/ed,  he  was  about 
thirty  (Luke  iii.  2o),  his  baptism  is  lu-ohaldy 
to  be  assigned  to  the  latter  part  of  A.  D.  26 
or  the  beginning  of  A.  D.  27.  We  assume  for 
it   Januarv   A.    D.   27.     If  his   ministry   !u- 


» 


Gospel 

eluded  four  passovers,  he  died  at  the  ])ass- 
over  of  A.  D.  30.  Many  c()nii)lex  caUuhi- 
tious  teiitl  to  coufnni  tlu-se  dates,  thoii/^li 
they  are  not  eajialjle  of  jierfect  deiiionslia- 
tiou.  Our  view  assumes  that  "the  fifteenth 
year  of  'J'il)erins  t'a'sar  "  l  Luke  iii.  1 )  is  to  l)e 
dated  from  the  time  when  Tiiieriiis  l)eeamu 
eo-re{jent   with   Aujjustus  in  tlie  empire  (A. 


257 


Gospel 


D.  11-12).  At  that  time  he  became  in  the 
jirovinces  the  jiraetical  ruler.  It  is  well 
known  that  our  eommon  Christian  calendar 
dates  the  l)irth  of  (.'hrist  t(jo  late.  Tlie  fol- 
lowing liarmoiiy  nearly  agrees  with  Kobin- 
sou's  :  l)ut  some  changes  in  his  arrangement 
have  been  introduced. 


Hakmo.ny  of  the  Four  Gospels. 


Incidents. 


Time. 


1.  Introductory  verses. 

2.  I'rologue  to  the  Fourth        .  .   . 

(iospef. 

o.  TliegeuenlogyofClirist         .   .    . 

4.  AiiiuiMciiitiipii  to  Zaeh-        B.  C.  6 
arias iif.lolui  tiie  bap- 
tist's l.irtli. 

.'i.  Aiuiuiiciatioii  to  Mary  "    5 

of  Christ's  Ifirtli. 

C.  Marv's  visit  to  Elisa-  "    " 

heth. 

7.  Hi  nil  of  John  the  Rap-  "    " 

list.  I 

8.  Circunu'isioii  and'         "    " 

naming  of  .lohn.         [ 

9.  Annunciation    to    .To-  "    " 

Sfpliofciirist's  birth.' 
111.  The  hirth  of  .losns.        j  "     " 

11.  Annunciation   to    the!         "    " 

shcplienls.  | 

IJ.  A'isit  of  the  sliejihcrds!         "    " 

to  ailoru  Christ.  1 

1:;.  Circunicision  of  Jesus. [         "     4 
11.  ricsrntation     in     the'         "    " 

teni)ile;  proiiliecies  of 

Simeon  ami  Anna. 
!">.  Visit  of  the  Majri. 
li'i.  KUkIU  into  KKyi>t. 
IT.  SlnuKhter  of  the  chil- 
dren l)y  Kerod. 
IS.  Iteturn  i'mni  Egypt  to 

Nazareth. 
10.  Life  of  Jesus  at  Nazn-  B.  C.  4-a.  d. 

reth  for  thirty  years,  26 

but  uith  one  reconi-l 

cd  visit  to  .lerusaU-ml 

at    the    feast   of   the 

passover     when     12       a.  d.  9 

years  of  age;  .lohn  in' 

retirement     in     the 

desert.  I        ... 

20.  Thei>ul)licministrvof     A.  D.  26 

John  the  Uaiitisf."       1 

21.  Jesus  Impli/.ciland  wit-         "     27 

nessed  hy  .lolm.  | 

22.  The  temptation  of  Je-i        "     " 

SMS. 

2:t.  John.  .Vndrew,  and  Pe-        "     " 

tcr,  meet  Jesus.  | 

21.  Philip  and  Nathanael        "     " 

eaUed.  | 

2.').  The  first  miracle  ;  wa-        "     " 

ter  ehanu'cil  to  wine. 
26.  Christ  i,'oes  to  Caper- 1        "     " 

nanni.  I 


Place. 


Matthew.  I    Mark. 


The  temple. 

Nazareth. 

A  citv  of  .ludah. 


i  Nazareth. 

( 

I  Bethlehem. 

Near  Bethlehem. 
1 

Bethlehem. 

Jerusalem. 

'Bethlehem. 
Bethlehem  to  Egypt. 
Bethlehem. 

Egypt  to  Nazareth. 

Nazareth. 


i.  1-17 


18-23 
24,  25 


ii.  1-12 
13-1.') 
16-18 

19-23 


At  the  Jordan. 


iii.  1-12 
13-17 


Wihlerness     of    Ju-  iv.  1-11 

da>a  ('.'). 
Near  the  Jordan.        '     ... 

I 
On  the  way  to  Gali-      .  .   . 

lee.  I 

Cana  of  Cialilee.  ... 


The  first  passover ; 

nioiiry  rliiniL;i'tN  ilriv- 

"•n  from  ihi-  ti'mple. 
Instruction    of    Nico- 

demus. 
Jtsus      preaches      In 

Judiea. 
17 


"     "        Capernaum. 

Earlji  Jitilican  Ministri/. 
.Vpr.  A.  I).  27  Jerusalem. 


Judica. 


i.  1-8 
9-11 
12, 13 


Luke. 


Ll-4 


iii.  23'>-38 
i.  6-25 


26-38 
39-56 
57,68 
59-79 


ii.  1-7 
■  8-14 


15-20 


21 
22-38 


39 
ii.  40-52 


i.  80 
iii.  1-18 


21-23* 
iv.  1-13 


John. 


i.  1-18 


19-28 
29-34 

35-42 
43-51 
ii.  1-11 
12 

Ii.  13-25 
iii.  1-21 


Gospel 


258 


Gospel 


Harmony  of  the  Four  Gospels. — Continued. 


Incidents. 


30.  Renewed  testimony  of 

John  to  Jesus. 

31.  Jesus  departs  for  Gal'e. 
3'J.  Interview  with  woman 

of  Samaria. 
33.  Cure  of  nobleman's  son 
3-1.  ImiirisoiimcMt  of  John 

the  Baptist. 


Time. 


Place. 


A.  D.  27jJud3ea. 

"  Judaea  to  Galilee. 
"      "   Near  yychar. 

'  27 or  28  ("ana. 
.   .       I  Fortress   of  Maehtc 

1     rus. 


Matthew.     Mark 


xiv.  3-5 


Luke. 


vi.  17-20    iii.  19,20 


35.  Commencement       of;        J 

Christ's  public  worlcj 
in  (ialilee. 

36.  First  rejection  at  Naz- 

areth. 

37.  Call  of  Simon, Andrew, 

James,  and  John.        | 

38.  Cure  of  demimiac   in 

the  synas^osue. 

39.  Cure  of  Peter's  wife's 

mother. 

40.  Cure  of  many  on  the] 

same  evening.  , 

41.  Circuit thruuiihGalilee 

42.  Cure  of  a  leper. 

43.  Healins;  of  paralytic.    I 

44.  Call  of  Matthcw(Levi);i 

his  feast.  i 

45.  The     second    pass-  Apr. 

over;  liealint^of im- 
])oti,-nt  man  at  pool 
of  Bethesda,  and  dis- 
cussion with  the  Jews. 

46.  Plucking  ears  of  corn 

leads  to  discussion  of, 
tlie  Sablja t  h  ( i vk 'st ii m. 

47.  Cure    on    Sabbath    of, 

man  with  witliered 
liand. 

48.  Plots    against    Jesus; 

extraordinary  enthu- 
siasm of  the  people  ; 
many  follow  him 
from  all  the  land. 

49.  Selection  of  the  twelve 

apostles. 

50.  Sermon  on  the  mount. 

51.  Healing  of  centurion's 

servant.  ! 

52.  Circuit throughGalilee; 

53.  Raising  of  widow'sson 

54.  Inquiiy  <if  .b)hn   the 

Bai>tist  about  Jesus, 
and    the    latter's  re- 
ply, etc. 
65.  Jesus    anointed    by  a 
sinful  woman. 

56.  A       further       circuit 

tlirongh  (ialilee  with! 
his  disciples. 

57.  Beginning  of  the  day 

of  parables  (see  (">:!) ; 
cure  of  a  (Iciiioinac;! 
)ilasi>heiny  of  Phari-j 
sees  rei)rov('d.  | 

,58.  Pharisees'  desire  for  a 
sign  commented  on.  [ 

59.  Christ's  mother  andi 
hretliren  desire  to  see 
him. 

r.o.  WoesagainstPharisees 

r.l.  Discourses  to  the  peo- 
ple on  trust  in  fiod, 
against  worldliness, 
etc.  I 


Early  Gnlilvean  M'niistry. 
D.  28;Galilee.  iv.  12-17  i    i.  14, 15    iv.  14, 15 


Nazareth. 

Near  Capernaum. 

Capernaum. 


Galilee. 

A  city  of  Galilee. 

Capernaum. 

Jerusalem. 


18-22 

viil.  14, 15 

16,17 

iv. 23-25 

viii.  2-4 

ix.  1-8 

9-13 


16-20 

21-28 

29-31 

32-34 

.35-39 

40-45 

ii.  1-12 

13-17 


On  way  to  Galilee(?). ,  xii.  1-8  '23-28 

Capernaum.  '  9-13    iii.  1-C 

Near  Capernaum.       j        14-21  7-12 


Capernaum. 

'calilee. 

Nain. 

Galilee. 


Capernaum. 


X.  2-4 


v.l-viii.l 
viii.  5-13 


xi.  1 
xi.  '2-19 


13-19 


xii. 22-37     iii.  20-30 


38-45 
46-50 


iii.  23-36 


16-30 

V.  1-11 

iv.  31-37 

38,39 

40,41 

42-44 

V.  12-16 

17-26 

27-32 


vi.  1-5 
6-11 
17-19 

12-16 

20-49 
vii.  1-10 


vii.  11-17 
18-35 


36-50 
viii.  1-3 

xi.  14,  15, 
17-23 


16,  24-26, 
29-36 

27,28; 
viii.  19-21 

xi.  37-54 
xii.  1-59 


Gospel 


259 


Gospel 


Harmony  of  the  Four  GosvEhs.— Continued. 


Incidents. 


62.  Remarks  on  the  sluugh- 
tur  1)1'  till'  (itililiians. 

Go.  rural)ks  ut  ilu-  sowiT, 
the  tares,  tlif  seed 
j;ri)\vinn  secretly,  the 
liuistard  seed,  the 
leaven,  the  hid  treas- 
ure, the  pearl,  the, 
draiu'net,  and  other 
savings. 

64.  Till"  three  intiuirers. 

e-V  The  teiiil'esl  stilled. 

6t'..  The  .lenioiiiacs  nf  «ia- 
dara  (or  (ierasa  -. 

07.  liKiiiirv  <if  .Idhn's  dis- 
ciples an«l  the  Phari- 
sees abuut  fastiuK.       | 

68.  Haisinu  ot  .lairus': 
dntiKhti-r,  an<l  <-tire  < ifj 
wiinian  with  bloody 
issue. 

f>!).  fure  of  two  blind  men. 

7(1.  Cure  of  a  dumb  demo- 
niac. 

71.  Second     rejection     at 

Nazareth. 

72.  The  twelve  sent  out. 


Time.      '  Place. 

A.  D.  28.  Capernaum. 


Matthew.     Mark.    |    Luke. 


John. 


xiii.  1-53 


Near  sea  of  Galilee,    viii.  18-22 
Sea  of  (inlilee.  I  23-27 

Kast  shore  of  sea  of 

<;alilee. 
Capernaum. 


.  .  xiii.  1-5 

iv.  l-*»    viii.  4-18; 
xiii.  18-21 


35-41 
28-34    V.  1-20 

ix.  14-17      ii.  18-22 


ix.  .57-62 

viii.  22-25 

26-40 


Nazareth, 
(lalilee. 


V.  D.  29  (? 


Herod's  inciuiry  about 

Jesus,  with  which  is 

eoniieeted      the     ac- 

co\iMt  of  the  recent 

iiiunler  of  John  the 

Baptist. 
The     twelve    return; 

Jesus     retires     with 

them  across  the  sea; 

mm  fed. 
Jesus  walks  on  the  wa- 
ter. 
Triumphal  march 

throuv;li  Ceiuiesant. 
Hiseourseoiithel'.read  Apr.  .\.  D.  211  Capernaum 

of  l.il'i'  Ml  the  time  of 

the  third  passover. 
.  Kepiiiof  of    Pharisaic 

triidilicius. 


18-'26 


27-31 
32-34 

xiii.  54-58 

ix.35-x.l, 
X.  5-xi.  1 
xiv.  1,  2, 
6-12      I 


V.  33-30 
V.  21-43    viii.  41-56 


vi.  l-6» 

6t'-13 

14-16, 
21-29 


Northeast  coast  of  sea 
of  Cialilee. 

13-21 

30-44 

Sea  of  Galilee. 

22-33 

45-52 

Gennesaret. 

34-36 

53-56 

ix.  l-« 
7-9 


10-17     vi.1-14 


XV.  1-20     vii.  1-23 


7'.i.  I)au';hierof  Syrophco- 

nician  healed. 
Ml.  Deaf  anil  dumb  man 

healeil  and  filhers. 
M.  The  liMKi  fed. 
SJ.  The  Pharisees  and  Sad- 

ducees  a},'ain  reciuire 

a  sinn. 

K!.  Disciples  warned 

airaiii^t  the  leaven  of 
the  Pharisees,  etc. 

^1.  lilind  man  healeil. 

s-i.  I'eter's  confession. 

Ml.  Christ  foretells  his 
death  and  resurrec- 
tion. 

S7.  The  trausfimiration. 

i^>.  Ilealim;  of  the  demo- 
niac boy. 

Mt.  Christ  attain  foretells 
his  death  and  resur- 
rection. 1 

".to.  The  tribute  motiey. 

yi.  Instructions  to  disei-l 
pies  on  lunnility.ete.! 


Lafer  Galilienn  M'nihtri/. 
A.  I>.  29      Kefiion  of  Tyre  and  xv  21-'-'8     vii.  24-30 
^idon. 
The  DeeapoHs.  'J'.'-Sl  31-3< 

32-38   viii.  1-9 
Near  Mapadan  [.\.V.  39-xvi.  4  10-12 

Mat.  Mat;dalal;   in  , 

Mark,  the  jiarts  of 
Iialuianutha. 
"        ••        .Sa.if  <ialilee.  5-12  13-»1 


i:)-21 


22-71 


vii.  1 


liethsaiihi. 

Kes;ion    of 

I'hilipjii. 


Casarea 


13-20 
21-28 


Galilee. 
Capernaum. 


xvii.1-13 
14-21 

22,23 


24-27 
xviii.1-36 


22-26  I 
27-30  I 


31-ix.  1 


2-13 
14-29 


30-32 


33-50 


18-21 
o')_27 


28-:«'i 

37-43* 


43M5 


46-50 


Gospel 


260 


Gospel 


Harmony  of  thk  Four  Gospels. — Continued. 
The  Last  Journeys  to  Jerusalem. 


Incidents. 


Time. 


Place. 


Matthew. 


92.  Final  departure  from 
(ialilee ;  rejected  in 
Samaria. 

9:!.  The  seventy  instruct- 
ed and  sent  out. 

91.  Christ     attends     the  Oct. 
feast  of  taberna- 
cles. 

95.  [The  \V(}man  taken  in 

adultery]  bracketed  in 
K.  V. 

96.  Discussion  with   the 

Jews  during  the 
feast. 

97.  Jesus  apparently  re- 

tires friim  Jerusalem 
and  the  seventy  re- 
turn to  him. 

98.  A  lawyer  instructed  ; 

parable  of  the  good 
.Samaritan. 

99.  Jesus  at  the  house  of 

Martha  and  Mary. 

100.  The  disciples  taught 

how  to  prav.  i 

101.  The  feast  of  dedi-  Dec. 

cation ;  blind  man 
healed :  parable  of 
the  shepherd;  con- 
flict with  the  Jews ; 
Jesus  retires  to  Pe- 
raa,  beyond  Jordan. 

102.  Ministry"  in  Pera-a. 

103.  Parable  of  the  barren 

fig  tree. 

104.  Healing  infirm  wom- 

an on  the  Sabbath. 

105.  Teaching   and    jour- 

neying toward  .Jeru- 
salem ;  warned 
against  Herod. 

106.  Dines  wltli  a  Phari- 

see; healing  of  man 
with  droiisy; parable 
of  the  great  supper. 

107.  Requirements  of  true 

disciples. 

108.  Parables  of  the  lost 

sheep  and  coin  and 
the  prodigal. 

109.  Parable  of  the  unjust 

steward. 

110.  Pharisees    reproved ; 

parable  of  the  rich 
man  and  Lazarus. 

111.  Instructs  disciples  in 

forbearance,  faith, 
and  humilitv. 

112.  The  ten  lepers. 


113.  The  suddenness  of  his 

advent. 

114.  Parable  of  the  impor- 

tunate widow. 

115.  Parable  of  the  Phari- 

see iiiid  till'  iiubliciin 
lit).  The  raising  Of  Laz- 
arus. 

117.  Covmsel  of  Caiaphas  ; 

Jesus  again  retires. 

118.  Precepts    concerning 

divorce. 


A.  D.  29    From  Galilee  to  Ju-     xix.  1» 
daa. 


Jerusalem. 


Judoea. 


Bethany. 

Juda-a. 

Jerusalem. 


Peraea. 


xi.  20-24 


25-30 


Mark. 


Luke. 


ix.  51-56 
X.  1-16 


xix.  V>,  2      X.  l* 


Between  Samaria 
and  Galilee  (R.  V. 
margin). 

Persea. 


Bethany. 

Jerusalem.  Ephraim. 
IPer8ea(?).  xix.  3-12 


25-37 

38-42 
xi.  1-13 


John. 


[53-viii. 
11] 

viii.  12-59 


xiii.  G-9 
10-17 
22-35 

xiv.  1-24 

25-35 
XV.  1-32 

xvi.  1-13 
14-31 

xvii.1-10 

11-19 

20-37 

xviii.  1-8 

9-14 


ix. 1-X.38 


39-42 


xi.  1-lfi 
47-54 


Gospel 


261 


Gospel 


Harmony  of  the  Four  Gospeus.— Continued. 

Incidents. 

Time. 

Place. 

Matthew. 

Mark. 

Luke. 

John. 

119.  Christ    blesses    little 

A.  D.  30 

Peraea. 

xix. 13-15 

X.  13-16 

xviii.  15- 

children. 

17 

IJO.  Tlic  rich  young  ruler, 

"      " 

'• 

ic-ao 

17-31 

18-30 

cic. 

rj].  raraMc  of  tlic  labor- 

"      " 

" 

XX.  1-16 

cr.s  ill  tlic  vineyard. 

12-'.  Tliird    iirrdictioii   of 

"      " 

" 

17-19 

32-34 

31-34 

hi>  (loath  and  ri-.'«ur- 

ii'ctii.n. 

ij:i.  Ascent  to    Jerusa- 

"     " 

" 

20-28 

35-45 

lem  ;       riMiiH'st     1.1 

.laiiics  and  .hiliii. 

]'24.  Twii  blind  men  heal- 

■'     " 

Jericho. 

29-34 

46-52 

35-^3 

ed  near  Jericho. 

li;.'>.  Conversion    of    Zac- 

"           •' 

xi.\.  1-10 

chaus. 

]'2C:  I'aralilc  of  the  pounds 

" 

11-28 

IJT.  .\rrival     at    Hethany 

"    Bethany. 

xi.  55- 

>i.\  ilays  before  the 

xii.  1 

l>a:-si>ver. 

The  Last  Week. 


128.  Slipper    at    Bethany ; 

anointed  by  Mary; 
hoNlility  ofrulers". 

129.  Triiuiiplial  entry  into 

Jerusalem  :  spends 
nijrlit  at  Bctliany. 
loO.  Ciirsinj,'  of  l)arreii  fig 
tree:  dcansiiifr  of 
tenijile:  praises  ofi 
the  children;  mira-| 
cles.  .  j 

131.  Lci-son  of  the  figtree. 

132.  The    sanhcdrin     dc-' 

niand  Christ's  au-! 
tliority;  his  reply 
and  iiarables  of  the 
two  sons, the  wicked 
hnsbandmen,  and 
the  marriage  of  the 
king's  .son. 

133.  Question  of  the  Phar- 

isees (tribute  to 
Ciisar);  of  the  Pad- 
ducces  (tlie  resur- 
rection) ;  of  the  law- 
yer (the  great  com- 
ma iid  men  ti;Christ's 
()iiestion  (David's 
Lord). 

134  Warnings  against 
scribes  and  I'huri- 
sccs. 

13.'i.  The  widow's  mite. 

136.  Visit  of  the  (ireeks; 

last  teachings. 

137.  Christ'>  prediction  of 

the  fall  of  .lerusa- 
Itiii.  the  future  of 
the  clninh.  and  the 
■-ecnnd  advent. 

V3b.  Instnictioiis  to  watch: 
parables  of  ten  vir- 
gins and  talents ;  the 
last  jndgnient.  i 

139.  Conspiracy  of  the 
riders;  treachery  of  i 
liidas.  I 


Saturday, 
Apr.  1, 
A.  1).  :!() 

Snndav, 
.\pr.  2 

Monday, 
Ai)r.  3 


Tuesday, 
Apr.  4 


Bethany. 


xxvi.6-13    xiv.  3-9 


Mount  of  Olives,  Je- xxi.    1-11     xi.  1-11    xix.  29-14      12-19 
rnsalem.and  Beth- 
any. 

Near  and  in  Jerusa-       12-19  12-19  45-^8 

lein.  xxi.  37,38 


On  the  way  to  Jeru- 
salem. 
Jerusalem. 


Tuesday 

evening, 

Apr.  4 


I'rcimrations   for  the 
pa.ssover. 


Tuesday 
evening 
Apr.  4,  or 
^^  cdnes- 
dnv,  Apr.  5 
Thursday, 
Apr.  6 


Mount  of  Olives. 


Jerusalem. 


20-22     I  20-25[26] 


23-32,  27-33;      xx.  1-8. 

33-4(1 ;      xii.1-12  9-19 

xxii.  1-14 


15-22, 
23-33, 
34-40, 
41-46 


13-17, 

18-27, 
28-34, 
35-37 


xxiii.1-39^    38-10 
...  41-44 

xxiv.  1-31  xiii.  1-27 


32-XXV.46         28-37 


xxvi.  1-5,  xiv.  1,  2, 
14-16  10, 11 


Bethany  ami  Jerusa-       17-19  12-16  7-13 

lem.  I 


20-26, 
27-40, 
41-44 


45^7 
xxi.  1-4 
xxi.  .v-28 

29-36 
xxii.  1-6 


xii.  20-50 


Gospel 


262 


Gospel 


Harmony  op  the  Four  Gospels. — Continued. 


Incidents. 


Time. 


141.  The  last  passover;   ThurFflay 

.strife    dl'  tlio  liisci-    evening, 
i)les.  Apr.  0 

142.  Tlie  feet  washing.  "  " 

143.  The  traitor  announc-     "  " 

eil;  ,1  nda.s  witlidraws. 

144.  Tlie  Lord's  Supper.      |     "  " 

145.  Prediction  of  Peter's,     "  " 

fa  1 1 ,  a nd  ot lier  warn- 
iiit,'s.  I 

146.  Last  discourses  with      "  " 

tlie  disciples  and 
prayer. 

147.  Renewed    prediction 

of  Peter's  fall  and  of 
the  scattering  of  the 
disciples. 

148.  The  agony  in  the  gar- 

den. 

149.  Tlie  arrest  of  Christ ;    Thursday 

disi)ersion  of  thedis-' night,  Apr. 
ciples.  !  6-7 

150.  Proliiiiinary     exami-      "  " 

nation  l)eforc.\nnas. 

151.  Exaiiiinatiou     bef(.ire      "  " 

sauhedriii:  mock- 
ery of  Jesus. 

152.  Peter's  denials.  i    "  " 


153. 

154. 

155. 
156. 

157. 

158. 

159. 

160. 

161. 
162. 


Final  condemnation  Early  Fri- 
of  .lesns  by  the  san-  day  morn- 
hedriii.  ing,  Apr.  ' 

Jesus  led  to  Pilate, 
who  seeks  to  secure 
his  release. 

Jesus  before  Herod. 


Pilate  further  seeks 
to  release  Jesus  ;  the 
Jews  demand  Barab- 
bas. 

Pilate  delivers  Jesus 
to  death  ;  scourging. 

Pilate  again  seeks  to 
release  Jesus. 

Judas'  remorse  and 
suicide. 

Jesus  led  to  cruci- 
fixion. 

The  crucifixion. 

Incidents  at  the  cross. 


Friday, 
Apr.  7 


163.  The  death  of  Jesus.    '     Friday, 
3.  P.M.,  Apr 


164.  Incidents     following 

his  death. 

165.  Taking  down  from  the 

cross  ;  b\irial. 

166.  The  watch  at  the  sep- 

ulcher.  ' 


Friday, 
Ai>r.  7 


Place. 


1  Matthew. 


Mark. 


Luke. 


The  upper  room  in    xxvi.  20 
Jerusalem. 


21-25 
26-29 


On  the  way  to  Geth-i      30-35 
semane. 


John. 


Gethsemane. 


High-priest's   palace 
ill  Jerusalem. 


The  governor's  resi- 
dence in  Jerusa- 
lem. 

Jerusalem. 


36-46 
47-56 

57,  59-68 

58,  69-75 
xxvii.  1 

2,  11-14 


Governor's  residence     15-26* 


26''-30 


Jerusalem. 


Near  Jerusalem. 


Jerusalem  and  vicin- 
ity. 
Near  Jerusalem. 


3-10 

31-34 

3,5-S8 
39-49 

50 

51-56 
57-61 
62-66 


xiv.  17     xxii.  14- 
18,24-30  ! 


18-21 
22-25 


26-31 


32-42 
43-52 


53,  55-65 

54,  66-72 
XV.  1» 

lt>-5 


6-15» 


is^-ig 


20-23 


24-28 
29-36 


37 


...     1  xiii.  1-20 
21-23  21-30 


19,20 
31-38 


36-38 


xiv.  1- 
xvii.  26 


39-46        xviii.  1 
47-53     I      2-12 


63-65 


13,14, 
19-24 


54-62     I     15-18, 
25-27 
66-71 


xxiii.1-5     28-38 

6-12    I 
13-25        39,40 


xix.  1-3 

4-16» 


26-33» 

33'',  ai,  38 

35-37, 

39-45* 

46 


38-41       4.5*',  47-49 
42-47         50-56 


16b,  17 


18-24 
25-29 


31-12 


167.  Visit  of  the  women. 

168.  Visit  of  John  and  Pe- 

ter ;  return  of  Mary 
Magdalene  to  sepnl- 
clier  au<l  Christ's  ap- 
](earaiu'e  to  her. 

169.  Rejiort  of  the  watch. 

170.  Interview    with    two 

disciples  on  the  way 
to  KiiiniauN. 


Snndav, 
Apr.  ii 


The  Reaurreclion. 

Jerusalem  and  vicin 
itv. 


XXVlll. 

1-10 


11-15 


xvi.  1-S    xxiv.1-11 

[xvi.  9-  I        12         XX.  1-18 
11]* 


[1'2,  13]* 


Gospel 


203 


Gospel 


Habmony 

OF  THE  Four  Gospels.— Continued. 

Incidents. 

Time. 

Place. 

1 
Matthew. 1    Mark. 

Luke. 
xxiv.  36- 

John. 

171.  Christ  ai»))t.ars  to  the 

Snndav, 

Jerusalem. 

[xvi.  14]» 

XX.  19-24 

ek-vcii    '1  houuib  Ijc- 

Apr.  'J 

4» 

iii;;  alisi'iit. 

17J.  (Iiiist,  a  woek   hltcT, 

Apr.  16 

" 

2.5-29 

aj;aiii      apiiuars      to 

tliein,  Thiiina»  bi'iny 

pro.-^wit. 

1 

17:i.  Aiii.iaraiicc  to  seven 

A.  D.  30 

Sea  of  Galilee. 

.  .  . 

xxi.  1-23 

ilis(ipK-s;        Peter's 

resturatiini,  etc. 

171.  The    yreat     eoniniis- 

"       " 

Mountain  in  Galilee. 

xxviii. 

[15-18]* 

sUm.  See  I  Cor.  xv.(5. 

'      16-20 

175.  The  ascension.      .See 

Mnv  IH, 

Mount  of  Olives  to-       .   .   •      i   [19,20]» 

50-53 

Acts.  i.  1-11. 

A.  u.  ;;o 

ward  Bethanv. 

176.  St.     Johns      closing 

1         1      .   .   .           ... 

XX.  30, 31 ; 

w<jrds. 

1                                       1 

xxi.  24,25 

*  The  last  twelve  verses  of  Mark  are  in  -R.  V.  spaced  from  the  preceding  because  of  doubt 

whetlKi-  tluy  originallv  formed  part  of  Mark's  Gospel. 

G.  T.  P. 

Index  fou  Finding  any  1'assage  in  the  Harmony. 

Mittthetr. 


Chapter  and  Verse. 

Section. 

Chapter  and  Verse. 

Section. 

Chapter  and  Verse. 

Section. 

i.                   1-17 

3 

i       xii.             14-21 

48 

xxi.            20-22 

131 

18-23 

9 

1                           2-2-37 

57 

'2.3-xxii.  14 

132 

24-25 

10 

1                            .38-45 

58 

xxii.           1.5-46 

133 

ii.                   1-12 

15 

46-50 

59 

xxiii.           1-39 

V.'A 

l:!-15 

16 

xiii.              l-5:i 

63 

xxiv.           l-ol 

137 

16-18 

17 

,                          54-58 

71 

32-xxv.  46 

i:« 

VJ-S.\ 

IH 

xiv.             1,2 

73 

xxvi.            1-5 

139 

iii.                 1-12 

'20 

3-5 

34 

6-13 

1'28 

i:',-17 

21 

;                            6-12 

73 

14-16 

139 

iv.                 1-11 

''2 

1                            13-21 

74 

17-19 

140 

lJ-17 

35 

22-33 

75 

20 

141 

1S--J2 

37 

1                            34-36 

7() 

21-25 

143 

2:!- 2") 

41 

XV.                 l-'20 

78 

26-29 

144 

v.           1-viii.  1 

.50 

21-28 

79 

30-:i5 

147 

viii.              'J-4 

42 

1                            29-31 

80 

36-46 

148 

.5-13 

51 

32-38 

81 

47-56 

149 

11,1.-. 

39 

39-xvi.4 

82 

57 

151 

16,17 

40 

xvi.              .5-12 

i& 

58 

152 

18-22 

64 

13-'20 

8.5 

59-68 

1.51 

2:i-27 

65 

21 -'28 

86 

69-75 

152 

28-34 

66 

1        xvii.             1-13 

87 

xxvii.          1 

153 

ix.                  1-8 

43 

14-21 

88 

2 

1.54 

9-13 

44 

22,  '23 

89 

3-10 

1.59 

14-17 

67 

•24-27 

90 

11-14 

1.54 

18-26 

68 

1        xviii.            1-35 

91 

1.V26* 

1,56 

27-31 

69 

xix.             1» 

92 

26''-30 

1.57 

32-34 

70 

lb,  2 

102 

31 -:U 

160 

3.Vx.  1 

72 

:i-12 

118 

35-38 

161 

X.                      2-1 

49 

13-15 

119 

39-49 

162 

.Vxi.  1 

72 

16-.30 

120 

50 

163 

xi.                 1 

52 

XX.                 1-16 

121 

51-56 

161 

2-10 

54 

'                              17-19 

V22 

57-61 

16.5 

211-21 

93 

20-28 

123 

62-66 

ir>6 

2.T-30 

97 

29-:« 

124 

xxviii.         1-10 

167 

.xii.                   1-8 

46 

xxi.             1-11 

129 

11-15 

169 

9-13 

47 

1'2-19 

i:« 

16-20 

174 

Marl: 


Chapter  and  Verse. 

Section. 

Chapter  and  Verse. 

Section. 

— 

39 

1    Chapter  and  Verse. 
ii.                18-22 

Section. 

i.                     1-8 

20 

1.               29-31 

67 

9-11 

21 

32-34 

10 

•23-28 

46 

12,  i:{ 

22 

.                        *v:«t 

41 

iii.                1-6 

47 

14,15 

&5 

40-45 

12 

7-12 

4.S 

16-'20 

37 

ii.                   1-12 

4:; 

lH-19 

49 

21-'28 

38 

1                            13-17 

44 

•2()-:io 

57 

Gospel 


264 


Gospel 


Index  for  Finding  any 

Passage  in  the  HAUHOfiY.— Continued. 

Chapter  and  Verse. 

Section. 

Chapte 

r  and  Verse. 

Section. 

Chapter  and  Verse. 

Section. 

iii.             31-35 

59 

ix. 

33-50 

91 

xiv.           22-25 

144 

iv.                 1-34 

63 

X. 

1» 

92 

26-31 

147 

35-41 

65 

!» 

102 

32-42 

148 

V.                   1-20 

66 

2-12 

118 

43-52 

149 

21-43 

68 

13-16 

119 

53 

151 

vi.                l-6« 

71 

17-31 

120 

54 

152 

ex-is 

72 

32-34 

122 

55-65 

151 

14-16 

73 

35-45 

123 

66-72 

152 

17-20 

34 

46-52 

124 

XV.                 1« 

153 

21-29 

73 

XI. 

1-11 

129 

lb-5 

154 

30-44 

74 

12-19 

130 

6-15« 

156 

45-52 

75 

20-25[26] 

131 

15>>-19 

157 

53-56 

76 

27-xii.  12 

132 

20-23 

160 

Vii.                1-23 

78 

Xll. 

13-37 

133 

24-28 

161 

24-30 

79 

38-40 

i:M 

29-36 

162 

31-37 

80 

41-44 

135 

37 

163 

viii.              1-9 

81 

XIU. 

1-27 

137 

38-41 

164 

10-12 

82 

28-37 

138 

42-47 

lai 

13-21 

83 

XIV. 

1.2 

139 

xvi.               1-8 

1C.7 

22-26 

84 

3-9 

128 

9-11 

1(18 

27-30 

85 

10,11 

139 

12, 13 

170 

31-ix.  1 

86 

12-16 

140 

14 

171 

ix.                2-13 

87 

17 

141 

15-18 

174 

14-29 

88 

18-21 

143 

19, 20 

175 

30-32 

89 

Luke. 


Chapter  and  Verse. 

Section. 

Chapter 

and  Verse. 

Section. 

Chapter  and  Verse. 

Section. 

i.                  1-4 

1 

viii. 

26-40 

66 

xviii.          31-34 

122 

5-25 

4 

41-56 

68 

35-43 

124 

26-38 

5 

ix. 

1-6 

72 

xix.              1-10 

125 

39-56 

6 

7-9 

73 

11-28 

126 

57,58 

7 

10-17 

74 

2;)-44 

129 

59-79 

8 

18-21 

85 

45-48 

130 

80 

19 

22-27 

86 

XX.                1-19 

132 

ii.                   1-7 

10 

28-36 

87 

20-44 

133 

8-14 

11 

37-J3» 

88 

45-47 

134 

15-20 

12 

43''-45 

89 

xxi.              1-4 

135 

21 

13 

46-50 

91 

5-28 

137 

22-38 

14 

51-56 

92 

29-36 

138 

39 

18 

57-62 

64 

37,38 

130 

40-52 

19 

X. 

1-16 

93 

xxii.             1-6 

139 

iii.                 1-18 

20 

17-24 

97 

7-13 

140 

19, 20 

34 

25-37 

98 

14-18 

141 

21-23« 

21 

38-12 

99 

19, 20 

144 

23''-38 

3 

xi. 

1-13 

100 

21-23 

143 

iv.                  1-13 

22 

14,15 

57 

24-30 

141 

14,15 

3.5     . 

16 

58 

31-38 

145 

16-30 

36 

17-23 

57 

89-16 

148 

31-37 

38 

24-26 

58 

47-53 

149 

38, 39 

39 

27, 28 

59 

54-62 

152 

40.41 

40 

29-36 

58 

63-65 

151 

42-44 

41 

37-54 

60 

66-71 

153 

V.                   1-11 

37 

xii. 

1-59 

61 

xxiii.           1-5 

154 

12-16 

42 

xiii. 

1-5 

62 

6-12 

155 

17-26 

43 

6-9 

103 

13-25 

156 

27-32 

44 

10-17 

104 

26-3.3» 

160 

33-39 

67 

18-21 

63 

33>'-34 

161 

vi.                  1-5 

46 

22-35 

105 

3.5-37 

162 

6-11 

47 

xiv. 

1-24 

106 

38 

161 

12-16 

49 

25-a5 

107 

39-45« 

162 

17-19 

48 

XV. 

1-32 

108 

45'' 

164 

20-49 

50 

xvi. 

1-13 

109 

46 

163 

vii.               1-10 

51 

14-31 

110 

47-49 

KH 

11-17 

53 

xvii. 

1-10 

111 

50-56 

165 

18-35 

54 

11-19 

112 

xxiv.            1-11 

167 

3fi-.50 

55 

20-37 

113 

12 

168 

viii.              1-3 

56 

xviii. 

1-8 

114 

13-35 

170 

4-18 

63 

9-14 

115 

36-49 

171 

19-21 

59 

15-17 

119 

50-53 

175 

22-25 

65 

18-30 

120 

Gourd 


265 


Governor 


Indkx  for  FiNDiNc;  ANY  I'Ass.vtiK  IX  TICK  IIarmon'y. — Contintied. 

John. 


Chapter  and  Verse. 

Section. 

Chapter  and  Verse. 

Section. 

Chapter  and  Verse. 

xviii.         1.5-18 

Section. 

i.                  1-18 

o 

vii.               2-52 

94 

1.52 

lit--J8 

20 

53-viii.  11 

95 

19-24 

150 

•J9-34 

21 

viii.            12-.^y 

% 

2.5-27 

152 

;i>-l2 

23 

ix.           1-x.  :«i 

101 

2H-38 

1.54 

■i:i-5l 

24 

X.                39-42 

102 

39, 40 

156 

ii.                1-11 

25 

xi.                 1-46 

116 

xix.             1-3 

157 

1-' 

26 

47-54 

117 

4-16* 

158 

13-25 

27 

55-xii.  1 

127 

16b,  17 

160 

iii.                 1-L'l 

28 

xii.              2-11 

12H 

18-24 

161 

•>•) 

2i» 

12-1'.) 

129 

25-29 

162 

23-36 

30 

20-50 

136 

30 

163 

iv.                 1-3 

31 

xiii.              1-20 

142 

31-42 

165 

4-42 

32 

21-35 

143 

XX.                1-18 

1C>8 

43-64 

33 

36-:« 

145 

19-24 

171 

V.                   1-47 

45       1 

xiv.     1-xvii.  26 

146 

•25-29 

172 

vi.                  1-14 

71       ' 

xviii.            1 

148 

30,31 

176 

l.T-21 

75 

149 

1        xxi.              1-23 

173 

22-71 

77 

13,14 

150 

24-25 

176 

vii.              1 

80 

Gourd. 

The  reudcrinfi  of  the  Hebrew  Kik-ai/oii  in 
.Tonali  iv.  ti.  7.  !>.  10.  the  niariiiii  ot'  the  U.  V. 
siih.stitiitiiiji  Paliiia  Christi.  'rhejilant  sodesii;- 
iiated.u'ri'W  iijiiiia  night,  shelteriiijitlie  projih- 
et  .Toiiali  from  the  lieree  heatof  tlie  Xinevitc 
sun  :  Init  its  decay  was  as  ra]>i<l  as  its  j^rowth. 
The  SejitiiaKiiit  transhttes  the  IIi1)re\v  word 
h\  ihe  (ireek  koloL-iiiithr,  jiieaiiin<r  the  jmiih])- 
kin  {('iiciuhild  fiejio],  wiiicii  may  he  eoiisid- 
ered  the  ty])e  of  the  jroiird  family  (Ciicin- 
hitotnc).  A  native  of  Astraklian.  along  the 
northwestern  coast  of  the  ('as])ian  Sea,  it 
may  well  have  l)oen  introduced  into  the 
Ninevite  region  hefore  the  time  of  Jonah. 
It  is  in  favor  of  tlie  identification  that  it  is  a 
jilant  of  rajiid  growth.  But  tlie  Hebrew 
kiktii/ou  is  very  like  the  (tr^pco-Egyiitian  kiki, 
wliich  means  the  castor-oil  jilant  i  RiciiiK.i  cnm- 
miiiii.i).  This  is  sometimes  calle<l  Palma 
Christi  (Christ's  ]ialm).  It  is  not.  however, 
a  ]ialm.  but  a  eujdiorbiaceous  jilaut,  like  the 
little  milky  weeds  called  sjiurges.  It  is  a 
native  of  India,  but  was  cultivated  in  south- 
ern Asia  and  Egypt  (Herod,  ii.  91).  It  at- 
tains a  iiciglit  of  from  s  to  l(t  feet,  growing 
to  a  considerable  height  in  a  few  days.  The 
.stem  is  )iurplish-re(l  and  covered  witli  a 
jiearl-like  bloom,  the  leaves  are  i)eltate  and 
]ialmate.  the  (lowers  are  in  racemes,  the  seed 
Vessel  has  three  Iwo-valved  (  ells,  each  one- 
seeded.  If  Ibis  was  the  i)lant  whicli  shaded 
.louali.  its  rapid  growth  was  miraculous. 

Gourd,  Wild. 

Tlie  rendering  of  the  Helirew  word  Puk- 
kii'otli,  .s](litters,  liursters  cJ  Kin.  iv.  :{!•).  It  is 
Ihe  fruit  of  a  wild  vine  growing  in  I'alestiiie, 
which  llouri>lies  when  other  vegetation  is 
dead  or  <lyiiig  lliroiigh  I'xcessive  drought. 
\  son  of  the  pro]iliels  gathereil  a  la]ifiil  of 
the  fruit  near  ,Iericlio,  and  juit  them  into  a 
Jiot  to  be  cooked,  l>ut  the  moment  the  pottage 
of  whicli  they  coiislitiiled  tlie  chief  ingre- 
dient was  j)nt  to  the  month  the  taste  betrayed 


that  there  was  death  in  the  pot;  in  other 
words,  that  the  fruits  gathered  were  i)oison- 
ous  (I5t^-41).  The  plant  was  pretty  clearly 
one  or  other  of  two  sjiecies  of  the  gourd  or- 
der, thecolocynth,  or  the  stiuirting  cucumber, 
)irobably  the  I'm-mer.  The  colocynth  (  Citntlliis 
cnluci/nthin)  is  a  ])rostrate  gourd-like  i)lant  with 
tendrils,  growing  in  southern  Spain,  in  north- 
ern, eastern,  and  southern  .\frica,  in  Arabia, 
India,  etc.  In  ralesliue  it  is  wild  on  the  mari- 
time jilain  and  in  the  .lordan  valley,  in  the 
latter  of  which  ]ilaces  the  projihet  found  his 
wild  gourd  or  wild  vine.  It  may  be  seen  of 
a  lovely  emerald  green  when  all  vegetation 
near  has  withered  under  the  (iery  hot  wind 
of  summer.  If  the  traveler  jiluck  the  smooth 
gourd-like  fruits  and  cut  them  across  with 
his  i)enknife,  he  will  tind  that  they  both  look 
and  smell  like  the  cucumber.  If  then  he 
juit  them  to  his  li])s.  he  will  feel  as  if  he  had 
touched  tire.  The  colocynth  is  a  valuable 
but  dangerous  medicine.  The  other  claim- 
ant, the  .sijuirting  cucumber  (  FxhaUinm  <t<in:ite, 
formerly  }fom<ir(liai  4<l<iterintii).  also  a  gourd- 
like  Jilant  with  tendrils,  has  luickly  fruits, 
which.  \\  hen  i I  is  ripe  and  the  stalk  is  loosened, 
burst  and  s(|iiirt  fcu'tli  their  iioisonoiis  inilji.  a 
lihenomeiion  which  would  ijuite  agree  with 
the  etymology  of  the  word.  The  sciuirting 
cucunilier  grows  in  waste  idaces  and  by  the 
roadside  thnniglioul  I'alestiiie.  anil  its  iiiilit- 
ness  for  food  would  ju-oliably  be  known  to 
the  young  com|iaiiioii  of  Klisha. 

Gov'ern-or. 

One  who  i;overns  a  land  by  autlmrity  of  a 
suiiri'ine  ruler  to  whom  he  is  subordinate. 
.Iose|ih  wlu'u  prime  minister  of  I'-gypt  was 
called  its  governor  ((Jen.  xlii.  (i :  xlv.  'J(i). 
When  Ncbuiliadnez/.ar,  after  capturing  .leru- 
salem,  departed,  he  left  a  governor,  (Jedaliah, 
ludiiiid,  to  rule  the  comiiiered  ]ieo|ile  (.!cr.  xl, 
."):  xli.  •-',  etc.).  After  the  captivity,  the  Is- 
raelites were  ruled  by  I'ersian  govermirs ; 
/erubbabel,    Neliemiah,  anil   otlu-rs,  though 


Gozan 


266 


Greece 


Jews  by  birth,  beiug  Persian  officials  (Neh. 
V.  14,  18  ;  Hag.  i.  14).  Pontius  Pilate  was 
governor  of  Juda'a  when  our  I^ord  was  eriiei- 
lied.  and  is  so  called  (Mat.  .xxviii.  14),  though 
his  s])eiilic  Ivoniaii  title  was  iirnciirator  (q.  v.). 

Go'zan. 

A  town  and  district  in  IMesoi)otaniia  on  the 
river  llahor  {2  Kin.  xvii.  (i ;  xviii.  11;  xix. 
12;  1  C'hron.  v.  "iti ;  Is.  xxxvii.  12).  In  an 
Assyrian  inscription  the  town  Gozan  is  as- 
sociated with  Nisibis.  (xozan  is  probably  the 
(laiizanitis  of  Ptolemy  and  the  Mygdonia 
of  .Stralio.  It  was  a  province  of  Mcsojiotaniia, 
situated  on  the  upper  i)art  of  tlie  Khabour 
river,  and  along  the  southern  slopes  of  mount 
Maslus.  It  is  unnecessary  to  follow  Evvald, 
who,  governed  by  1  Chron.  v.  26,  thought  that 
the  river  of  (Jozan  was  distinguished  from 
the  Habor,  and  found  it  in  the  Ozan,  which 
empties  into  the  Caspian  Sea,  and  is  supposed 
to  have  tV)rmed  the  northern  boundary  of 
Media.  Ptolemy  mentions  a  town  of  Media 
called  Gauzania  in  its  vicinity. 

Grape.    See  Vine. 

Grass. 

A  i>lant  belonging  to  the  endogenous  order 
Gfnminiurie,  of  which  the  ordinary  grasses 
growing  in  fields,  or  the  cultivated  cereals, 
may  be  con.sidered  as  typical  representatives. 
Popularly,  the  term  grass  is  extended  to 
many  other  endogenous  plants,  and  even  to 
various  exogens,  especially  those  possessing 
linear  leaves.  This  does  not  materially  differ 
from  the  meaning  of  the  word  grass  in  the 
book  of  Genesis.  In  chap.  i.  11,  12  the  veg- 
etable kingdom  is  divided  into  three  great 
classes:  grass,  herbs,  and  trees.  The  word 
grass  is  used  in  a  more  limited  sense  when 
man's  brief  life  on  earth  is  compared  to 
grass,  which  in  the  morning  flourishes  and 
in  the  evening  is  cut  down  and  withers  (Ps. 
ciii.  15;  cp.  also  xxxvii.  2;  xc.  5;  xcii.  7;  cii. 
11 :  Is.  xl.  6,  7;  Mat.  vi.  30;  Luke  xii.  2.S). 

Grass'hop-per. 

1.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  'Arbeh, 
the  numerous  or  gregarious,  in  A.  V.  of  Jndg. 
vi.  5 ;  vii.  12  ;  Job  xxxix.  20  ;  Jer.  xlvi.  23.  It 
is  undoubtedly  the  migratory  locust,  as  the 
E.  V.  makes  it,  and  as  even  the  A.  V.  has  it 
in  Ex.  X.  4  ;  Joel  i.  4.     See  Lot'UST. 

2.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Hngah  in 
Lev.  xi.  22;  Num.  xiii.  33;  Ecc.  xii.  5; 
I.s.  xl.  22.  It  is  very  small  (Num.  xiii.  33) 
and  voracious  (2  Chron.  vii.  13,  where  it  is 
rendered  locust).  It  perhaps  derived  its 
name  from  its  covering  the  ground  or  hiding 
the  sun.  On  the  margin  of  Lev.  xi.  22,  K.  V., 
it  is  admitted  that  it  is  unknown  whether 
the  animal  was  a  grasshop))er  or  a  hx'ust. 
The  grassb(ip])er  family,  now  called  Acridiidu-, 
consists  of  leaping  orthopterous  insects,  with 
four-jointed  tarsi,  wing  cases  in  rei)ose  jilaced 
like  the  two  sloping  sides  of  a  roof,  and  long, 
tapering  antenna\  The  lyjx'  is  the  great 
English  grasshoiiper  (I/tcnsln  I'lriilix^'ima). 

3.  The  renderini;  of  the   Hebrew  dob  and 


Gohay,  creeper  from  the  earth  (Nah.  iii.  17). 
It  devours  the  grass  (Amos  vii.  1,  where  R. 
V.  renders  locust).  It  was  probably  an  in- 
sect of  the  locust  family  ;  but  of  which  species 
is  unknown. 

Grave. 

The  cavity  in  the  ground  in  which  a  body 
is  interred.  The  Jews  were  sonii'tinies  buried 
in  graves  dug  in  the  earth  (Tobit  viii.  9,  Iri), 
but  more  commonly  in  caves  .scooped  out  in 
rocks  or  naturally  existing  ((ien.  xxiii.  9; 
Mat.  xxvii.liO  ;  John  xi.3H).  See  Sepllcher. 

Grav-en  Im'age. 

An  image  of  wood,  stone,  or  metal  fash- 
ioned by  means  of  a  shar])  cutting  instru- 
ment as  distinguished  from  one  cast  in  a 
mould  (Is.  XXX.  22  ;  xliv.  16,  17  ;  xlv.  20 ;  cp. 
Hab.  ii.  18,  19).  Sometimes,  however,  the 
image  W'as  first  cast  and  then  finished  by  the 
graver  (Is.  xl.  19;  xliv.  10).  (iraven  images 
were  in  use  among  the  Canaanites  before  the 
Israelites  entered  the  country  (Dent.  vii.  5; 
xii.  3).  They  were  also  used  in  Babylon  and 
elsewhere  (Jer.  1.  38;  li.  47,  52).  The  second 
commandment  expressly  forbade  the  peoi)le 
of  God  to  make  them  (Ex.  xx.  4  :  Deut.  v.  8  ; 
cp.  also  Lev.  xxvi.  1;  Deut.  xxvii.  15;  Is. 
xliv.  9;  Jer.  x.  14 ;  li.  17). 

Greaves.     See  Armor. 

Gre'cians. 

1.  The  people  of  Greece  (Joel  iii.  6). 

2.  Jews  who  spoke  Greek  as  distinguished 
from  those  who  used  Aramaic,  which  in  N.  T. 
times  was  popularly  called  by  the  Jews  He- 
brew (Acts  vi.  1  and  ix.  29,  in  R.  V.  Grecian 
Jews;  and  xi.  20,  A.  V.  and  margin  of  E.  V.). 
See  Hellenist. 

Greece,  in  A.  V.  of  Daniel  Gre'ci-a  [from 
Graikoi,  an  old  name  of  a  tribe  in  E])irus,  and 
of  the  Greeks  generally.  It  fell  into  disuse, 
Hellenes  taking  its  ])lace.  but  it  was  revived 
by  Sophocles]. 

A  small  but  highly  celebrated  country  in 
the  southeast  of  Eui'ope.  Its  northern  limit 
was  never  perfectly  defined  ;  it  may.  how- 
ever, be  placed  at  the  Olympian  cliain  of 
mountains.  On  the  south  it  was  bounded  by 
the  Mediterranean  ;  on  the  east  by  the  ^Egean 
Sea,  now  the  Archipelago  ;  and  on  the  west 
by  the  Ionian  Sea,  now  regarded  as  part  of 
the  Mt'diterranean  ;  and  the  Adriatic  Sea, 
now  the  gulf  of  Venice.  Its  position  during 
the  time  when  the  Mediterranean  was  the 
highway  of  civilization  gave  it  une(jualed 
advantages,  which  it  was  not  slow  to  seize. 

The  authentic  history  of  Greece  with  its 
first  written  records  dates  from  the  first 
Olympiad,  77(>  R.  c.  Previous  to  that  time, 
and  including  the  period  known  as  the  heroic 
age,  hi.story  is  so  mingled  with  legend  that  it 
is  difficult  to  separate  truth  from  myth.  It 
seems  certain,  however,  that  the  ({reeks  were 
descended  from  four  tribes,  which  in  turn 
claimed  descent  from  a  common  ancestor, 
Hellen.     Of  these   tribes,   the  .Eolians   and 


Greece 


267 


Grove 


the  Aohseans  played  a  prominent  part  during 

till'  licroii-  :i};e,  UnnitT  sonii'tiiiies  s])f:ikiiiji 
of  till-  wliiilc  (ireek  ptMi])li'  jis  Acha'ans.  The 
<)th«'r  two  trihcs.  tln'  I  )orians  and  the  lonians, 
l)ccaiiic  more  iiii]iortaiit  in  liistorie  tiiiu's.  tlic 
Alhj'iiians  and  the  Sjiartans  bein;^  descended 
Ironi  them  res])eetively.  The  early  historie 
lieriod,  from  776  R.  r.  to  .^fM)  b.  c.  may  he  re- 
jianied  as  a  i)eriod  of  individual  jirowth  hy 
till'  ditl'erent  states  (■oni])risin^  the  nation. 
Tlii'se  states  were  theoretically  indejiendent 
of  each  other,  hut  were  united  hy  a  eomnion 
lan<iiiaf:e  and  literaturi'.  hy  national  j;ames, 
and  a  general  national  development.  'J'liere 
wert-  also  fre(iuent  thou;;h  ehanj^inj;  jiolitieal 
alliane<'s.  During  this  ])eriod  the  founda- 
tions of  (irecian  architecture,  art.  literature, 
and  iihilosophy  were  laid,  (ireece  was  early 
within  the  jieojiraidiical  knowledtre  of  the 
llehrews,  who  <'alled  it  .lavan.  that  is  louia 
((ten.  X.  4)  :  hut  it  was  known  merely  as  a 
(•ountry  at  the  ends  of  the  earth  ( Is.  l.wi.  1!) ; 
lOzek.  xxvii.  i;{;  ,loel  iii.  til.  Ahoiit  the  year 
,")(MI  n.  c.  (ireeec  came  into  ])rominent  notice 
on  account  of  lier  strnjifxle  with  Persia,  at 
that  time  the  jjreat  world-iiower.  As  early 
as  .")1U  Cvrns  cajitured  Sardis,  the  caiiital  of 
Lydia.  The  fall  of  this  city  was  followed  hy 
the  subjection  of  the  (Jreek  cities  of  Asia  to 
the  Persian  yoke.  The  H el lesi)ont  was  crossed 
hy  the  Persians  in  the  ri'iyn  of  Darius,  and 
>lacedonia  suhniitted  in  ."ilO.  P>ut  the  (ireek 
cities  of  Asia  rose  and  maintained  determined 
revolt  ajiiiinst  their  coniiuerors  during  the 
years  .")()()  to  4!ir) ;  and  the  (irecks  of  Eurojie 
ilefeated  the  Persians  at  Marathon  in  490, 
and.  atter  sullcring  reverses  at  Tlierniopyhe, 
inllicted  crushing  defeats  upon  them  at  Sala- 
niis  in  4Ni,  and  at  Platiea  and  Mycale  in  479. 
The  struggle  with  Persia  resulted  in  drawing 
the  entire  nation  tog<>tlier  under  the  leader- 
ship of  one  state.  The  lirst  state  to  attain 
this  su](reniacy  was  Athens.  She  held  tlie 
leadership  for  70  years,  hut  during  the  last 
2M  years  of  that  time  the  energies  of  the  na- 
tion were  used  in  carrying  on  tlie  Pelo]"))!- 
nesian  war.  This  war.  which  l)egan  in  a 
(luarrel  hetween  Corinth  and  her  ccdonies, 
linally  drew  into  the  struggle  the  whole  naval 
and  military  strength  of  the  nation,  led  on 
one  side  hy  Sparta  ami  on  the  other  by  Athens. 
The  war'  roiilted  in  the  downfall  of  the 
Athenian  jjower.  Then  lollowed  the  jieriod 
of  the  Spartan  suiiremacy,  followed  in  turn 
by  the  Theban  su]iremacv,  whi<'h  last<'d  until 
:{:!"^  r..  <•..  when  all  (ireece  fell  under  the 
]iower  of  Phili|>  of  Maceilon,  and  becanu> 
thenceforth  a  part  of  the  .Macedonian  emjiire. 
It  is  under  the  rule  of  .\lexander  the  (ireat 
that  (Ireece  I'omes  into  direct  coutaiM  for  tlii' 
lir>l  lime  with  .luda-a.  On  his  march  to  Per- 
sia Alexander  passed  through  .Tinhea.  which 
fell  into  his  hands  without  a  strUK^'le.  See 
Ai.KX ANDKK.  From  this  time  (irecian  in- 
lluence  sjiread  ivqiidly  and  took  tirni  hold  in 
the  countries  situated  around  the  eastern  end 
of  the  Mediterranean  Sea.      Even  after  the 


<  Roman  conquest  the  inttuence  of  the  Greek 
language,  culture,  and  |>hilosophy  remained 
Iiaramount,  and  even  inlluenced  the  .Fewish 
religion  itself.  In  the  time  of  Christ  the 
(Jri't'k  language  was  siioken  throUf;hout  the 
civilized  world.  After  the  death  of  Alexan- 
der, liisemi)ire  fell  into  the  hands  of  his  gen- 
erals, who  jiarceled  it  out  among  themselves. 
At  lirst  (Ireece  i)roi)er  was  hidd  in  the  name 
of  his  infant  sou.  but  soon  he,  as  well  as  all 
members  of  Alexander's  family,  were  jiut  to 
<leath.  and  the  country  became  the  jirey  of 
anyone  strong  enough  to  take  it,  until  it 
linally  fell  under  the  dominion  of  Home. 
The  last  struggle  again.st  liome  resulted  in 
the  battle  of  Leucopatra,  1  Hi  li.  c,  and 
shortly  after  (Jreece  was  declared  a  Koman 
lirovince.  The  division  of  the  Koman  power 
into  the  Eastern  and  Western  empires  revived 

i  (ireek  influence  for  a  time.  The  Eastern  em- 
]iire  survived  long  after  the  Western  em]>ire 

'    fell,  but  finally  it  came  to  an  end  in  the  cap- 

;  ture  of  Constantinoi)le  by  the  Turks  in  14.'):j. 
Some  of   the  ajiostle   Paul's  most  earnest 

I  labors  took  ])lace  in  (ireece,  notably  in  Athens 
and  Corinth,  besides  his  general  travels 
through  Achaia,  the  name  at  that  time  for 
ancient  (ireece. 

<  Greek. 

I  1.  A  native  of  (ireece,  one  of  the  (ireek 
race  (Acts  xvi.  1  ;  xvii.  4).  When  Jew  and 
(ireek  are  opiiosed  in  the  N.  T..  the  term 
Greek  is  used  for  a  heathen  in  general,  tlie 
(ireeks  being  looked  on  as  the  highest  type 
of  men  existing  in  the  gentile-  worlil  (Kom. 
i.  14,  1(>;  X.  12). 

2.  The  language  spoken  by  the  ancient 
Greeks,  and  of  which  that  of  their  modern 
succes.sors  is  only  a  development  (.Iidin  xix. 
20;  Acts  xxi.  ;J7";  Pev.  ix.  11).  It  belongs  to 
the  Aryan  family  of  tongues,  havinj;  attini- 
ties  to  the  Sanscrit  of  ancient  India,  to 
Latin,  and  to  nearly  all  the  languages  of 
modern  ICurope,  not  excejiting  our  own.  In 
jiower  of  full  and  lu'ecise  expressicjn  it  more 
ni-arly  a])i)roaches  perfection  than  almost  any 
other  form  of  s))eech.  The  O.  T.  was  trans- 
lated info  it  bi'fore  the  advent  of  (hrist  isee 
SEl'TlAfJINT)  ;  the  N.  T.  (Matthew  in.ssibly 
except<'dl  was  coiiiiio.sed  in  (ireek  ficnn  the 
lirst. 

Grey'hound. 

The  rendeiiu;;  of  the  Hebrew  Z<it"h\  well 
girt  or  well  knit  in  the  loins,  in  Prov.  xxx. 
:il.  The  greyhouiul  is  ti<iured  on  the  A.ssyriau 
monuments.  The  word  may,  however,  de- 
note the  war  horse  (K.  V.  margin)  as  orna- 
mented with  girths  and  buckles  about  the 
loins;  or  the  starliui;.  as  the  corresiionding 
word  in  .\rabic.  Syiiac,  and  post-biblical 
Il.hnw.    deiioto. 

Grinding.     See  Miii.. 

Grove. 

\  urouj)  or  <-lump  of  trees.  In  the  \.  V. 
it  is  uniformly  a  mistranslation  of 

1.  The  Hebrew  word  'A'WiW  ((ien.   xxi.  .TJ ; 


Guard 


268 


Habakkuk 


cp.  1  Sam.  xxii.  6).     The  R.  V.  renders  this  a 
tamarisk  tree.     Soo  Tamarisk. 

2.  The  Hrhrcw  word  '"shenih,  with  its  two 
jiliirals  '"nheiim  and  '"xlieiotk  (Kx.  xxxiv.  13, 
and   cLsewhere   e.\cept   Gen.   xxi.  313).     See 

ASHKKAU. 

Guard. 

In  Oriental  countries,  where  the  king,  as  a 
rule,  is  despotic,  measures  which  give  offense 
excite  hostility  against  him  personally.  This 
necessitates  that  he  should  be  continually  de- 
fended hy  a  bodyguard  ;  and  such  a  military 
organization  is  more  than  useless  unless  com- 
plete dependence  can  be  jilaced  on  its  fidelity. 
Hence,  service  in  the  bodygiuird  is  consid- 
ered specially  honorable,  and  its  captain  is  a 
high  ofticer.  Such  an  appointment  was  filled 
by  Potiphar  (Gen.  xxxvii.  36;  xli.  1-2),  by 
Benaiah  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  22,  23;  1  Chron.  xviii. 
17),  by  Nebuzaradau  (2  Kin.  xxv.  8;  Jer. 
xxxix.  9,  10),  by  Arioch  (Dan.  ii.  14),  and 
others.  The  captain  of  the  guard  and  his 
men  were  often  emjjloyed  to  inflict  capi- 
tal punishment  on  political  or  other  offenders. 
In  Mark  vi.  27,  the  Greek  word  is  spekotda- 
tor,  spy.  Such  spies  constituted  a  division  in 
each  Roman  legion,  and  under  the  empire 
acted  as  the  bodyguard  of  a  general  and  were 
employed  as  messengers  and  to  seek  out  per- 
sons proscribed  or  sentenced  to  death. 

Gud'go-dah.     See  Hor-haggidgad. 

Guest. 

One  temporarily  entertained  in  the  house 
of  another.  It  may  be  used  when  he  is  pres- 
ent only  for  a  few  hours  at  a  feast  (I  Kin.  i. 
41  ;  Zeph.  i.  7;  Mat.  xxii.  10,  11).  Important 
houses  had  a  guest  chamber  (Mark  xiv.  14  ; 
Luke  xxii.  11 ;  cp.  also  2  Kin.  iv.  10).  Great 
consideration  was  shown  to  a  guest  (Gen. 
xviii.  1-8;  xix.  3;  Ex.  ii.  20;  Judg.  xiii.  15; 
xix.  20-24 ;  Job  xxxi.  32).  Kindness  to 
strangers  was  enjoined  under  the  Mosaic  law 
(Deut.  X.  18,  19),  and  their  entertainment 
was  formally  enjoined  in  the  N.  T.  (Heb. 
xiii.  2;  cp.  Mat.  xxv.  43).  The  rule  obtained, 
which,  being  founded  on  proper  moral  feel- 
ing, was  worthy  of  all  respect,  that  unless 
there  was  a  sincere  desire  to  benefit  the  en- 
tertainer, one  should  not  be  guest  in  the  house 
of  a  notorious  sinner  (Luke  xix.  7). 

Guilt'  Of  fer-ing.     See  Offerings. 

Gu'ni  [painted  with  colors]. 

1.  A  son  of  Najjhtali,  and  founder  of  a 
tribal  family  ((Jen.  xlvi.  24  ;  Num.  xxvi.  48  ; 
1  Chron.  vii.  13). 

2.  A  Gadite  (1  Chron.  v.  15). 

Gur  [lion's  whelp  or  other  young  animal]. 

An  ascent  near  Ibleam,  where  Ahaziah, 
king  of  .Tudah,  was  killed  by  order  of  ,(ehu 
(2  Kin.  ix.  27).     Exact  sitiuition  unknown. 

Gur-ba'al  [sojourn  of  Baal]. 

A  place  inhabited  by  Arabs  (2  Chron.  xxvi. 
7) ;  i)rol)ably  in  the  desert  to  the  southeast 
of  .Tudah. 


Gym-na'si-um,  in  A.  V.  Place  of  Exer- 
cise. 

A  public  i)lace  in  Jerusalem  for  athletic 
exercise  and  exhibitions,  below  the  western 
cloister  of  the  temple  (War  iv.  9.  12;  vi.  3, 
2;  (i,  2),  below  the  palace  of  the  Asmona-ans 
(Antiq.  xx.  8,  11  ;  War  ii.  l(i,  3),  below  the 
citadel  or  acropolis  (2  Mac.  iv.  12,  27;  not  the 
Syrian  fortress  called  the  Acra,  which  was 
erected  later,  1  Mac.  i.  33).  It  was  situated 
near  the  council  house,  by  the  first  or  inner- 
most wall,  and  at  the  end  of  the  bridge 
which  led  from  the  temple  across  the  Tyro- 
pa'on  valley  (War  v.  4,  2;  cj).  vi.  6,  2).  It 
was  erected  by  helleuizing  Jews,  under  the 
leadership  of  Jason,  by  permission  of  Anti- 
ochus  Epiphanes  (1  Mac.  i.  10,  14  ;  2  JIac.  iv. 
7  seq.).  The  essential  features  of  a  gym- 
nasium were:  1.  An  oi)en  court  for  boxing, 
wrestling,  pitching  quoits,  and  throwing  the 
javelin  (2  Mac.  iv.  14,  i)aliestra,  discus)  ;  2. 
A  stadium  or  course  for  the  foot  race  ;  3.  A 
colonnade  for  a  ])lace  of  recreation  and  for 
athletic  exercises  in  winter  (Anti<i.  and  War, 
passim  xystos)  ;  4.  A  bathroom.  The  gym- 
nasium at  Jerusalem  was  condemned  by  strict 
Jews  because  it  introduced  heathen  customs  ; 
led  Jewish  youth  to  wear  the  hat  of  Hermes, 
to  exercise  stark  naked  in  public,  and  to  be 
ashamed  of  the  mark  of  their  religion  ;  and 
infected  even  the  priests  and  caused  them  to 
neglect  their  official  duties  (1  Mac.  i.  14.  15; 
2  Mac.  iv.  13-17).  It  existed  until  the  over- 
throw of  the  city  by  Titus  ;  and  was  not  only 
resorted  to  for  athletic  sjiorts,  but  was  also 
occasionally  used  for  popular  assemblies  (War 
ii.  16,  3). 


H. 


Ha-a-hash'ta-ri  [the  Ahashtarite]. 

A  Hezronite,  son  of  Ashhur  (1  Chron.  iv. 
6  ;  cp.  ii.  24). 

Ka-ba'iah  [Jehovah  hath  hidden]. 

Father  of  certain  Jews  claiming  sacerdotal 
descent.  Their  names  not  being  found  in 
the  register,  they  were  iiut  out  of  the  ju'Iest- 
hood  (Ezra  ii.  61  ;  Neh.  vii.  63). 

Ha-bak'kuk  [embrace,  or  perhaps  the 
name  of  a  garden  ]dant]. 

A  prophet  of  Judah,  the  details  of  whose 
life  are  unknown.  It  is  inferred  from  his 
psalm  (chap,  iii.)  and  from  the  directions  to 
the  chief  musician  (19)  that  he  was  of  the 
tribe  of  Levi  and  one  of  the  temple  singers. 

The  book  of  Habakkuk  is  the  eighth  of 
the  minor  ])rin)hets.  It  consists  of  1.  A  first 
complaint:  his  cry  to  God  against  violence 
and  wickedness  is  unheeded  (i.  2-4).  Tlie 
Lcu-d's  res])onse  :  God  is  raising  uj)  the  Chal- 
deans to  inflict  ])unishiuent  (5-11).  2.  A 
second  com])laint  :  fear  lest  the  fierceness 
and  wickedness  of  this  instrument  of  judg- 
ment sh;ill  involve  the  good  with  the  ])ad  in 
the   ])unishment    (12-17).      The    Lord's    re- 


Habazziniah 


269 


Hadadezer 


spouse  :  the  just  shall  live  by  his  faith  (ii.  1- 
4).  Accordingly  faith  in  the  certainty  that 
(iod  will  ininish  wickedness  enables  the 
prophet  to  pronounce  live  woes  apiinst  the 
great  world-jiower  for  tlve  forms  of  wicked- 
ness i'l-'M).  15.  A  i)rayi'r  of  praise  (iii.  1-19), 
in  whicii  after  an  invocation  and  a  jietitiou 
that  (iod  in  wrath  reniendier  mercy  {2i,  tlie 
pro])liet  descrii)(.'s  (foil's  ajipearance  in  maj- 
esty and  the  ensninn  constt'rnation  of  his 
enemies  (Ii  15),  and  exjiri'sses  the  (juiet  con- 
fidence of  faith  in  (iod  (1(>-1!I). 

The  hook  is  not  dated,  hut  was  evidently  a 
production  of  the  Ciialdean  i)ei-iod.  1.  The 
temjile  is  still  standing  Iii.  2(1),  and  musical 
service  is  conducted  (iii.  lit).  2.  Tiie  rise  of 
the  Chaldeans  to  a  foiiuidahle  i)ower  among 
the  nations  occurs  during  that  ^jeneration  (i. 
.">.  (i),  and  the  slaying  of  tiu'  nations  hy  the 
Chaldiaus  had  already  hcf;nn  (ti.  17). 

The  t'lialdeaus  and  their  method  of  war- 
fare had  lieen  lon^i  known  to  the  llehrews. 
They  hegan,  however,  (heir  great  career  of 
subjugation,  and  attained  to  (he  leading  place 
among  the  powers  of  the  world  l)y  their  over- 
throw of  Niiu'veh  in  (id?  u.  c,  and  (heir  vic- 
t(uy  over  the  Egyptians  at  Carchemish  in  GO,'). 
Most  critics  accordingly  date  the  ]>rophccy 
in  the  earlv  ]iart  of  Jelioiakim's  reign,  about 
the  tinu-  of  the  battle  of  (arcliemisli.  I( 
may,  however,  an(eda(e  the  fall  of  Nineveh 
by  some  years.  Babylouian  captivity  had 
been  long  i)redicted  (Mic.  iv.  10;  Is.  xi.  11; 
xx.xix.  (i,  7),  and  events  before  the  tall  of 
Nineveh  indicated  that  the  time  projthesied 
was  at  hand. 

Hab-az-zi-ni'ah,  in  A.  V.  Habaziniah. 

A  Ke<lialiite  wlio  lived  long  before  .lere- 
miali  (.ii^r.  xxxv.  li). 

Ha-ber'ge-on  [a  small  hauberk]. 

A  coat  of  mail  to  defend  the  breast  and 
ne<k  {-2  Cliron.  xxvi.  M;  Neb.  iv.  l(i ;  in  K. 
V.  coat  of  mail).  In  .lob  xli.  26,  R.  V.  on 
good  grounds  substitutes  pointed  .shaft  in  the 
text,  and  jilaces  coat  of  mail  in  the  mar- 
gin. Habergeon,  or  coat  of  mail,  is  also  used 
to  translate  a  diU'erent  llel>rew  word  of  un- 
certain meaning  in  Kx.  xxviii.  '.'>2  ;  xxxix.23. 

Ha'bor  [joining  to]. 

A  river  of  Meso]iotamia  (o  which  caji- 
tives  from  (he  (eu  (ribes  were  carried  (2  Kin. 
xvii.  Ii:  xviii.  11;  1  Chrou.  v.  2()).  It  has 
been  ideiitilied  as  (he  Kiiabour,  which,  flow- 
ing southward  tliroiigh  Meso|)()tamia,  after  a 
course  of  liiu  miles,  falls  in(o  (he  eas(ern  side 
of  (he  l';iii)hra(es  a(  Kerki.siyeh,  the  ancient 
( 'ircesium.  Those  who  regard  ( iozan  asa  river 
identify  (lie  Halior  with  (lia(  eas(ern  branch 
of  the  Tigris  above  Nineveii  which  bears  the 
same  name. 

Hach-a-li'ali  [.lehovah  is  dark  (from  dis- 

I.|.;iMini). 

Til.-  lallierof  Nebemiah  (Neh.  i.  1). 

Hach'i-lah  [dark,  gloomy]. 

A  hill  in  I  lie  wilderness  of  Zi]iji  (1  Sam. 
xxvi.  1   :;.  >ouiiiea>(  of  Hebron,   and   on  the 


south  of  the  desert,  not  far  from  Maon  (xxiii. 
19,  24-2<i).  David  concealed  himself  there 
whilst  tleeing  from  .'^aul,  and  tliere  Saul 
alterwards  encamped  when  engaged  in  his 
imrsuit. 

Hach'mo-ni  [wise]. 

The  founder  of  (he  Hachmonite  family,  the 
menilters  of  which  aix-  called  sous  of  Hach- 
moni  (1  Chron.  xi.  11  ;  xxvii.  32),  or  simply 
Hachmonites  (cj).  2  Sam.  xxiii.  8). 

Ha'dad,  I.  [shar(itH'ss.  fierceness]. 

A  son  of  Ishinael  Mien.  xxv.  1').  in  A.  V., 
following  jireseut  Hebrew  text,  Hadar:  1 
Chrou.  i.  30). 

Ha'dad,  II. 

1.  A  deity  worsliijied  by  (he  Aranm-ans.  It 
occurs  in  ]iro]ier  names,  as  in  lienhadad, 
Iladadi'zer.  The  As.syrian  .scribes  identilied 
Hadad  wi(h  their  own  weather-god  Kaniman, 
(.  e.,  Kimmon. 

2.  A  king  of  Edom,  son  of  Hedad,  and  of 
the  city  of  Avith.  He  smote  Midian  in  the 
field  of  Moab  (Geu.  xxxvi.  35,  3G ;  1  Chrou.  i. 
46,  47). 

3.  A  kiug  of  Edom,  whose  city  was  I'au  or 
Pai  (1  Chron.  i.  oO).  In  (ten.  xxxvi.  39  he  is 
called  Hadar.     See  D.vi.kth. 

4.  An  Edomite  prince,  who  escaped  from 
his  country  when  .(oab,  at  the  head  of  (he 
Israeli(*'  army,  was  engaged  for  six  moudis 
in  the  cruel  task  of  cutting  off  every  male  in 
Edom.  Hadad  was  tlien  a  little  child,  and 
was  taken  by  his  guardians  (o  Egy]it,  where 
he  was  received  with  uuub  kindness  by 
Pharaoh,  (he  king,  who  assigned  him  a  man- 
sion and  an  estate,  jirovided  liim  widi  food, 
and  gave  him  iin  Egyi)(ian  jirincess.  sis(er  of 
the  (|Ueeu,  to  wife.  15iit  when  Hadad  was 
grown  to  manhood,  and  hc'ard  (lia(  David 
and  .Toab,  the  great  ("oes  of  his  race,  were 
dead,  love  of  country  nuide  him  determine 
to  return  home,  and,  bidding  adieu  to  the 
king  of  Egyi)t,  he  departed  for  Edom.  and 
on  arriving  becaint'  an  adversary  (o  Solomon, 
nu)ved,  it  would  ap]iear.  mainly  liy  (he  con- 
sideration (ha(  he  was  David  s  sou  (1  Kin.  xi. 
14-22). 

Ha-dad-e'zer  [Hadad  is  a  helji]. 

Son  of  K'eholi  and  king  of  Zol)ah.  in  Syria. 
When  going  (o  recover  his  bonli'r  a(  (he  river 
Eu]ihra(<s.  he  was  nu'(  and  defealed  by  king 
David.  The  Syrians  of  Damascus,  who  alter- 
wards arrived  (o  assist  liim,  shared  his  fate. 
From  Hetah  and  lierothai,  cides  of  Hadad- 
ezer, David  (ook  nuich  brass  or  copjier.  Toi, 
king  of  Hamadi,  probably  a  Hi(ti(e  by  race, 
had  formerly  been  a(  war  witli  Hadadezer, 
and  he  congra(ula(e(l  David  on  his  victory 
(2  Sam.  viii.  3  13;  1  Cliron.  xviii.  3  10). 
Hadadezer  is  fre<|Ueii(ly  called  Hadarezer, 
(he  lader  f<u-m  being  doubtless  an  early  mis- 
readiiu:  of  daleth  ;  see  I  )AI.1'.T1I.  He  is  (he 
same  king  wlio.  renewing  (he  war  widi  David, 
liecame  confedera(e  widi  (lie  .\miiionites,  and 
sent  Ills  army,  leil  by  Ids  general.  .'>hol)ach, 
(o  try  ano(her  eugagenu'nt  with  their  com- 


Hadadrimiuon 


270 


Haggai 


mon  foe.  Ajtain  it  ])lo!ist'd  God  that  David 
should  be  victorious,  and  Sliol)ach  was  among 
the  slain.  The  (k-])endcnt  kinjis  who  had 
served  iladade/.cr  now  made  peace  with 
David,  and  Iladadezer  is  heard  of  no  more 
(2  Sam.  X.  (i-19  ;   1  Chron.  .\i.\.  1()-19). 

Ha-dad-rim'mon  [lladad  and  Kimmou, 
two  Syrian  divinities].  Ivimmoii  means  also 
a  ])omejjranate. 

.\  city  in  tlie  plain  of  .Ic/reel.  near  Mej^iddo 
{'/A'vh.  .xii.  II).  .leromi'  says  lliat  it  was  the 
place  in  his  day  called  .Maximianojiolis.  This 
is  now  called  Kummaneh,  and  is  about  a 
mile  northwest  by  west  of  Taanach. 

Ha'dar.     See  H.\d.\u,  I.  and  II. 

Ha-dar-e'zer.     See  H.\dadezek. 

Had'a-shah  [new]. 

A  vilhiyc  in  or  near  the  lowland  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  :!7).      It  has  not  been  identified. 

Ha-das'sah  [a  myrtle]. 

The  orijiinal  .Jewish  name  of  queen  Esther 
(Esth.  ii.  7).  The  name  has  a  certain  .simi- 
larity in  sound  to  that  of  Atossa,  who  was 
the  mother  of  Xerxes  (Herod,  vii.  2).  But 
the  women  were  different.  Esther  was  his 
queen. 

Ha-dat'tah.     See  Hazor-had.\tt.\h. 

Ha'des.     See  Hkll  1. 

Ha'did  [sharp,  pointed  ;  a  point]. 

A  town  of  Benjamin,  mentioned  in  con- 
nection with  Lod,  i.  e.  Lydda  (Ezra  ii.  33; 
Xeh.  xi.  34).  It  is  commonly  identified  with 
Adida.  a  town  built  upon  a  hill  of  the  Shephe- 
lah  and  overlooking  the  plain  (1  Mac.  xii.  38  ; 
xiii.  13  ;  Antiq.  xiii.  6,  5).  Its  site  is  located 
at  Haditheh,  3  miles  east  of  Lydda. 

Had'lai  [frail], 

A  man  of  Ejihraim  (2  Chron.  xxviii.  12). 

Ha-do'ram. 

1.  An  Arabian  tribe  descended  from  Jok- 
tan  (Gen.  x.  27;  1  Chron.  i.  21). 

2.  A  son  of  the  king  of  Hamath  (1  Chron. 
xviii.  10).     See  Joram  1. 

3.  An  officer  over  Rchoboam's  levy  (2  Chron. 
X.  Is).     See  Adoniram. 

Ha'dracb. 

A  countrj'  mentioned  in  connection  with 
Damascus  and  Hamath  (Zech.  ix.  1),  and,  in 
Assyrian  inscrii)tious,  with  Zobah  also.  Its 
exact  situation  is  unknown. 

Ha'gal)  [a  locust]. 

Founder  of  a  family  of  Xethinim  (Ezra 
ii.  Ki). 

Hag'a-bah  or  Hagaba  [a  locust]. 

Fouiiilcr  lit  a  family  of  Nethinim.  distinct 
fniin  that  of  Hagab  (Kzraii.  4.') :  Neh.  vii.  4S). 

Ha'gar,  in  .\.  V.  of  N.  T.  hotli  times  Agar, 
in  imitation  of  the  Greek  [if  Hebrew,  flight], 

."^n  Egy])tian  bondwoman  of  Sarah,  i)rob- 
ably  obtained  during  Abraham's  sojourn  in 
Eg.vpt  (Gen.  xvi.  1;  cj).  xii.  10).  After  Abra- 
ham had  been  ten  years  in  Canaan,  and  the 
promised   .son    had    not    been   born    to    him. 


Sarah,  now  7(5  years  old,  despaired  of  sharing- 
in  tiie  promise,  and  ]>roposed  earthly  means 
to  secure  a  sou  to  .\braham  and  obtain  the 
name  of  mother.  In  accordance  with  a  cus- 
tom of  the  times,  she  gave  her  maid  to  Abra- 
ham. When  Hagar  perceived  herself  to  be 
with  child  she  desjiised  her  mistress;  and, 
being  treated  by  her  harshly,  (led  int(»  the 
wilderness.  There  the  angel  of  the  Lord 
found  her  at  a  fountain  between  Shur  and 
Rered,  revealed  to  her  the  future  of  the  child 
she  was  to  bear,  and  bade  her  return  to  her 
mistress.  Hagar  called  the  name  of  the  place 
"the  well  of  the  living  one  who  seeth  me" 
(Gen.  xvi.  1-16).  She  then  returned  to  her 
mistress,  and  in  due  time  gave  birth  to  Ish- 
mael.  Some  fifteen  years  later  the  youth 
Ishmael  mocked  at  the  child  Isaac.  For  this 
otiense  Hagar,  with  a  skin  of  water  on  her 
shoulder,  and  Ishmael  (for  form  of  expression 
cp.  xliii.  15)  were  expelled  with  God's  ap- 
I)roval  from  the  family  of  Abraham.  They 
wandered  in  the  wilderness  of  Beer-sheba 
until  the  water  w'as  spent.  The  exhausted 
hoy  whom  she  had  been  supporting  she  cast, 
as  one  would  a  sick  i)erson  (Mat.  xv.  30), 
under  the  shade  of  a  bush,  and  sat  down  a 
bow-shot  ofl"  that  she  might  not  see  him  die. 
Again  the  angel  of  the  Lord  intervened,  di- 
recting her  to  a  well  in  the  vicinity,  and  re- 
minding her  of  the  promise  concerning  the 
boy.  The  la.st  we  hear  of  Hagar  is  her  taking 
a  wife  for  her  son  out  of  the  land  of  Egypt, 
whence  she  herself  had  originally  come  (xxi. 
1-21).     For  Gal.  iv.  21-31,  see  Ishmakl. 

Ha-gar-ene',  Ha'gar-ite,  and  Ha'ger-ite. 
See  Hackite. 

Hag'ga-i  [festal,  perhaps  as  born  on  a  fes- 
tival day]. 

A  prophet,  contemporary  with  Zechariah 
(Hag.  i.  1  with  Zech.  i.  1).  He  prophesied 
after  the  return  from  Babylon.  The  work 
on  the  temple  had  ceased  for  15  years,  and 
Haggai  was  largely  instrumental  in  arousing 
the  people  to  proceed  with  the  building 
(Ezra  v.  1,  2;  vi.  14). 

The  book  of  Haggai  is  the  tenth  of  the  minor 
prophets.  It  consists  of  four  prophecies  de- 
livered within  the  .siiacc  af  four  months  in  the 
second  year  of  Darius  Hystasjiis.  520  K.  c. 

1.  On  the  first  day  of  the  (ith  month  the 
prophet  reproaches  those  who  left  the  temple 
in  ruins,  and  built  ceiled  houses  for  them- 
selves, and  he  points  out  that  (iod's  blessing 
is  withholdi'U  from  their  ordinary  labor. 
In  consei|uence  of  this  exhortation,  work  on 
the  temjile  was  resumed  on  the  twenty-fourth 
day  of  the  same  month  (i.). 

2.  In  the  7th  month,  21st  day,  he  en- 
courages those  who  mourn  over  the  humble 
character  of  the  new  building  as  compared 
with  the  sjjlendor  of  the  old  edifice.  He 
l)redicts  that  the  latter  glory  of  the  house 
shall  be  greater  than  tlie  former  glory,  for 
<4od  will  shake  the  nations  and  the  desirable 
things  of  all  nations,  their  silver  and  gold. 


Haggeri 


271 


Halah 


sball  come  and  fill  the  house  with  f^lory,  and 
(Jod  will  ii'iyo  jicace  in  tliat  i>lace  (ii.  1-9; 
llcl).  xii.  2r,~-2s). 

:i.  In  the  nth  niunlli,  :.'lt]i  day,  he  adds  a 
secinel  to  tiie  liist  |pru])lii(  y.  As  the  toueh 
of  the  unclean  iiolhites  the  elean,  so  their 
former  nculeet  of  (iod  iiolhited  their  lahor 
and  (iod  did  not  bestow  liis  hlessinf^.  Hnt 
their  revived  zeal  for  (lod  will  he  aeeom- 
|ianie<l  t)v  fruitful  seasons  from  the  Lord  (ii. 
10  lit). 

■J.  On  the  siinie  day  he  adds  a  se(|nel  to  the 
second  projiheey.  When  the  Lord  shakes 
the  nations,  he  will  establish  Zeruhhahel, 
who  reiiresent.s  the  royal  line  of  David  (ii. 
20--S.i). 

Hag'ge-ri.     See  Hagki. 

Hag'gi  [festal  or  festival  of  (Jehovah)]. 

A  son  of  (iad,  ami  founder  of  a  tribal  fam- 
ily Kien.  xlvi.  Ki ;   Num.  xxvi.  lo). 

Hag-gi'ah  [a  festival  of  Jehovah]. 

A  Lcvite.  a  desceudautof  Merari  (1  C'hron. 

vi.  ;;iii. 

Hag'gith  [festal]. 

()ne  uf  David's  wives,  the  inother  of  Ado- 
nijaii  CJ  .'^am.  iii.  1 ;   1  Kin.  i.  ")). 

Ha'gri,  in  A.  V.  Haggeri. 

Kalher  an  adjective  tlian  a  jjroiier  name 
(1  Cludii.  xi.  38);  sec  Mii'.iiak. 

Ha'grite;  in  A.  V.  Hagarite,  and  once 
Hagerite,  and  (Hue,  in  I's.  Ixxxiii.  G,  Haga- 
renes,  in  which  passage  R.  V.  in  its  text  fol- 
lows A.  V. 

A  nomad  people  who  dwelt  throughout  all 
the  land  east  of  Gilead,  and  were  rich  in 
camels,  sheep,  and  as.ses.  During  the  reign 
of  Saul  they  were  van(iuished,  and  in  a  large 
measure  destroved,  bv  the  Israelite  tribes  east 
of  the  Jordan"  (1  Chron.  v.  10,  lH-2-2).  A 
liagrite  had  charge  of  David's  tloeks  (1 
(  hroii.  xxvii.  31).  They  are  the  Agraoi  of 
tlie  (ireek  geograjilu'rs.  It  is  questionable 
whctiier  their  name  is  at  all  eonneeted  with 
till-  town  llejer  or  Hejera,  in  the  Arabian 
de~ert  near  the  Persian  tiulf. 

Ha'i.     See  Ai. 

HalL 

Small  globules  of  ice  formed  of  raindrops 
which  have  been  carried  into  a  cold  stratum 
"f  the  atmosphere.  Hail  falls  not  merely 
in  colli  jiiid  temperate  climates,  but  in  hot, 
nay.  even  in  trojiical  latitudi's,  where  snow 
and  ice  are  not  to  be  found,  except  at  gi'eat 
elevations.  Wiien  it  falls  in  the  warnu-r  re- 
■-•ions,  it  tends  to  be  larger  than  in  temperate 
'  iiuntrics,  as  raindrojjs  also  are  larger.  In 
all  |)laces  two  or  more  hailstoni's  can  uniti' .so 
as  to  make  an  irregularly  shapeil  mass  of 
ice,  whii'ii,  when  large,  becimies  formidable 
by  tlie  momentum  with  which  it  descends, 
llail  occasionally  falls  in  Kgyiit  <Lx.  ix.  '~2- 
','.">i  between  December  and  .\pril.  It  is  nwire 
freipient  in  Palestine  (,Iosli.  x.  11;  II;ig.  ii. 
17).  The  area  atlicted  by  a  hailstorm  is 
generally  a  bmg,  narrow  line,  so  that  of  two 


places  near  each  other,  one  may  he  in  and 
the  other  out  of  the  storm.  Thus  Goshen 
might  escajie  it,  whilst  the  adjacent  district 
of  Kgypl  to  the  westward  might  be  in  its 
track  and  snd'er  severely  (Kx.  ix.  2(i) ;  and  a 
pursuing  army  might  be  untouched  by  the 
storm,  and  yet  see  their  lleeing  foes  beaten 
down  by  the  falling  stones  (Josh.  x.  11). 

Hair. 

The  natural  covering  and  onuinient  of  the 
head.  In  Egypt  men  ordinarily  shaved  the 
head,  but  when  nniurning  let  the  hair  grow 
(Herod,  ii.  ;{(!;  iii.  PJ).  The  Assyrians  wore 
it  b.ng  (i.  I!).")),  falling  to  the  .shoulders.  The 
Israelites  also  wore  it  tolerably  long;  but  cut 
it  to  jirevent  its  reaching  an  extreme  length 
(ep.  Num.  vi.  5:  2  Sam.  xiv,  26;  .Xntiij.  xiv. 
i),  4),  and  the  services  of  the  liarber  were 
sometimes  employed  I  Ezek.  v.  1).  Hebrew 
womi'u  wore  the  hair  long  (Song.  vii.  ."> ; 
Kev.  ix.  H;  c}).  1  Cor.  xi.  1.^).  binding  it  up 
or  braiding  it  (Judith  x.  3;  xvi.  S;  1  Tim. 
ii.  9  ;  1  Pet.  iii.  3).  Oil  was  used  for  the  hair 
by  both  men  and  women  (Ps.  xxiii.  5;  Mat. 
vi.  17).  Her()d  the  (Ireat,  in  order  to  con- 
ceal his  age,  dyed  his  hair  black  (.\nti(j.  xvi. 
H,  1).  The  jiriests  were  forbidden  to  make 
any  baldness  upon  the  head  (Lev.  xxi.  '■>), 
and  none  of  the  Israelites  was  allowed  to 
make  a  baldness  between  the  eyes  for  the 
dead  (Dent.  xiv.  1);  for  it  was  a  ilisfigure- 
ment  of  the  body  which  God  had  created. 
The  captive  woman  whf)  was  chosen  by  a 
Hebrew  for  his  wife,  ami  the  leiur  in  the 
day  of  his  cleansing  were  re(|uire(l  to  shave 
the  head  for  purposes  of  i)Urilication  (Lev. 
xiv.  8,  9;  Dent.  xxi.  12).  The  Nazirite  also, 
when  the  time  of  his  service  was  ended, 
shaved  his  head  as  a  sign  of  the  fulfillment 
of  his  vow  (Num.  vi.  18).     See  Bkakd. 

Hak'ka-tan  [the  snuill  or  the  younger]. 
Father  of  a  certain  Jidianan  (Kzra  viii.  12). 

Hak'koz,  in  A.  V.  sometimes  Koz,  once 
Coz,  the  liist  syllalile  being  omitti'd  since  it 
is  the  ilelinite  article  [the  thorn]. 

1.  A  descendant  of  Aanm.  His  family 
had  grown  to  a  father's  hou.se  in  the  time  of 
David  and  was  made  the  seventh  of  the 
twenty-four  courses  into  which  David  dis- 
tributed the  priests  (1  Chron.  xxiv.  1.  (i,  10). 
Perhajps  it  was  mend)ers  of  this  family  wln> 
returned  from  Babylon  with  Zernbbabel,  but. 
failing  to  lind  their  register  and  establish 
their  genealogy,  were  put  from  the  luiest- 
hood  (Ezra  ii.  (il,  (12  ;  Neh.  vii.  (13.  HI).  They 
ai>i>ear  to  have  eventually  succeeded,  how- 
ever, in  establishing  their  right  to  the  ollice 
(Neh.  iii.  21  :  ci>.  Kzra  viii.  33). 

2.  A  man  of  Judah  (1  Chron.  iv.  8). 

Ha-ku'pha  [bent,  bowed,  curved], 
KoniMb  r  of  a  family  of  Nethinim  (Ezra  ii. 

.M  ;    Neh.  vii.  .".3). 

Ha'lab. 

A  district  of  th<-  .Assyrian  emiiire.  to  which 
cajitives  from  the  ten   tribes  were  carried  (2 


Halak 


272 


Hamath 


Kin.  xvii.  6;  xviii.  11 ;  1  Chron.  v.  26).  Prob- 
ably the  district  known  later  as  Clialkitis,  iu 
Mesopotamia,  near  (iozan,  in  tlie  Ijasin  of  the 
Habor  and  the  Saokoras  (I'tdlem.  v.  is.  4). 
Those  who  identify  the  Habur  witli  ihi'  east- 
ern tributary  of  the  Tij^ris  l)i'arin{j  that  name 
are  apt,  however,  to  identify  Hahih  with  the 
province  of  Kalachene  (Strabo  xi.  8,  4 ; 
Ptolem.  vi.  1),  (in  the  eastern  side  of  the 
Ti;;ris  near  Adiabeiie,  north  of  Niueveh  ou 
the  biirders  of  Armenia. 

Ha'lak  [smooth,  bare]. 

A  moimtaiu  in  the  south  of  Palestine  ou 
tlie  way  to  mount  Seir  (Josh.  xi.  17  :  xii.  7). 
Its  identity  has  not  been  established. 

Hal'lLUl  [iierha])s,  ojieninK]. 

A  vilhige  iu  the  hill  country  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  58).  The  Arabs  still  call  the  vil- 
lage Hullml  or  Halhtil.  It  is  3J  miles  north 
of  Hel)rou.  It  is  a  place  of  pilgrimage,  being 
regarded  as  the  birthplace  of  the  prophet  Gad, 

Ha'li  [necklace,  collar]. 

A  village  ou  the  boundary  line  of  Asher 
(Josh.  xix.  2.")).  Gueriu  suggests  Khurbet 
'Alia,  1.3  miles  northeast  of  Acre. 

Hal-i-car-nas'sus. 

A  city  of  Caria,  renowned  as  being  the 
birthplace  of  Herodotus  and  as  containing 
the  mausoleum  erected  by  Artemisia,  which 
was  reckoned  one  of  the  seven  wonders  of 
the  world.  Alexander  cai)tured  and  almost 
totally  destroyed  the  city  iu  3.34  B.  c.  It 
continued  to  exist,  but  did  not  thrive.  It 
contained  a  colony  of  Jews  (1  Mac.  xv.  23; 
Antiq.  xiv.  10,  23). 

Hall. 

A  building,  or  large  room  iu  a  building,  de- 
voted to  pul)lic  use.     In  A.  V.  it  denotes 

1.  The  court  of  the  high  priest's  palace 
(Luke  xxii.  55;  in  the  R.  V.  court). 

2.  The  official  residence  of  the  provincial 
governor,  with  its  court  where  he  sat  iu 
judgment.  It  was  called  the  prsetorium 
(Mark  xv.  16 ;  also  Mat.  xxvii.  27 ;  John 
xviii.  28,  33;  xix.  9;  Acts  xxiii.  35,  where 
R.  V.  has  palace  or  prsetorium).     See   Vrje- 

TORIUM. 

Hal-le-lu'jah,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Alleluia, 
in  imitation  of  the  Greek  modification 
[praise  ye  Jehovah]. 

A  compound  word  used  l)y  tlio  writers  of 
various  psalms  ti>  invite  all  to  join  them  in 
praising  Jehovah  (R.  V.  margin  of  Ps.  civ.  35 ; 
cv.  45 ;  cvi.  1,  48 ;  cxi.  1 ;  cxii.  1 ;  cxiii.  1, 9 ;  ex  v. 
18  ;  cxvi.  19  ;  cxvii.  2  ;  cxxxv.  1,  21  ;  first  and 
last  vers,  of  cxlvi.-cl. ;  cp.  A.  V.  margin  also). 
From  these  psalms  Job.n  borrowed  the  term 
Alleluia  (Rev.  xix.  1,  3,  4,  (>). 

Hal-lo'hesh,  in  A.  V.  once  Halohesh  [the 
encli;inter,  the  wizard]. 

Father  of  a  certain  Shallum  (Xeh.  iii.  12). 
With  Nehemiah  he  or  the  rc])reseutative  of 
his  family  sealed  the  covenant  to  wor.sliip 
Jehovah  ("x.  24). 

Ham,  I.   [meaning  uncertain  ;  if  Semitic, 


l)ossil)ly  dark-skinned  or,  perhaps  better, 
hot]. 

The  youngest  son  of  Noah,  Ijorn  after  the 
latter's  five  liundredth  year  ((ieu.  v.  32: 
vi.  10  ;  ix.  24).  At  tlie  time  of  the  deluge  he 
was  married,  but  apparently  had  no  children 
(Gen.  vii.  7;  1  Pet.  iii.  20).  '  After  that  eveut 
lie  behaved  undutifnlly  on  occasion  of  his 
father's  druiikeiiiie>s.  and  incurred  a  curse  to 
descend  upon  such  of  his  posterity  as  exhib- 
ited like  degraded  character  (Gen.  ix.  2'2-27). 
The  jieoples  of  southern  Arabia,  EthioiJia, 
Egyiit.  and  Canaan  were  largely  descended 
from  Ham.  and  in  part  were  made  his  sons 
by  connuest  and  annexation  (Gen.  .x.  6-14). 

Ham,  II.  [Egyptian  kuiii.  black,  so  called 
from  the  color  of  the  alluvial  mud  of  the 
Nile]. 

Egypt.  Used  iu  the  Bible  only  in  i)oetrv 
(Ps.l'xxviii.  51 ;  cv.  23,  27  ;  cvi.  22). 

Ham,  III.  [meaning  unkuowu.  The  initial 
Hebrew  letter  is  difl'erent  from  that  in  I. 
and  II.]. 

A  place  between  Ashteroth-karnaim  iu 
Bashan  and  the  Moabite  country,  where 
Chedorlaomer  defeated  the  Zuzim  (Gen.  xiv. 
5  ;  cp.  Deut.  ii.  10).  The  order  of  enumera- 
tion makes  it  probable  that  Ham  was  north 
of  Kiriathaim  and  the  Arnon  ;  but  Schwartz, 
followed  by  Tri.stram,  would  identify  it  with 
the  ruin  called  Hanimat,  "Animah  or  Haniei- 
tat,  on  the  east  side  of  tlie  Roman  road.  3 
miles  north  of  Rab1)ath  Moal). 

Ha'man  [possibly,  overthrower  of  all]. 

A  high  official  at  the  court  of  the  Persian 
king  Ahasuerus.  He  was  the  sou  of  Ham- 
medatha  the  Agagite  (Esth.  iii.  1),  which, 
though  his  father  bore  a  Persian  name,  may 
mean  that  he  was  of  Amalekite  desccut  and 
of  the  royal  family  of  that  Arabian  tribe.  Ex- 
alted by  his  despotic  sovereign  to  high  rank, 
all  time-.servers  paid  him  ostentatious  rever- 
ence. Buton  account  of  his  unprincipled  char- 
acter, perhaps  also  for  other  reasons.  Mordeeai, 
Esther's  cousin,  deliberately  withlield  from 
him  all  courtesy.  Haman  planned  revenge, 
but  he  M'ent  beyond  even  the  ample  latitude 
allowed  to  vindictiveness  in  the  old  Asiatic 
eni])ires  when  he  plotted  the  destruction,  not 
of  Mordeeai  alone,  but  of  the  whole  national- 
ity to  which  he  belonged.  How  Esther, 
Itromjited  by  Mordeeai.  thwarted  his  nialig- 
naiit  endeavors,  and  brought  Hainan  to  the 
gallows  and  his  ten  sons  to  death,  is  told  in 
the  article  Esther. 

Ha'math,  in  A.  V.  once  Hemath  (Amos  vi. 
14)  and  once  AmatMs  (1  Mac.  xii.  25)  [fortifi- 
cation, citadel], 

1.  A  city  on  the  Oroiites,  north  of  Hermon 
(Josh.  xiii.  5),  about  Tin  miles  north  of  Da- 
mascus. It  was  an  early  .settlement  of  the 
Canaanites  ((4en.  x.  18).  Toi.  its  king,  con- 
gratulated David  ou  his  victory  over  Hadad- 
ezer.  their  common  enemy  (2  Sam.  viii,  9. 10; 
1  t'hron.  xviii  3.  9,  10).  "Soloinoii  took  Ha- 
math,  with  the  district  subject  to  it,  building 


Hamathites 


273 


Hamuel 


witliin  the  latter  store  cities  (2  (.'hroii.  viii. 
.'},  4).  It  soon,  liowever,  reverted  to  its  old 
inii:il)itaiits.  .(crolioaiii  II.,  kin;;  of  Israel, 
captiiri'd  Dainasiiis  and  llaniatii,  wliicii  stood 
in  close  rtdatiuns  to  .liidali,  and  kept  them 
tor  the  ten  triijcs  (vJ  Kin.  xiv.  26).  Ahout 
this  time  Amos  (vi.  2}  called  the  city  Hu- 
niath  the  great.  It  was  again  for  a  short 
time  free,  and  reiving  nium  Jiidaii  foi'  ai<l  ; 
lint  it  was  con(inered  iiy  the  Assyrians  (:.'  Kin. 
xviii.  34  ;  xi.x.  13).  Alter  the  caiitiire  of  Sa- 
maria hy  the  Assyrians,  it  joined  with  the 
reinnanr  of  the  inhabitants  of  that  cit\'  in 
revoli.  7",'li  li.  c  Hilt  the  iipri.-^ing  was  (|iiickly 
sni(|ires.sed  l)y  Sargon.  Colonists  from  Ila- 
math.  who  brought  with  them  Ashima.  their 
god,  were  i)laced  by  the  Assyrians  in  Sa- 
maria (~  Kin.  xvii.  '.^4,  3(1),  wiiilc  .some  of  the 
exiles  of  Israel  seem  to  liave  been  located  in 
Hamath  (Is.  xi.  11).  Afterwards  its  history 
becomes  merged  in  that  of  Syria,  and  it 
seems  to  have  become  s'.d)ordinate  to  Damas- 
cus (,ler.  xlix.  23).  l''/.ekiel  lu-ojihesied  that 
the  restored  huxl  of  Israel  sli<iuld  still  ex- 
tern! northward  to  Hamatli  (Ezek.  xlvii.  Ki, 
17,  "io;  xlviii.  1).  Hamath  was  known  as 
l^piphania  during  the  jieriod  of  Grecian  su- 
premacy  l.\nti(i.  i.  6,  2),  but  is  now  called 
llama  or  Ilamah. 

2.  The  district  ruled  by  the  city  (1  Mac. 
xii.  -J.j).  One  of  its  towns  was  Riblah  (2  Kin. 
xxiii.  33). 

The  entering  in  of  Ilamath,  that  is,  to  judge 
from  the  similar  piirase  elsewliere  ((tcu.  xiii. 
10),  the  neighliorhood  of  Ilamath,  was  re- 
garded as  the  northern  bctrderof  Israel  (Num. 
xiii.  '21 ;  xxxiv.  S  ;  1  Kin.  viii.  (io).  To  ])e()ple 
on  the  south  the  tt'rm  may  have  had  sjiecial 
meaning,  and  denoted  the  long  valley  of 
Cielesyria,  between  Lebaiuin  and  Anti-Leba- 
non, through  wliich  the  road  to  Hanialh  lay. 
Porter  considers  tliat  it  was  the  pass  between 
hebanon  ami  the  Xusairiyeh  mountains, 
about  (iO  miles  nortii  of  IJeirut,  connecting 
the  inland  region  of  Syria  with  tlie  coast  of 
the  Miditi  rranean. 

Ha'math-ites. 

The  i..<.|'le  of  Ilamath  (Gen.  x.  18). 

Ha-math-zo'bah. 

The  neighbor  kingdoms  of  Hamath  and 
Zobali,  or  some  small  i)lace  called  Hamath, 
belonging  to  the  Syrian  kingdom  Zobah.  It 
was  captured  l)y  Solomon  (2  C'hron.  viii.  3). 

Ham'math,  in  .\.  V.  once  HemathiK'hron. 

ii.  .■)."«i  [waruilh,  hot  sjirings]. 

1.  A  f.iieed  city  of  Naphtali  (.losh.  xix. 
3.")|.  I'roliably  luie  with  llammoth-dor  and 
Hammon.  which  was  assigned  to  the  Levites 
(xxi.  32  ;  1  ("hmn.  vi.  7<i).  and  to  be  identifu'd 
wilii  i'mmaus.  a  \illage  witii  warm  liaths  at 
a  little  distance  from  Tiberias  (.\uti<|.  xviii. 
2.3;  War  iv.  1,3).  It  is  now  called  Hnm- 
iiiam  Ilirahim  Hasha,  and  is  on  the  western 
shore  <if  the  sea  of  (iaiilee,  about  H  miles 
.south  of  Tiberias.  The  water  is  sulphurous 
and  nu'diciual. 
18 


2.  The  founder  of  the  house  of  Recbab,  a 
family  of  the  Kenites  (1  C'hron,  ii.  55).  The 
A.  \'.  has  here  Henuith. 

Ham-med'a-tha. 

An  .Vga^iie.  father  of  Haman  (Esth.  iii.  1). 

Ham'me-lech  [the  king]. 

lather  of  .Jerahmeel  (.ler.  xxxvi.  2(j.  A.  V. 
and  margin  of  li.  V.).  The  word  suggests, 
however,  that  Jerahmeel  was  of  royal  Itlood, 

son  of  the  king  (K.  V.). 

Ham'mer. 

A  tool,  called  in  Hebrew  Pnttish,  and  used 
for  smoothing  metals  and  for  breaking  rocks 
(Is.  xli.  7;  Jer.  xxiii.  29).  It  serves  as  a 
figure  for  any  crushing  jiower.  Babylon  was 
the  hammer  of  the  whole  earth  (.ler.  I.  23). 
God's  word  is  like  a  hauimer  that  breaketh 
the  rock  in  jiieces  (xxiii.  29).  Other  names 
for  an  implement  of  the  same  class  are  m(tk- 
kiilxih  and  vudkehcth,  used  for  driving  the 
tent  jiin  (Judg.  iv.  21).  in  buildiuL' ojierations 
(1  Kin.  vi.  7),  and  in  tlie  manufacture  of  idols 
(Ls.  xliv.  12:  Jer.  x.  4). 

Ham-mipli'kad.     See  MirnK.\u. 

Ham-more-keth  [the  (lueen]. 

A  Manassite,  sister  of  (lilcad  (1  Chron.  vii. 
18).     Several  tribal  families  sprang  from  her. 

Ham'mon  [warm,  sunny]. 

1.  .\  frontier  village  of  Asher  (.Tosh.  xix. 
28).  Perhaps  Id  miles  south  of  Tyre  and 
about  a  mile  from  the  beach,  at  'Ain  Hamul, 
jf  of  a  mile  from  Umm  el-'Annnl,  where,  as 
Renan  has  shown,  Baal  Hammon  was  wor- 
shiped. 

2.  A  town  of  Xaphtali.     See  H.\MM.\th. 

Ham 'moth-dor  [warm  springs  of  Dor].  See 

HAMM  A'lll. 

Ham-mu'el,  in  A.  V.  Hamuel  [warmth  of 

(iod]. 

A  Simeonite,  son  of  Mishnia,  probably  of 
the  family  of  Shaul  (1  Chron.  iv.  26). 

Ham-o'nali  [abundance,  multitude]. 

The  name  to  be  given  to  the  city  near 
which  (iog  is  to  be  defeated  (Ezek.  xxxix. 
Ki).     Situation  unknown. 

Ha'mon-gog  [multitude  of  Gog]. 

.\  name  to  be  given  to  a  certain  valley 
where  the  hosts  which  (tog  brings  with  liim 
shall  be  slain  and  buried  ( Ezek.  x.xxix.  11, 
15).     Situation  unknown. 

Ha'mor,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Emmor,  an  imi- 
tation of  the  Grei'k  [an  ass]. 

The  iirince  of  Sbechem  ((ien.  xxxiv.  2<> ; 
Josh.  xxiv.  32;  Judg.  ix.  28):  a  Hivite.  a 
branch  of  the  Amorites,  and  a  jirince  of  that 
tribe,  at  least,  in  central  Palestine  ((ien. 
xxxiv. 2:  xlviii. 22).  His  son  Slu'chem  ruined 
Dinah,  an<l  both  father  and  son  fell  victims 
to  the  vi?idictiveness  of  her  brothers  Simeon 
and  Eevi  i  xxxiv.  1   31 ). 

Ham'ran.     See  IIkmdax. 

Ha-mu'el.     See  Hammiki.. 


Hamnl 


274 


Hanes 


Ha'mul  [pitied,  spared]. 

Younger  son  of  Perez,  and  founder  of  a 
tribal  family  of  Judah  (Gen.  xlvi.  12;  Num. 
xxvi.  21  ;  1  Cliron.  ii.  5). 

Ha-mu'tal  [akin  to  dew,  refreshing  like 
dew]. 

Daughter  of  Jei'emiah  of  Libnah,  wife  of 
king  Josiah,  and  mother  of  the  kings  Je- 
hoabaz  and  Zedekiah  (2  Kin.  xsiii.  31 ;  xxiv. 
18;  Jer.  lii.  1). 

Han'a-mel,  in  A.  V.  Ha-nam'e-el  [per- 
hai)s,  (idd  hath  i)itii'd]. 

Son  of  Sliallum,  and  cousin  of  the  prophet 
Jeremiah  (Jer.  xxxii.  7-15). 

Ha'nan  [gracious,  merciful]. 

1.  One  of  David's  mighty  men  (1  Chron. 
xi.  43). 

2.  A  Benjamite,  son  of  Shashak  (1  Chron. 
viii.  23). 

3.  A  sun  of  Azel,  a  descendant  of  Jonathan 
(1  Chron.  viii.  38;  ix.  44). 

4.  A  prophet,  son  of  Igdaliah.  His  sons 
had  a  chamber  in  the  temple  (Jer.  xxxv.  4). 

5.  Founder  of  a  family  of  Xethiuim,  mem- 
bers of  which  returned  from  Babylon  with 
Zerubbabel  (Ezra  ii.  46;  Neb.  vii.  49). 

6.  A  man,  proliably  a  Levite,  whom  Ezra 
employed  with  others  to  make  the  people 
understand  the  law  (Neb.  viii.  7).  He  seems 
to  have  sealed  the  covenant  (x.  10). 

7  and  8.  Two  chiefs  of  the  people,  who  also 
sealed  the  covenant  (22,  26). 

9.  A  son  of  Zaccur,  appointed  assistant 
treasurer  by  Nehemiah  (Neb.  xiii.  13). 

Han'a-nel,  in  A.  V.  Ha-nan'e-el  [God 
hath  been  gracious]. 

A  tower  at  Jerusalem  (Jer.  xxxi.  38  ;  Zech. 
xiv.  10),  near  the  sheep-gate  and  the  tower 
of  Meah  (Xeh.  iii.  1 ;  xii.  39) ;  see  Jerusa- 
lem, II.  3. 

Ha-na'nl  [gracious] . 

1.  A  son  of  Heman  and  head  of  the  eight- 
eenth of  the  twenty -four  courses  of  musi- 
cians apjiointed  by  David  for  the  sanctuary 
(1  Chron.  xxv.  4,  25). 

2.  Father  of  the  prophet  Jehu  (1  Kin.  xvi. 
1)  and  himself  a  seer.  He  rebuked  king 
Asii,  and  was  by  his  orders  committed  to 
prison  (2  Chron.  xvi.  7). 

3.  A  brother  of  Nehemiah  who  brought 
him  news  regarding  Jerusalem  (Neh.  i.  2). 
He  and  the  governor  of  the  castle  were  after- 
wards given  charge  of  the  city  (vii.  2). 

4.  A  priest,  son  of  Immer,  induced  by 
Ezra  to  put  awav  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x. 
20). 

5.  A  Levite  who  j)layed  an  instrument  at 
the  dedication  of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  by 
Nehemiah  (Neh.  xii.  36). 

Han-a-ni'ah  [Jehovah  hath  been  gra- 
cious]. 

1.  A  Benjamite.  son  of  Shashak  (1  Chron. 
viii.  24). 

2.  A  son  of  Heman  and  head  of  the  six- 
teenth of  the  twenty-four  courses  of  musi- 


cians formed  by  David  for  the  sanctuary  (1 
Chron.  xxv.  4,  23). 

3.  One  of  king  Uzziah's  captains  (2  Chron. 
xxvi.  11). 

4.  Father  of  Jeremiah's  contemporary,  the 
prince  Zedekiah  (Jer.  xxxvi.  12). 

5.  Son  of  Azzur  of  Gibcon.  In  the  fourth 
year  of  Zedekiah's  reign  he  projibesied  a  re- 
turn of  the  captives  after  two  years'  cajitiv- 
ity.  Jeremiah  had  given  forth  a  dill'erent 
prediction.  As  a  penalty,  the  false  proi)het 
was  doomed  to  death,  his  decease  occurring 
two  months  later  (Jer.  xxviii.  1-17). 

6.  (irandfather,  or  remoter  ancestor,  of 
Irijah,  the  captain  of  the  watch  who  arrested 
Jeremiah  on  the  charge  of  intending  to  desert 
to  the  Chaldeans  (Jer.  xxxvii.  13-15). 

7.  The  Hebrew  name  of  the  captive  called 
by  the  Chaldeans  Shadrach  (Dan.  i.  6,  7  ;  1 
Mac.  ii.  .59). 

8.  A  son  of  Zerubbabel,  and  father  of 
Pelatiah  and  Jeshaiah  (1  Chron.  iii.  19,  21)  ; 
perhaps  the  ancestor  of  Christ  called,  by 
transposition  of  the  constituent  parts  of  the 
name,  Joanan  (Luke  iii.  27.  K.  V.). 

9.  A  son  of  Bebai,  induced  by  Ezra  to  put 
away  bis  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  28). 

10.  An  apothecary  who  helped  to  rebuild 
the  wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  iii.  8). 

11.  A  priest  who  blew  a  trumpet  at  the 
dedication  of  the  wall  (Neh.  xii.  41). 

12.  A  chief  of  the  people,  who  with  Nehe- 
miah sealed  the  covenant  (Neh.  x.  23). 

13.  The  governor  of  the  castle  and  joint 
ruler  with  Hanani,  Nehemiah's  brother,  over 
Jerusalem  (Neh.  vii.  2). 

14.  A  priest,  head  of  the  father's  house  of 
Jeremiah,  in  the  days  of  the  high  priest  Joia- 
kim,  a  generation  after  the  exile  ( Neh.  xii.  12). 

Hand'breadth. 

The  breadth  of  the  hand,  a  palm  (Ex.  xxv. 
25) ;  see  Cubit.  It  is  used  by  the  psalmist 
iiguratively  of  human  life,  especially  when 
life  closes  ])reuiaturely  (Ps.  xxxix.  5). 

Hand'broad. 

Measuring  a  handbreadth  (Ezek.  xl.  43  ; 
in  R.  V.  handbreadth). 

Hand 'ker- chief. 

A  small  clotli  used  by  the  Romans  for  wip- 
ing the  hands  and  face.  The  Jews  adopted 
it  in  the  Roman  period.  They  bound  it 
about  the  head  of  their  dead  (John  xi.  44; 
XX.  7;  in  English  version,  napkin).  Once 
in  Ephcsus  handkerchiefs  were  carried  from 
the  body  of  the  ajxistle  Paul  untt)  the  sick, 
and  their  diseases  departed  (Acts  xix.  12). 
The  man  who  received  ojie  pound  from  his 
lord  hid  it  in  such  a  cloth  (Luke  xix.  20 ;  in 
English  version,  napkin). 

Ha'nes  [hieroglyiiliic,  Su-Chenen  orCheiieti- 
i'M  .•  Coptic.  linen], 

A  city  of  Egypt  (Is.  xxx.  4)  about  50  miles 
south  of  Memphis,  and  still  known  as  Ahnas. 
In  the  (ineco-Roman  period  it  was  known  as 
Heracleopolis  magna.  It  must  not  be  con- 
founded with  Tahpanhes. 


Hanging 


275 


Haran 


Hanging. 

A  lorin  of  jmnislmieut  in  which,  after  the 
criiiiinal  was  jmt  to  ilrath,  his  body  was  siis- 
peiidcd  from  a  tree  or  post.  It  was  in  vofiue 
in  I'-^fivpt  (<ien.  xi.  l!t.  '22).  among  tlu'  Israel- 
ites (Dcut.  xxi.  •22;  Josh.  s.  2(1 ;  2  Sam.  iv. 
I'J),  and  the  Persians  I  Herod,  iii.  I'i.'i ;  ix.  78). 
Tlie  hanjiing  intensilied  the  disgrace.  Among 
the  Israelites,  tlie  «devation  of  the  Ijody  on 
the  tree  was  a  call  to  (iod  to  witness  tliat  the 
guilty  one  had  paid  just  and  suHicient  pen- 
alty, and  was  a  testimony  of  (iod's  abhor- 
rence of  sin.  But  while  it  remained  exposed, 
it  i)roclaime(l  that  sin  had  been  committed  in 
Israel.  The  body  was  therefore  buried  out 
of  sight  at  niglitfall  (iJent.  xxi.  23;  Josh, 
viii.  29;  cp.  (ial.  iii.  l.'J).  Suicide  was  some- 
times committed  by  hanging  which  caused 
strangulation  (2  Sam.  xvii.  23;  Mat.  xxvii. 
5).     See  (}.\LLOWS. 

Han'i-el.    See  Hanxiei-. 

Han'nah  [grace,  compassion]. 

One  of  the  two  wives  of  Elkanali.  She 
was  her  husbands  favorite,  and  was  in  cou- 
secjuence  subjected  to  petty  annoyances  by 
the  rival  wife.  She  vowed  that  if  she  gave 
birth  to  a  man-child,  she  would  devote  him 
to  the  service  of  .Jehovah.  Her  wish  was 
gratilied;  she  Ijecame  the  mother  of  the 
prophet  Samuel,  and  carried  out  her  vow  (1 
Sam.  i.  1-28).  Her  song  of  triumph  is  highly 
poetic,  and  was  i)robably  in  the  mind  of  the 
Virgin  Mary  when  she  exjiressed  her  grati- 
tudi'  in  similar  poetic  strains  on  learning 
that  she  was  to  give  birth  to  the  Son  of  (.iod 
(ii.  1-1(1 ;   Luke  i.  2(j-.').">). 

Han'na-thon  [regarded  with  favor]. 

A  frontier  town  of  Zebulun  (Josh.  xix. 
ll!.  Conder  identilies  it  with  Kefr 'Anan,  11 
miles  N.  H.  by  N.  oft  he  ruins  RuTinnaneh,  that 
is.  Rimnioii  (13).  The  place  seems  too  remote. 

Han'ni-el,  in  A.  V.  Haniel  in  I  Chron.  vii. 
39  [favor  or  grace  of  (iod]. 

1.  Prince  of  the  Manassites  who,  when  the 
Israelites  were  about  to  enter  Canaan,  was 
appointed  on  the  committee  to  divide  the 
land  (Num.  xxxiv.  23). 

2.  An  Asherite,  son  of  Ulla  (1  Chron.  vii. 
39). 

Ha'nocli,  in  A.  V.  once  Henoch  il  Chron. 
i.  .'5.3)  [initiated,  dedicated].  Kxactly  the  same 
Hebrew  word  as  that  rendered  Enoch. 

1.  A  son  of  .Midian,  and  a  descendant  of 
Abraham  by  Keturah  ((Jen.  xxv.l;  1  Chron. 
i.  3.3).  The  name  is  perhaps  i)reserved  in 
I.Ianakuya.  a  ]ilace  three  days' journey  to  the 
north  of  Medina. 

2.  .\  son  of  Reuben,  and  founder  of  a  tri- 
bal family  ((ien.  xlvi.  9;  Ex.  vi.  11;  Num. 
XX vi.  .">:   1  Chron.  v.  3). 

Ha'nun  [enjoying  favor]. 

1.  .\  king  of  till'  .\nimonitcs,  son  and  suc- 
cessor of  David's  friend  Nahash.  'I'he  He- 
brew king  therefore  sent  to  condoU'  with 
him  on  his  father's  death,  and   congratulate 


him  on  his  own  accession.     Evil  counselors 

suggested  that  the  real  object  of  the  embas.sy 
was  to  si>y  out  the  .\mmonile  cajiital,  with 
the  view  of  afterwards  attemjiting  its(  ajiture. 
Ilanun,  therefore,  grossly  ill-treated  the  am- 
ba.ssadors.  shaving  olf  half  tliiir  beards  and 
cutting  olf  their  garments  in  the  middle. 
Knowing  that  the  outrage  would  be  resented, 
he  prepari'd  for  war.  He  obtained  the  Syr- 
ians as  his  allies,  but  was  defeated  (2  Sam.  x. 
1-xi.  1  ;  1  Chron.  xix.  1-xx.  3). 

2  and  3.  Two  Jews  who  repaired  itortions 
of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  under  Nehemiah 
(Neh.  iii.  13.  .'Ul). 

Haph-a-ra'im,  in  A.  V.  Haph'ra-im,  an 
error  from  which  the  original  edition  of  A. 
V.  was  free  |two  pits). 

A  frontier  town  of  Lssachar  (Josh.  xix.  19). 
Jerome  identified  it  with  Afarea,  (i  Roman 
miles  to  the  north  til'  Legio.  At  this  distance 
northwest  of  Lejjun  is  the  mined  site  of  Far- 
riyeh  ;  while  about  7  Roman  miles  east  north- 
east of  Lejjun  lies  the  village  el-'Afiile. 

Hap-piz'zez,  in  A.  V.  Aphses  [the  disper- 
sion]. 

A  descendant  of  Aaron.  His  family  be- 
came the  eighteenth  of  the  twenty-four 
courses  into  which  David  divided  the  priests 
(1  Chron.  xxiv.  l.')). 

Ha'ra  [mountainous  region]. 

A  ])lace  in  .\ssyria  to  which  captives  from 
the  ten  tribes  were  carried  (1  Chron.  v.  2()). 
Situation  unknown.  Some  believe  it  to  lie  a 
designation  of  Jledia,  namely  the  mountain, 
or  a  corru]>tion  of  "nuxintains"  of  ^ledia. 

Har'a-dah  [terror]. 

An  encatniiment  of  the  Israelites  in  the 
wilderness,  after  being  turned  back  from 
Kithmah  (Num.  xxxiii.  2-1).  Palmer  and 
Drake  identified  it  with  the  present  Jebel 
'Aradeh,  in  the  i)eninsula  of  Sinai,  about  40 
miles  southwest  of  Elath.  Hoth  etymology 
and  situation  are  against  the  identification. 

Ha'ran,  I.  [meaning  unknown]. 

1.  A  son  of  Terah,  and  brother  of  Abra- 
ham. He  died  early,  in  his  native  i)lace,  Ur 
of  the  Chaldees;  but  left  a  .son.  Lot,  and  two 
daughters,  Mihah  and  Iscali  (tien.  xi.  2f>). 

2.  A  (iershonite  Levite,  sou  ol'  Shimei  (1 
Chron.  xxiii.  9). 

Ha'ran,  II.,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.,  Chaxran 
[road,  business]. 

1.  A  city  of  Mesopotamia,  about  240  miles 
west  by  north  from  Nineveh  and  2S0  north- 
northeast  of  Damascus.  It  was  a  commer- 
cial center;  and.  like  I'r  cd"  the  Chaldees, 
hail  the  Tnoon-god  for  its  jiatron  deity.  Tenth 
and  .\braham  sojourned  in  it  for  a  time,  and 
Tei~.ih  died  there  (<'en.  xi.  31.:!2;  xii.  4,  .")). 
The  family  of  Nahor  .settled  there,  and  Jacob 
for  a  time  residi'd  there  (xxiv.  21  ;  xxviii. 
10:  xxix.  ;")).  The  .\ssyrians  hunted  in  its 
vicinity  as  larly  as  11(M»  n.  f. ;  and  they  long 
held  sway  over  it.  .\  capture  of  tlie  city  by 
them  is  mentioned   (2  Kin.   xix.   12).     The 


Hararite 


276 


Harodite 


Greeks  called  it  Karrhai,  and  the  Romans 
Carrffi.  In  r>'i  B.  c.  the  Roman  triumvir 
Crassus,  the  colleague  of  Ponipey  and  of 
Julius  CiEsar,  allowed  himself  to  he  out- 
maneuvered  and  defeated  near  llaran  ))y  the 
Parthian  general  Surona,  hy  whose  repre- 
seutatives  he  was  soon  afterwards  l)arharously 
slain.  It  is  now  a  small  Arab  village,  still 
retaining  the  name  of  Harrau,  situated  in 
upper  Mesopotamia,  on  the  Belik,  a  tribu- 
tary of  the  Eujihrates,  about  240  miles  west 
by  nortli  from  Nineveh  and  82  east  from  the 
gulf  of  ScandcTooii. 

2.  Sou  of  Caleb  and  Ephah,  of  the  family 
of  llezron  (1  Chron.  ii.  4(5). 

Ha'ra-rite  [inhabitant  of  a  mountain]. 

Possibly  it  means  a  mountaineer,  one  from 
the  hill  countrj'  of  Judah  or  Ephraim  (Si- 
monis,  Gesenius,  Siegfried-Stade).  But  this 
designation  seems  too  general.  Probably,  to 
judge  from  the  context  of  2  Sam.  xxiii.  33, 
it  means  an  inhabitant  of  a  hamlet  called 
Harar,  mountain,  from  its  location  on  some 
peak,  like  Gibeah,  hill,  and  its  inhabitants 
Gibeathites  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  11 ;  1  Chron.  xi. 
34,  35). 

Har-bo'na  and  Harbonah  [Persian,  per- 
haps ass-driver]. 

A  chamberlain  of  Ahasuerus  (Esth.  i.  10; 
vii.  9). 

Hare. 

An  animal,  in  Hebrew  'Arnebeth,  said  to 
chew  the  cud,  but  not  to  part  the  hoof,  and 
therefore  unclean  (Lev.  xi.  6 ;  Deut.  xiv.  7). 
The  ojtiniou  of  the  Hebrews  that  the  animal 
chewed  the  cud  w'as  founded  on  a  peculiar 
movement  of  its  mouth.  Physiologically, 
however,  it  is  not  a  ruminating  animal,  but 
a  rodent,  and  is  so  arranged  by  modern  nat- 
uralists. The  common  hare  of  Palestine 
(Lepiis  .sy/)-?(iCK.s)  is  two  inches  shorter  than  the 
European  hare(L.  eiirop:ens),  and  has  slightly 
shorter  ears.  It  frequents  wooded  and  culti- 
vated places.  The  common  hare  of  southern 
Judaea  and  the  Jordan  valley  (L.  jiulese  of 
Gray)  has  very  long  ears  and  light  tawny  fur. 
Tristram  enumerates  three  other  species  of 
the  southern  frontier :  L.  negi/pt incus,  the 
Egyptian  hare,  in  the  southeastern  part  of 
Judfea ;  L.  imbillinafi,  in  the  sandy  deserts  of 
southeastern  Palestine  ;  and  L.  siuaiticus,  with 
fur  of  a  reddish  hue. 

Ha'rel  [the  mount  of  God]. 

A  ])ortii)n  of  the  altar  described  by  Eze- 
kiel  (xliii.  l.">).  In  the  text  of  the  A.  V.  it  is 
rendered  altar,  and  in  that  of  the  R.  V.  upper 
altar. 

Ha'reph  [picking,  jilucking  off]. 

A  sun  (if  ( 'alcb,  and  ancestor  of  the  inhabi- 
tants I  if  Hfth-gader  (1  Chron.  ii.  51). 

Ha'reth.     See  Heketh. 

Har-ha'iah. 

Father  of  the  goldsmith  Uzzicl  (Nell.  iii.  8). 

Har'has. 

An  ancestor  of  Shallum,  husband  of  Hul- 


dah  the  prophetess  (2  Kin.  xxii.  14).  Called 
Hasrah  in  2  Chron.  xxxiv.  22.  The  two 
names  dillt'r  in  lietirew  in  the  .second  H,  and 
not  merely  in  transjiosition  of  letters. 

Har'hur  [iuflannnation,  fever]. 

The  founder  of  a  family  of  Nethinim, 
some  of  wliom  returned  from  Babylon  with 
Zerubbabel  (Ezra  ii.  51 ;  Neh.  vii.  53). 

Ha'rim  [llat-nosed,  snub-nosed,  or  conse- 
crated]. 

1.  A  descendant  of  Aaron.  His  family 
had  grown  to  a  father's  house  in  the  time  of 
David  and  constituted  the  third  course  when 
David  distributed  the  priests  into  divisions 
(1  Chron.  xxiv.  1,  <j,  ^).  Probably  they  were 
members  of  this  family  who  returned  from 
Babylon  (Ezra  ii.  39  ;  Neh.  vii.  42).  A  father's 
hou.se  among  the  priests  in  the  next  genera- 
tion after  the  exile  bore  this  name  (Neh.  xii. 
15) ;  see  Rehum.  At  a  later  period  some  of 
this  family  were  among  those  who  had  mar- 
ried foreign  wives  (Ezra  x.  21).  And  later 
still  a  priest  of  this  name,  doubtless  head  of 
a  father's  house,  signed  the  covenant  to  ob- 
serve the  law  of  God  and  to  endeavor  to  pre- 
vent intermarriages  with  foreigners  (Neh.  x. 
5). 

2.  Founder  of  a  non-priestly  family,  mem- 
bers of  which  returned  from  Babvlon  with 
Zerubbabel  (Ezra  ii.  32 ;  x.  31 ;  Neh.  iii.  11 ; 
vii.  35). 

Ha'ripli  [autumnal  rain]. 

Founder  of  a  family,  members  of  which 
returned  from  Babylon  with  Zerubbabel 
(Neh.  vii.  24).  A  prince  of  this  name 
sealed  the  covenant,  doubtless  as  representa- 
tive of  the  family  (x.  19).  The  same  as 
Jo  rah  (Ezra  ii.  18),  which  also  means  au- 
tumnal rain. 

Harlot, 

A  prostitute  (Gen.  xxxviii.  15  ;  Lev.  xxi. 
7  ;  Deut.  xxiii.  18  ;  Josh.  ii.  1 ;  Judg.  xvi.  1). 
To  play  the  harlot  or  to  go  a  whoring  after, 
often  means,  in  scriptural  usage,  to  go  with 
or  after  a  jiaramour  ;  in  a  figurative  sense, 
to  depart  from  Jehovah  and  give  the  affec- 
tions and  worship  to  other  gods  (Jer.  ii.  20  ; 
iii.  1  :   Ezek.  xvi.  15,  16;  xxiii.  5). 

Har-Mag'e-don.    See  Aem.^^geddon. 

Har'ne-pher  [perhaps,  panting]. 

An  Asherite,  son  of  Zophah  (1  Chron.  vii. 
36). 

Ha'rod  [fear,  terror]. 

A  well  near  which  Gideon  pitched  while 
his  adversaries,  the  Jlidianites.  were  bv  the 
hill  of  Moivh,  in  the  valley  (Jiulg.  vi'i.  1). 
It  is  commonly,  but  without  certainty,  iden- 
tified with  the  fountain  of  .Jalud,  on  the 
northwestern  side  of  mount  Gil  boa,  about  a 
mile  east  l)y  south  of  Jezreel.  A  village  ap- 
pears to  have  stood  in  the  vicinity  (2  Sam. 
xxiii.  25). 

Ha'rod-ite. 

An  inhabitant  of  the  town  of  Harod  (2 
Sam.  xxiii.  25). 


Haroeh 


277 


Harvest 


Har'o-eh.     See  Reaiah. 

Ha'ro-rite. 

IJatlur  Ilardditf  (q.  v.),  as  there  is  reason 
to  nail  this  word  (1  Chron.  xi.  27;  cp.  2  Sam. 
xxiii.  'S>). 

Ha-ro'sheth  [carving,  artificers'  work  in 
\v(n)(l  or  sloiic]. 

A  town  more  fully  called  Harosheth  of  the 
frentiles  or  nations.  Sisera  had  his  residence 
tliere  (Judg.  iv.  2,  13,  1(»).  Formerly  the 
silc  was  s(jufrht  somewhere  west  of  tlic  waters 
of  Mcrom.  and  not  far  from  the  iiorliicrn 
lla/.or.  Now  it  is  more  commonly  located  at 
el-llarathiyeh,  a  small  village  on  the  north- 
ern i)ank  of  the  Kishon,  at  the  ]><tint  where 
the  stream,  hidden  among  oleander  hushes, 
jiasses  through  a  narrow  gorge  to  enter  the 
]ilain  of  Acre.  Thomson  states  that  he  has 
no  doulit  as  to  its  identitication. 

Harp. 

Kendering  of  the  Hebrew  word  Kinuor, 
emitter  of  a  tremulous  sound  ;  and  in  the  X. 
T.  of  the  (Jreek  word  Kitluini.  lyre,  lute.  It 
was  a  stringed  musical  instrument  of  the 
har|>  kind,  small  enough  to  he  carried  about 
(Is.  xxiii.  l()),aiid  was  i)layed  with  the  lingers 
(1  S;im.  xvi.  23)  or  with  a  i)lectruni  (Anti<i. 
vii.  12,  3).     It  was  played  by  .Tubal,  an  ante- 


diluvian, of  tlie  race  of  Cain  (Gen.  iv.  21), 
was  known  to  Laban  (xxxi.  27),  was  the  in- 
>lrument  with  which  David  soothed  Saul 
during  his  lits  of  melancholy  madness  (1 
.*>jim.  xvi.  l(i).  The  jirophetsand  others  used  it 
for  sured  purposes  (1  Sam.  x.  ."> ;  I's.  xliii.  1  ; 
xlix.  l),an(l  it  wasjdayed  in  the  temi)le orches- 
tra ( 1  (limn.  XXV.  1,  3) ;  see  Jlrsir.  It  wasem- 
jiloyed  also  in  festive  entertainments  (.lob 
xxi.  12|.  Kven  harlots  sometimes  carried  it 
about  with  them  (Is.  xxiii.  1."),  KJ).  It  was 
the  instrument  whicii  the  captive  .lews  hung 
on  the  Babylonian  willows  (Ps.  exxxvii.  2). 
Two  kinds  were  in  use  in  Egypt  ;  a  larger,  of 
the  height  of  a  man,  and  a  smaller,  wiiich 


was  easily  carried.  The  Hebrews  were  ac- 
quainted with  the  harp,  Imt  it  is  not  certain 
that  the  word  kinnor  really  means  liarp. 
The  Seventy  regarded  it  ratlier  as  a  lyre  or 
lute,  than  a  harp,  for  they  render  the  Hebrew 
word  by  hilhdni. 

Har'row. 

An  inqilement  of  agriculture,  consisting 
of  a  wooden  frame  armed  with  teeth  of  wood 
or  iron  (2  Sam.  xii.  31).  It  is  drawn  over 
plowed  land  to  level  it  and  break  the  clods 
preparatory  to  sowing  the  seed,  and  to  cover 
the  seed  when  sown.  It  cannot  be  shown, 
however,  that  the  Hebrew  word  in  2  S;im. 
xii.  31  denotes  such  an  instrument.  The 
Israelites  broke  the  clods  in  some  manner 
(Job  xxxix.  1(1:  Is.  xxviii.  21:  Hos.  x.  11), 
but  it  is  doubtful  whether  they  used  a  har- 
row. The  modern  inhabitants  of  Palestine 
sometimes  turn  in  the  cattle  for  this  purjiose. 

Har'sha  [artificer's  work,  enchantment]. 

Founder  of  a  family  of  Nethinim,  some 
of  whom  returned  from  Babylon  with 
Zerubbabel  (Ezra  ii.  52;  Neh.  vii.  54). 

Hart. 

A  stag,  or  male  deer,  five  years  old,  and 
which  has  developed  its  sur-royal  or  crown 
antler.  It  is  the  rendering  of  the  Hebrew 
'Ayi/(il,  deer,  a  wild,  clean  animal  (Dent.  xii. 
15;  xiv.  5;  1  Kin.  iv.  23;  Ps.  xlii.  1  ;  Song 
viii.  14).     See  Dker. 

Ha'rum  [exalted,  high]. 

A  man  of  Judah,  father  of  Aharhel  (1  Chron. 
iv.  8). 

Ha-ru'mapli  [flat  of  nose]. 

Father  of  a  certain  .ledaiah  (Neh.  iii.  10). 

Har'u-phite. 

The  designation  of  Shephatiah,  a  Benja- 
mile,  who  joined  David  at  Ziklag  (1  Chron. 
xii.  5).  The  Hebrew  traditional  reading  is 
Hariphite,  a  nieml)er  of  the  family  of  Hariph 
(cp.  Neh.  vii.  24-32,  where  Hariph  is  enume- 
rated with  lienjamites). 

Ha'ruz  [sedulous,  industrious]. 
Father-in-law   of  king   Mauasseh  (2  Kin. 
xxi.  1!»). 

Har'vest. 

The  jieriod  of  harvest  in  ancient  Palestine 
may  be  divided  into  two  jportions:  that  of 
barley  and  that  of  wheat  harvest,  the  former 
l)receding  the  latter  by  about  a  fortnight 
(Ruth  ii.  23).  Its  beginning  was  consei  r.ited 
l)y  the  bringing  of  the  sheaf  of  lii-stfruits 
(Lev.  xxiii.  l(t).  It  began  in  tin-  lowlands 
before  the  crops  were  ripe  on  the  hills.  In 
the  hot  .Ionian  valley  barley  harvest  com- 
menced in  .Vjiril,  when  the  .Jordan  was  full 
(.losh.  iii.  l.'>:  c|>.  v.  KD,  at  the  close  of  the 
rainy  season  (1  Sam.  xii.  17.  l":  Prov.  xxvi. 
1).  Wheat  harvest  lingered  in  the  uidands  to 
the  month  of  .Mine.  It  was  a  hot  time  of  the 
yeard'ntv.  xxv.  13:  Is.  xviii.  4  .  When  the 
harvest  was  completed,  and  the  ]>roduce  gath- 
ered in,  there  were  great  rejoicings  (Is.  ix.  3). 


Hasadiah 


278 


Hassenuah 


Harvest  in  Ancifiit  Ej-'yiit. 


The  feasts  of  unleavened  bread,  of  weeks  or 
harvest,  and  of  ingathering,  had  all  a  rela- 
tion to  the  .season  of  reaiting.     See  Year. 

Has-a-di'ah  [Jehovah  hath  shown  kind- 
ness] . 

A  son  of  Zerubbabel  (1  Chron.  iii.  20). 

Has-e-nu'ah.     Sec  Hassenuah. 

Hash-a-bi'ah  [Jehovah  hath  imputed  or 
devised]. 

1.  A  Merarite  Levite,  descended  through 
Amaziah,  and  an  ancestor  of  Jeduthun  (1 
Cliron.  vi.  45).  Perhaps  he  is  the  descendant 
of  Bunui  mentioned  as  ancestor  of  Shemaiah 
(ix.  14;  Neh.  xi.  15). 

2.  A  Merarite  Levite,  son  of  Jeduthun  and 
head  of  the  twelfth  company  of  musicians 
appointed  by  David  for  the  sanctuary  (1 
Chron.  xxv.  3,  19). 

3.  A  Kohatliite  Levite  of  the  family  of 
Hebron,  and  inspector  for  the  country  west 
of  Jordan  (1  Chron.  xxvi.  30;  cp.  xxiii.  12). 

4.  A  Levite.  sou  of  Kerauel,  prince  of  the 
tribe  of  Levi  in  David's  reign  (1  Chron. 
xxvii.  17). 

5.  A  chief  of  the  Levites  during  the  reign 
of  Josiah  (2  Chron.  xxxv.  9). 

6.  A  Merarite  Levite.  who  .joined  Ezra  at 
the  river  of  Aliava,  and  was  apparently  one 
of  the  twelve  wlio  were  entrusted  with  the 
treasure  whicli  was  being  conveyed  to  Jeru- 
salem (E/ra  viii.  19,  24).  Probably  it  was  he 
who  sealed  tlie  covenant  (Neh.  x.  11).  and 
who  was  a  chief  Levite  and  oue  of  the  tem- 
ple musicians  (Neh.  xii.  24). 

7.  The  ruler,  in  Nehemiah's  time,  of  half 
Keilah.  He  repaired  part  of  the  wall  of  Je- 
ru.saleni  (Neli.  iii.  17). 

8.  A  Levite,  descended  from  Asaph  (Neh. 
xi.  22). 

9.  A  priest,  head  of  the  father's  house  of 
Hilkiah,  in  tlie  time  of  Joiakim  the  high 
l)ri('st  (Neh.  xii.  21). 

Ha-shab'nah. 

One  of  those  who  with  Nehemiah  sealed 
the  covenant  (Neh.  x.  25). 
Hash-ab-ne'iah,  in  A.  V.  Hash-ab-ni'ah. 

1.  Father  of  a  certain  Hattusii  (Neh.  iii. 
10). 

2.  One  of  those  Levites  who  by  their  ex- 
hortations prepared  the  returned  exiles  for 


sealing  the  covenant  with  Jehovah  (Neh. 
ix.  5). 

Hash-bad'da-na,  in  A.  V.  Hash-bad'a-na. 

One  111'  those  who  stood  beside  E/.ra  when 
he  addiessed  the  returned  exiles  (Neh.  viii. 4), 

Ha'shem  [make  astonished  !  lay  waste !]. 

A  Cizonite,  mentioned  in  the  catalogue  of 
David's  mighty  men  (1  Chron.  xi.  34).  See 
Jasiiex. 

Hash-mo'nah  [place  of  fertility]. 

A  eaniiiing  ground  of  the  Israelites  in  the 
wilderness  (Num.  xxxiii.  29,  30).  Exact  sit- 
uation unknown. 

Ha'shub.     See  Ha.sshub. 

Ha-shu'bali  [esteemed,  purposed]. 

A  son  of  Zerubbabel  (1  Chron.  iii.  20). 

Ha'shum  [rich,  wealthy]. 

Founder  of  a  family,  members  of  which  re- 
turned from  Babylon  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra 
ii.  19;  X.  33;  Neh.  vii.  22).  The  representa- 
tive of  the  family,  or  a  person  of  this  name, 
supported  Ezra  while  the  latter  addressed  the 
peojde  (Neh.  viii.  4),  and  then  sealed  the  cov- 
enant (x.  l.S). 

Ha-shu'pha.     See  Hasupha. 

Ha-si-dse'ans,  in  A.  V.  Asideans  and  Assi- 
deans  [(ireek  'Asidaioi,  from  Het)re\v  n"sjdiiii, 
the  pious]. 

A  party  among  the  Jews  who  held  stren- 
uously to  the  old  faith  (1  Mac.  ii.  42).  They 
joined  Mattathias,  and  later  cooperated  with 
Judas  Maccabseus  in  most  of  his  plans  (ii. 
42 ;  2  Mac.  xiv.  (5),  although  contrary  to  his 
judgment  thev  sought  peace  from  the  Svriaus 
(1  Mac.  vii.  i:!). 

Has-mo-nse'an.     See  Asmon/t;an. 

Has'rah  [jierhaps.  want].     See  Harh.^s. 

Has-se-na'ah,  and  without  the  definite 
article  Senaah  [|ierhaps,  thorny]. 

The  sous  of  Hassenaah  rebuilt  the  fish- 
gate  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  iii.  3).  Of  the  chil- 
dren of  Senaah,  some  three  thousand  return- 
ed from  Babylon  with  Zeru))babel  ( F,/,ra  ii. 
35;  Nell.  vii.  3S).  Wlu'tlu'r  Senaaii  is  a  man 
or  a  town  is  uiu'ertain. 

Has-se-nu'ali,  in  A.  V.  Hasenuah,  and, 
without  the  article.  Senuali  []ierha])s.  thorny]. 

1.  A  Ben.jamite,  father  of  Hodaviah  (1 
Chron.  ix.  7). 


Hasshub 


279 


Hawoth-jair 


i>.   I'arcnt  (»f  u  certain  .Tiulah  (Xoli.  xi.  9). 

Has'shub,  in  A.  V.  of  NelR-niiah  Hashub 
[tlimiKlitful]. 

1.  A  scin  (if  I'alialh-nioal).  Ho  repaired 
part  of  tlu'  wall  of  .Icnisaleni  (Nell.  iii.  11). 

•J.  A  .lew  wiio  re]iaii-e(l  part  of  tlu;  wall  of 
.Tcrusalcni  opposite  to  jii.s  liouse  (Neli.  iii.  23). 
It  was  probably  either  he  or  No.  1  wlio  signed 
the  covenant  (x.  23). 

3.  A  Merarite  Levite.  father  of  Shemaiah 
(1  Chron.  ix.  14  ;  Neh.  xi.  15). 

Ha-su'pha,  in  A.  V.  once  Hasbupha  [made 
hare]. 

Foiimler  of  a  family  of  Nethiniin,  mem- 
bers of  which  returned  from  ca|)tivity  with 
Zeruhbabel  (Kzra  ii.  43;  Neh.  vii.  4()). 

Hat. 

The  renderinji  of  the  Aramaic  word  Kar- 
bfl,  binding,  wraj)  (Dan.  iii.  21  ;  in  R.  V., 
mantle).     See  CLOTHiN(i. 

Ha'tacb. 

A  chamberlain  of  king  .\hasuerus,  wlio  was 
api)ointed  to  attend  Esther  (Esth.  iv.  5,  10). 

Ha'tbatb  [terror]. 

A  son  of  Othniel  (1  Chron.  iv.  13). 

Hat'i-pba  [captive]. 

()ne  wiio  founded  a  family  of  Nethinim, 
members  of  which  returned  from  Babylon 
with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra  ii.  .^)4 ;  Neh.  vii.  56). 

Hat'i-ta  [entrravinji.  exi>Ioration]. 

.\  iiorter  who  founded  a  family.  nuMubers 
of  which  returned  fi'oni  IJabylon  with  Zeruh- 
babel (lOzra  ii.  42;  Neh.  vii.  45). 

Hat'til  [tottering,  vacillating]. 

<  Mie  of  Solomon's  servants,  wlio  founded  a 
family,  the  meliibers  of  which  returned  from 
Bab\  ion  with  Zeruhbabel  (Ezra  ii.  57 ;  Neh. 
vii.  hit  I. 

Hat'tusb  [congregated,  gathered  together]. 

1.  .\  man  of  Judah,  son  of  Shemaiah,  and 
family  of  Shecaniah  (1  Chron.  iii.  22). 

2.  A  chief  of  the  priests,  who  returned 
with    Zeruhbabel    from    Babylon    (Neh.    xii. 

3.  Head  t>f  a  father's  house,  of  the  sons  of 
David,  who  returned  with  Ezra  to  Jerusalem 
( Ezra  viii.  2). 

4.  .\  son  of  Hashabneiah.  He  re])aired  part 
of  the  wall  of  .leru.salem  (Neh.  iii.  10). 

5.  A  jiriest  who  with  Nehemiah  sealed  the 
covenant  (Neh.  x.  4). 

Hau'ran  [hollow  land,  so  called  because  a 
deiiressioii  or  because  of  the  multitude  of  its 
caverns]. 

A  region  south  of  Damascus  and  bordering 
(.n  (Jilead  (Ezek.  xlvii.  10,  18).  In  the 
Oreco-Roman  period  it  designated  a  smaller 
district.  It  was  then  known  as  Auraiiitis, 
and  was  one  of  four  ])rovinces,  having  Tiacb- 
onitis  on  the  north  and  (laiiloiiilis  and  aji- 
Jiarently  Hatanea  toward  the  nortliwist  (An- 
ti<i.  xvii.  11,  4;  xviii.  4,  (i;  War  i.  20,  4 ;  ii. 
<),  3;  17.4;  iii.  3.  5).  It  thus  probably  con- 
.sisted   of  the  plain  lying  between  (Jauloiiitis 


and  the  jiresent  Jebel  Hauran,  and  jierhaps 
included  the  latter.  About  the  year  23  b.  c. 
Auranitis  with  Trcichonitis  and  Batanea  was 
bestowed  on  Herod  the  (ireat  by  Aiigu.stus. 
When  Herod's  kingdom  was  divided,  these 
districts  constituted  the  major  i>art  of  l'liili]('s 
tetrarchy  (Luke  iii.  1  ;  Aiiti(|.  x  vii.  1 1,  4  I.  The 
surface  is  Hat,  bndien  only  by  a  few  volcanic 
mounds.  The  soil  is  .so  fertile  that  the  Hau- 
ran is  the  granary  for  the  whole  region  round. 
Many  towns  and  villages,  mostly  deserted, 
exist  within  its  limits,  .some  of  them  "the 
giant  citii's  of  Baslian,"  as  they  have  been 
called,  built  of  basalt,  with  doors  of  the  .same 
material. 

Hav'i-lab  [perhaps,  sandy]. 

A  district  of  Arabia,  jteopled  in  part  by  a 
body  of  Cushites  and  in  jiart  by  a  body  of 
Joktanites,  a  Semitic  people  ((ien.  x.  7.  2!t :  1 
Chron.  i.  9,  23).  The  association  of  Havilah 
with  Hazarmaveth  and  other  places  jtoints  to 
a  locality  in  central  or  southern  .\rabia.  To 
Havilah  belonged  the  river  I'isbon  ;  and  the 
region  was  rich  in  gold,  aromatic  gum.  and 
precious  stones  (Gen.  ii.  11,  12).  These  jiro- 
ductions  strongly  indicate  tiie  mtiuntainous 
district  to  the  north  of  Yemama  ;  and  in  this 
neighborhood  llavilaliis  best  sought.  How 
far  beyond  these  mountains  the  boundaries 
of  Havilah  extended  is  not  clear.  From  the 
record  of  Saul's  warfare  with  the  Amalekites 
it  may  bi'  inferred  that  the  Arabian  de.sert 
for  several  hundred  miles  north  of  the  moun- 
tains bore  the  name  Havilah  (ISam.  xv.  7; 
cp.  (ien.  x.xv.  18).  Migrations  of  the  jieople 
would  also  carry  the  name  to  distant  local- 
ities, as  perhaps  to  the  coast  of  Africa  near 
the  straits  of  Bab  el-.Mandeb.  where  a  gulf, 
Analites.  and  a  jieople,  Abalitai,  are  traceable. 

Hav-votb-ja'ir,  in  A.  V.Havotb-jair  [.lair's 
circuit  of  villages  or  of  nomad  eiicaminnents]. 

I'nwalled  towns  in  the  northwestern  jiart 
of  Bashan.  in  the  region  of  the  .\rgob.  where 
this  tract  approaches  the  country  of  the 
(ieshurites  and  Maacathites.  and  where  the 
boundaries  Ix'tween  the  rugged  land,  (lilead, 
and  the  open,  sandy  land.  Haslian,  insen- 
sibly merge  into  each  other  iDeiit.  iii.  4.  14i. 
They  were  cai)tured  liy  .Jair.  a  Mana.ssite. 
Their  number  was  !'al)le  to  fluctuation,  be- 
cause they  lay  in  a  debatabh-  land,  and  for 
other  reasons  (1  Chron.  ii.  23).  They  are  to 
be  carefully  distinguished  from  tlic  sixty 
walled  cities  in  the  heart  of  Ba.shan,  and 
likewise  in  the  .\rgoh  (Dent.  iii.  4,  5;  1  Kin. 
iv.  13).  .Since  the  lionndary  l>etween  (iih'ad 
and  Haslian  was  not  clearly  detined  liy  na- 
ture, it  never  was  conventionally,  and  jilaces 
on  this  undedned  border  are  referred  to  as  in 
(lilead  or  in  Bashan.  according  to  the  mo- 
mentary- ]ioint  of  view  of  the  narrator.  Tlie 
coni|iiesl  of  Haslian  t)y  the  Israeiit«'S  included 
the  caiiture  of  the  unwalled  towns  in  the 
Argob  on  this  invisible  border;  and  when 
tlieir  capture  by  .Tair  is  related  in  connection 
with   the   coiH|Uest   of  <  >g's  kingdom,    which 


Hawk 


280 


Hazeroth 


was  carried  on  from  Edrci  in  Bashan  as  the 
center,  tlie  llavvolh-Jair  are  described  as  in 
Bashan  (Dent.  iii.  11;  .lasli.  xiii.  ;5(l).  Wlien, 
however,  the  eastern  country  is  before  tlie 
mind  of  a  sojourner  in  the  valley  of  the  Jor- 
dan or  in  Canaan  west  of  tlie  river,  lie  nat- 
urally speaks  first  of  (Tilead,  and  sometimes 
even  uses  that  designation  broadly  for  the  en- 
tire highland  east  of  the  river,  or  he  may 
speak  of  a  conquest  of  Gilead  which  was  not 
narrowly  confined  to  tlie  distinctively  rugged 
land.  From  this  point  of  view,  he  is  apt  to 
refer  to  the  towns  on  the  undefined  border 
of  Gilead  and  Baslum  as  in  liilead  (1  Chron. 
ii.  21-23;  indefinitely,  Num.  xxxii.  40  seq. ; 
1  Kin.  iv.  13).  The  Ilavvoth-jair  were  .scat- 
tered over  this  iiulefiuite  tract  in  the  Argob  ; 
and  hence,  according  to  the  shifting  point  of 
view,  even  of  one  and  the  same  narrator,  are 
mentioned  as  in  Gilead  or  in  Bashan.  Some 
of  them  were  doubtless  more  evidently  in 
the  open  land,  while  others  were  more  clearly 
in  the  rugged  land. 

Hawk. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Nes,  flyer 
(Job  xxxix.  26'.  It  was  ceremonially  unclean 
(Lev.  xi.  16;  Deut.  xiv.  15),  and  included 
more  than  one  species  of  the  smaller  preda- 
tory birds  (ibid.).  It  comprehended  the  spar- 
row hawk  {Accipiter  nistix)  and  the  kestrel 
(Falco  thinunculus).  The  former  abounds  in 
Lebanon  and  the  hilly  parts  of  Galilee  in 
summer,  and  in  .Tuda»a  and  the  Arabah  in 
winter;  the  latter,  which  is  properly  a  fal- 
con instead  of  a  genuine  hawk,  is  abundant 
in  every  part  of  Palestine  throughout  the 
year. 

Haz'a-el  [God  hath  seen]. 

A  Syrian  courtier  wlumi  Elijah  was  directed 
by  Jehovah  to  anoint  king  over  Syria  (1  Kin. 
xix.  1.^,  17).  Some  years  later,  between  84.5 
and  843  B.  c,  Benhadad  II.,  who  then  reigned 
over  that  country,  with  Damascus  for  his  cap- 
ital, hearing  that  Elisha  was  in  the  city,  sent 
Hazael  to  ask  tlie  prophet  whether  he  should 
recover  of  a  serious  illness  from  which  he 
then  suffered.  Elisha  told  Hazael  that  his 
master  would  not  recover,  and  that  he  him- 
self would  be  king  of  Syria,  and  would  per- 
petrate great  cruelties  on  the  people  of  Israel. 
He  replied,  "  But  what  is  thy  servant,  who 
is  but  a  dog,  that  he  should  do  this  great 
thing?"  Then,  return inu  to  his  master,  he 
falsely  told  him  that  the  ]u-opliet  foretold  his 
recovery,  and  next  day  assassinated  him  and 
reigned  in  his  stead  (2  Kin.  viii.  7-15,  R.  V.). 
In  842  the  Assyrian  king  Shalmaneser  war- 
red against  Hazael  and  exacted  tribute.  In 
8311  ShalmaiU'ser  again  warred  with  him. 
Toward  the  close  of  Jehu's  reign  over  Israel, 
about  820,  Hazael  smote  the  country  of  the 
Hebrews  east  of  the  Jordan  (x.  .32)  ;  and  in 
the  succeeding  rei^Mi,  crossing  the  river,  he 
mightily  ojnircssed  the  Israelites  (xiii.  4-7), 
invaded  the  country  of  tin;  Philistines,  took 
Gath,  and  was  only  deterred  from  attacking 


Jerusalem  by  a  rich  present  consisting  nf  the 
dedicated  treasures  of  the  temple  (xii.  17,  IN). 
He  died  shortly  after.  Tlie  house  of  Hazael 
(Amos  i.  1)  is  Damascus. 

Ha-za'iah  [Jehovah  hath  seen]. 

A  man  of  Judah,  familj-  of  Shelah  (Neh. 
xi.  5). 

Ha-zar-ad'dar.     See  Addak. 

Ha-zar-e'nan  and  Hazar-enon  [village  of 
fountains]. 

A  village  on  the  northern  boundary  of 
Palestine,  near  Damascus  (Num.  xxxiv.  9; 
Ezek.  xlvii.  17  ;  xlviii.  1).  Exact  site  un- 
known. 

Ha-zar-gad'dah  [village  of  good  fortune]. 

A  town  in  the  extreme  south  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  27).     Exact  site  unknown. 

Ha-zar-hat'ti-con.  See  Hazek-h.\tticox. 

Ha-zar-ma'vetli  [village  of  death]. 

A  body  of  Joktanites  who  peopled  a  dis- 
trict in  Arabia  (Gen.  x.  2fJ ;  1  L'hron.  i.  20). 
A  region  in  Arabia  Felix,  in  the  south  of  tlie 
peninsula,  is  still  called  by  the  Aral)s  Ha- 
dramaut,  which  corresponds  etymologically 
to  Hazarinaveth.  The  place  is  mentioned  in 
the  inscriptions  of  the  ancient  Sabseaus,  the 
people  of  Sheba.- 

Ha-zar-shu'al  [fox  village]. 

A  town  in  the  extreme  south  of  Judah,  as- 
signed to  the  Sinieonites  (Josh.  xv.  28;  xix. 
3;  1  Chron.  iv.  28).  It  was  occupied  after 
the  captivity  (Neh.  xi.  27).  Perhai)s  the  ruin 
eth-Tha'li,  a  word  equivalent  to  Sliual. 

Ha-zar-su'sali,  in  plural  Hazar-susim  [vil- 
lage of  a  mare  or  mares]. 

A  village  belonging  to  the  SiiiUH)iiitcs  (Josh. 
xix.  5  :  1  Chron.  iv.  31).  Tristram  i>laces  it  at 
the  ruin  Susin,  10  miles  south  of  Gaza,  on 
the  caravan  route  to  Egypt.  Perhaps  it  is 
Siisiyeh.  2  miles  east  by  north  of  Semua. 

Haz-a-zon-ta'mar,  in  A.  V.  once  Hazezon- 
tamar  ((ien.  xiv.  7).     See  En-gedi. 

Ha'zel. 

The  rendering  in  Gen.  xxx.  37,  A.  Y.  of  the 
Hebrew  Lii::,  which  is  almost  certainly,  as  the 
Iv.  V.  makes  it,  the  almond  tree. 

Haz-e-lel-po'ni.     See  Hazzelelpoxi. 

Ha-zer-hat'ti-con,  in  A.  V.  Hazar-hatti- 
con  [the  middle  Hazer  or  village]. 

A  town  on  the  border  of  the  Hauran  (Ezek. 
xlvii.  1(5).     Exact  site  unknown. 

Ha-ze'rim  [villages]. 

Hal)itations  of  the  Avvim  (Deut.  ii.  23); 
in  the  K.  V.  i>roperly  translated  by  villages. 

Ha-ze'roth  [encampments]. 

An  encamping  ground  of  the  Israelites 
in  the  wilderness  beyond  Kibroth-hattaavah 
(Num.  xi.  .35)  and  on  this  side  of  Paran  (xii. 
IC;  xxxiii.  17:  Deut.  i.  1).  It  was  there  that 
Miriam  and  Aaron  murmured  against  Moses 
(Num.  xi.  35-xii.  16).  'Ain  el-Hudera,  about 
36  miles  northeast  of  mount  Sinai,  was  sug- 
gested by  Burckhardt,  and  adopted  by  Kobin- 


Hazezon-tamar 


281 


Heaven 


son  and  others,  as  the  site.  The  identifita- 
tion  rests,  however,  solely  on  the  similarity 
of  tlie  iiaiiii',  ami  is  imeertaiii.  Palmer  CoiiikI 
at  the  spot  many  stone  eireles,  wliieh  e\i- 
(lently  marked  the  site  of  an  emamiimeiit 
fiirmed  by  a  pastoral  people. 

Haz-e-zon-ta'mar.   See  IIazazon-t.vm.vk. 

Ha'zi-el  [vision  of  tJod]. 

A  Gershonite  Levile,  sou  of  .Shiuiei  (I  Chruu. 
.\siii.  9). 

Ha'zo  [jierhajis.  vision], 

A  son  of  Nalior  and  Mileah  (Gen.  xxii.  2'2). 
The  name  is  jirohahly  preserved  in  the  hilly 
refiion  llazii.  whieh  Ksarhaddou  traversed, 
not  remote  from  the  Hauran. 

Ha'zor  [an  enelosure]. 

1.  The  capital  of  the  Canaanitc  kinj;doin 
in  the  north  of  Palestine,  ruled  over  in 
,)o>luia's  time  hy  .laliin,  Aceordiuf;  to  Jo- 
sepluis,  it  was  situated  above  the  waters  of 
Merom  (Anticj.  v.  5,  1).  The  town  was  taken 
by  .losliua  and  burnt  (Josh.  xi.  1-Ki:  xii.  lit). 
It  was  rebuilt,  and  was  assigned  to  the  tribe 
uf  Naphtali  l.Iosh.  xix.  :5(i).  In  the  days  of 
Deborah  and  Barak  it  was  ruled  by  another 
king  Jabin.  On  the  defeat  of  his  general, 
Sisera.  he  attem])ted  to  eontinue  the  war 
against  the  Israelites,  but  was  ultimately 
overcome  and  slain  (.Tudg.  iv.  l-'2l  ;  1  Sam. 
xii.  !M.  It  is  doubtful  whether  this  or  .some 
other  Ha/or  was  the  town  fortilied  by  Solo- 
mon (1  Kin,  ix.  l.")l,  but  it  was  certainly  the 
jilace  .so  named  whose  inhabitants  wei'e  car- 
ried into  cajitivity  to  Assyria  by  Tiglath- 
l)il(ser  Ci  Kin.  xv.  'J!)).  In  the  neighl)oring 
]>lain  .lonathau  defeated  Demetrius  (1  Mac. 
.\i.  (IT:  in  \.  V.  Nasor ;  .\nti<i.  xiii.  5.  7). 
Kobinson's  identilieation  of  Ilazor  with  Tell 
Khureibeh,  '-ih  miles  west  of  the  waters  of 
Merom,  is  the  most  probable  yet  proposed, 
fonder  locates  it  at  Jebel  Hadireh,  about  2 
miles  farther  west. 

2.  A  town  in  the  extreme  south  of  Jiidah, 
called  also  Kerioih-hezron  {.Tosh.  xv.  2'y,  R.V.). 
Exact  site  unknown.  Kobinson  located  it  at 
Kureitein.  12  miles  south  of  Hebron.  Ila/.or, 
a  town  of  .ludah  near  Kedesh,  is  mentioned 
in  ver.  2:j ;  see  IIezkon. 

.'$.  .\  village  of  Henjaniin  (Neh.  xi.  3."?). 
Conder  identifies  it  with  the  ruin  Ilazzur, 
4  mills  nortli-nort Invest  of  .lernsalcni.  and 
directly  west  of  IJeit  llanina,  jterhaps -\ua- 
niah  of  ver.  ;{'2. 

4.  .\  region  in  the  .\rabian  desert,  eastward 
of  Palestine.  .leremiab  jirophesied  its  jilun- 
deringby  Xel)M(hailnezzar  ixlix.  2^ -;',:{|.  He- 
rosus  states  that  Nebuchadnezzar  coni)Uered 
.\rabia  (con.  .\pion.  i.  lit).  The  name  is  jirob- 
ably  a  collective  and  refers  to  the  .settled  vil- 
lage life  of  the  community  in  contrast  to  the 
nomads.     Exact  situation  unknown. 

Ha-zor-ha-dat'tah.  in  A.  V.  punctuated  as 
two  place>.  Hazor,  Hadattah  [if  the  second 
Word  i>  .Vraniaii',  the  name  means  new  vil- 
lage]. 


A  town  in  the  extreme  south  of  Judah, 
ajijiarently  near  Hazor  2.  Exact  site  un- 
known (.Josh.  XV.  2")). 

Haz  ze-lel-po'ni,    in    A.    V.    Hazelelponi 

[give  shade,  thou  who  turnest  toward  nu-]. 

A  woman  of  .ludah,  daughter  of  the  an- 
ee.stor  of  the  men  of  Etain  (1  Chron.  iv.  '.i). 

He. 

The  fifth  letter  of  the  1  lebrew  al]ihabet. 
The  Englisli  letter  H  has  the  same  origin,  but 
is  a  vowel.  Where  he  preserves  its  jiower  as 
a  eon.sonant  in  Hebrew  names,  and  jirojierly 
at  other  times,  it  is  represented  hj-  h  in  the 
English  form  ;  as  in  Abraham. 

It  stands  at  the  head  of  the  fifth  section 
of  Ps.  cxix.,  since  each  verse  in  the  section 
begins  with  this  letter  in  the  original. 

Through  some  similarity  of  form  combined 
with  careless  writing  and  slight  etl'acement 
of  the  text,  it  was  sometimes  misread  as 
aleph  on  tin-  one  hand  and  tau  on  the  other. 

Head'band. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  KinIiKhnr, 
encircle,  band  (Is.  iii.  20,  in  K.  V.  a  sash  ; 
Jer.  ii.  ."^2,  in  E.  V.  attire).  It  is  an  article 
of  female  attire. 

Hea'then  [dweller  in  the  heath].  The 
word  suggests  the  fact  that  the  gos]pel  first 
rooted  itself  in  towns,  the  inhabitants  of 
which  became  Christians,  while  the  dwellers 
on  heaths  remained  worshipers  of  false  di- 
vinities. The  word  Pagan,  from  Latin 
PdijniiHn,  belonging  to  a  village,  rustic,  has  a 
somewhat  similar  reference. 

One  of  a  jieople  who  do  not  worshij)  tlie  God 
of  the  I'lible,  esiJCcially  if  they  are  addicted  to 
idolatry.  It  is  a  fri'(|iient  rendering  of  the 
Hebrew  Goy  and  (ireek  Ethiioa,  each  of  whieh 
means  nation  or]ieoi>le.  I\.\'.  employs  the  word 
heathen  only  in  O.  T.  and  then  only  when 
the  character  of  the  gentile  nations  i>  clearly 
referred  to;  as  in  speaking  of  the  abomina- 
tions of  the  heathen  (2  Kin.  xvi.  3;  Ezek. 
xxiii.  30),  their  tilthiness  (Ezra  vi.  21).  their 
igiioranci'  of  the  truth,  opposition  to  the  true 
religion,  barbarous  trampiing  upon  it  and 
upon  the  jieojile  of  God,  and  conse<iiieiit  ex- 
posure to  the  righteous  iiulignation  of  Je- 
hovah (Ps.  Ixxix.  1,  0.  10,  but  not  cxv.  2; 
also  in  Jer.  x.  2.");  Earn.  i.  3,  10;  Ezek. 
xxxiv.  28.  29;  xxxvi.  (i,  7,  l.'>). 

Heav'en.  often  The  Heavens  [probably 
orijiiiially.  covering]. 

1.  The  sky,  the  expanse  around  the  earth. 
It  embraces  all  that  is  apart  from  the  earth 
(Gen.  ii.  1);  hence  heaven  and  earth  com- 
jirehend  the  universe  (lien.  i.  1;  xiv.  19; 
xxiv.  3  :  .ler.  xxiii.  21  :  Mat.  v.  IS).  Reyoud 
the  visible  firmament  was  the  primeval 
watery  mass  (Gen.  i.7:  Ps.  exlviii.  4) ;  whieh 
is  n<it  further  referred  to  in  the  account  of 
creatimi.  but  out  of  which  it  is  reasduablc  to 
believe  the  lieavt'lily  bodies  Were  formed. 
These  iiiiiier  waters  remained  in  Hebrew 
thought  alciiig   with  other   couce]iti(rns.      In 


Heber 


282 


Hebrews 


the  visible  heavens  are  tlie  stars  and  planets 
(Gen.  i,  14,  l.'i,  17:  E/.ek.  xxxii.  7,  .SI.  In 
the  ])art  of  it  next  the  earth  is  the  atinns- 
jihere,  in  which  ehiiids  lliiat,  throii^'li  whicli 
i)irds  lly,  and  I'roni  which  raintlescends  ((ien. 
i.  20;  vii.  11;  viii.  2;  xxvii.  2b;  2  Sam.  xxi. 
10;  Ps.  cxlvii.  8;  Lam.  iv.  19);  see  Firma- 
MKNT.  The  Hebrew.s.  by  a  familiar  idiom, 
spoke  of  the  heaven  of  heavens  (Dent.  x.  1 1 ; 
1  Kin.  viii.  27;  Ts.  cxv.  Ki),  meaninj;  the 
lieavens  in  their  wide.st  extent.  The  later 
Jews  were  fond  of  dividing  the  heavens  into 
seven  dill'erent  strata.  No  tixed,  definite 
eoncei)tion  of  these  several  regions  prevailed  ; 
but  fancy  was  allowed  fullest  freedom.  The 
highest  was  regarded  as  God's  dwelling  place. 
Paul  describes  Christ  as  ascending  far  above 
all  the  heavens  (Eph.  iv.  10) ;  and  he  relates 
an  experience,  whether  in  vision  or  reality 
he  knew  not,  in  wdiich  he  was  caught  up  into 
the  third  heaven  and  into  Paradise  (2  Cor. 
xii.  1-4). 

2.  The  place  where  God's  immediate  pres- 
ence is  manifested  (Gen.  xxviii.  17;  Ps. 
Ixxx.  14;  Is.  Ixvi.  1;  Mat.  v.  12,  1(3,  45,  48; 
xxiii.  9),  where  the  angels  are  (Mat.  xxiv. 
3fi;  xxviii.  2;  Mark  xiii.  32  ;  Luke  xxii.  43), 
and  where  the  redeemed  shall  ultimately  be 
(Mat.  V.  12;  vi.  20  ;  xviii.  10;  Eph.  iii.  15;  1 
Pet.  i.  4  ;  Kev.  xis.  1,  4).  Christ  descended 
from  heaven  (John  iii.  13),  and  ascended 
thither  again  (Acts  i.  11),  where  he  maketh 
intercession  for  the  saints  and  whence  he 
shall  come  to  judge  the  quick  and  the  dead 
(Eom.  viii.  33.  34;  Heb.  vi.  20;  ix.  24;  Mat. 
xxiv.  30;  1  The.s.  iv.  16). 

3.  The  inhabitants  of  heaven  (Luke  xv. 
18;  Rev.  xviii.  20). 

He'ber  [union,  society,  fellowship]. 

1.  A  son  of  Beriah,  grandson  of  Asher, 
and  founder  of  a  tribal  family  ((jien.  xlvi.  17  ; 
Num.  xxvi.  45). 

2.  A  Kenite,  descendant  of  ]\Ioses'  brother- 
in-law  or  father-in-law  Hobab,  and  the  hus- 
band of  Jael,  who  slew  Sisera  (Judar.  iv.  11- 
24). 

3.  A  man  registered  with  Judah,  de- 
scended from  Ezra,  and  ancestor  of  the  men 
of  Socoh   (1  C'hron.  iv.   18). 

4.  A  Benjamite,  descended  from  Shaha- 
raim  through  Elpaal  (1  (^'hron.  viii.  17). 

For  two  others  bearing  this  name  in  A.  V., 
see  Eber. 

He'brew  [pertaining  to  the  other  sideorto 
El)erl. 

1.  According  to  biblical  history,  the  He- 
brews were  men  from  the  other  side  of  the 
Euphrates  ((ren.  xiv.  13  with  xii.  5 ;  Josh, 
xxiv.  2,  3;  and  see  Eii'HR.\tks).  The  name 
may  liave  denoted  this,  or  it  may  have  been 
originally  a  ])atronymie  formed  from  Eber, 
and  have  designated  all  his  descendants,  in- 
cluding the  Israelites  ((len.  x.  21).  until  the 
increasing  |)roniiiieiiee  of  the  Israelites  led  to 
restricting  its  use  to  them  :  see  Eher.  He- 
brews in  the  i)lural  was  applied  to  the  Is- 


raelites (Gen.  xl.  15;  1  Sam.  iv.  6  ;  xiii.  3  ;  2 
("or.  xi.  22).  In  N.  T.  times  it  was  used  spe- 
cially of  tliose  Jews  who  spoke  Hebrew  or 
rather  Aramaic  in  distinction  from  the  Hel- 
lenists, their  fellow-countrymiii  who  spoke 
Greek  (Acts  vi.  1).  An  Hebrew  of  the  He- 
brews was  a  thorough  Hebrew  ;  as,  for  ex- 
ample, a  person  of  Hebrew  parentage  both 
on  the  father's  and  the  mother's  side  (Phil, 
iii.  5). 

2.  The  language  spoken  by  the  Hebrews 
(2  Kin.  xviii.  2(),  28;  Is.  xxxvi.  11,  13).  and 
called,  poetically,  the  language  of  Canaan 
(Is.  xix.  IS).  There  is  reason  to  believe  that 
Abraham  found  it  in  (.'anaan.  instead  of 
bringing  it  with  him  from  Chaldea  ;  and  the 
tablets  from  Tell  el-Amarna  and  the  Moabite 
stone  have  shown  that  at  least  the  Canaanites 
and  the  Moabites,  if  not  even  the  adjacent 
tribes,  spoke  a  language  not  very  difierent 
from  Hebrew.  It  belongs  to  the  Semitic 
group  of  languages.  Like  the  most  of  them, 
it  is  read  from  right  to  left,  not,  like  English, 
from  left  to  right.  Its  al])liabet  consists  of 
twenty-two  consonants.  Their  names  are 
found  in  Ps.  cxix.,  which  is  divided  into 
groups  of  eight  verses.  In  each  of  these 
groups  a  several  letter  of  the  ali)habet  domi- 
nates, beginning  each  verse.  Originally  the 
language  was  written  without  vowel-points, 
these  not  being  introduced  earlier  than  the 
sixth  century  A.  c,  or  perhaps  even  a  little 
later.  They  were  the  work  of  certain  Jewish 
doctors  called  Masorites,  whose  headquarters 
were  at  Tiberias.  With  the  excei)tion  of  por- 
tions of  the  books  of  Daniel  and  Ezra  and  a 
few  verses  elsewhere  in  Aramaic,  the  whole  of 
the  O.  T.  was  written  originally  in  Hebrew. 
Languages  have  their  periods  of  growth, 
comparative  perfection,  and  then  decay.  Two 
stages  are  traceable  in  Hel)rew  ;  these  are 
generally  called  its  golden  and  its  silver  age. 
The  first  extended  from  the  commencement 
of  the  Hebrew  nation  to  the  Babylonian  cap- 
tivity, the  second  from  the  captivity  till  the 
language  ceased  to  he  S]ioken.  During  the 
golden  age,  while  the  Jews  were  generally 
indei>endent,  their  language  remained  com- 
paratively pure.  During  the  silver  age  it 
was  corrupted  by  a  continually  increasing  in- 
flux of  Aramaic,  till  the  latter  t<jngue  sujier- 
seded  it  altogether.  The  Aramaic  in  the 
time  of  our  Lord  had  taken  the  place  of  the 
genuine  Hebrew  as  the  colloquial  language 
(Mark  v.  41),  and  had  usurped  its  name  ;  and 
Aramaic  is  intended  by  the  Hebrew  lan- 
guage, or  the  Hebrew  tongue,  or  the  Hebrew, 
or  simply  Hebrew,  in  John  v.  2 ;  xix.  13,  17, 
20;  Acts  xxi.  40;  xxii.  2;  xxvi.  14;  Rev.  ix. 
11. 

He'brews,  E-pis'tle  to  the. 

The  fourteenth  of  the  X.  T.  ei)istlcs  as  they 
arc  arranged  in  the  English  I?ible.  That  it 
was  addressed  to  Jewish  Christians  is  clearly 
shown  by  its  contents.  To  no  others  would 
its  arguments  be  so  apiiro]iriate.  They  were 
in  danger  of  returning  to  Judaism  through 


Hebrews 


283 


Hebrews 


the  pressure  of  outwanl  trial  and  opposition 
(ii.  1  ;  iii.  V2  ;  iv.  1.11;  v.  12  ;  vi.  (i ;  x.  2:5- 
25.  2}»).  They  had  l)eeii  early  converts  (v.  12) 
and  had  received  the  gosjiel  from  its  fii>>t 
I)rtacliers  (ii.  3).  They  had  loiij;  ajio  heen 
l>ersecuted  (x.  32-."54)  and  iiad  often  minis- 
tered to  the  .saints  (vi.  10;  x.  34).  There  is 
no  reference  to  jjentile  memhers  in  thi'ir 
chtirrhi's,  and  their  danjier  lay  in  a  return 
not  so  nnicli  to  the  law  as  to  the  ritual. 
Tliese  allusions  hest  suit  the  Hebrew  Chris- 
tians of  I'alestine,  and  to  them  doubtless, 
with  perhaps  other  Jewish  believers  of  the 
East,  the  epistle  w;is  addressed. 

Its  autliorsliiii  lias  always  been  disputed. 
Even  in  the  ancient  cliurch  o]iinion  was  di- 
vided, tliou;;h  the  canonicity  and  authority 
of  the  book  were  recofjnized.  The  early 
eastern  cliurch  received  it  as  I'auline,  thoUfjli 
it  was  felt  to  be  unlike  the  rest  of  Paul's 
ei)istles,  and  theories  were  advanced  to  ex- 
jilain  tlie  difference.  Clement  of  Alexandria, 
c.  f/.,  thoiif^ht  that  jierhaps  Luke  translated  it 
from  a  Hebrew  ori;,'inal.  In  the  »arly  west- 
ern churches  its  I'auline  autborsbi])  was 
doubteil  and  deuiid,  and  Tertullian  attrib- 
uted it  to  Barnabas.  For  a  while  indeed  in 
the  western  churches  its  history  l>econics 
obscure,  so  far  as  our  information  goes;  but 
finally  the  eastern  o]>inion  became  the  uni- 
versally accepted  one.  The  b(jok  is  anon- 
ymous. Cha]!.  ii.  3,  liowever,  seems  to  imply 
that  the  author  was  not  anapostle.  Itcertainly 
im])lies  that  he  was  not  one  of  the  original 
a])ostles.  and  it  is  unlike  I'aul  to  represent 
liijuself  as  receiving  the  go.s])el  from  others 
(c)).  (ial.  i.  11-24).  From  xiii.  IH,  1!)  we 
learn  tliat  the  writer  was  well  known  to  his 
reailers  and  was  unhaii])ily  se])arated  from 
them.  In  xiii.  23  the  reference  to  Timothy 
is  tu)t  sulhcieiit  to  indicati'  the  authoi',  nor 
does  the  expression  "they  of  Italy  "  (xiii. 
24  I  prove  his  locality,  though  the  natural  in- 
ference is  that  he  was  in  Italy.  The  evi- 
dence of  the  contents  and  style  also  ini- 
pres-ses  diflerent  minds  iii  different  ways.  It 
<-ertainly  is  not  a  translation  of  a  Hebrew 
original.  Its  doctrine  has  much  in  common 
with  I'atil,  though  tlie  truth  is  ])Ut  in  a 
slightly  diflerent  way.  Its  language  has  a 
large  <lassic  element  in  it,  and  its  style  has 
seemed  to  most  critics  uidike  the  apostle's, 
Iteing  smoother,  often  more  elegant,  and  less 
im]ietmius.  The  omi.ssion  of  any  addre.ss 
also  is  unlike  Paul's  n.sige  elsewhere  ;  and  the 
author  seems  to  have  used  exclusively  the 
(Ircek  translation  of  the  O.  T.,  wbib'Paul 
(•onstantly  shows  his  familiarity  with  the  Hi-- 
hrew  as  well.  There  is  still  ro(»ni,  therefore, 
for  difference  of  o|iinion  as  to  tlie  author. 
Various  suggestions  have  been  made  by  those 
who  deny  that  Paul  widle  it.  Lullierguessed 
A]iollos.  The  most  jilausilile  view,  if  Paul 
he  n<»t  the  author,  is  thai  wliich  attributes  it 
to  Harnabas.  who  lias  at  least  .some  ancient 
testimony  in  Ins  favor,  and  who  in  Tlie  Acts 
apjiears  as  tlie  mediator  between  the  Jewish 


Christians  and  Paul,  much  as  this  epistle 
seeks  to  estaldish  its  Hebrew  readers  in  a 
doctrine  which  is  thoroughly  Pauline.  The 
following  analy.sis  will  exhibit  the  thought 
of  the  epistle  : 

(1 )  The  author  begins  by  stating  the  supe- 
riority of  Christianity  to  all  i)revious  and 
])ossil>le  revelation  because  of  the  sujierior  ' 
dignity  of  Christ  to  all  jirevious  and  jiossilde 
organs  of  revelation  (i.),  a  fact  which 
should  warn  us  not  to  forsake  the  gosjiel  (ii. 
1-4).  Nor  should  the  humiliation  of  Christ 
aii]>ear  a  difliculty,  since  just  by  it  he  be- 
comes our  Savi<jur  and  liigh  jiriest  (ii.). 
Christ,  therefore,  is  of  sujieiior  dignity  even 
to  Moses  (iii.  l-tjj.and  the  warnings  again.st 
unbelief  in  the  older  revelation  which  were 
addressed  to  Israel,  are  doulily  ajijilicable 
against  unbelief  in  the  final  revelalion  of 
the  gospel  (iii.  7-iv.  13). 

(2)  The  epistle  then  unfolds  the  value  of 
Christ's  high-priestly  othce  (iv.  14-1())  :  cx- 
lilainiiig  its  nature  and  showing  that  Christ 
did,  and  that  it  was  iiredicted  he  would, 
exercise  it  (v.)  ;  ami,  after  gently,  yet 
vigorously,  rebuking  Ihem  for  their  failure 
to  grasj)  the  full  truth  of  the  gosjiel  (vi.), 
unfolding  the  sujieriority  of  Christ's  ]iriest- 
hood.  as  tyjiified  in  I\Ielchizedek.  to  the 
levitical,  the  consetiueiit  abrogation  of  the 
latter  with  its  ritual,  and  the  all-sulliciency 
of  Christ's  (vii.). 

(3)  Then  the  epistle  shows  that  Christ's 
priesthood  must  now  bi'  neci's.'^arily  exercised 
in  heaven,  so  that  his  invisibility  should  be 
no  dilliculty  to  them.  In  this  heavenly  min- 
istry Christ  fulfills  the  tyjte.s,  realizes  the 
promises  and  remedies  the  imjierfections  of 
tlie  earthly  ritual  (viii.  1-x.  lb). 

(4)  The  fourth  section  (x.  l!)-xii.  29)  urges 
them  to  live  up  to  these  truths  by  an  endur- 
ing f^iith.  The  writer  exhorts  to  renewed 
confidence  in  Christ  and  to  the  maintenance 
of  their  Christian  associations  (x.  llt-2.")) ;  de- 
jiicts  the  hopelessness  which  w(Uild  follow 
ajioslasy  (x.  2()-31)  ;  incites  them  by  recall- 
ing their  formerzeal  (x.  .■52-3!t),  theexamples 
of  the  Het>rew  heroes  of  faith  (xi.)  and  of 
Clirist  liiniself  (xii.  1-3)  ;  and  bids  them  con- 
sider their  trials  as  btit  the  chastening  of  the 
Lord  inejiaratorv  to  a  glorious  salvation  (xii. 
4-2i»). 

(5)  In  ch.  xiii.  arc  added  some  si>ecific  ex- 
hortations. 

This  ejiistlc  is  tlie  only  one  in  which  llie 
title  of  ])riest  is  ajiplied  to  Christ,  though 
of  course  the  substance  of  the  do<triiie  is 
elsewhere  taught  :  it  represents  Christianity 
as  the  completion  and  goal  of  the  old  dispen- 
.s'ltion  :  the  clear  announcement  of  that  way 
of  .salvation  jireviously  taught  by  type  and 
ritual.  It  gives  the  argument,  tlieref'ore, 
most  likely  tootablish  Hebrews  in  the  faith, 
and  without  it  the  N.  T.  teaching  would  be 
obviously  iucoiniilete.  If  wasjirobably  written 
A.  J).  (!r)-()S,  wliile  the  temjile  was  still  stand- 
ing (xiii.  10-14).  <i.  T.  1'. 


Hebron 


284 


Hebron 


He'bron  [union]. 

1.  A  Lovito,  son  of  Koliatli  and  fiiundrr 
of  11  tribal  laniily  (  Hx.  vi.  l^  \  1  Cliron.  vi. 
2) ;  see  11i;i!K(>mti:s. 

2.  A  town  in  tiic  hill  country  of  .ludah 
(Josh.  XV.  48,  54),  called  originally  Kirjath- 
arba.  meaning  cither  city  of  four.  l)ecause 
consisting  of  four  sejjaratc  lianilets,  or  city 
of  the  crouchcr  ((ien.  xxiii.  2  ;  Josh.  xx.  7)  ; 
see  Arba.  It  was  l)uilt  seven  years  before 
Zoan,  in  Egyi)t  (Num.  xiii.  22),  and  existed 
at  least  as  early  as  the  days  of  Abraham, 
who  for  a  time  resided  in  its  vicinity,  under 
the  oaks  or  terebinths  ol'  Mamre  (Gen.  xiii. 
18  ;  XXXV.  27).     Sarah  died  there,  and  Abra- 


utterly  destroyed  their  cities.  After  this 
first  general  camjjaign,  however,  the  sur- 
vivors of  the  old  i)oi)ulation  gradually  re- 
lumed from  their  lii(liiig  i)laccs and  retreats, 
and  in  the  course  of  a  few  years  rebuilt  many 
of  the  ruined  towns.  Among  those  who  thus 
returned  were  remnants  of  tlie  three  families 
of  Anakim  who  had  dwelt  at  Hebron.  Here 
they  were  found  recstablislu-d  after  the  con- 
quest of  Canaan  (xiv.  10,  12).  Caleb  claimed 
that  district  as  his  own  ;  and  when  the  tribe 
(»f  Judah  took  possession  of  its  allotted  terri- 
tory after  the  death  of  Joshua,  CaUl)  retook 
Hebron  (.ludg.  i.  lO-Ll  ;  and,  ajijiarently  by 
anticipation,  Josh.  xv.  13-19).     Hebrou  had 


IKbrun  and  Sacred  Enclosure  over  the  Cave  of  MacliiKlah.  viewed  fri 


ham  bought  the  cave  of  Machpelah  for  a 
sepulcher.  He  purchased  it  from  the  Hit- 
titcs  who  then  occupied  the  town  (xxiii.  2- 
20).  Isaac  and  Jacob  for  a  time  sojourned  at 
Hebron  (Gen.  xxxv.  27;  xxxvii.  14).  It  was 
visited  by  the  si)ies,  who  found  Anakim 
anu)ng  its  inhabitants  (Num.  xiii.  22).  Its 
king,  Hoham,  was  one  of  the  four  kings  who 
allied  themselves  with  Adoni-zedek  against 
Joshua,  but  who  wer(^  defeati'd,  cajitured, 
and  slain  (.losh.  x.  1-27).  Hebron  itself  was 
afterwards  taken,  and  its  inhabitants  de- 
stroyed (3()-39).  Thisaccountissuiii)lenu>nted 
by  xi.  21,  22,  where  it  is  recorded  that  at  that 
time  .loshua  cutoff  the  Anakim  from  lleliron, 
Debir,  Anab,  and  all  the  hill  country,  and 


dependent  villages  (Josh.  xv.  54).  was  as- 
signed to  the  jiriests,  and  was  (me  of  the 
cities  of  refuge  (.Tosh.  xx.  7;  xxi.  10-13;  1 
Chron.  vi.  .54-57).  David  sent  thither  part 
of  the  recaittured  sjKiil  of  /iklag  (1  Sam. 
XXX.  .31),  and  afterwards  reigned  in  it  for 
seven  and  a  half  years  (2  Sam.  ii.  1-3,  11.32;. 
V.  1-5.  13;  1  Kin.  ii.  11  ;  1  Chron.  xxix.  27), 
several  of  his  sons  being  born  there  (2  Sam. 
iii.  2-5;  1  Chron.  iii.  1-4  ;  xi.  1-3  :  xii.  23-38). 
Abner  was  buried  there  (2  Sam.  iii.  .32),  and 
the  head  of  Ish-bosheth  was  jjlaced  in  the 
same  grave  (iv.  1-12).  It  was  at  Hebnm  tliat 
Absalom  raised  the  standard  of  rebellion  (xv. 
7-10).  It  was  fortified  by  Kehoboam  (2r. 
Chron.  xi.  10).     When,  during  the  captivity,. 


Hebrouites 


285 


Helem 


till'  E<l()initi>s  occiiiiii'd  tlie  south  u\'  Jiulali, 
llcliroii.  aiiiipii;;  other  jilaces,  I'cll  into  tlifir 
liaiids.  It  was  rci-aiitiuiil  from  them  by 
Jiulas  Maiial)ii-us,  having  then  a  fortress 
witli  to\vei-s  and  heinf;  the  liead  of  other 
towns  (1  Mae.  v.  (!.")).  It  is  not  mentioned  in 
tiic  N.  T.  Hel)ron  is  now  ealhd  el-Khulil 
er-Kahnian.  It  is  one  of  tiie  oliU'st  towns  in 
the  worhl  wliieh  is  still  inhabited,  instead  of 
bein<;  simply  a  ruin.  Ileltron  is  situated  in 
a  valley  and  on  an  adjacent  slo]ie,  .'tOlO  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  ocean.  It  is  1!)  miles 
south-southwest  of  .Iirusalem,  and  135  south- 
southwest  of  Ik'thleheiu.  It  has  no  Wiills  at 
l)resent,  hut  jjosscsses  pates.  Tlic  houses, 
which  are  of  stone,  are  well  built,  with  ilat 
roofs,  domed  in  the  iniddlc.  It  was  formerly 
<livided  into  threi'  ijuarters,  ijut  lias  so  in- 
creased since  lf>7.")  as  to  have  requiretl  six 
more.  The  jiopnlation  is  believed  to  he 
about  1(1,0(1(1.  most  of  them  Mn.ssulmans,  the 
remainder  chiefly  .lews.  There  is  a  jrreat 
mo.s(|ue,  the  jirecints  of  which  are  called  el- 
Ilarani  (the  enclosure).  It  has  a  quadraufile 
1!»7  feet  lon<;  by  111  broad.  Tlii'  masonry  is 
like  that  of  the  llaram  at  Jerusalem.  With- 
in the  enclosure  is  a  cave,  belii'ved  to  be  that 
of  ^Machpelah.  The  oak  or  terebinth  of 
Abraham  has  been  shown  at  two  jilaccs  ;  that 
•which  now  exists  is  a  j;enuinc  oak  {Qicercus 
psenilucoccifcni)  ;  see  M.\MKK.  There  are 
tweuty-tive  springs  of  water  and  ten  large 
wells  near  Hebron,  with  vineyards  and  olive- 
groves. 

."5.  A  town  of  Asher  (.Tosh.  xix.  28,  A.  V.), 
l)Ut  its  Hebrew  name  is  did'erent  from  that 
of  Hebron  in  .ludah;  see  EiutoN. 

He'bron-ites. 

The  (l(sc(  nilaiits  of  Hebron  the  Kohath- 
ite  (Num.  iii.  'JT :   1  Chron.  xxvi.  '30,  ;51). 

He'gai  and  He'ge. 

<Jne  of  the  chamberlains  of  king  Ahasue- 
rns.  He  was  the  keeper  of  the  women  (Esth. 
ii.  .S,  8,  1.-)). 

Heifer. 

A  young  cow  (Gen.  xv.  9  ;  Dent.  xxi.  3  ;  1 
Sam.  xvi.  2} ;  see  Cow  and  Purification. 

Heir. 

Inheritanccearly  became  a  cu.stom.  Abra- 
ham was  acquainted  with  it  ((ien.  xv.  3,  4). 
(Mily  sons  of  a  legal  wife,  not  those  of  a  con- 
cubine, had  the  right  of  inheritance.  Ish- 
mael,  sou  of  the  bondwoman,  might  not  in- 
herit with  tlie  son  of  the  free  woman  (xxi. 
1ft)  ;  and  Abraham  dismissed  with  pres<-nts 
the  sons  whom  he  had  liegotten  by  concu- 
bines (xxv.  ."),  (!).  Still  all  of  .Jacob's  sons 
were  accorded  equal  rights.  1  )aii^'lilers  some- 
times inherited  like  sons  (.Job  xlii.  l.")|.  Hy 
the  Mosaic  law  a  man's  ]iroiterty  was  divided 
on  his  death  among  his  .sons,  the  eldest  ob- 
taining doulile  the  |)ortion  assigned  to  his 
yiiiin^'cr  brnihers  (  Dent.  xxi.  l.")-17l.  When 
there  were  no  sons,  the  iirojierty  went  to  the 
danghteis  (Num.  xxvii.  l-f^i,  who,  however, 
were  required  to  abstain  from  marrying  out 


of  their  own  tribal  family  (Num.  xxxvi.  1- 
II  ;  Tub.  vi.  Ki-l'J).  If  circumstances  de- 
manded that  a  man  of  other  family  marry  a 
sole  heiress,  the  children  of  such  a  marriage 
ajipear  to  have  taken  the  name  of  the  nmtlier's 
father  (1  thron.  ii.  ."51-11  ;  Ezra  ii.  (H).  Fail- 
ing both  sons  and  daughters,  the  iiilieritanie 
went  to  the  father's  brother,  and  after  him 
to  the  nearest  of  kin  (Num.  xxvii.  9-11). 
Greek  and  Koman  rule  introduced  new  cus- 
toms, and  made  testaments  and  testators 
familiar  to  the  .Jews  (Ileb.  ix.  1(>.  17).  In  a 
figurative  si'iise,  lielievers  are  heirs  of  (iod 
anil  .joint  heirs  with  Christ  (Kom.  viii.  17). 

He'lah  [.scum,  rust,  verdigris]. 

One  of  the  two  wives  of  Ashhur,  the  ances- 
tor of  the  men  of  Tekoa  (1  Chron.  iv.  '),  7). 

He'lam. 

A  ]ilace  east  of  Jordan,  where  David  de- 
feated Hadarezer.  king  of  Syria  (2  Sam.  x. 
IG-li)).  Ewald  and  others  (loiibtfully  iden- 
tify it  with  Alamatha.  a  town  mentioned  by 
Ptolemy  as  west  of  tlu-  Euphrates,  lu'ar  Nice- 
]iliorium. 

Hel'bah  [fatness,  a  fertile  region]. 

A  cily  within  the  territory  of  Asher.  from 
which  the  Canaanites  were  not  driven  out 
(Judg.  i,  31).     Site  unknown. 

Hel'bon  [fat,  fertile]. 

.\  city  of  Syria,  celebrated  for  its  wines 
(Ezek.  xxvii.  18).  It  is  commonly  identified 
with  Ilelbun.  13  miles  north  of  Oamascus. 
The  village  is  situated  in  a  narrow  valley 
shut  in  by  steep,  bari'  cliffs  and  long,  slu'lving 
lianks  2000  to  3000  feet  liigh.  The  bottom 
of  the  glen  is  occu])ied  by  orchards,  and  far 
up  the  mountain  slojies  are  terraced  vine- 
yanls.  Along  the  terraces  and  in  the  valley 
below  are  extensive  ruins.  The  wine  was 
celebrated  in  As.syria,  Babylonia,  and  Persia 
(Strabo  xv.  735;  Nebuchadnezzar  1  P.  6.5, 
32). 

Hel'dai  [durable,  tran.sitorines.s]. 

1.  A  Netophathite,  descended  from  Othniel. 
He  was  David's  captain  for  the  twelfth 
month  (1  Chnm.  xxvii.  I."")).  Doubtless  the 
jterson  calh'd  Heled  in  xi.  30. 

2.  An  exile  who  returned  from  Haliylon 
(Zech.  vi.  10),  calleil  also  Jlelein  (ver.  14). 

He'leb  [fatness]. 

The  name  given  to  Heled  in  2  Sam.  xxiii. 
29.  It  may  iio.ssibly  be  the  original  name, 
but  ])robably  arose  from  the  mistake  of  an 
early  co])yist.  which  is  quite  intelligible  and 
common, 

He'led  [endurance,  transitory  life]. 

The  son  of  Paanah.  a  Nitophathite,  and 
one  of  David's  mighty  mend  Chron.  xi.  30). 
See  IIki.i;ii  and  Hki.dai. 

He'lek  [smoothness,  jKirtion,  lot]. 

.\  son  of  Gilead.  and  founder  of  a  tribal 
family  of  Manasseh  (Num.  xxvi.  30;  Josli. 
xvii.  2). 

He'lem,  I.  [blow,  stroke]. 

An  Asherite,  lirolher  of  Shamcr  (1   Chron. 


Helem 


286 


Hell 


vii.  iJo),  aud  probably  the  person  called 
llotliaui  in  ver.  32. 

He'lem,  II.  [dream,  or,  perhaps,  manly 
vij^or]. 

The  same  as  Heldai  2  (Zech.  vi.  10  with  14). 

He'leph  [pornuitation,  chanfic,  exchange]. 

A  frontier  town  of  Najilitali  (Josli.  xix.  :53). 
Van  do  Velde  identified  it  with  Heit  Lif,  in 
tlie  mountains  of  tialilee,  midway  between 
Kadesh  and  lias  el-Abiad. 

He'lez  [pi-rhajjs.  alertness]. 

1.  A  I'aitite  or  IVhmite,  David's  captain  for 
tlie  seventli  month  (I  Chron.  xxvii.  10). 

2.  A  man  of  Jndah,  descended  from  Hez- 
ron  (1  Chron.  ii.  39). 

He'll  [Greek  form  of  Eli,  probably  eleva- 
tion]. 

The  father  of  Mary,  the  mother  of  Jesus. 
This  belief  is  founded  on  the  (Jreek  text, 
which  rei)resents  Jesus  as  "  being  son  (as  was 
sujijiosed  of  Joseph)  of  Hell"  (Luke  iii.  23). 

Hel'kai  [smooth]. 

A  priest,  head  of  the  father's  house  Merai- 
oth  (Neh.  xii.  15). 

Hel'kath  [smoothness,  a  part  (of  a  field),  a 
field]. 

A  town  on  the  boundary  line  of  Asher 
(Josh.  xix.  25),  assigned,  with  its  suburbs,  to 
the  Gershonite  Levites  (xxi.  31).  Called  in 
1  t'hrou.  vi.  75  Hukok,  which  is  probably  a 
corruption  of  the  text.  Van  de  Velde  aud 
Robinson  doubtfully  identify  it  with  Yerka, 
8i  miles  east  by  north  of  Acre. 

Hel-kath-haz'zu-rim  [field  of  the  sharp 
knives]. 

A  name  given  to  the  scene  of  the  combat, 
at  the  pool  of  Gibeon,  between  twelve  Benja- 
mites  of  Ish-bosheth's  party  and  the  same 
number  of  David's  men  (2  Sam.  ii.  16). 

Hell. 

1.  The  place  of  the  dead.  It  is  one  render- 
ing of  the  Hebrew  word  Sh''ol  and  the  Greek 
'Aides  (Ps.  xvi.  10  with  Acts  ii.  27).  R.  V. 
of  O.  T.  places  Sheol  either  in  the  text  or  on 
the  margin  ;  in  the  projilietical  books,  on  the 
margin  with  hell  generally  in  the  text,  and 
in  Dent,  xxxii.  22;  Ps.  Iv.  15;  Ixxxvi.  13,  on 
the  margin,  with  pit  in  the  text.  In  N.  T. 
it  puts  Hades  in  the  text.  The  two  words 
are  also  rendered  grave  (Gen.  xxxvii.  35; 
Is.  xxxviii.  10,  18;  Hos.  xiii.  14;  and  A.  V. 
of  1  Cor.  XV.  55,  in  K.  V.  death).  The  ety- 
mology of  the  words  is  in  dould.  Sheol 
may  mean  the  insatiable  (cp.  Prov.  xxvii. 
20,  R.  v.;  XXX.  15,  Ki).  Hades,  when  pro- 
nounced w'ithout  the  aspirati(m,  means  the 
unseen.  Both  words  denote  the  i)lace  of 
the  (lead.  Tiic  evidence  is  not  all  in,  but 
it  may  l)e  safely  atlirnied  that  for  centuries 
the  Hebrews  shai'ed  the  common  Semitic  con- 
ception of  Sheol.  This  conception  was  vague 
and  undefined.  There  wasconse(|uently  room 
for  the  iniagiiiatioii  to  play,  and  fancy  was 
fond  of  su|)plyingall  manner  of  details;  and 
care  must  be  taken  not  to  confound  fancies 


with  faith  The  ancient  Hebrews,  like  other 
Semites,  thought  of  Sheol  as  beneath  the 
earth  (Num.  xvi.  30,  33;  Ezek.  xx.\i.  17; 
Amos  ix.  2).  They  jiictured  it  as  entered 
through  gates  (Is.  .\xxviii.  lOi,  a  dark,  gloomy 
region,  where  the  inhabitants  pass  a  conscious, 
but  dull,  inactive  existence  (2  .Sam.  xxii.  (> ; 
Ps.  vi.  5  ;  Ecc.  ix.  10).  They  regaidi'd  it  as 
the  i>lace  whither  the  souls  of  all  men  with- 
out distinction  go  ((ien.  xxxvii.  35;  Ps.  xxxi. 
17:  Is.  xxxviii.  10),  where  punishments  may 
be  sufl'ered  anil  rewards  enjoyed,  and  from 
wliich  a  return  to  earth  was  not  an  inijios- 
sibility  (1  Sam.  xxviii.  .s-l<J;  Heb.  xi.  1!»). 
It  is  important  to  note,  however,  that  in 
authoritative  Hebrew  doctrine  Sheol  was 
open  and  naked  to  God  (Jol)  xxvi.  G;  Prov. 
XV.  11),  that  (iod  was  even  there  (Ps.  cxxxix. 
8),  and  that  the  spirits  of  his  jjcople,  and  their 
condition  in  that  abode,  were  ever  under  his 
watchful  eye.  This  doctrine  of  God"s  knowl- 
edge of  his  jieople  after  death,  ](resence  with 
them,  and  unceasing  love  lor  them,  involved 
the  blessedness  of  the  righteous  and  the  woe 
of  the  wicked  after  death,  and  two  places  of 
abode  for  them,  the  righteous  being  with  the 
Lord  and  the  wMcked  being  banished  from  his 
presence.  This  doctrine  lay  also  at  the  basis 
of  the  related  teaching  of  the  eventual  resur- 
rection of  the  body,  and  the  life  everlasting. 
The  doctrine  of  future  glory,  and  even  of 
the  resurrection  of  the  body,  was  cherished 
in  O.  T.  times  (Job  xix.  25-27;  Ps.  xvi.  8-11  ; 
xvii.  15  ;  xlix.  14,  15 ;  Ixxiii.  24  ;  Dan.  xii.  2.  3). 
A  foundation  fi)r  it  was  early  afl'orded  by  the 
translation  of  Enoch  and  Elijah,  and  it  was 
fostered  by  centuries  of  intimate  association 
with  the  Egyptians,  who  had  congruous  teach- 
ing regarding  the  future  life  and  the  relation 
of  morality  in  the  present  life  to  hajipiness 
beyond  the  grave.  But  it  remained  for  Christ 
to  bring  immortality  to  full  light,  and,  by  re- 
vealing the  bliss  of  the  saved  soul  even  out 
of  the  body  in  his  presence,  to  di.spel  all  gloom 
from  the  future  abode  of  his  .saints  (Luke 
xxiii.  43;  John  xiv.  1-3  ;  2  Cor.  v.  (J-8;  Phil, 
i.  23).     See  P.a.kadise. 

2.  The  place  of  woe.  In  this  sense  it  is 
the  rendering  of  the  Greek  Geheinin  in  Mat. 
V.  22,  29,  .30;  x.  28;  xviii.  it;  xxiii.  15.  33; 
Mark  ix.  47  ;  Luke  xii.  5,  and  Jas.  iii.  (i.  This 
word  is  the  Greek  form  of  the  Hebrew  Ge- 
hinnom,  valley  of  Hinnom,  where  children 
were  l)urnt  to  ]Molech.  From  the  horrible 
sins  practiced  in  it,  its  pollution  by  Josiah, 
and  perhaps  also  because  oll'al  was  burnt  in 
it,  the  valley  of  Hinnom  became  a  type  of 
sin  and  woe,  and  the  naTue  pa.ssed  into  use  as 
a  designation  for  the  jilaee  of  eternal  i)un- 
ishment  (Mat.  xviii.  8,  9;  INIark  ix.  43). 
From  the  scenes  witnessed  in  the  valley 
imagerv  was  borrowed  to  describe  the  Ge- 
henna "of  the  lost  (Mat.  v.  22  ;  cp.  xiii.  42; 
Mark  ix.  48).  In  2  Pet.  ii.  4.  "  to  cast  down  to 
hell  "is  the  rendering  of  the  verl)  tnrUvoo, 
meaning  "to  cast  down  to  Tartarus.''  The 
Tartarus  of  the  Romans,  the  Tartaros  of  the 


Hellenist 


287 


Heresh 


(Ircoks,  was  tlioir  )p1;ic('  of  wni",  sitiiatc-d  as 
far  lii'low  Hadi's  as  llatlfs  was  lidow  hoavi-ii. 
Tlioiiuli  tlif  itj  iiiolipfiii's  art-  (lill'tTi'iit,  (ie- 
heniia  and  Tartarus  an-  essentially  the  siinie 
in  meaning.  Each  is  tlie  i)hice  ol"  jiunish- 
nicnt  for  tlie  Inst. 

Hel'len-ist. 

One,  not  <il'  the  (in-ek  nation,  wlio  sjioke 
(Jreok.  The  term  is  used  si)ecially  of.Iews.  in 
wliatever  jiart  ol'tiie  world  they  lived,  wliohad 
adopted  the  (ireek  tongue,  and  with  it  often 
(ireek  jiraetiees  and  opinions  (II.  V.,  margin 
of  Arts  vi.  1  and  ix.  -JO).  The  text  calls  them 
(irecian  Jews;  the  A.  V.  simply  Grecians. 

Hel'met.    See  Akmor. 

He'lon  [|>erha])s,  strong]. 

Father  of  Eliah,  prince  of  Zebuluu  (Num. 
i.  J»;  ii.  7;  vii.  2i,  2[);  x.  lU). 

Hem. 

The  edge,  horder,  or  margin  of  a  garment 
(Ex.  xxviii.  3o.  ol:  xxxix.  :^-l,  'S>.  2(i,  in  tlie 
K.  V.  skirts;  and  .Mat.  ix.  -JO;  xiv.  3(i.  in  the 
K.  ^'.  honlers).  Tlie  Jews  attached  a  certain 
sacred ness  to  the  hem,  fringe,  or  border  of 
their  garments. 

He'mam.    See  Homam. 

He'man  [faithful]. 

1.  A  .sage  whose  reputation  for  wisdom  was 
high  in  Solomon's  reign  (1  Kin.  iv.  ?A).  He 
belonged  to  tlie  tribe  of  .ludah  (1  Chroii.  ii.  (i). 
Hecomiiosedanieditativeiisalm  ( I's.lx xxviii., 
according  to  its  second  and  doubtless  original 
title). 

2.  A  singer  in  David's  riigii,  a  son  of  Joel, 
a  grandson  of  the  ipr(>]plnt  Samuel,  of  the 
Levite  family  of  K(»rah  (1  (liron.  vi.  '.'>'i  \  xv. 
17).  In  addition  to  singing,  he  was  aiiiiointed 
to  sound  a  brazen  cymbal  (lit).  He  rose  to  a 
prominent  jilace  among  David's  musicians 
(xvi.  n,   12). 

He'matli.  See  H.\m.\th  for  Amos  vi.  14, 
A.  v.,  and  H.VMMATii  for  1  Chron.  il.T)."),  A.  V. 

Hem'dan  [jileasant,  desirable]. 

A  Horite,  the  eldest  son  of  Dishon  (Gen. 
xxxvi.  2(i).  In  the  ])arallel  passage,  1  Chron. 
i.  -11,  the  Hebrew  ttxt  and  Ii.  V.  have  Ham- 
ran,  which  .\.  V.  erroneously  represents  by 
.\mnim.  The  two  Hebrew  words  differ  only 
in  the  third  consonant.  The  ditlerence  is  un- 
doubtedly due  to  a  scribe  who  confounded 
ri'sh  and  daleth  ((j.  v.).  Whether  Hemdan 
or  llamran  was  the  original  form  cannot  be 
detcriiiim  il  at  jiresent. 

Hem'lock.     See  Gam.  2  and  Whumwood. 

Hen,  I.     See  Cock. 

Hen,  II.  [grai-e,  favor,  kindness]. 

A  son  of  Zephaniah  (Zech.  vi.  H).  I?iit  on 
the  margin  of  K.  V.  Hen  is  translated,  the 
l)as.sage  reading  thus,  "  for  the  kindness  of 
the  son  of  Ze])haniah,"  in  wlii<'li  case  that 
son's  name  di.siipjiears. 

He'na. 

A  city  cajitured  by  the  Assyrians  (2  Kin. 
xviii.  .'^4  ;  xix.  13 ;  Is.  xxxvii.  i:j).    It  is  men- 


tioned in  connection  with  Seidiarvaim,  and 
is  accordingly  .sought  for  in  the  neighborhood 
of  liabylonia.  Hena  is  commonly  identified 
with  the  ancient  town  of  Ana,  at  a  f<ird  over 
the  Eu])hrates,  about  KiO  miles  northwest  of 
Bagdad.  Extensive  ruins  still  exist  at  the 
spot.  The  two  names,  however,  are  radically 
different,  .\nother  conjecture  iilaces  it  on 
an  island  in  the  Euphrates,  where  tlie  As- 
syrian inscrijitions  locate  a  certain  Anat. 

Hen'a-dad  [imibably,  favor  of  Hadad]. 

Eomidc  r  of  a  Levitical  family,  wlio.se  sons 
siiiipoited  Zerubbabel  at  the  time  the  founda- 
tions of  the  temple  were  being  laiil  (Ezra  iii. 
it),  and  assisted  in  rebuilding  the  wall  of  Je- 
rusalem (Neh.  iii.  l.-^). 

Hen'na  [Persian  heima,  Arabic  hrnnin]. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  yv'o;»//fr.  cov- 
ering, in  the  Septuagint  and  in  K.  \.  of  Song 
i.  14  and  iv.  i:{.  It  is  translated  in  the  A.  V. 
camphire.  Henna  is  a  jilant  of  the  I.ythrnriex 
or  loosestrife  order  (  Ldirsvuid  tilba  or  hicnnis), 
with  ojiposite  entire  kaves.  and  fragrant,  yel- 
1(AV  and  white  (lowers  in  corymbs  or  clusters 
(Song  i.  llj.  The  Greeks  called  it  knpros, 
from  the  island  of  Cyprus,  where  it  grew.  In 
Palestine  its  special  seat  was  the  virtually 
tro])ical  region  of  En-gedi  (Song  i.  lit  and 
Jericho  (War  iv.  8,  '.i\.  Tlie  leaves  and  young 
twigs  are  made  into  a  tine  ])owder,  converted 
into  |)aste  with  hot  water,  and  used  liy  ori- 
ental women  and  we;iUhy  men  to  dye  the 
finger  and  toe  nails  and  the  soles  of  the  feet 
a  reddish  orange  color.  Some  Egyiitian 
mummies  are  found  with  these  parts  dyed 
in  the  same  manner. 

He'noch.  See  Exoch  for  1  Chron.  i.  ,'J,  A. 
v..  and  Hanoch  for  1  Chron.  i.  33,  A.  V. 

He'pher  [pit,  well]. 

1.  \  town,  the  king  of  which  was  con- 
quered by  .Toshua  (.losh.  xii.  ITl.  The  name 
was  also  attached  to  a  district  (1  Kin.  iv.  10). 
Situation  unknown. 

2.  A  son  of  (lilead,  founder  of  a  tribal  fam- 
ily of  Manasseh  (Num.  xxvi.  32;  xxvii.  1; 
Josh.  xvii.  2). 

3.  A  man  of  Judah,  son  of  Ashhur  of  Tckoa 
(1  Chron.  iv.  G). 

4.  A  Mechenithite,  and  one  of  David's 
worthies  (1  Chron.  xi.  3G).  See,  however, 
remarks  under  I'K,  II. 

Heph'zi-bah  [my  delight  is  in  her]. 

1.  Mother  of  king  Manasseh  12  Kin.  xxi.l). 

2.  .\  s\iiibolical  name  to  be  given  to  Zion 
(Is.  lxii.'4i. 

He'res  [sun]. 

1.  An  eminence  in  the  district  of  Aijalon 
(Jiidg.  i.  3.")|.  'J'he  meaning  and  a  comparison 
with  .lo.sh.  xix.  41,  42  render  the  i,ipini<m 
jirobable  that  mount  Hen-s  is  es.senlially 
identical  with  the  town  Ir-shenu-sh,  thai  is 
Heth-shemesh. 

2.  .\n  Egyptian  city  (Is.  xix.  is.  marginl. 
See  On. 

He'resh  [artificial  work,  artifice,  silence]. 
A  Levite  (1  Chron.  ix.  l.">). 


Heresy 


288 


Hermon 


Her'e-sy  [Greek  ^airesis,  taking  (especially 
of  a  town)  ;  a  sect  (Acts  v.  17  ;  xv.  5)]. 

1.  A  i)urty.  sect,  or  faction  ;  stroii}?  party 
spirit,  even  wlieu  this  is  not  produced  on  one 
side  or  tlie  otlier  liy  dei)arture  from  sound 
doctrine  (1  Cor.  xi.  19,  on  margin  of  li.V.  sects, 
factions ;  Gal.  v.  20,  on  margin  of  R.  V.  par- 
ties). 

2.  A  doctrine  or  a  sect  consequent  upon  de- 
parture from  sound  doctrine  (2  Pet.  ii.  1,  mar- 
gin of  Iv.  V.  sects  of  perdition). 

He'reth,  in  A.  V.  Haretb,  the  Hehrew  paus- 
al  form. 

A  forest  in  Judali,  in  which  David  for  a 
time  lurked  while  his  life  was  being  sought 
by  Saul  (1  Sam.  xxii.  5). 


Her-mog'e-nes  [sprung  from  Hermes]. 

An  inhabitant  of  the  l\0)uan  j)rovince  of 
Asia,  who  linally.  willi  many  otliers,  turned 
away  from  tlie  ai)ostle  I'aul  (2  Tim.  i.  1.")). 

Her'mon  [mountain  peak  or  sacred  moun- 
tain]. 

A  mountain  called  liy  the  Sidonians  Sirion, 
a  coat  of  mail,  and  by  the  Amorites  Seuir  or 
Shenir  (I)eut.  iii.  8,  !»).  The  last  name  be- 
longed especially  to  a  part  of  the  mountain. 
Another  name  for  it  was  Sion,  elevated  (iv. 
48).  It  constituted  the  northeastern  limit 
of  the  Israelite  conquests  under  Moses  and 
Joshua  (Deut.  iii.  S.  9;  .Tosh.  xi.  3.  IT;  xii. 
1,  .");  xiii.  5,  11;  1  Chron.  v.  23).  It  ligures 
in  Hebrew  poetry,  being  coupled  with  Tabor 


Mount  Hermon. 


Her'mas. 

A  Christian  at  Rome  to  whom  Paul  sent  his 
salutations  (Kom.  xvi.  14). 
Her'mes. 

1.  Tlie  (ireek  god  corresponding  to  the  Ro- 
man Mercury  (Acts  xiv.  12,  E.  V.  margin). 
See  Mkkcury. 

2.  A  Christian  (not  the  same  as  Hernias) 
at  Rome,  to  whom  Paul  sent  his  salutations 
(Rom.  xvi.  14). 


(Ps.  Ixxxix.  12),  Zion  (cxxxiii.  3),  and  Leba- 
non (Song  iv.  8),  really,  however,  overtopping 
them  all.  It  constitutes  the  southern  end  of 
the  Anti-Lebanon  chain,  and  rises  to  the  ele- 
vation of  91()()  feet  above  the  sea.  It  may  be 
seen  fmin  many  jiarts  of  Palestine.  From  the 
plain  of  Tyre,  the  north  jieak  seems  liigher 
than  tlie  southern  one,  and  tlie  center  more 
depressed  than  either.  Hence  it  is  once 
described  as  the  Hermous  (Ps.  xlii.  6,  R.  V.) ; 


Hermonites 


289 


Herod 


or  perhaps  tlie  word  in  this  i>assage  is  a  com- 
nioii  noun  and  means  i)eaks  of  PaU'stine. 
The  summit  of  tlie  mountain  is  covered  with 
snow  all  the  year  round,  wavy  while  fur- 
rows deseendinj;  from  the  erest  in  the  lines 
of  the  several  valleys.  The  ])roper  souree  of 
tlie  Jorilan  is  in  Hermon.  Some  one  of  its 
solitary  reeesses  rather  than  the  summit  of 
Tahor  was  jirohahly  the  scene  of  our  l^ord's 
translifiuration.  liernion  is  now  called  Jehel 
osh-Sheik. 

Her'mon-ites. 

Natives  or  inhabitants  of  mount  Hermon 
(Ts.  xlii.  li,  A.  V.  ;  in  K.  V.,  the  Hermons). 

Her'od. 

The  name  of  s<'vcral  rulers  over  Palestine 
and  the  adjacent  re>;ions  or  portions  of  them. 
Three  are  mentioned  in  the  N.  T.  by  the 
name  of  Herod  and  one  by  the  name  of 
Asripjia. 

1.  Hkrod  thf.  Orkat. — He  was  the 
second  son  of  the  Iduniiean  Antipas,  or 
Antipater,  by  his  wife  Cyprus,  who  was  of 
the  Siime  race  (Antiq.  xiv.  1,  '.i ;  7,  3). 
Thus,  neither  l)y  tlie  father's  nor  by  the 
mother's  side  was  Herod  a  real  Jew, 
though  tlie  Iduma'ans,  who  hail  been 
comiuered  1'.25  n.  c.  Iiy  .John  Hyrcanus, 
and  compelled  to  be  cireumci.sed  and  adopt 
Judaism,  had  now  become  nominall.v  Jews. 

Antijiater  was  made  jirocurator  of  Judsea 
by  (lesar  in  17  i'..  c  (Antic|.  xiv.  s,  '.',  and  5). 
He  had  live  ebililren,  I'liasailus,  Jlerod, 
Jo.seiih,  Pheroras,  and  a  daughter  Sahime  (7, 
3).  ■  Phasaelus,  the  eldest  son.  was  made  gov- 
ernor of  .Ferusalem  and  vicinity  by  his 
father,  and  (ialilee  was  c((iiuiutted  to  Hi-rod. 
who  was  then  Si  years  old  (it,  2).  After  the 
murder  of  Antijiater,  4:5  u.  c,  Marc  Antony 
visited  Syria  and  ajijiointed  the  two  brothers 
tetrarchs,  coinmittinK  the  i)utdic  affairs  of 
tlie  Jews  to  them  (IIJ.  1).  They  were  after- 
wards sorely  pressed  by  Antiffonus.  last  kint; 
of  the  Maccaba>an  family,  and  the  Parthians. 
Pha.saelusfell  into  their  bands  and  committed 
suicide  to  avoid  beinjj  put  to  death  by  tlu'iii 
(13,  10).     The  Komaus  were  now  induced  liy 


Antony  to  espouse  the  cause  of  Herod;  and 
war  ensued  witli  Anti^jonus  and  the  Par- 
thians, in  the  course  of  which  Herod's  brother 
Jo.seph  was  slain  in  battle  (li3,  10),  Jerusalem 
was  captured  and  Herod  became  king  of 
Jiidu-a  in  'M  H.  r. 

The  survivint;  children  of  Antijiater  wore 
now  Heroil,  Pheroras,  and  Salome.  Salome 
married  her  uncle  Joseidi  (Anticj.  xv.  3,  o  ; 
War  i.  -J-J.  1).  After  he  had  been  put  to  death 
for  adultery,  34  n.  C.she  married  Costobarus, 
an  Iduma'an  of  jrood  family  whom  Herod 
made  jjovernor  of  Iduma-a  and  (ia/.a(An- 
tiq.  XV.  7,  9;  War  i.  'J4,  0).  She  divorced 
him  (Anti(|.  xv.  7,  10),  and  af;ainst  her  will 
was  married  to  Alexas,  a  friend  of  Herod's 
(War  i.  '^f^,  (i).  During  the  whole  of  Herod's 
reign,  she  engaged  in  intrigues  again>t  mem- 
bers of  his  family  ;  but  she  was  faithful  to 
him,  and  lie  bequeathed  to  her  .lamnia,  Ash- 
dod,  and  Phasiielis  near  Jericho  (Antir|. 
xvii.  (i,  1 ;  i-i,  1:  11,  5).  She  accompanied 
Henid's  son  Arcbelaus  to  Pome,  when  he 
went  thither  to  obtain  imperial  sanction  to 
ascend  the  tlirone.  Her  ostcnsilile  jiuriio.se 
was  to  assist  him  in  jirosecuting  liis  claim, 
but  her  real  object  was  to  thwart  liini  iWiir 
ii.  2.  1-4).  She  died  about  A.  v.  Id,  when 
Marcus  Aml)ivius  was  procurator  (Antiq. 
xviii.  2,  2).  Pheroras,  the  youngest  of  the 
four  sons  of  Antipater  (Antiti.  xiv.  15,  4), 
lived  nearly  as  long  as  Herod.  He  was  part- 
ner in  the  kingdom,  had  the  title  of  tetrarch, 
and  en.joyid  the  revenue  accruing  from  the 
country  east  of  the  Jordan  (War  i.  24,  5). 
He  was  more  than  once  accused  of  jilotting 
the  death  of  Herod,  and  matters  came  to  a 
crisis  shortly  before  the  hitter's  deat  li  ;  but 
Pheroras  died  without  being  brought  to  trial 
(Antii).  xvii.  3,  3). 

Herod  the  (ireat  had  ten  wives  from  first 
to  last  (Aiiti(i.  xvii.  1,  3:  ^\'ar  i.  xxviii.  4). 
His  lirst  wife  ^vas  Doris,  a  woman  of  an  ob- 
scure family  in  ,Ierus;ileiu.  She  bori'  him 
one  son,  Antipater,  who  took  an  active  jiart 
in  the  events  of  Herod's  reign,  jdotting 
against  liis  younger  half-brothers  to  secure 
tlie  kingdom  for   himself.     Herod,  just  be- 


*  Antipater. 

I  Procurator  of  Judsea, 
■17-4.S  B.  c. 


Phasaelus. 


Herod  the  Great.  Joseph. 

I  King  of  Judffia, 
37-4  B.  0. 


Pheroras. 


Salome. 


I  I  I  I  I 

Antiimter.   Alexander  and  Arlstobulus.  Herod.      Archelaus  and  Herod  Antipas.    Herod  and  Philip. 

Sluiii  5  B.  c.  Both  Hliiin  about  7  I  B.  c.  Etbiiarcli  uf  Jiida-a,     Totrarch  of  Qali-  Tetrurch  of 

I  4B.C-A.D.6.  lee.-jB.  c.-A.n.39.  counlrv  eaat 

of  lialilee. 


I 

Herod. 
KihL'  "f  Cli'ilcis, 

A    I.   41- IS. 


Herod  Agrippa  1. 

I  Kiiii;  of 


Judaea, 
o.  41-44. 


""      1 
Herodias. 


4d.  c- 


11. ;«. 


1!» 


Herod  Agrippa  II. 

Kins  of  C'hafcis, 

A.  n.  ."ill-S:). 

.AflcrwardH  nilpr  of  Pliilip's 

former  tnlrarcliv  nnd  ailja- 

cciil  r.'Cioii!.     l)ifd  A.  D.  100. 


Bernice. 


Drusilla. 


Herod  tlie  Grrnt  had  nfvfn 
other  children,  two  (wins 
and  five  daiicliters,  hut 
they  did  not  phjv  a  |>rom- 
ineiit  part  id  the  history. 


Herod 


290 


Herod 


fore  the  capture  of  Jenisaleni.  V).v  wliieh  lu; 
became  kiujir,  married  liis  second  wife,  tlie 
beautiful  and  diaste  Mariamne,  jiranddauj{h- 
ter  iif  Jlyrcanus.  Slie  l)<)re  him  three  sons, 
Ak'xander,  Aristoliulus,  and  the  yiinnj;cst  son 
who  died  cliiUlk'ss.  and  two  daughters, 
C'ypvus  and  Salampsio.  Mariamne  was  put 
to  death  in  2!t  n.  v.  (Anti(i.  xv.  7,  4).  Al)out 
24  n.  c.  lie  married  .Alariamne.  (Uiu^'liter  of 
Simon,  wliom  lie  raised  to  the  high-priestliood 
(xv.  y,  3;  xviii.  5,  4).  llerod  also  took  to 
wife  his  two  nieces,  whose  names  are  not 
given  and  who  died  childless,  Malthace  a 
Samaritan,  ("leoi>atra  of  .leriisalem,  I'allas, 
Phiedra,  and  Klpis.  With  the  two  unnamed 
nieces  and  last  three  of  known  name  history 
is  not  specially  concerned.  The  descendants 
of  the  others  are  more  imjjortant.  Of  Mari- 
amne, Simon's  daughter,  Herod  was  born  ; 
Malthace  became  mother  of  Archelaus,  Herod 
Antipas,  and  a  daughter  Olympias  ;  and  Cleo- 
patra bore  Herod  and  Philip. 

The  domestic  troubles  of  Herod  began 
early  in  his  reign  in  the  hatred  which  he 
incited  in  the  beloved  Mariamne  toward 
himself;  and  they  culminated  in  the  last  dec- 
ade of  his  reign,  when  his  sons  had  reached 
manhood.  The  domestic  history  eventually 
revolves  about  the  eight  young  men,  Antip- 
ater,  son  of  Doris;  Alexander  and  Aristo- 
bulus,  sons  of  Mariamne  ;  Herod,  son  of 
Mariamne,  Simon's  daughter  ;  Archelaus  and 
Antipas,  sous  of  Malthace  ;  and  Herod  and 
Philip,  sons  of  Cleopatra.  Alexander  mar- 
ried Glyphyra,  daughter  of  Archelaus,  king 
of  Cappadocia.  Two  sons  were  born  to 
them  whose  history  is  not  important  (Antiq. 
xvi.  1,  2;  War  i.  24,  2).  Aristobulus  mar- 
ried his  first  cousin,  Bernice,  daughter  of 
Herod's  sister,  Salome,  and  became  the  father 
of  five  children,  several  of  whom  played  an 
important  part  later  in  the  history.  Of 
these  two  young  men,  sons  of  the  beloved 
Mariamne,  Anti]iater,  the  firstborn  of  Herod, 
was  jealous.  His  jealousy  was  aroused 
against  his  half-brothers  by  the  evident  in- 
tention of  his  father  to  overlook  his  right  as 
firstborn  in  their  favor  (War  i.  22,  1),  and  he 
and  his  clique  at  court  poisoned  the  mind  of 
Herod  again.stthem.  At  length,  about?  or  (i  h. 
C,  Herod  had  them  put  to  death,  named  An- 
tipater  his  heir  and  api)ointed  Herod,  son  of 
Mariamne,  Simon's  daughter,  next  in  succe.s- 
siou  {Anti(i.  xvi.  11,  7 ;  xvii.  :5,  2  :  War  i.  29, 
2).  This  order  conformed  to  birth,  his  sons 
Archelaus  and  Antipas,  Herod  and  Philip, 
being  doubtless  younger  than  Herod,  son  of 
Mariamne.  Antipater  next  accused  Herod's 
sister,  Salome,  and  his  sons,  Archelaus  and 
Philip,  who  were  in  Pome  being  educated, 
of  plotting  the  murder  of  Herod  :  but  the 
crime  charged  against  Salome  was  brought 
home  to  himself.  He  and  his  uncle  Phc- 
roras,  Herod's  brother,  were  accused  of  seek- 
ing the  king's  life.  Pheroras  died,  but 
Antipater  was  cast  into  prison.  Herod's  sus- 
picious were  thereby  aroused  that  Antipater 


had  falsely  accused  .Mexander  and  .Aristo- 
bulus, who  had  already  been  executed,  and 
he  altered  his  will,  ajipointing  Antipas  to  be 
his  sui'i-essor,  and  passed  over  Arclielaus.  the 
elder  brother,  and  I'liiliii,  as  he  still  held 
them  in  suspicion  (War  i.  32,  7).  Soon  after- 
wards he  ordered  Antipater  to  be  slain  and 
altered  his  will  again,  giving  the  kingdom  to 
Archelaus,  making  Antiiias  tetrarch  of  Gali- 
lee and  Penea,  and  Philip  tetrarch  of 
Batanea,  Trachonitis,  and  Auranitis,  and 
bestowing  several  cities  on  his  sister  Salome 
(Anti(i.  xvii.  8,  1  ;  War  i,  33,  7).  Herod's 
disjiosition  of  his  atlairs  was  observed  at  his 
death,  except  that  Archelaus  was  finally  con- 
firmed by  the  emjjeror  Augustus  not  as  king 
but  as  ethnarch  of  Judtea  (Antiq.  xvii.  11,  4 
and  '■>). 

Herod,  son  of  Simon's  daughter,  Mariamne, 
married,  or  had  married,  Herodias,  daughter 
of  his  half-brother,  the  dead  Aristobulus. 
She,  however,  left  him  and  married  another 
half-brother  of  his,  Herod  the  tetrarch,  and 
her  former  husband  disappears  from  history. 
So  d((es  Herod,  son  of  Cleopatra  and  brother 
of  Philij),  the  tetrarch.  See  Hekodias  and 
Philip.  Aristobulus,  as  already  mentioned, 
had  married  his  cousin,  Bernice.  daughter  of 
Salome,  and  had  begotten  five  children 
(War  i.  28.  1).  They  were  Herod,  Agrippa, 
Aristobulus,  Herodias,  and  Mariamne.  Herod 
married  Mariamne,  daughter  of  Olympias, 
daughter  of  Herod  the  Great  and  the  Sama- 
ritan Malthace  ;  Agrippa  married  Cyprus, 
daughter  of  Salamiisio  and  Phasaelus  the 
younger,  son  of  Herod  the  Great's  brother, 
Phasaelus;  Ari.stobulus  married  Jotape, 
daughter  of  a  king  of  Emesa ;  Herodias 
married  two  uncles  in  succession,  as  already 
noted  ;  and  Mariamne  married  Auti])ater, 
son  of  Doris  (Antiq.  xviii.  5,  4  ;  War  i.  28,  .5: 
cp.  4).  Three  of  these  children  of  Aristo- 
bulus are  persons  of  note — namely,  Herod, 
Agrijjpa,  and  Herodias.  Herodias  was  the 
woman  who  crowned  her  infamies  by  telling 
her  daughter  to  demand  the  head  of  John  the 
Ba]itist  in  a  charger.  Herod  was  made  king  of 
Chalcis,  and  after  his  wife's  death  took  his 
niece,  Bernice,  Agrippa's  daughter,  to  wife. 
Agri])i)a  became  king  .\grip])a  I.  He  mar- 
ried, had  onesonaud  three  (laughters.  Three 
of  these  children  are  mcntit)ned  in  Scripture, 
Agrij)]ia  II.  and  the  two  notorious  women, 
Bernice  and  Drusilla. 

Resides  this  domestic  history  of  the  rise  of 
the  family  to  ]>ower  and  the  intrigues  among 
its  members,  there  is  the  jiolitical  history  of 
Herod's  reign.  Soon  after  he  had  been  made 
ruler  in  Galilee,  which  was  in  47  or  4(5  n.  c, 
he  came  in  contact  with  the  sanliedrin 
through  his  summary  execution  of  some 
robbers  without  the  s;inhedrin's  formal  per- 
mission. He  was  summoned  for  trial  and 
appeared  with  an  armed  body  guard,  intimi- 
dating the  council.  He  was  ac(|uitted  for 
lack  of  evidence.  Herod  sought  to  be,  for 
his  own  interest,  on  good  terms  with  the  sue- 


Herod 


291 


Herod 


L'cssive  reiirt'scntativt'S  of  tlic  warriiif;  fac- 
tiiins  into  wliifli  t)ie  Hoinan  poojik'  Wfrftlieu 
tlividi'il.  He  ohtaiiifd  a  gfiuTalsliii)  I'roin 
St'xtus  {'a's;ir.  ]ii'f.sideiit  of  Syria,  a  relative 
of  the  tircat  Jiiliiis  t'ii-sjir ;  and  tlu-ii.  afti-r  a 
time.  ^aiiK'<l  tlir  favor  of  C'assiii.s.  tlic  most 
niali;;iiaiit  of  tlu-  jircat  dictator's  assassins, 
riun  he  cast  in  his  hit  with  Marc  An- 
tony, one  of  the  ninrdered  man's  cliicf 
avenfieiii;  nor  was  even  this  liis  last  chanjre 
of  sides.  Aliont  41  h.  c.  Jlerod  was  made 
tetrarch  of  (lalilee  by  Antony,  and  having, 
after  fresh  vicissitinles,  jjoiie  to  Home  in  40  li. 
i\.  as  a  fiijiitive  rather  than  a  visitor,  his 
]ialron  induced  the  Koman  senate  to  apjioint 
iiini  kinjr  of  the  Jews.  It  was  n(jt,  however, 
till  '.i~  B.  c.  that,  with  the  assistance  of 
Sosins.  a  general  of  Antony's,  he  succeeded 
in  taking  .lerusalem,  and  commencing  his 
actual  reign.  JJy  his  marriage  at  this  time 
with  .Marianine.  granddaughter  of  Hyrcaniis 
and  daughtiT  of  A.lexandcr,  son  of  Aristo- 
huliis.  he  iiccame  allied  with  the  royal  As- 
nionsean  family.  He  now  endeavored  to 
further  strengthen  his  jiosition  hy  the  re- 
moval of  jiossihle  rivals.  The  i)rincij)al  mem- 
liers  of  the  iiarty  of  Antigonus,  forty-five  in 
numher.  were  sought  out  and  put  to  death. 
Soon  afterwards  .Mariamne's  ))rother,  Aristo- 
liiilus,  a  hoy  of  st'veiitecn.  whom  Herod  had 
just  raised  to  the  high-priesthood,  was 
drowned  in  a  hath  by  Herod's  orders,  within 
a  year  after  his  elevation  to  the  jiontiticate  ; 
and  aliout  I!!  r..  «'.  her  grandfather,  although 
eighty  years  old,  was  jiut  to  death  ( Antiq. 
XV.  1,  2  ;  3,  .3;  (j,  2).  Herod's  attention  was 
called  from  these  atrocities  hy  the  new  crisis 
which  lia<l  arisen.  His  ]iatron  Antony  was 
totally  d(f(  aled  hy  Octavius  in  the  sea  fight 
at  .\(tinm  on  Scptenilier 'J,  :{1  n.  c.  The  ito- 
sition  of  Herod  was  now  critical,  but  he 
made  a  manly  and  judicious  speech  to  the 
victorious  Octavius.  and  was  forgiven  for  his 
]iartis;inshi)i  toward  Antony.  He  was  given 
the  friendslii]!  of  the  man  he  had  otl'ended, 
and  rctain<'d  it  through  most  of  his  life,  be- 
sides having  his  dominions  increased  (xv.  fi, 
•">  7  :  10,  :5|.  The  murder  of  a  wife's  brother 
anil  her  grandfather  did  not  tend  to  increase 
her  attachment  to  her  husband,  and  by  and 
by  \ariance  arose  lietween  Herod  and  IMari- 
amne.  It  increased,  till  it  culminated  at 
length  in  the  queen's  being  falsely  accused 
and  executed,  licmorse  followed  in  due 
course,  anil  almost,  if  not  altogether,  dejirived 
ihe  king  of  reason  (Antin.  xv.7.7;  xvii.  (!..'>; 
War  i.  22.  .") ;  .■5."!,  .')).  Tartly  to  divert  his 
mind  from  gloomy  remembrances,  jiartly  to 
please  Octavius.  now  the  emjieror  Augustus, 
in-  built  theaters  and  exhiliited  games,  both 
of  these  acts  being  inconsistent  with  .ludaisin. 
He  also  rebuilt,  enlarged,  and  beautified  a 
place  named  .Sirato's  Tower,  calling  it,  after 
his  imperial  iiatron.  Ca-sjirea.  It  ultimately 
became  the  Roman  caiiital  of  Palestine  ( Antii|, 
XV.  s.  .-, :  <).  (I  ;  ,|,.  Acts  xxiii.  •j:{,24».  Then, 
to  conciliate  the  Jews,   he,  between   11)  and 


11  or  9  B.  f.,  rebuilt  and  beautified  the  tcm- 
jde.  The  birth  of  Jesus  Christ  took  place  at 
the  close  of  Herod's  life,  after  he  had  re- 
moved his  rivals  from  other  families  by  vio- 
lent deaths,  and  when  his  domestic  troubles 
were  at  their  height.  He  had  slain  his  sons 
Alexander  and  Aristobulns,  and  more  re- 
cently Anti])ater,  for  jilottingagainst  his  life; 
and  now  he  was  told  that  a  child  of  Davids 
line  had  just  been  born  to  l)e  king  of  the 
Jews.  The  slaughter  of  the  infants  who 
came  into  the  world  about  the  same  time 
and  ]>laee  was  such  a  method  of  meeting  the 
difiii  ulty  as  would  suggest  itself  to  one  with 
Herod's  iirojiensity  to  bloodshed  (Mat.  ii.  1- 
19).  It  was  one  of  the  last  acts  of  his  life. 
Seized  at  length  with  loath.some  and  mortal 
disease,  he  rejiaired  to  Callirhoe,  the  hot 
sulphur  springs  of  the  Zerka,  the  water 
from  which  runs  into  the  eastern  jiart  of  the 
Dead  Sea.  They  came  to  be  called,  in  eon- 
sequence,  by  many,  the  baths  of  Herod  ;  but 
they  did  not  do  the  king  much  good  (Antiij. 
xvii.  ().  .■)).  He  felt  that  he  was  dying,  and 
that  there  would  be  rejoicing  when  he  jias.sed 
away.  He  therefore  told  his  sister. Salome  and 
her  husband  Alexas  to  shut  up  the  jirincijial 
Jews  in  the  circus  at  .lericho.  and  jiut  them  to 
death  whenever  he  expirid.  that  there  might 
be  mourning  at,  though,  of  course,  not  for, 
bis  death.  Then,  about  4  B.  c,  he  passed 
away,  in  the  seventieth  year  of  his  age  and 
the  thirty-fourth  of  his  reign,  counting  from 
the  time  wlii'ii  he  actually  obtained  the  king- 
dom. When  news  of  his  demise  arrived,  the 
circus  jirisoners  were  .set  free,  and  tin-  death 
of  the  tyrant  was  welcomed  as  a  relief  in- 
stead of  being  attended  by  mourning,  lamen- 
tation, and  Mdc  (Anti(|.  xvii.  (i,  5;  8,  2). 

2.    HkKOD     TIIK     TiTKAKCH.  — A     Son      of 

Herod  the  (ireat  by  his  Sjiniaritan  wife  called 
Malthace.  He  was,  therefore,  half  Idumtean 
and  half  .Samaritan,  jierhaps  without  a  single 
droji  of  .Jewish  blood  in  his  veins.  He  was 
called  indiflerently  Antipas  and  Herod 
(Antiq.  xvii.  1,  '.i;  xviii.  o,  1  ;  (>,  2  :  War  ii. 
9,  1),  and  it  is  customary  to  distinguish  him 
from  the  other  Herods  of  the  family  ms 
Herod  Antipas.  He  was  the  full  brother  of 
Archelaus.  and  was  younger  than  .Vi'dudaus 
(Antiq.  xvii.  (i.  1  ;  War  L.'W.  7  ;  .".:>.  7i.  He  was 
educated  with  him  and  his  half-brother  Philip 
at  Home  (Antiq.  xvii.  1,  3).  liy  the  second 
testament  of  his  father,  the  kingdom  was 
bequeathed  to  him  (t>,  1)  ;  but  by  his  father's 
final  will  he  was  ajipoiuted  tetrarch  of 
(ialilee  and  tin-  kingdom  was  givi'U  to 
Archelaus(S.  1).  On  his  father'sdcath  hecom- 
peted  with  his  brother  for  the  kingdom,  but 
received  only  the  tetrarcliy  of  (Jalilee  and 
IVra'a  (.\ntiq.  xvii.  11,4;  Luke  iii.  D.  He 
erected  a  wall  around  Seiiphoris.  and  made  it 
his  metropolis.  Hetharamphlba  in  I 'era  a  he 
wa  I  led.  and  built  ajial.ice  there.  It  was  named 
Libias  and  .lulias,  after  .Augustus'  daughter 
(.\nfii|.  xviii.  2.^\  :  sec  I{i:tii-ii  \  i;an.  Healso 
built  Tiberias  !:{).     He  married  a  daughter 


Herod 


292 


Herod 


of  Aretas,  king  of  the  Nabathsean  Arabs, 
wliose capital  was  I'etra  ;  1)utafti'r\vai<ls,wliilc 
lodjiing  at  R(Hiie  witb  Ilerod  I'liilij),  liis  lialf- 
brotluT,  hi'  iii(hil;it'(i  a  ji'i'Ity  passion  for  liis 
entertainer's  wife,  llerodias,  and  arranjjed 
to  divorce  liis  lawful  consort  and  take 
Herodias  instead.  This  immoral  transaction 
was  carried  into  elfect.  Herodias  was  a  mas- 
culine woman,  Herod  a  weak  man  ;  she  was 
his  evil  ueiiius,  and  made  a  tool  of  him,  as 
Jezebel  had  done  of  Ahab.  Aretas  resented 
the  injury  inflicted  upon  his  daughter,  and 
he  commenced  a  war  against  Herod  and 
waged  it  successfully  (5,  1).  Herodias  was 
the  prime  mover  in  the  murder  of  John  the 
Baptist  (Mat.  xiv.  1-13  ;  Antiq.  xviii.  5,  2). 
Becau.se  of  his  cunning,  the  tetrarch  was 
described  by  our  Lord  as  that  fox  (Luke  xiii. 
31,  32).  But  the  tetrarch  had  a  following, 
for  mention  is  made  of  the  leaven  of  Herod 
(Mark  viii.  15)  ;  see  Herodi.\ns.  When  the 
fame  of  Jesus  began  to  spread  abroad,  the 
uneasy  conscience  of  Herod  made  him  fear 
that  John  had  risen  from  the  dead  (Mat.  xiv. 
1,  2).  He  was  present  at  Jerusalem  at  the 
time  of  the  crucifixion,  and  Jesus  was  sent 
to  him  by  Pilate.  He  thought  that  now  he 
would  have  the  opportunity  of  seeing  a  mir- 
acle i)erformcd,  but  he  was  disappointed,  and 
with  his  men  of  war  set  Jesus  at  naught. 
The  same  day  he  was  reconciled  to  Pilate, 
•whereas  they  had  before  been  at  variance 
(Luke  xxiii.  7-12,  1.5  ;  Acts  iv.  27).  The  ad- 
vancement of  Herodias'  brother  Agrippa  to 
be  king,  while  her  husband  remained  only 
tetrarch,  aroused  the  envy  of  this  proud 
woman,  and  she  prevailed  upon  Herod  to  go 
with  her  to  Eome  and  ask  for  a  crown. 
Agrippa,  however,  sent  letters  after  them  to 
the  cm])eror  Caligula,  accusing  Herod  of  be- 
ing secretly  in  league  with  the  Parthians, 
and  Herod  was  in  consequence  banished  to 
Lyons  in  Gaul,  A.  D.  39,  where  he  died 
(Antiq.  xviii.  7,  1,  2 ;  War  ii.  9,  6,  Greek 
text). 

3.  Herod  the  King. — Josephus  calls  him 
sim])ly  Agripjia.  Both  names  are  generally 
combined,  and  he  is  designated  Herod  Agrij)pa 
I.,  to  distinguish  him  from  Herod  Agrippa  II., 
before  whom  Paul  was  tried.  Agrippa  I.  was 
the  son  of  Aristot)ulus,  son  of  Herod  the  Great 
and  Mariamne,  granddaughter  of  Hyrcanus. 
He  was  educated  in  Rome  with  Drusus,  son 
of  the  em])eror  Tiberius,  and  Claudius  (Antiq. 
xviii.  fi,  1  and  4) ;  but  the  death  of  Drusus 
and  lack  of  funds  led  to  his  return  to  .Tudrea 
(2).  In  \.  i>.  37  he  made  another  journey  to 
Eome  to  bring  accusations  against  Ilerod  the 
tetrarch  (Antiq.  xviii.  5,  3;  War  ii.  9,  5).  He 
did  not  return  when  his  business  was  trans- 
acted, but  remained  in  the  metroiiolis.  culti- 
vating the  acquaintance  of  peoi»le  who  might 
be  of  use  to  him  in  the  future.  Among 
others,  he  ingratiated  himself  with  Caius.son 
of  German  icus.  who  shortly  becanu>  the  em- 
peror Caligula  (Antiq.  xviii.  6.  4;  War  ii.  9, 
5).    For  rash  w'ords  spoken  in  favor  of  Caius, 


Tiberius  cast  him  into  chains ;  l>ut  six  months 
later  Caius  became  emperor,  and  ajijiointed 
Agrippa  to  be  king  of  the  tetrarchy  which 
his  late  uncle  Phili])  had  governed,  and  also 
of  the  tetrarchy  of  i>ysanias  lAnti(i.  xviii.  (i, 
10).  In  \.  ]>.  39  the  emperor  banished  Herod 
the  tetrarch,  and  added  his  tetrarchy,  which 
was  Galilee,  to  the  kingdom  of  Agripjia  (7,2). 
Agrii)pa  left  his  kingdom  for  a  time,  and  re- 
sided at  Rome  (S,  7).  During  this  sojourn  at 
the  capital  he  i)revaih'd  u])on  the  emperor  to 
desist  from  his  determination  to  erect  his 
statue  in  the  temjile  at  Jerusalem  (8,  7  and 
8).  When  Caligula  was  assassinated,  and 
Claudius,  against  his  own  will,  chosen  in  his 
room,  Agripiia,  wlu)  was  then  at  Rome,  acted 
as  negotiator  between  the  senate  and  the  new 
emperor,  whom  he  persuaded  to  take  office. 
As  a  reward,  Agrippa  had  Juda-a  and  Sa- 
maria added  to  his  dominions,  which  now 
equaled  those  of  Herod  the  Great  (Antiq. 
xix.  3-5;  War  ii.  11,  1-5).  He  commenced 
to  build  a  wall  about  the  northern  suburb  of 
Jerusalem,  so  as  to  include  it  in  the  city,  but 
was  ordered  to  abandon  the  work  (Antiq.  xix. 

7,  2).  He  slew  James,  the  brother  of  John, 
with  the  sword  (Acts  xii.  1,  2),  imprisoned 
Peter  (3-19),  and  at  Csesarea,  immediately 
after  he  had  accepted  divine  honor,  was  mis- 
erably eaten  up  of  worms  (20-23;  Antiq.  xix. 

8,  2).  He  died  A.  D.  44,  in  the  fifty-fourth 
year  of  his  age,  leaving  four  children,  of 
whom  three  are  mentioned  in  Scripture, 
Agrippa,  Bernice,  and  Drusilla  (Warii.  11,6). 

4.  Agrippa,  commonly  known  as  Herod 
Agrippa  II.  He  was  son  of  Herod  Agrippa 
I.,  and  consequently  great-grandson  of  Herod 
the  Great,  and  was  the  brother  of  the  noto- 
rious women  Bernice  and  Drusilla  (War  ii. 
11,  6).  At  the  time  of  his  father's  death, 
A.  D.  44.  he  was  17  years  old,  and  residing  at 
Eome,  where  he  was  being  brought  up  in  the 
imperial  household  (Antiq.  xix.  9,  1  and  2). 
The  emperor  Claudius  was  dissuaded  from  ap- 
pointing him  to  the  throne  of  his  father  on 
account  of  his  youth,  and  .Tudrea  was  placed 
under  a  ])rocurator.  Agripjia  remained  in 
Eome.  He  successfully  seconded  the  efforts 
of  the  Jewish  ambassadors  to  obtain  the  im- 
perial permission  to  retain  the  official  robes 
of  the  high  priest  under  their  own  control 
(xx.  1,  1).  When  liis  uncle  Herod,  king  of 
Chalcis,  died  about  a.  d.  48,  Claudius  ]>res- 
ently  bestowed  his  .small  realm  on  the  west- 
ern .slope  of  Anti-Lebanon  on  Agripi>a  (5.  2 ; 
War  ii.  12,  1  ;  14.  4  ;  cp.  i.  9.  2),  so  that  he  be- 
came king  Agrippa.  He  esjioused  the  cause 
of  the  .Jewish  commissioners  who  had  come 
to  Eome  to  appear  against  the  procui-ator 
Cumanus  and  the  Samaritans,  and  he  pre- 
vailed upon  the  emi)eror  to  grant  them  an 
audience  (.\ntiq.  xx.  (>.  3  :  War  ii.  12.  7).  In 
A.  D.  52  Claudius  transferred  him  from  the 
kingdom  of  Chalcis  to  a  larger  realm  formed 
of  the  tetrarchy  of  Phili]>.  which  contained 
Batanca,  Trachonitis,  and  (iaulonitis.  the 
tetrarchy  of  Lysanias,  and  the  province  of 


Herod,  Palace  of 


293 


Herodias 


Abilene  (Antiq.  xx.  7,  1 ;  War  ii.  12,  8).  His 
constant  (•(•niiianionshii)  with  his  sister  Ber- 
nice  alioiit  this  lime  lii-};an  to  eroato  scantlal 
(Antiq.  XX.  7,  :J).  In  .\.  D.  51  or  .")  Nero 
added  tlie  eities  of  TihiTJas  and  Tariehea-  in 
(iaiilee  and  .liilias  in  I'era'a  witli  its  depend- 
ent towns  to  liis  doniinion  (^,  l ).  When  Felix 
had  l»een  succeeded  by  I'"estiis  as  iirociiralor 
of  Juda-a,  Af^rijipa  went  to  C'a-sarea  to  salnti- 
him,  accompanied  by  Ik-mice.  Paul  was 
then  in  confinement.  Fostus  laid  his  ca.se 
before  tlie  kiiif;,  and  on  tlu'  morrow  Iheaiios- 
tle  was  periiiilted  to  jilcad  liis  cause  lieiore 
the  procurator,  the  kinj;,  and  liernice.  He 
was  entirely  successful  in  clearinfj  himself 
(Acts  XXV.  i:j-xxvi.  32).  Soon  afterwards 
Afirljijia  liuilt  au  addition  to  thejialace  of  the 
Asniona-Mus  at  .Icrnsalein  l.\iiti(|.  xx.  1^,  111. 
Later  still  heenlarjicd  and  beaut ilieil  Ca'sarea 
Philippi,  and  established  theatrical  exhibi- 
tions at  Rerytns  (it,  4).  When  the  troul)les 
which  culminated  in  the  Jewish  war  befjan, 
Aj^rippa  euil(a\(ired  to  dissuade  the  Jews 
from  makinji  armed  resistance  to  Fadus  the 
procurator  and  the  Romans  (War  ii.  Hi,  2-5; 
17,  4  ;  18,  y :  IS),  3).  When  the  war  broke  iu 
its  fury,  lie  foujiht  by  thi'  side  of  Vesjjasian, 
and  was  wounded  at  the  siege  of  (ianiala  (iii. 
it.  7  and  >s  ;  10,  IU;  iv.  1,  3).  After  the  cap- 
ture of  Jerusalem  he  removed  witli  Hern  ice 
to  Rome,  where  he  was  invested  with  the  dig- 
nit^'  of  pnetor.     He  died  a.  d.  100. 

Her'od,  Pal'ace  of. 

A  palace-fortress  erected  by  Herod  the 
Great  about  the  year  24  or  23  B.  c.  (Antiq. 
XV.  it,  1  and  3).  It  stood  at  the  northwest 
corner  of  the  npper  city,  adjoined  the  tow- 
ers of  Ilippicns,  I'hasaehis,  and  ^lariamne 
on  their  south,  and  formed  with  them  a 
stronghold  wiiicii  excited  the  admiration  of 
even  the  Romans  (War  v.  4.  4  ;  5,  8;  vi.  8,  1 ; 
9,  1).  Its  site  is  tlie  modern  citadel  l)y  the 
Jafl'a  gate.  The  three  towers  were  built  of 
wliite  stoiu'.  Iliiijiicus  was  s((uare.  with  sides 
25eubitsin  length.  To  tlie  height  of  :5(>  cubits 
it  consisted  of  .solid  masonry  ;  over  this  was 
a  reservoir,  20  cubits  deep ;  and  over  this 
again  a  two-story  house,  25  cubits  in  height, 
surmoiiiited  by  bat tleuieiits  2  cubits  high 
with  turrets  3  cubits  iiigher.  The  entire  al- 
titude of  the  tower  was  (^0  cubits.  I'hasaelus 
was  larger.  Its  stock  was  a  culie  of  solid 
masonry  measuring  40  cultits  in  each  direc- 
tion, surmoiiiite<l  by  ,a  cloister,  and  tliat  in 
turn  liy  a  i)alatial  tower.  Its  entire  height 
was  about  ltd  cubits.  It  was  completed  about 
the  year  10  K.  c.  ( Anti(|.  xvi.5.  2).  Mariamne 
hail  half  the  ilimensioiis  of  Phasiuliis,  save 
thai  it  was  50  ciibils  high.  It  was  magnili- 
ceiilly  adorned  by  Herod  as  helltled  a  tower 
named  in  honor  of  his  wife.  Tlie  iialace 
proper  on  the  south  of  these  towers  was  en- 
tirely walled  about  to  the  height  of  IIO  cubit.s, 
:iiid  was  fnitber  protected  by  turrets  wiii<'h 
suriuoiiiitrd  liic  wall  and  >|ood  .'it  ciiual  dis- 
tances from  each  other,     \\ithiii   were  oi)en 


courts  with  groves  of   trees,  and  numerous 

aiiartments,  among  which  two  were  consjiic- 
uous  for  size  and  l)eauly,  and  were  called 
Ca'sareum  and  Agrippium,  after  Herod's 
friends  (Antiij.  x  v.  it,  :; :  10,  3  ;  War  i.  21,  1  ;  v. 
4,  4).  The  jialace  was  occupied  by  Sabimis,  the 
jiroeurator  of  Syria  (Antii].  xvii.  10.  2  and  3; 
War  ii.  3.  2  and  :>).  In  it  I'ilate  erected  gold- 
en shields  in  honor  of  the  emperor  Tiberius  ; 
and  it  isexi)ressly  called  the  house  of  tlie  pro- 
curators (I'hilo,  de  legal,  ad  Caium,  xxxviii. 
and  x.xxix.).  The  ]iro(iiiator  Floras  took  u]) 
liis  (|uarters  in  this  building,  erected  his  tri- 
bunal bi'fore  it,  and  sentenced  mi'ii  to  scourg- 
ing and  crucifixion  (War  ii.  14,  b  an<l  9).  It 
was  burned  by  the  seditious  Jews  at  the  he- 
ginning  of  the  war  with  the  Romans.  The 
three  mighty  lowers,  however,  withstood  the 
tianies,  and  were  allowed  by  the  conqueror  to 
stand  as  a  witness  to  the  kind  of  city  the  Ro- 
mans had  overthrown  (War  ii.  17,  8;  vii.  1, 1). 

He-ro'di-ans. 

A  .Jewish  party  in  tlie  time  of  our  Lord, 
who  wc-re  evidently  partisans  of  the  Herod 
family.  The  Herodswere  not  of  ]iroi>i'r  .Jew- 
ish descent,  and  they  had  sujiplantecl  a  royal 
family  not  merely  Jewish,  but  of  i)riestly 
blood  and  rank.  They  also  snjijiorted  their 
authority  by  trying  to  jilease  their  Roman 
]iatrons.  If  the  Herodians  took  the  jiart  of 
the  Ilerods  in  these  two  res|)eets,  then  they 
were  in  direct  antagonism  to  the  Pharisees, 
with  whom,  however,  they  combined  at  Jeru- 
sah'in  to  entangle  our  Lord  by  the  ensnaring 
(juestion  iiliout  paying  Iriluite  to  Ca'sar  (Mat. 
xxii.  l(i :  Mark  xii.  1.3)  ;  and  earlier  in  (ialilee 
had  joined  in  jilotting  against  his  life  (Mark 
iii.  () ;  <p.  Mark  viii.  15).  Another  view  is 
that,  condoning  the  Herods'  Iduina'an  de- 
scent, the  Herodians  sniqiorted  them  mere- 
ly as  the  rejireseiitatives  of  national  against 
foreign  rule,  in  which  case  their  union  with 
the  Pharisees  would  be  quite  natural. 

He-ro'di-as. 

Daughter  of  .\ristobnlus.  and  half-sister  of 
Herod  Agrijipa  I.  Sliewas  married  to  Herod, 
the  son  of  Herod  the  (ireat  by  Mariamiw.  the 
high  jiriest  Simon's  daughter.  This  husband 
is  called  Philip  in  the  N.  T..  but  is  not  en- 
titled a  tetrarrh  (Mat.  xiv.  3;  Mark  vi.  17). 
He  was  a  ilifferent  )ierson  from  Piiili)!  the 
tetrarch.  It  is  customary  to  speak  of  him  as 
Herod  Philiii,  wliicli  was  ]in>bably  his  full 
name.  Sec  I'll  ll. If  4.  His  half-brother,  Herod 
the  tet  rarcli,  indnl<,'ed  a  guilty  passion  for  her, 
and  divorcing  his  wife,  a  daughter  of  king 
Aretasof  .\  labia,  married  Herodias  while  her 
first  husband  was  still  alive  (Aniiii.  xviii.  5.  1, 
4:  (i.  2;  7,  2:  War  ii.  it.  lii.  John  ibc  Haplist 
reiirovcd  the  guilty  |>air,  on  which  Herodias 
jilolted  his  death,  and  when  her  daughter 
Salome  had  gained  Herod's  favor  by  dancing 
before  him  at  a  gatheiiiii.'  of  the  dignitaries 
of  his  let  rarcliy.  extorted  from  liim  a  in-oinise 
to  give  her  the  head  of  .lolin  the  Papti-t.  The 
king  was  sorry,  but,  for  his  oath's  siki',  com- 


Herodion 


294 


Hezekiah 


plied  with  her  wishes  (Mat.  xiv.  3-12;  Mark 
vi.  17-2});  Luke  iii.  19,  20;  cp.  Prov.  vi.  2(i). 
On  tlie  banishment  of  the  tetrarch,  Herodias 
went  with  liini  into  exile  (Autiq.  xviii.  7,  2; 
War.  ii.  M,  ti). 

Herodias'  daughter  Salome  married  Philip 
the  tetrarch,  son  of  Herod  the  Great.  After 
his  deatli  she  married  her  first  eousin,  Aris- 
lol)ii Ills,  son  of  king  Afirijijia's  lirotlier  llerod 
and  iinat-tjreat-graudtiou  of  Hei'od  the  Great 
(.Vnti(|.  xviii.  5,  4). 

He-ro'di-on. 

A  Christiau  at  Rome  whom  Paul  called  his 
kinsman,  and  to  whom  he  sent  a  salutation 
(liom.  xvi.  11). 

Her'on. 

Tlie  rendering'  of  the  ]Iel)rew  '"iKiphah 
(Lev.  xi.  19,  on  margin  of  K.  V.  ibis;  Ueut. 
xiv.  18).  The  bird  so  di^ignated  was  held  to 
1)e  typical  of  a  family,  for  it  is  followed  by 
the  Words  '"after  its  kind.'"  The  heron  faiu- 
ily  (Ardeidw),  is  i)hiced  under  the  Grallatov  en  or 
Waders.  The  birds  which  it  includes  are 
generally  of  large  size.  They  have  a  long 
bill,  long  bare  legs  adapted  for  wading,  a 
large  hind  toe,  and  large  wings,  their  flight, 
however,  being  comparatively  slow.  Their 
food  is  principally  fish  and  reptiles.  The 
family  contains  the  herons,  the  egrets,  etc. 
The  bufl'-backed  heron  {Ardea  huhulcus),  often 
called  the  white  ibis,  is  the  most  abundant. 
These  birds  live  and  breed  in  vast  numbers 
in  the  swamps  of  lake  Huleh,  and  they  asso- 
ciate with  cattle  in  the  pastures,  where  sev- 
eral purple  ibises  may  usually  be  seen  with 
them.  The  common  heron  {Ardea  cinerea) 
occurs  on  the  Jordan  and  its  lakes,  on  the 
Kishon,  and  on  the  seacoast  of  Palestine. 
With  it  are  found  also  the  purple  herou  {Ardea 
purpHred)  and  several  egrets. 

He'sed  [pity,  mercy]. 

Father  of  one  of  Solomon's  purveyors  (1 
Kin.  iv.  10). 

Hesh'bon  [reason,  intelligence]. 

The  city  of  Sili<in,  the  Amorite  king,  but 
apparently  taken  originally  from  the  Moabites 
(Num.  xxi.  25-30,  34).  ■  It  was  assigned  by 
Moses  to  the  Reubenites,  and  after  the  con- 
quest was  rebuilt  by  the  men  of  that  tribe 
(xxxii.  .37;  Josh.  xiii.  17).  But  it  stood  on  the 
boundary  line  between  Reuben  and  Gad  (Josh. 
xiii.  2()),  came  to  be  possessed  by  the  latter, 
and  was  assigned  as  a  town  of  Gad  to  the 
Levifes  (Josh.  xxi.  ,39:  1  Chron.  vi.  81).  The 
Moabites  held  it  in  Isaiah's  and  .Jeremiah's 
times  (Is.  xv.  4;  xvi.  8,  9;  Jer.  xlviii.  2,  33, 
34).  Later  still  it  was  in  the  possession  of 
Alexander  Jannseus  and  Herod  the  Great 
(Antici.  xiii.  1."),  4  ;  xv.  S.  5).  It  is  still  known 
as  Heslian,  a  ruined  city  standing  on  an  iso- 
lated hill,  with  the  remains  of  a  wall,  an 
archway,  and  a  temple.  The  sides  of  the  val- 
ley whicli  commences  just  west  of  the  hill 
are  ho!ieyc()nd)cd  with  caves  and  sepnlchers. 
A  great  reservoir,  a  lilth'  eastward  from  the 
ruins  of  Ileshbon,  is  jirobably  one  Of  the  pools 


wliich  were   outside   the   t(nvn  walls    (Song 
vii.  4). 

Hesh'mon  [fatness,  fertile  soil], 
A   town   in   the   extreme  south   of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  27). 

Heth.     See  Cheth  and  Hittitks. 

Heth'lon  [perhaps,  a  hiding  ])lace]. 

A  i)lace  on  the  ncn'thcrn  boundary  of  Pales- 
tine, as  ])rophesied  by  Ezekiel,  near  the  en- 
tering in  of  Hamath  (Ezek.  xlvii.  1.");  xlviii. 
1 ;  cp.  Num.  x.vxiv.  8).     Not  identilietl. 

Hez'e-ki  [my  strength  or  a  strong  support 
is  (God)]. 

A  Beujamite,  sou  of  Elpaal  (1  Chron.  viii. 

17). 

Hez-e-ki'ah,  in  A.  V.  once  Hizkiali  (Zeph. 
i.  1),  once  Hizkijah  (Xeh.  x.  17).  in  .\.  V.  of 
N.  T.  Ezekias,  the  Greek  form  [strength  or 
a  strong  suii])ort  is  Jehovah  ;  or,  in  the  longer 
Hebrew  form  in  2  Chron.  xxviii.  27  ;  Hos.  i.  1, 
etc.,  Jehovah  doth  strengthen]. 

1.  Son  of  Ahaz,  king  of  Judah.  He  was 
associated  with  his  father  in  the  government 
in  728  B.  c.  From  the  fact  that  Ahaz  was  not 
buried  in  the  royal  sei>ulcher,  Neteler  has 
argued  that  he  had  l)een  smitten  with  some 
disease  which  was  regarded  as  a  divine  judg- 
ment on  his  sin.  Being  incapacitated  for  ac- 
tive participation  in  the  aliairs  of  state,  Heze- 
kiah  was  made  active  ruler.  Hezekiah  is 
said  to  have  begun  to  reign  at  the  age  of  25, 
but  the  number  seems  to  be  corrupt.  He  was 
a  devoted  servant  of  Jehovah,  and  commenced 
his  reign  by  repairing  and  cleansing  the  tem- 
ple, reorganizing  its  religious  services  and  its 
officers,  and  celebrating  a  great  passover,  to 
which  he  invited  not  merely  the  two  tribes, 
but  the  ten  (2  Chron.  xxix.  1-xxx.  13).  He 
removed  the  high  places,  cast  down  the  imagr^s, 
and  broke  in  ]iieces  the  brazen  serpent  which 
Moses  had  made,  but  which  had  become  an 
object  of  idolatrous  worship.  He  gaini'd  a 
victory  over  the  Philistines,  and  in  other 
ways  became  great  and  prosperous.  In  his 
fourth  regnal  year,  724  B.  C,  Shalmaneser 
commenced,  and  in  722  B.  C.  Sargon  com- 
pleted, the  siege  of  Samaria,  carrying  the  ten 
tribes  into  ca]>tivity  (2  Kin.  xviii.  9.  10).  In 
714  B.  c,  according  to  the  nn  Ihod  of  reckon- 
ing already  employed  by  the  Hi'brew  annalist, 
began  the  series  of  Assyrian  invasions  which 
formeil  a  marked  feature  of  Hezekiah's  reign 
and  terminated  disastrously  for  Assyria.  The 
biblical  account  of  these  events  is  jiresented 
as  a  connected  narrative.  It  falls  into  three 
sections  :  the  beginning  of  the  invasions  aliout 
714  (2  Kin.  xviii.  13  :  Is.  xxxvi.  1  :  proliably  2 
Chron.  xxxii.  1-8  ;  cj).  invasion  of  Philistia  in 
711,  Is.  XX,  1) ;  the  main  canii>aign  of  701,  in 
its  first  stage  (2  Kin.  xviii.  14-lti),  and  in  its 
final  stage  (17-xix.  35 ;  2  Chron.  xxxii.  9-21  ; 
Is.  xxxvi.  2-xxxvii.  30)  :  and  the  end  of  the 
troubler  in  081  (2  Kin.  xix.  3(),  37  :  Is.  xxxvii. 
37,  38).     Sargon  was  still  on  the  throne  of 


Hezekiah 


295 


Hezron 


Assyria  in  714  :  but  lie  had  |il:u<(l  his  smi  Son- 
iiaciiiTil)  ill  ]ii;;li  military  |")sitioii  hcCoic  tliat 
<iatf,  and  Siiiiiaiiierii)  may  iiavc  lc<l  tlie 
troiijis  of  liis  I'athiT  wiiicdi  in  72i>  or  71")  and 
the  hi'-^iiiniiifi  of  711,  iirolcihly  at  thi-  latter 
(late,  "  suhjii;;att.-(l  .hnlali  "  according  to  tiie 
Assyrian  account,  when  the  main  army  of 
Assyria  was  waj^in;;  war  to  the  north  and  east 
of  Assyria.  Apparently  immediately  after 
the  hefiinni!!}:  of  these  invasions,  in  714, 
Hezekiah  was  sick,  i)rol)al>ly  from  a  carhnn- 
<-ie,  and  iiijili  unto  death  :  hut  was  {iranted  a 
new  lease  of  life  for  lifteeii  years  ci  Kin.  xx. 
l-ll  :  Is.  xxxviii.).  To  intpiirc  into  the  sijiu 
wliidi  llezekiali  received  at  this  time  was 
the  ostensihie  ohject  of  an  emhassy  from 
.MeriMlach-tiahidan,  kin;^  of  liahylim.  The 
real  ohject  was  to  persuade  .Judah's  kiiij;  to 
join  the  }{reat  confederacy  which  was  heing 
secretly  lormed  ajrainst  the  Assyrian  lujwer, 
lle/.ekiali  was  quite  elated  hy  the  coming  of 
tlie  Maliylonian  amliassadors,  and  (lisi)layed 
to  them  his  linancial  resources;  hut  the 
prophet  Isaiah  warned  him  tiiat  the  peo- 
ple of  Judali  wowld  be  carried  captive  to 
that  sanu'  i)lace  from  which  the  ambas.sa- 
<lor>  had  come  ("J  Kin.  xx.  12-1!>;  2  Chron. 
xxxii.  :;i  ;  Is.  xxxix.  1-^).  Hezekiah  joined 
the  confederacy.  SarfiDii,  who  was  an  able  j 
fH'iieral,  broke  in  upon  the  allies  l)efore  their 
]danswere  matured.  His  expedition  against  J 
Ashdod,  conducted  by  his  tartan  (Is.  xx.  1), 
took  i)lace  in  711.  ami  was  occasictned  by  the 
refusal  of  riiilistia,  .ludah,  Edom,  and  Moab 
to  i>ay  tribute.  In  710  he  dethroned  Mero- 
dacli-))aladau  and  made  himself  king  of  Maby- 
lonia.  In  70,")  Sargon  was  murdered,  and  his  | 
son  .'^ennacheribascended  tiie  .Assyrian  throne.  I 
'i'bis  cliange  of  rulers  was  the  signal  for  new  | 
ui)riNings.  To  ([uell  revolt  in  the  west,  .Sen- 
nacherib advanced  as  far  as  the  country  of 
the  I'liilistines  in  701.  coiuiiiering  rinenicia 
on  the  way  and  receiving  envoys  from  Ash- 
dod, .\mmon,  .Moab,  and  lOdom  suing  for 
])eace.  Many  towns  still  held  out,  and  .'Sen- 
nacherib i>rocee(led  against  .Iop[ia.  IJeth- 
dagon,  Aslikelon,  and  other  i)laces.  Turning 
eastward,  he  captured  Lachish,  pitching  his 
<-anip  there,  and  receiving  tribute  from  the 
teriified  llezekiali.  This  tribute  consisted 
of  thirty  talents  of  gold,  three  hundred,  or, 
according  to  the  Assyrian  scribe  who  jierhaps 
computes  by  a  lighter  standard,  eight  luin- 
<lre<l  talents  of  silver.  Besides  this,  accord- 
ing to  the  .\ssyrian  report,  were  i)recious 
stones,  costly  woods,  articles  of  ivory,  daugh- 
ters of  Hezekiah,  women  of  the  i)aiace.  and 
others.  'I'o  obtain  the  precious  metals,  Heze- 
kiah slri])|ie(l  the  doors  and  iiillars  of  the 
temple  ot'  thi'ir  plating.  News,  however, 
reached  Sennacherib  while  still  at  Lachish 
of  an  alliance  1)etween  the  I'hilistine  towns 
and  l^Kypt  aiul  i;ihio|)ia  (2  Kin.  xviii.  21, 
21),  and,  unwilling  to  have  so  strong  a  for- 
tress as  ,Ierusaleni  in  his  rear,  he  sent  a  do- 
tachnient  from  his  army  to  garrison  the  city. 
Hezekiah  luid  heard  of  the  advance  of  the 


southern  army,  and  of  tlie  sturdy  resistance 
of  Kkron  to  the  Assyrians.  His  faith  iu 
.lehovah  also  revived  under  the  exhorta- 
tions of  l.saiah,  and  lie  refused  to  admit 
the  Assyrian  troojis  into  the  city.  In  the 
meantime  the  Assyrian  king  had  broken 
cain|i  at  Lachish  and  tallen  back  on  Libnah 
(2  Kin.  xix.  S).  Hearing  of  Hezekiah's  new 
attitude  of  deliance,  lie  (lis])atched  messen- 
gers with  threatening  letters  to  him,  vowing 
future  vengeance;  and,  not  daring  to  meet 
the  Kgyi)tians  and  Ethiopians  while  Kkron 
and  ,(i'rusaleni  were  in  his  rear,  hi'  retreated 
to  Eltekeh.  There  the  battle  took  i)lace.  The 
Egyptians  were  rei)ulscd.  but  tbe  s]ioils  of 
victory  were  inconsiderable.  Sennacherib 
now  turned  his  attention  to  the  bostih'  towns 
in  the  vicinity.  His  devastation  and  his  ad- 
vance toward  .leni.salem  were  only  terminated 
hy  the  sudden  plague  wliicli  smote  his  army, 
whereby  in  one  night  1>^."),000  of  his  warriors 
])erished  (2  Kin.  xix.  .'5.'),  :!(i).  See  Si:nx.\- 
ciiKUiH.  Besides  Isaiah.  Hosea  and  Micah 
were  contemi)oraries  of  Hezekiah  tllos.  i.  1  ; 
Mic.  i.  1).  The  king  died  about  ()9S,  leaving 
his  son  Manasseli  to  ascend  the  throne  (2  Kin. 
XX.  21  ;  2  Chron.  xxxii.  -i'l). 

2.  An  ancestor  of  tiie  i)rnphet  Zephaniah 
(Zepb.  i.  1  :  in  A.  V.  Hizkiah). 

3.  A  son  of  Ncariah,  akin  to  the  royal  fam- 
ily of  Judali  (1  t'liron.  iii.  2.'5i. 

4.  A  man  of  whose  descendants  through 
Ater  some  returned  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra 
ii.  l(i ;  Neh.  vii.  21).  Probably  it  was  the  rep- 
resentative of  his  family  who  signed  the  cov- 
enant under  Neheuiiahs  rule  (Neh.  x.  17;  in 
A.  V.  Hizkijah). 

He'zi-on  [vision]. 

Father  of  Tabrimmon  and  grandfather  of 
Benhadad,  king  of  Syria  (1  Kin.  xv.  18). 

He'zir  [a  swine,  a  pig]. 

1.  A  descendant  of  Aaron.  His  lamily  had 
grown  to  a  father's  house  in  the  time  of  David 
and  became  the  seventeenth  course  of  the 
priests  (1  {'hroii.  xxiv.  1.")). 

2.  A  chief  of  the  jieople  who  with  Nehemiah 
.sealed  the  covenant  (Neh.  x.  20). 

Hez'rai  [enclosed]. 

A  Carmelite,  one  of  David's  mighty  men 
(2  Sam.  xxiii.  .3,5).  In  1  Chron.  xi.  •'57  called 
Hezro,  a  dilference  <b>ublless  due  to  an  an- 
cient senile's  confusion  of  jod  and  vau.  See 
V.\f. 

Hez'ro.     .See  Hezr.xi. 

Hez'ron,  in  .\.  V.  of  N.  T.  Esrom  i  .Mat.  i. 
3),  in  iiiiilation  of  the  (Jreek  modilication  of 
the  natiie  [shut  in.  surrouniled]. 

1.  A  jilace  on  the  southern  boundary  line 
of  .ludah,  not  far  from  Zin  and  Kadi'sh-barnea 
(.losli.  xv.  3|  ;  i)erhaps  the  town  Hazor  (ver. 
2.'{l.  It  was  near  enough  A<blar  lo  be  coupled 
with  it  in  the  form  Ilazar-addar  (Num.  xxxiv, 
4).  For  Kerioth-hezron  (,Iosh.  xv.  2."),  K.  V.). 
see  Hazou  2. 


Hiddai 


296 


High  Places 


2.  A  son  of  Reuben,  and  founder  of  the 
Hezronite  family  ((iin.  xlvi.  9;  Ex.  vi.  14; 
Num.  xxvi.  () :   1  Chron.  v.  '3). 

'.i.  Sou  of  rurez,  uf  the  tribe  of  Judah,  and 
founder  of  a  tribal  family  (Gen.  xlvi.  12; 
Num.  xxvi.  21 ;  Kuth  iv.  18;  1  Chron.  ii.  5). 

Hid'dai  [Joyful]. 

A  niau  froui  the  brooks  of  Gaash.  He  was 
ouenf  David's  heroes  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  30).  Called 
in  1  (liniii.  xi.  '42.  Hurai. 

Hid'de-kel  [a  Persian  word  for  arrow  has 
been  heard  in  the  name,  giviuj;  rise  to  an  an- 
cient iuteri)retati()n  "  swift  as  an  arrow."'  The 
orii^inal  form  of  the  name  should  be  sought 
in  the  language  of  Babylonia.  I-digna  is  at- 
tested, ancl  Friedrich  Delitzsch  interprets  it 
as  meaning  "  river  with  high  banks,"  or  sim- 
ply "the  stream"]. 

The  river  Tigris,  which  goeth  in  front  of 
Assyria  (Gen.  ii.  14,  R.  V.;  Dan.  x.  4).  It  is 
still"  called  Hiddekel  by  a  large  portion  of  the 
people  living  near  its  banks.  Its  iirincipal 
sources  in  central  Armenia  spring  from  the 
southern  slope  of  Anti-Taurus.  The  western 
flows  by  Diarbekr.winding  forabove  150  miles. 
The  twoeastern, known  as  BitlisChaiand  Boh- 
tan  Chai,  rise  south  of  lake  Van,  and  are  about 
100  miles  long.  After  the  junction  of  these 
streams  the  river  proceeds  nearly  east-south- 
east, through  the  Kurdistan  mountains,  grad- 
ually increased  by  various  affluents,  esiiecially 
the  greater  and  lesser  Zab  and  the  Diyalah 
from  the  eastern,  with  smaller  feeders  from 
the  western  side,  finally  joining  the  Euphra- 
tes. In  antiquity,  it  emptied  through  its 
own  mouth  into  the  Persian  Gulf.  In  its 
course  it  passes  the  ruins  of  Nineveh,  which 
lie  on  tlie  left  or  eastern  bank,  nearly  op- 
posite Mosul  on  its  right  side.  Lower  down 
it  separates  Bagdad  into  two  portions;  and 
afterwards  passes  the  ruins,  first  of  Ctesiphon, 
the  Parthian  capital,  and  then  those  of  Seleu- 
cia,  which,  under  the  Greek  dynasty,  became 
the  rival  of  Babylon.  The  whole  course  of 
the  Tigris  to  its  junction  with  the  Euphrates 
is  1146  miles,  only  a  little  more  than  half  the 
length  of  the  sister  stream. 

Hi'el  [proba})ly,  God  loveth]. 

A  native  of  Bethel,  who.  in  Ahab's  reign, 
fortified  .Tericho,  bringing  down  on  himself 
the  fulfillment  of  .Joshua's  imprecation.  His 
eldest  son,  Abiram,  died  when  the  founda- 
tion of  the  city  was  laid,  and  his  younge.st 
son,  Segub,  when  the  gates  were  set  up  (1 
Kin.  xvi.  :>4  with  Josh.  vi.  2(i). 

Hi-e-rap'o-lis  [sacred  city]. 

A  city  in  Asia  ^Vfinor,  in  the  valley  of  the 
Lycos  near  the  confluence  witli  the  Meander. 
Not  far  distant  were  Colossii'  aii<l  Laodicea 
(Col.  iv.  13).  It  was  a  scat  of  worship  of  the 
Syrian  goddess  Atargatis,  and  was  celebrated 
for  its  warm  baths.  It  is  now  called  Pambuk- 
Kalah-si. 

Hig-ga'ion  [a  deej)  sound  ;  meditation]. 

A  unisical  term  occurring  in  Ps.  ix.  16.  The 
word  is  used  ehsewhere  in  the  .sense  of  solemn 


sound,  meditation  (Ps.  xix.  14  ;  xcii.  3  ;  Lam. 
iii.  63). 

High'  Pla-ces. 

Elevated  s])ots  selected  as  shrines  for  the 
worship  of  God  or  of  false  divinities,  or  the 
shrines  themselves.  The  Canaanites  possessed 
them,  and  the  Israelites  were  directed  to  de- 
stroy them  when  they  gained  the  power  to 
do  so  by  entering  Canaan  (Num.  xxxiii.  .52; 
Deut.  xxxiii.  29).  The  Moabites  also  had 
high  places  (Num.  xxi.  28;  Is.  xv.  2;  Jer. 
xlviii.  35).  Immorality  seems  to  have  been 
common  on  the  way  to  those  shrines  (Jer.  iii. 
2;  cp.  2  Chron.  xxi.  11).  Sometimes  high 
places  were  used  by  the  Israelites  for  the 
worshi]!  of  Jehovah  ;  but  this  was  forbidden 
by  law,  which  insisted  upon  (me  altar  for  all 
Israel.  The  purpose  of  this  law  was  to  foster 
the  national  spirit  and  guard  against  schism, 
to  prevent  the  people  from  worshiping  at 
idolatrous  shrines,  and  to  secure  the  support 
of  a  national  sanctuary  which  would  enable 
the  worship  of  Jehovah  to  be  conducted  on  a 
scale  of  magnificence  commensurate  with  his 
glory,  and  equal,  if  not  superior,  to  the  pomp 
displayed  at  the  heathen  temples.  They  were 
legitimate  only  during  the  time  that  the  na- 
tional sanctuary  had  temporarily  ceased,  dur- 
ing tlie  i)erii((l  when  Jehovah  liad  forsaken 
Shiloh  and  the  temple  was  not  vet  erected  (Ps. 
Ixxviii.  60,  61,  67-69:  1  Kin.  iii.  2,  4).  They, 
or  at  least  sacrifices  elsewhere  than  at  Jerusa- 
lem, were  also  legitimate  in  the  northern 
kingdom  when  the  pious  were  precluded  from 
attendance  at  Jerusalem,  and  could  not  wor- 
ship Jehovah  at  all,  unless  according  to  the 
primitive  law  (1  Kin.  xviii.  30-32) ;  see  Alt.\r. 
Solomon,  sinfully  complying  with  the  wishes 
of  his  heathen  wives,  erected  high  places  in 
the  mount  of  Corrui)tion  for  Ashtoreth,  Che- 
mosh,  and  Milcom  or  Molech  (2  Kin.  xxiii. 
13).  Jeroboam,  to  counteract  the  influence 
of  the  national  sanctuary  at  Jerusalem,  made 
a  house  of  high  places  at  Bethel  and  or- 
dained priests  (1  Kin.  xii.  31,  32  ;  xiii.  33), 
purposing  the  adoration  of  Jehovah,  but  by 
idolatrous  symbols  (xii.  28-33  ;  xiii.  2).  These 
places  were  denounced  by  the  jirophets  (xiii. 
1.  2;  Hos.  X.  8).  Not  merely  at  Pxtliel.  but 
at  other  cities  iu  Samaria,  did  schismatic 
high  places  exist  (1  Kin.  xiii.  32 ;  2  Kin. 
xvii.  .32:  2  Chron.  xxxiv.  3).  The  action  of 
Asa  and  .Tehoshaphat  in  the  kingdom  of 
Judah  with  regard  to  high  ]ilaces  was  in- 
effective (1  Kin.  XV.  14  with  2  Chron.  xiv.  3; 
XV.  17:  1  Kin.  xxii.  43  with  2  Chron.  xvii.  6). 
Jehoram,  Jehoshaphat'sson.  made  high  ])laces 
in  the  mountains  of  Judah  (2  Chron.  xxi.  11). 
So  (lid  Aliaz,  and  that  too  for  tlie  W(M-shii)  of 
false  divinities,  where  he  sacrificed  and  burnt 
incense  (xxviii.4, 25).  Jlezekiah  broke  them 
down  (2  Kin.  xviii.  4.  22),  but  they  were  re- 
erected  byMana.sseh  (2  Chnm.  xxxiii.  3).  and 
again  removed  by  Josiah  (2  Kin.  xxiii.  13). 
The  high  places  were  denounced  by  the 
prophets  (Ezek.  vi.  3). 


High  Priest 


297 


High  Priest 


Higti'  Priest. 

The  siiinviin'  iioiitiff  and  tlie  representa- 
tive ot'  llie  natiiiii  Itefore  Jeluivah.  Aarou 
was  ajipiiiiited  to  this  (dlice  after  tlie  ostab- 
lisliineiit  of  the  covenant  at  Sinai  and  after 
the  erection  of  the  tabernacle  had  l)een  aii- 
tliori/.ed  (Kx.  xxvii.  'Jl  ;  xxviii.).  The  refer- 
ence in  Ex.  xvi.  'S.i,  .>1,  wliere  Moses  l)ids 
Aaron  lay  up  a  pot  of  manna  before  ihe  Lord, 
is  not  an  anticijiation  of  this  call  ;  for  the 
command  was  probably  issued  by  Most-s  at  a 
later  time,  at  least  it  was  obeyed  by  Aaron  at 
a  later  time,  and  is  recorded  here  because  the 
entire  story  of  the  manna  is  related  here 
(31-35).  The  first  hint  that  it  was  inii>ortaut 
for  the  sons  of  Aaron  to  be  admitted  to  the 
jtrivile^ie  enjoyed  by  tlii'  lidcrs  of  Israel  was 
given  after  the  covenant  had  been  proclaimed 
(Ex.  xxiv.  1,  9).  The  distinction  accorded 
them,  however,  did  not  sngfiest  the  national 
]iriestliood  to  them,  .\aron  was  not  the  inie.st 
of  the  nation  at  this  time,  lie  was  the  pinphet 
of  .Moses.  The  addition  of  his  sons  to  the 
eomnnssion  appointed  towitnes.sa  manifesta- 
tion of  God's  fjlory  nught  suyjLrest  that  Aaron's 
l)n'sent  olHce  was  to  be  inherited  by  his  sons. 
At  any  rate  it  foreshadowid  their  call  to 
future  work.  The  lejial  head  of  the  house 
of  Aanjn  held  the  otlice  of  high  jiriest ;  and 
the  succession  was  probably  deternnned  by 
primogeniture,  unless  legal  disabilities  inter- 
fered (Lev.  xxi.  l()-".^3).  Political  considera- 
tions, also,  not  infrecjuently  i)layed  a  part  in 
his  .selection  (1  Kin.  ii.  "JG,  27,  '.i't).  His  age 
wlien  he  might  assume  oflice  was  twenty,  ac- 
cording to  tradition.  Aristobuliis,  however, 
otliciated  when  he  was  si'venteiii  (Antiq.  xv. 
3,  3).  He  must  govern  his  conduct  by-sjiecial 
hiws  (Lev.  xxi.  1-L")).  }Iis  duties  were  the 
oversight  of  the  sanctuary,  its  service,  and  its 
treasure  {2  Kin.  xii.  7  secj. ;  xxii.  4)  ;  the  jier- 
formance  of  the  service  on  the  day  of  atone- 
ment, when  he  was  obliged  to  enter  the  holy 
of  holies,  and  the  consultation  oft  iod  by  I'l'im 
andThummim.  Resides  these-  distinguishing 
<lutii's,  he  was  (lualitied  to  discharge  any 
priestly  function  ;  and  it  was  customary  for 
him  to  otl'er  the  sacrifici's  on  Sabbaths,  new 
moons,  and  annual  lestivals  (War  v.  .">.  7).  He 
preside(l  also  over  the  sanhedrin  when  relig- 
ious (juestions  were  before  that  body  (Mat. 
xxvi.  r)7;  Acts  V.  21).  His  otlicial  garments, 
besides  the  raiment  of  white  liiu'n  which  he 
wore  in  common  with  other  jiriests  ((|.  v.) 
were — 1.  IJreastplate  :  sipiare.  made  of  gold, 
and  lihu'.  purple,  scarlet,  and  fine  twisted 
linen,  .set  with  four  rows  of  ]irecious  stones, 
three  in  a  row,  each  inscribed  with  the  name 
of  a  tribe.  Within  the  breastiilale  were  the 
Trim  and  Thumniim  ((|.  v.).  2.  Ephod  :  an  em- 
broidered vestment  of  the  same  ri<'h  materials 
as  the  breasti)late.  It  was  int<'ndi'd  for  the 
front  anil  back  of  the  liody,  and  was  made  in 
two  ]iarls  clasped  together  al  the  shouliler 
by  onyx  stones.  Each  stone  bore  the  names 
of  six  tribes.  The  e])ho(l  carried  on  its  front 
tlie   breastplate,  and  was   bound    about   the 


waist  by  a  girdle  of  gold,  blue,  purple,  scarlet 
and  fine  twisted  linen.  3.  Kobe  of  the  ephod  : 
which  was  longer  than  the  ejihod,  and  worn 


High  Priest. 

Drnwu  from  tlie  bitilical  dtsciiption. 

underneath  it,  entirely  blue,  sleeveless,  and 
adorned  below  with  a  fringe  of  alti-rnate  ]i<iuie- 
granatesand  golden  bells;  see  Rki.i..  4.  Miter: 
a  cap  or  1 11  rban,  made  t)f  linen  and  surmounted, 
in  later  times  at  least,  by  another  of  blue, 
and  this  in  turn  by  a  trijjle  crown  of  gold. 
A  gold  plate,  bearing  the  iiiscrijjtion  Holiness 
to  Jehovah,  was  fastened  to  the  front  liy  a 
blue  ribbon  (Ex.  xxviii.;  Ecchis.  xlv.  ^-]3; 
Anti<i.  iii.  7,  l-() ;  cp.  1  Mac.  x.  20).  The  high 
priest  wore  this  otlicial  garb  when  discharg- 
ing his  peculiar  duties,  except  that  on  the 
day  of  atonement  he  laid  it  aside  while  he 
entered  the  holy  of  holies  to  make  atonement 
for  the  ]iriesthood  and  the  sanctuary.  The 
mode  of  ctmsecration  isdi'scribed  in  Ex.  xxi.x. 
Among  other  ceremonies  the  .sjured  oil  was 
poured  upon  his  head  (7;  Lev.  viii.  12;  I*s. 
cxxxiii.  2).  and  hence  by  way  of  distinction 
he  is  designated  the  anointed  jiriest  (Lev.  iv. 
3,  5,  l(i;  xxi.  10;  Num.  xxxv.  2.">).  The  com- 
mon i)rii'sts  seem  to  have  been  consecrated  by 
having  the  oil  sjirinkled  on  their  garments 
only  (Ex.  xxix.  21  ;  Lev.  viii.  30);  but  rab- 
binical tradition  makes  the  diH'»'rence  consist 
in  the  ((uantity  of  oil  nsed.  It  was  ]ioured 
abundantly  on  the  head  of  the  high  priest 
and  si)aringly  upon  the  heads  of  the  ordinary 
jiriests.  .\t  first  the  high-priesthood  was  for 
life,  but  H<'rod,  and  afterwanls  the  Ki'mans, 
jealous  of  the  jxiwer  whi<li  a  life  tenure  of 
the  otlice  gave  to  the  high  i)riest.  made  and 
unmade  the  jiontiUs  at  will.  Jesus  is  the 
Ili.Lih  Priest  of  our  profession,  of  whom  the 
.Iewi>h  cliLiiiilary  of  the  sjinie  designation  was 
only  the  tvpe  (Ileb.  iii.  1-3;  viii.  l-(i:  ix.  21- 
2S).'  Eorthe  chief  i»riests  of  the  X.  T.,  see 
Priest.s.  end  of  the  article. 


High  Priest 


298 


High  Priest 


The  Line  of  the  Uigu  Pkiests. 

I.  Pi-om  the  Eftahlishment  of  the  Aaronic  Pitesithood  to  the  Kzile.—The  biblical  catalogues  are  two 
(1  ('hrf)n.  vi.  l-l.j;  Kzni  vii.  1-5),  each  of  which  omits  links  of  the  genealogy,  as  is  quite  usual  in 
Hebrew  genealogical  tables. 

Levi. 


f 

Gershon. 


Kohath. 


I 
Merari. 


Amram. 


Izhar. 


I 
Hebron. 


I'zziel. 


I 
Aaron. 


Moses  (I  Chron.  xxiii.  13;.        Miriam. 


Nadab. 


Abihu. 


Eleazar. 

I 

Phinehas. 

I 

Abistiua. 

I 

Bukki. 


Ithamar. 


Eli,  Buccoeiied  Abisliua  or  I'zzi  (Antiq.  viii.  1,  3;  v. 

I  11.  o). 


Uzzi. 


Zerahiah. 


Meraioth. 


Amariah. 


Hophni.  Phinehas,   officiated  (hiring'  tlie   lifetime   of 

I  liis  t'atlier.  wlio  l>_v  reiison  of  age 

resigned  the  office  to  him  (An- 
il. -I). 


tlq. 


Ark  in  tTie  country  of  the  Philistines  seven     Ahitub. 
niontlis  (1  Sam.  vi.  1) :  tlien  in  Kirjatli-  I 

jearim  twenty  years  (1  Sam.  vii.  2),  until 
tlie  second  battle  of  Ebenezer,  aiid  for 
years  afterwards,  until  David  removed  it.  I 


Ichabod. 


Ahijah,    in    Sbiloh    wearing  | 

ephod  (1   Sam.  xiv.     Ahimelech  H  .Sam.  xxii.  0, 11, 12). 


Ahitub. 

In  default  of  a  son  of  Ahim- 
elech  in  Saul's  reign  to  take 
cliargeof  the  tabernacle,  the 
duty  devolved  upon  the  head 
of  the  other  priestly  line. 

ZadOk,  perhaps  1  Chron.  xii.  27,  28. 


3.  18).  Arkorephod 
(LXX. ;  cp.  ver.  19) 
taken  temporarily 
to  Gibeah. 


Priest  at  Nob,  showbread 
and  epliud  mentioned  (1 
Sam.  xxi.  1,  2,  4,  ti,  9). 
Slain  with  8.5  otliers  (1 
Sam.  xxii.  11-18).  Nob 
I>ut  to  the  sword  (1  Sam. 
xxii.  19). 


and  Abiatliar  follow  David 


Abiathar,  escaped  and  fled  to  David  (1  Pani.  xxii. 
211)  ;  with  an  ephod  (xxxiii.  6,  9 ;  xxx.  7). 
Ark  removed  fmm  Kirjatli-.jearim  and  de- 
posited in  the  house  of  Obed-edmn  (2  Sam. 
vi.  1-11  ;  1  Chron.  xiii.  13,  14).  Transferred 
to  the  city  of  David  (2  Sam,  vi.  12  seq.). 
Zadolv  and  Abiathar  the  priests  assist  (1 
Chron  xv.  11,  12).  Ark  placed  in  a  tent 
and  an  altar  erected  (2  Sam.  vi.  12.  17;  cp. 
vii  2).  Zadok  and  Aliimelech,  son  of  Abia- 
thar, are  named  as  the  priests  during  a  cer- 
tain period  of  Daviil's  reign  (2  .Sam.  viii.  17; 
1  Chron.  xviii.  16).  The  date  is  uircertain ; 
it  is  not  improbably  after  Absalom's  revolt. 

Zadok,  and  the  Levites  bearing  the  ark, 

in  his  flight  (2  Sam.  xv.  24  seq.).  Zadok  and 
Abiathar  are  called  the  priests  (2  Sam.  xv. 
Sf) ;  xvii.  l.T ;  ,\ix.  11;  XX.  25).  Their  sons 
who  serve  as  messengers  are  .\hiniaaz  and 
Jonathan  respectively  (2  Sam.  xv.  27,301.  In 
the  attempt  to  debar  Solomon  from  the  suc- 
cession and  advance  Adonijah, 

Zadok  is  loyal  to  David  (1  Kin.  i.  8).  Abiathar  favors  Adonijah  (1  Kin.  i.  7). 

Zadok  and  Ahlmelech,  son  of  Abiathar, 
superintend  tlie  division  of  the  priests  into 
courses  (1  Chron.  xxiv.  3.  fi,  31).  They  do 
this  as  tlie  active  heads  of  their  respective 
fathers'  houses.  In  consequence  of  a  second 
consiiiracy  in  favor  of  Adonijah,  made  after 
Scdiunon  had  ascended  the  throne, 

Zadok  is  put  into  the  room  of  Abiathar  (1  Kin.  ii.  20,  3;")). 


High  Priest  299  High  Priest 

Hy  till'  lifpoi-itiuri  nf  Aliiatliiir,  the  house 
of  Kli  tails  (1  Kill.  ii.  21),  iiiid 
Zadok  i^  -"1..  higli  i.ii.st. 
Aliimaaz. 
Azariali. 

Amariab,  <liii-f  inicst  in  tlie  n-ipn  of  Jelioshaiiliat,  al)Out  8.")3  B.  C.  (2  Chron.  xix.  11). 
JellOiada,  in  the  ii.-i(;ii.s  of  Athaliah  ami  .loaHli,  ilyiiig  iu  the  reign  of  Joa»h  at  tlie  age  of  Z30 

jears  (2  Kill.  xi.  4-1'J;  xii.  2;  2  C'liioii   xxii.  loiseq. ;  xxiv.  1;')}. 
Zecbariall,  fun  "f  Jehoiada,  perhupH  high  prieut,  tiluiu  by  JohsIi  lietween  bl9  and  805  B.  c.  (2  C'liron. 

xxiv.  20,  22). 

Johanan. 

Azariah,  who  oOiciatiMl  iu  the  temple  at  Jenisaleni  about  7oO  B.  c,  in  the  reign  of  U/.ziah  (1  Chron.  vi.  10; 
2  C'hioii.  xxvi.  17). 

Urijah,  about  7:!2  b.  c,  in  the  reign  of  Aliaz  (2. Kin.  xvi.  10). 

Azariah,  about  727  b.  c,  iu  the  reigu  of  Uezekiah  (2  Chron.  xxxi.  10,  13). 
Amariah. 
Aliitub. 

Meraioth  (i  rin-on.  ix.  u  ;  Nrh.  xi.  ii). 
Zadok. 
Shallum  -i  MeshuUam  (i  chron.  vi  li;  ix.  ii). 

Hilkiah,  in  Hk-  liglUeentli  year  ol  the  reign  of  Josiah,  622  B.  c.  (1  Chron.  ix.  11 ;  2  Clirou.  xxxiv.  8,  9). 

Azariah. 
Seraiah. 

Jehozadak,  "ho  \va.s  carried  ciiptive  to  Habylonia  by  Nebuchadnezzar  in  ."jis"  B.  c.  (1  Chron.  vi.  15). 
Iiiiirviil  of  (illy  years  during  tiie  exile. 

1 1 .  I'lom  the  Exile  to  the  Macmbimn  I'lieds. 
Jeshua,  son  of  Jehozadak,  who  returned  from  captivity  w  itli   Ziiubbabel.  and  was  high  jiriist  from  at  least 

r>:iH  to  r,2f)  ii.  c.  (lOzia  ii  2;  'iii.  2;  N.-li.  xii.  10;  /ech.  i.  7  ;  iii   1  ;  vi.  11). 
Joiakim  (N'-h.  xii.  lO,  12),  in  the  days  of  [Ai  taJxLTXes  (Anliii.  xi.  5,  1). 
Eliashib,  in  the  twentieth  year  of  Artaxerxes,  44ij  is.  c,  and  still  in  office  after  i'S.i  B.  c.  (.Neli.  iii.  20;  xii.  10; 

xiii.  4,  C). 

Joiada. 

Jonathan  (NVh.  xii.  U),  or  rather  Johanan  (22,  2:i),  in  flnek  John,  Iiigli  priest  in  the  reign  of  Artaxerxes 

[Mnenion]  (.\nti(i   xi   7,  1 ;  c\i.  .i,  4),  who  occupied  the  throne  from  4ii5  to  :J62  B.  c. 
Jaddua,  bi-li  priest  wlien  Alexander  the  Great  visited  Jeiusalein,  332  it.  c,  anil  died  about  the  same  time  as 

.Mi-xaiidcr,  323  B.  o.  (Nell.  xii.  11 ;  Antiq.  xi.  8,  4  and  5  and  7). 
Onias,  in  Iblnew  perhaps  Coniali,  coiiteinpoiary  of  AriuB,  who  was  king  of  J^parta  from  about  309  to  205  B.  C. 

(1  Mac.  xii.  7,  M ;  Antiq.  xi.  8,  7). 
Simon  the  Just,  son  of  Onia.s. 

Eleazar,  fon  of  OniasaiKl  brother  of  Simon,  in  the  time  of  Ptolemy  IMiiladelphns,  who  reigned  from  285  to 

247  (.Xntii].  xii.  2,  5). 
Manasseh,  nnclc  of  Eleazar  (.\ntiii.  xii.  4,  1). 
Onias  II.,  sou  of  Simon  the  Just,  in  the  time  of  I'tolemv  Euergetes,  who  reigned  from  247  to  222  (Antiq.  xii. 

4,1). 
Simon  II.,  son  of  Onias  II.  (.Viiiiq.  xii.  4,  10). 
Onias  III.,  sou  of  .•^imou  II.,  in  till-  time  of  Seleucus  IV.,  cjilled  Philopator,  who  reigned  from  187  to  175  B.  C 

(2  :\Iac.  iii. ;  Antiij.  xii.  4,  lOi. 
Joshua,  ill  Greek  JeSUS,  !^on  of  Simon  II..  who  assumed  the  name  JaSOn,  induced  Antiochiis  Epiiihanea, 

who  leigiii'd  froin  17.")  to  IW  B.  c,  to  depose  Onias  (2  JIac.  iv.  7,  20-35).     Aftei 

holding  oilic  r  about  three  years,  Jason  was  supplanted,  about  171  It.  c,  by 
MenelaUS,  called  also  Onias,  ■■-"n  of  Simon  II.  (Antiq.  xii.  5.  1  ;  XV.  3,  1).     According  to  2  Mac.  iv.  2:5,  he  was 

tlie  bidtlier  of  Simon  the  Heiijamite.     Menelaus  held  office  ten  years  (Antiq.  xii   9, 

7  I,  and  was  put  t.i  death  in  the  tiiiu^  of  Judas  Maccabieus  (2  Mac.  xiii.  3-8|. 
Jakim,  with  the  Greek  name  oi  Alcimus,  "bo  was  not  of  the  high-priestly   line,  although  of  the  stock  of 

Aaron,  put  in  olliie  bv  Demetrius,  101  B.  c,  and  retaiiied  office  three  years  (I  Mac. 

vii.  .".-!),  l-z-i".;  ix,  I,  54-50;  Antiq.  xii.  '.»,  7 ;  xx.  10,  1). 
Vacnnry  of  seven  years  (Antiq.  xx.  10,  1). 

nr.    Thr  Murrnba'an  Pria<t-kingii. 

Jonathan,  of  tlie  priestly  family  of  Joarib  (1  Mac.  iii.  1  ;  1  Chron.  xxiv.  7),  made  high  priest  in  l.">2  b.  c.  by 
Alexander  Italas,  who  was  contending  for  the  .Syiian  tlirone  (1  Mac.  x.  18-21),  and 
held  office  bir  seven  years  in  round  uumbers  (Antiq.  xx.  10,  1), 

Simon,  his  brother,  for  eight  years, 

John  HyrcanUS,  sou  of  Sin^.n,  for  thirty  years, 

AristObUlUS,  "'M  ..f  llynaniis,  for  one  year, 

Alexander  Jannseus,  ^>'f\  ol  llyrcanus,  lor  Iwcntj-seven  years, 

HyrcanUS,  -'n  of  Alexander,  for  nine  years 

ArlstObulUS,  son  of  Alexander,  for  Ibree  years  three  months, 

HyrcanUS,  •'  seciind  time,  for  tweiity-lonr  years,  from  03  n.  c, 

AntigOnUS,  son  of  Aristobulus,  for  three  years,  three  months,  until  Herod  the  Great  toi^k  pos-ession  of  Jeru- 
salem in  37  u,  c.  (Antiq  xiv,  10,  4;  xx,  lo,  1). 

1  X .  i'linn  the  Acrmsum  nf  Ilrro'l  the  Great  until  Jrrusalevi  ims  taken  l)i/  TOhjs.— luiring  thi.>i  perind  there 
were  twetity-eiglit  high  priests  (.\iitiq.  xx.  10,  1),  one  being  generally  removed  ti>  make  way  for  his 
successor. 
Appointoil  l.y  Tli-nid  the  'Irent,  king  frotii  37  to  \  B.  r. : 

Hananel,  in  i.aiini/ed  iJri'k  Ananelus  (.\ntiq.  xv.  2,  4). 

Aristobulus,  grundson  of  llynaniii,  f..r  one  year,  about  :i5  B,  r.  (.Vntiq  xv.  3,  1  and  3) 
Hananel,  a  second  time  (Antiq.  xv.  3, :'.). 
Jesus,  son  of  Phabes  (Antiq.  xv.  9,  3). 


Hilen 


300 


Hinnom,  Valley  of 


Simon,  sin  of  Bocthus  (Antiq.  xv.  9,  3),  from  about  24  t<)  5  B.  c. 

Matthias,  smi  of  ThHopliilns  iiiiii  son-in-law  of  Boetlius  (Antiq.  xvii.  4,  2). 

Joazar,  H"'i  of  Bocllms  (Aiiti(|   xvii.  fi,  4;  Hi,  1). 
Appointed  liv  .Vrc'lioliius,  who  rukMi  from  4  B.  c.  to  a.  l>.  6: 

Eleazar,  ^^oM  of  li(«-tliu8,  wIkp  ilid  not  iiliidi-  Ion;;  in  office  (Autiq.  xvii.  13,  1). 

Jesus,  s"n  lit  Sic  (Aiitiii.  xvii.  i:!,  1). 
AppointL'il  l)v  (iuiriniiis.  pifsi<leiit  of  Syria: 

Annas,  or  Ananus,  son  of  Sctli,  wlio   ol.tuiiKMl  the  office  in  A.  D.  Gor  7,  Joazar,  whom  the  multi- 
tiiiic  li;i(l  iiiailc  liitrli  iniust,  liciiifj  put  ilown  (Antiq.  xviii.  2,  1;  cp.  1,  1). 
Appoiiitod  bv  Valerivis  liratus.  iirofiirator  of  .ludaa  a.  d.  14-J'): 

Ismael,  son  of  IMiul.i,  «li.)  Ik-M  olticc  Ijiit  ;i  short  time  (Anti(i.  xviii.  2,  2). 

Eleazar,  son  of  Annas,  for  one  year  (Antiq.  xviii.  2,  2). 

Simon,  >"n  "f  Caniithns,  for  one  year  (Antiq.  xviii.  2,  2). 

Joseph  Caiaphas,  son-in-law  to  Annas,  from  about  A.  D.  18  to  36  (John  xviii.  13;  Antiq.  xviii.  4,  3). 
Appointtd  I'V  Vitclliiis,  president  of  Syria: 

Jonathan,  scjn  of  .\nnas,  in  A.  i>.  30  (.\ntiq.  xviii.  4,  2  anil  3  ;  cp.  xix.  G,  4;  xx.  8,  5). 

TheophilUS.  son  of  Annas,  in  a.  p.  37  (Antiq.  xviii.   5,  3). 
Appointed  hy  kiiiL'  Ilerod  Agrippa  I.,  who  reigned  from  A.  D.  41  to  44  : 

Simon  CantheraS,  son  of  Boethns  (Antiq.  xix.  G,  2). 

Matthias,  son  of  Annas  (Antiq.  xix.  0,  4). 

Elionseus,  son  of  Cantheras  (Antiq.  xix.  8,  1). 
Appointed  by  Herod,  king  of  Chaleis,  who  died  in  a.  d.  48: 

Joseph,  son  of  Caniydus  (Antiq.  xx.  1,  :i). 

Ananias,  son  of  Ni^'debajus  (Antic),  xx,  .'),  2).  sent  in  bonds  to  Rome  during  the  procuratorship  o» 
Cuinanr.s,  but  acquitted  and  still  in   office  in  A.  D.  57,  two  years  before  Felix  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Festus  (Acts  xxiii.  2;  xxiv.  1,  27). 
Appointed  by  king  Agrippa  11. : 

Ismael,  son  of  Pliabi  (Antiq.  xx.  8,  8),  about  A.  n.  59,  who  went  to  Rome  and  was  detained  there  as 
hostage  (xx.  8,  11). 

Joseph,  lallicl  Cabi,  son  of  the  former  high  priest  Simon  (Anticj.  xx.  8,  11). 

Annas,  son  ot   .\nnas.  for  three  months  in  a.  d.  62  (Antiq.  xx.  0,  1). 

Jesus,  s.pii  of  Dannutus  (Antiq.  xx.  9,  1). 

Jesus,  son  lit   (;ainaliel  (Antiq.  xx.  9,  4  ;  cp.  War  iv.  5,  2). 

Matthias,  son  of  Theophilus,  appointed  aliout  A.  r>.  64  (Antiq.  xx.  9,  7). 
Made  liitxh  [iriest  by  tlie  people  during  the  war: 

Phanas,  or'PhanniaS,  son  of  Samuel  (Antiq.  XX.  10;  War  iv.  :5,  8). 


Hl'len.     See  IIolon  1. 

Hll-ki'ah  [portion  of  Jehovah  (cp.  Job 
xxxi.  2),  or  Jehovah  is  the  portion  (cp.  Ps. 
xvi.  5)]. 

1.  A  Levite,  son  of  Amzi,  descended  from 
Merari  (1  Chron.  vi.  45.  46). 

2.  Another  Merarite  Levite,  son  of  Hosah 
(1  Chron.  xxvi.  11). 

3.  Father  of  Eliakim,  who  was  over  the 
household  in  Hezekiah's  reign  (2  Kin.  xviii. 
18,  26;  Is.  xxii.  20;  xxxvi.  .S). 

4.  A  priest,  fatlier  of  Jeremiah  (Jer.  i.  1). 

5.  Father  of  Jeremiah's  contemporary  Gem- 
ariah  (Jer.  xxix.  3). 

6.  The  high  priest  contemporary  with  Jo- 
siah,  wlio  aided  the  king  in  his  reformation 
of  religion,  and  found  the  book  of  the  law 
(2  Kin.  xxii.  4-14  ;  xxiii.  4  ;  1  Chron.  vi.  13; 
2  Chron.  xxxiv.  9-22).     See  Josiah. 

7.  A  chief  of  the  priests  who  returned  from 
Babylon  with  Zerubbabel  (Xeh.  xii.  7).  In 
the  next  generation  a  father's  house  bore  this 
name  (ver.  21). 

8.  One  of  tho.se  who  stood  by  Ezra  when 
he  read  the  law  to  the  people  (Neh.  viii.  4). 

Hill. 

A  conspicuous  tiatural  elevation  of  land. 
The  name  is  generally  ap])licd  to  a  nattiral 
eminence  .smaller  than  a  mountain  aiul  larger 
than  a  mound  ;  but  the  terms  are  relative, 
thi>  same  height  being  sometimes  known  by 
both  names  (Is.  xxxi.  4),  or  called  a  moun- 
tain in  otie  locality  and  a  bill  in  another 
(Kev.  xvii.  9).  Hill  is  clii(>fly  the  rendering 
of  the  Hebrew  (I'lh'ah  tmd  the  Creek  Bounos. 
Not  infrefjuently  it  is  al.so  employed  in  the 


A.  v.,  and  much  less  frequently  in  the  E.  V, 
(Ps.  ii.  6:  iii.  4  ;  xv.  1  ;  xxiv.  3;  xlii.  6;  Mat. 
V.  14  ;  Luke  iv.  29),  to  translate  Hebrew  Uar 
and  Greek  '  Oros,  which  are  usually  rendered 
mountain. 

Hil'lel  [he  hath  praised]. 

Father  of  Abdon  the  judge  (Judg.  xii.  13, 
15). 

Hin. 

A  Hebrew  liquid  measure,  containing  about 
one  gallon  and  three  pints,  IT.  S.  wine  meas- 
ure (Ex.  xxix.  40;  Antiq.  iii.  8,  3).  See 
Measure. 

Hind. 

A  female  stag,  in  Hebrew  'Ai/yalah  (Gen. 
xlix.  21 ;  Job  xxxix.  1 ;  Ps.  xviii.  33  ;  Prov.  v. 
19;  Song  ii.  7;  Jer.  xiv.  5).     See  Hart. 

Hinge. 

In  ancient  times  in  the  East  heavy  doors 
turned  on  jjivots,  which  were  constructed  on 
the  upper  and  lower  corners  of  one  side  and 
inserted  in  sockets.  The  socket  is  jirobably 
more  especially  referred  to  in  1  Kin.  vii.  .50. 
See  also  Prov.  xxvi.  14. 

Hin'nom,  Val'ley  of;  known  also  as  the 
valley  of  the  sou  of  Hinnom  or  of  the  chil- 
dren of  Hinnom. 

A  valley  at  Jern.salem,  near  the  gate  of 
potsherds  (.Tcr.  xix.  2;  not  east  gate  as  in 
A.  v.).  The  boundary  between  Judab  and 
Benjamin  passed  from  En-rogel  by  the  val- 
ley of  the  son  of  Hinnom  to  the  southern 
side  of  Jerusalem,  and  thence  to  the  top  of 
the  mountain  which  faces  the  valley  of  Hin- 
nom from  the  west,  and  is  at  the  outermost 


Hippopotamus 


301 


History 


part  of  the  vale  of  Rephaim  (Josh.  xv.  8; 
xviii.  Ki).  If  thi'teriii  "slioulder  of  the  Jebii- 
site  (the  same  is  Jenisjilenii  '"  iiiehides  the 
hill  on  the  west  of  the  Tyroixeon  valley,  and 
not  merely  the  temple  hill  :  in  other  words, 
if  the  term  denotes  the  plateau  which  juts 
out  southward  between  the  >;'"*'iit  encireliii;; 
wadies,  and  which  was  not  only  crowned  liy 
the  citadel  of  the  ,Iel)usiles,  hut  also  occupied 
by  their  dwellinj^s  without  the  walls  and  by 
their  lields,  then  the  descrii)tion  in  the  Hook 
of  .loshua  identities  the  valley  of  llinnom 
with  at  least  tlie  lower  ])art  <>f  the  valley 
which  bounds  Jerusalem  on  the  south,  and 
is  now  known  as  the  wady  er-Hababeh,  near 
its  junction  with  the  ravini"  of  tlu'  Kidron. 
At  the  lu«;h  place  (if 'ropliel.  in  the  valley  nf 
Hinnoiii,  parents  maile  their  <-liildren  jiass 
through  the  tire  to  Molech.  Ahaz  and  Ma- 
nasseh  were  {juilty  of  this  abomination  {2 
Chron.  xxviii.  15 ;  xxxiii.  (i).  Jeremiah  fore- 
told that  <iod  would  visit  this  awful  wicked- 
ness with  sore  judj^rment,  and  would  cause 
such  a  destruction  of  the  people  that  the  val- 
ley would  beconu'  known  as  the  valley  of 
slauirhter  (vii.  ill-IM  :  xix.  2,  0:  xxxii.'."?.")). 
Josiah  defiled  the  lii^zh  jilace  to  render  it  un- 
fit for  even  idolatrous  rites,  and  thus  to  stoi) 
the  sacrifices  (2  Kin.  xxiii.  1(»).  From  the 
horrors  i>f  its  fires,  and  from  its  pollution  by 
Josiah,  i)erha])s  also  because  ofi'al  was  burnt 
there,  the  valley  became  a  tyjie  of  sin  and 
Woe,  and  the  name  (Je-hinnom,  corrujjted  into 
tiehenna.  jiassed  into  use  as  a  designation  for 
the  jilace  of  eternal  ]iunishnient. 

Hip-po-pot'a-mus  [Greek  'ippopotamos, 
river  liorsej.      .'^ee  Ukhkmoth. 

Hi'raL  [iioliility]. 

An  Adullaniite,  a  friend  of  Judah  (Gen. 
xxxviii.  1,  12). 

Hi'ram ;  in  Chronicles  Hu'ram,  except  in 
the  Hebrew  text  of  2  Chron.  iv.  U^  \  ix.  10 
[]»robably  consecration].  In  Hebrew  the  name 
is  also  written  Ilironi  (1  Kin.  v.  10,  18  ;  vii.  40, 
K.  V.  niar>;in). 

1.  A  king  of  Tyre.  According  to  the  cita- 
tion which  Josephus  makes  from  the  IMueni- 
i'ian  historian  I)i<is,  and  from  the  Tvrian  an- 
nals which  Menander  translated,  llirain  suc- 
ceeded his  father  .Vbibaal,  reigned  thirty-four 
years,  and  died  at  the  age  of  .").'{  (Antiq.  viii. 
Ti,  :j ;  con.  .\])iun.  i.  17,  IS).  lie  enlarged  the 
city  of  Tyre  by  construcling  an  embankment 
on  the  eastern  side,  built  a  causeway  to  cim- 
nect  the  city  with  the  island  on  which  the 
tenii>le  of  Jupiter  or  Baal-s;iniem  stood,  dedi- 
cated a  golden  jiillar  in  this  temple,  rebuilt 
old  sjinctuaries,  roofing  tlii'm  with  cedars  cut 
on  Lebanon,  and  erected  tem]iles  to  Hercules 
and  Astarte.  He  was  a  friend  of  both  David 
and  Solomon  (1  Kin.  v.  1  ;  2  (^hron.  ii.  W). 
Son)e  time  after  David  had  cai>tured  the 
stronghold  of  Zion.  Hiram  sent  an  embassy 
to  bim  ;  and.  when  David  desired  a  pahu'c, 
Hiram  furnished  the  cedar  timber  and  the 
masons  and  carpenters  (2  .Sam.  v.  11).     This 


was  evidently  before  the  birth  of  Solomon 
(2  Sam.  vii.  2.  12;  xi.  2i.  When  Solomon  as- 
cended the  throne,  Hiram  sent  congratula- 
tions. For  a  consideration  he  furnished  cedar 
and  fir  for  building  the  tem])le.  and  skilled 
workmen  to  assist  in  preparing  the  timber 
and  stone  (1  Kin.  v.  1-12:  2  t'hron.  ii.  :{-](>). 
He  also  advanced  120  talents  of  gold  il  Kin. 
ix.  11).  and  joined  Solomon  in  sending  to 
Oidiir  for  the  precious  metal  ( 1  Kin.  ix.  2<)-2H  ; 
2  Chron.  ix.  21).  In  partial  payment  for  his 
contributions,  he  was  otlered  twenty  towns  in 
(ialilee,  which  howe\cr  he  refused  (1  Kin. 
ix.  10-12;  2Ciiron.  viii.  1,2) ;  seeC.XBri,.  The 
chronological  statements  of  Jose]>hus  and  the 
Bible  have  never  been  reconciled.  Josejihus' 
statement  that  the  tenijde  was  begun  in  Hi- 
ram's eleventh  year  (Antiq.  viii.  3,  1)  or 
twelfth  (eon.  Ajjion.  i.  18)  need  not  receive 
serious  consideration  ;  for  it  is  jirobably  a 
calculation  of  his  own,  and  not  a  citation 
from  the  archives.  Either  the  thiity-four 
years  assigned  as  the  duration  of  Hiram's 
reign  or  the  text  of  1  Kin.  ix.  il-12  may  be 
corrupt.  The  passage  in  Kings  is  ])arallel  to 
2  ChroTi.  viii.  1,  aiid  this  latter  ]passage  does 
not  require  the  assuniiitioii  that  Hiram  lived 
to  the  end  of  the  twenty  yt'ars  wherein  the 
temple  and  the  royal  palace  were  built. 

2.  An  artificer,  whose  father  was  a  Tyrian 
and  his  nu)ther  a  widow  of  Na.phtali  (1  Kin. 
vii.  i:{.  14),  but  by  birth  a  woman  of  Dan  (2 
Chron.  ii.  14).  He  executed  the  bronze  or 
coi>])er  work  in  coimection  with  Solomon's 
tenqile,  as  the  pillars,  the  laver,  the  basins, 
the  shovels  (1  Kin.  vii.  13-4f);  2  Chron.  ii. 
13,  14).  The  title  father  (2  Chron.  ii.  13;  iv. 
16)  i)robably  denotes  a  master  workman  or  a 
counselor. 

History. 

liiblical  history  is  the  record  of  that  series 
of  events  which  form  the  basis  for  the  re- 
ligion of  thi'  Bible  (<•]!.  Mark  x.  2  i);  Kom. 
XV.  4  ;  1  Cor.  x.  11 ).  It  may  be  divided  into 
four  periods:  1.  An  account  of  the  creation 
of  the  universe,  showing  (lod's  relation  to 
the  world,  and  introducing  human  history. 
2.  A  sketch  of  human  history,  showing  (iod's 
relation  to  the  human  race,  and  intmdiu'ing 
till'  history  of  the  chosen  jieojile.  3.  The  his- 
tory of  the  chosi-n  i)eople.  showing  (Jod's 
dealing  with  them  and  the  preparation  for 
the  advent  of  Chrisl.  4.  The  history  of 
the  establishment  of  the  Christian  church, 
which  is  to  reach  all  nations.  Inter-biblical 
history  falls  between  sectioTis  3  and  4. 

1.  Ax  .XccniNT  oi"  Tin;  Cukation  of  the 
Univkusk,  showing  (iod's  relation  to  the 
world,  and  introducing  humaTi  history  ((Jen. 
i.  l-ii.3).  .'^eeCiiKATioxand  S.\iin.\TH.  The 
great  doctrine  is  that  (Jod  is  the  i-reator  and 
lord  of  all  things.  Il  denies  materialism  and 
atheism.  In  implying  that  (onl  is  personal 
and  omnipotent,  it  makes  rcasonalile  his  super- 
natural maTiifestalion  in  human  history. 

2.  A  Sketch  of  Him.vn  Hi.stouv.  sliow- 


History 


302 


History 


ing  God's  relation  to  the  human  race  and  in- 
troducinfc  the  history  of  the  chosen  jjcople 
(Gen.  ii.  4-xi.  2(i).  The  events  ol'  this  jiericjd 
fell  almost  entirely  under  human  ohscrva- 
tion,  and  were  capable  of  trausiiiissi<in  by 
human  tostiinony.  The  perioil  is  divided 
into  two  jiarts  by  the  flood.  Tlie  narrative 
is  syininetri(;al ;  ten  fienerations  before  the 
flood,  from  Adam  to  Noah  inclusive,  and  ten 
generations  after  tlie  flood,  from  8hem  to 
Abraham  inclusive  (v.  ;  xi.  10-26).  The  post- 
diluvian period  is  divided  into  two  parts  at 
Peleg,  in  whose  days  the  earth  was  divided. 
From  Shem  to  Peleg  inclusive  are  five  gen- 
erations, and  from  lieu  to  Abraham  inclusive 
are  five.  In  tiie  antediluvian  period  are  de- 
tailed the  covenant  with  Adam,  its  failure 
through  man's  disobedience,  the  downward  • 
course  of  man  in  sin,  his  punishment  by  a 
flood,  and  the  deliverance  of  Noah.  In  the 
postdiluvian  period  are  related  the  new  and 
unconditioned  covenant  with  Noah,  the  new 
command  laid  upon  man.  the  increasing  popu- 
lation, the  growing  independence  of  men 
from  God,  their  punishment  by  confusion  of 
speech  and  dispersion.  The  genealogy  of  the 
Sethitic-Semitic  line  to  Abraham  is  recorded, 
and  at  the  same  time  its  common  origin  with 
the  other  families  of  the  earth  is  made  plain. 
The  locality  where  the  recorded  events  oc- 
curred was  the  basin  of  the  Tigris  and  Eu- 
phrates rivers ;  at  least,  every  definite  geo- 
graphical reference  is  to  this  region  (ii.  14 ; 
viii.  4 ;  x.  10 ;  xi.  2,  28).  From  this  center 
the  people  spread  on  all  sides,  especially 
toward  the  west  and  southwest,  where  the 
course  of  migration  was  not  blocked  by  great 
mountains  (x.).  By  the  close  of  the  period 
the  inhabited  world,  so  far  as  it  was  within 
the  sphere  of  history,  extended  from  the  Cas- 
pian Sea,  the  mountains  of  Elara  and  the 
Persian  Gulf  on  the  east,  westward  to  the 
isles  of  Greece  and  the  opposite  shore  of 
Africa,  and  from  the  neighborhood  of  the 
Black  Sea  on  the  north  to  the  Arabian  Sea 
on  the  south.  The  length  of  the  period  from 
Adam  to  Abraham  was  at  the  lowest  calcula- 
tion 1946  years,  but  it  may  have  been  much 
longer  :  see  Chronology.  This  period,  longer 
than  the  time  that  has  elapsed  since  the 
birth  of  Christ,  was  remarkably  barren  in 
miracles,  in  the  scriptural  meaning  of  that 
word;  see  Miracle.  With  the  personal  his- 
tory of  man  began  those  theophanies,  rare 
indeed  though  they  were  ((Jen.  iii.  8  scq.), 
which  are  important  in  the  history  of  revela- 
tion. During  this  period  man  made  progress 
in  civilization.  He  had  l)cen  created  with 
capacity,  and  was  cointnanded  to  subdue  na- 
ture. He  advanced  from  the  unclothed  state, 
passing  beyond  rude  garments  of  leaves  and 
afterwards  of  skins  (ii.  25  ;  iii.  7,  21)  to  woven 
clothing ;  from  a  food  of  fruits  that  grew  of 
itself  to  food  obtained  by  agriculture  and 
herding  (i.  2!l ;  iv.  21  :  from  uncertain  a])odes 
to  movable  tents,  settled  habitations  (iv.  17, 
20),  and  large  cities  built  of  brick  (xi.  3,  4) ; 


from  the  family  to  the  tribe  and  the  king- 
dom (x.  10)  ;  from  no  implements  to  tools  of 
metal  and  instruments  of  nuisic  (iv.  21.  22). 
In  this  ))eriod  also  simple  sjjeech  became  di- 
versified dialects  and  languages  (x.  o  ;  xi.  1, 
6,  9).  Man  recognized  the  duty  of  walking 
before  God  in  holiness  of  life  (iii.  2,  3,  10;  iv. 
7;  V.  22;  vi.  i»)  ;  distinguished  between  clean 
and  unclean  animals  (vii.2;  viii.  20) ;  erected 
altars  and  worshiped  God  by  bloody  and 
bloodless  offerings  (iv.  3,  4  ;  viii.  20) ;  and 
prayed  to  God  in  his  character  of  Jehovah 
(iv.  26).  Keligion,  liowever,  suffered  deca- 
dence (vi.  2,  5),  and  idolatry  became  wide- 
spread (Josh.  xxiv.  2).  See  especially  Gen- 
esis, Eden,  Adam,  Satan,  Serpent*  Abel, 
Cain,  Enoch,  Flood.  Noah,  Babpjl. 

3.  The  Hi!<tory  of  the  Chosen  People, 
showing  God's  dealing  with  them,  and  the 
preparation  for  the  advent  of  Christ.  This 
period  difi'ers  from  the  jireceding  in  the  shift- 
ing of  the  central  locality  from  the  valley  of 
the  Tigris  and  Euphrates  to  Palestine.  Canivan 
becomes  the  center  of  the  history.  The  dura- 
tion of  the  period,  regarded  as  having  begun 
with  Abraham's  birth,  was  reckoned  by  Usher 
at  1996  years,  and  so  stands  on  the  margin  of 
many  editions  of  the  English  version.  There 
are  certainly  errors  in  this  calculation  ;  but 
whether  they  equalize  themselves,  or  whether 
the  total  length  should  be  several  centuries 
more  or  less,  cannot  ))e  determined  as  yet 
from  the  biblical  and  other  data.  At  the  be- 
ginning of  this  period,  and  on  several  occa- 
sions later,  besides  the  ordinary  ways  in 
which  God  reveals  himself  to  man  and  to  the 
prophets,  he  appeared  in  theophanies.  This 
period  also  embraces  three  of  the  four  great 
miracle  epochs ;  namely,  at  the  deliverance 
of  the  peo])le  from  Egypt  and  their  establish- 
ment in  Canaan  under  Moses  and  Joshua, 
during  the  mortal  struggle  between  the  wor- 
shii)  of  Jehovah  and  IJaal  worship  in  the 
time  of  Elijah  and  Elisha,  and  during  the 
Babylonian  captivity.  These  miracle  epochs 
were  separated  from  each  other  by  centuries 
during  which  there  were,  with  extremely 
rare  exceptions,  no  miracles.  This  ])eriod 
may  conveniently  be  divided  into  sections 
according  to  the  progressive  stages  in  the 
outward  development  of  the  people  of  God. 

I.  An  independent  tribe  in  Canaan  tinder 
Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob.  The  patriarch 
was  the  priest  and  responsible  ruler  of  the 
tribe.  The  history  is  reviewed  in  the  arti- 
cles on  Abraham,  Dreams,  Visions,  The- 
ophany,  Melchizedek.  Isaac,  Jacob. 

II.  A  folk  of  iuelre  tribes  for  a  lon(]  time  in 
Egyptian  bondage.  See  Egypt,  Joseph,  Pha- 
raoh, JIiracle,  Exodus,  Marah,  Manna, 
Quail,  Kephidim. 

III.  A  nation,  constituted  at  l^inai,  and  inde- 
pendent. ]>ed  to  Sinai  the  peoide  became  a 
nation  by  accepting  the  covenant  which  God 
pro]iosed,  and  which  was  contained  in  ten 
commandments,  and  formed  the  constitution 
of  the  nation.     Jehovah  is  king,  who  hence- 


History- 


SOS 


History 


forth  dwells  in  the  tabernacle  in  the  midst 
of  his  people,  reveals  his  will  to  i)roiihet 
and  priest,  and  exereises  the  legislative,  ju- 
dicial, and  executive  oflices  throu^di  laws 
wliicli  he  reveals,  judgments  which  he  pro- 
nounces, and  ollicials  whom  he  raises  up. 
The  nation  was 

III.  1.  A  brotherhood  of  twelve  tribes  under  a 
relir.ious  const  it  nlioii,  tnitl  irith  n  eoniuioti  saue- 
tnari/  (Ex.  xix.-l  Sam.  vii.).  The  high  ])riesl 
was  tiie  chief  representative.  an<l  was  aided 
by  jiropbetsand  occasional  leaders,  like  Moses. 
See  Sinai,  Thk()ck.\iv,  Tknt  of  Mkkting, 
Tai!i;kna(Li:,  Lkvith  is.  Camp. 

Lt-aving  .Sinai  the  Israelites  journeyed  to 
Kadesb.  On  account  <d'  their  lack  of  faith, 
they  were  turned  back  into  the  wilderness, 
where  they  sojourned  thirty-eight  years;  see 
NiMHKKs,  Wii.iji;kni:.-s  ok  tiik  Wandek- 
INO,  KoKAli.  At  liiigth  thi'v  encompassed 
the  land  of  Edom,  and  found  a  cro.ssing  at 
the  head  of  the  Arnon  valley.  The  eonqiU'.st 
of  the  country  east  of  the  Jordan  followed  ; 
see  SiiioN.  (hi.  The  camp  was  then  i>itched 
in  the  .Ionian  valley  ;  see  SiiiTTiM,  Balaam, 

IlAAL-I'KoU,     MlDIAX,     DKI  TEHONO.MV.       Ou 

the  death  of  Moses,  the  Jordan  was  crossed 
and  Canaan  conquered  and  i>ossessed :  see 
JosHiA,  C'ANAAX.  SiiiLOii.  After  the  set- 
tleiuent  of  the  Israelites  in  Canaan,  Joshua 
died,  and  was  succeeded  at  intervals  by  other 
jiersons  of  ability  and  influence,  lifteen  in 
lannber.  who  led  the  peojde  against  their 
enemies  and  exercised  governmental  func- 
tions :  see  JiiKiES,  Samuel.  Unifying  forces 
were  at  work  during  the  times  of  the  jiulgcs, 
and  a  national  feeling  existed  and  sometimes 
manifested  its  strength;  but  still  the  jieople 
too  often  allowed  natural  l)arriers  and  petty 
jealousies  and  local  interests  to  separate  them. 
Tliere  are  bright  exami>les  of  godliness  atid 
filial  ]iiety.  but  along  with  these  is  the  specta- 
cle of  a  people  easily  seduced  to  idolatry:  see 
.IfixiEs.  During  this  entire  period  the  weak- 
nesses and  defects  of  the  human  jiarties  to  the 
covenant  were  disclo.scd.  At  the  very  be- 
ginning of  the  period  lack  of  faith  in  tJod 
was  shown  at  Kadesh.  the  existence  of  tribal 
jealousy  was  numifested  in  the  relxdiion  of 
Korah  and  his  companj'  against  the  high- 
luiesthood  of  Aaron  anil  the  jiolitical  sii- 
jiremacy  of  Moses,  and  the  readiness  of  the 
]ieo]ile  to  lapse  into  idolatry  biuanie  aii]iarent 
in  the  alfair  of  the  golden  calf,  and  in  their 
ensnarement  by  the  .seductions  fif  Haal-i>eor. 
The  great  ]iolitical  blunders  of  the  period 
were  the  league  made  by  .lnsbua  with  the 
(iibeonites.  and  the  failure  of  Israel  to  oc- 
cupy Jerusiilem.  Thise  defects  and  blunders 
were  of  far-reaching  consequence  in  the  his- 
tory of  Israel. 

III.  '2.  .1  iiiontirrhy  of  tweire  tribes.  The 
pi'ople  had  failed  to  fost«'r  the  centralizing 
iiilluences  which  their  religion  designedly 
provided,  allowed  .senseless  tribal  jealousies 
to  sunder  them,  and  Jiccustriined  themsidves 
to  turn  from  tJod  to  idols.     The  threatening 


attitude  of  neighboring  nations  made  them 
realize  the  need  of  organization,  a  strong 
government,  and  a  military  leader.  Samuel 
was  old.  They  turned  away  from  the  good 
provision  wlii<-h  (iod  had  made,  but  which 
they  had  neglected,  and  deman<le(l  an  earthly 
king.  By  the  .side  of  the  high  ])riest  and  the 
prophet  there  was  now  a  permanent  earthly 
ruler,  with  supreme  ]>olitical  jiower.  instead 
of  the  juilgi's  whom  (Jnd  was  wont  to  raise 
np.  Saul  was  the  first  king,  l)Ul  on  account 
of  his  overestimate  of  his  jiosition,  his  fail- 
ure to  recognize  the  suj)erior  functions  of  the 
high  priest  and  ])ropliet,  he  was  denied  the 
jirivilege  of  founding  a  dynasty  ;  and  finally 
his  willful  transgression  of  God's  exiilicit 
command  led  to  the  rejection  of  him  from 
being  king,  to  the  withdrawal  of  God  and 
(iod's  i)rt)idiet  from  him.  and  the  clnjice  of 
David  ;  seeSAMi  kl.  Books  ok.  Sail,  David. 
Under  David  the  twelve  tribes  were  reunited 
after  .seven  years  of  civil  war.  Jerusalem  was 
taken  from  the  Jebusites  and  made  the  po- 
litical and  religious  cajiital.  the  borders  of 
the  kingdom  were  extended  by  concjiust  far 
to  the  northeast  of  Dama-'^cus.  and  the  ac- 
quired country  was  laid  under  trilnite.  Depu- 
ties were  placed  in  Edom  also.  See  Jeki'sa- 
LEM.  David  was  succeeded  by  Solomon,  under 
whom  the  teniide  was  erected,  JeriLsalem 
greatly  endjellished  and  its  fortifications  ex- 
tended, and  the  fame  of  Israel  enhanced. 
But  his  exactions  made  the  ])eo]ile  discon- 
tented, and  on  his  death  the  failure  of  his 
son  to  discern  the  gravity  of  the  situation 
incited  ten  tribes  to  revolt  from  the  liouse 
of  David.  See  Solomon.  Keiiohoam.  Iskael. 
III.  '.i.  A  mouttrchi/ coi(si.'<tiiiii  ehiefli/  of  the 
tribe  of  Jiuhih,  ten  tribes  having  revolted  and 
formed  a  rival  schismatic  apostate  kingdom. 
Thi'  catLses  which  led  to  this  revolt  were  long 
standing  and  man.\'  ;  si-e  Ishael.  The  king- 
dom of  .ludah  possessed  the  greater  strength. 
It  had  uuiterial  strength  :  the  stronger  natural 
position,  the  capital,  the  organized  govern- 
ment, and  the  worship  to  which  the  peo]de 
were  accustomed.  It  had  moral  strength  ; 
the  cons<iousness  of  adhering  to  the  legiti- 
mate line  of  kings,  which  has  ever  been  a 
mighty  force  in  history,  the  true  religion 
with  its  elevating  inllncnce,  the  sense  of  loy- 
alty to  .Tehovah.  and  a  line  t«f  godlier  kings. 
It  liad  the  providential  care  of  (iod.  who  was 
preserving  the  knowledge  and  worship  of 
himself  anmng  men.  and  was  ]>repariug  the 
way  for  his  Messiah.  The  religious  history 
of  .ludah  during  this  ]ieriod  was  marked  by 
a  decline  in  the  days  of  liehoboam  il  Kin. 
xiv.  22),  and  again  in  the  days  of  his  son 
Abijam  (xv.  '.i),  and  yet  again  in  the  days  of 
Jehoram  and  .\baziah  {2  Kin.  viii.  '-'?).  The 
can>e  of  this  religions  declension  was  the  cor- 
rui)tion  introduced  by  Solomon  and  intermar- 
riage with  idolaters.  K<-hob(>am's  mother  was 
an  .\mmonitess.  for  whom  Solomon  had  built 
a  high  jilace  to  Milcoin.  and  who  had  sjicriticed 
to  this  abomination  of  her  peoi)le.     Jehoram 


History 


304 


History 


was  son-in-law  of  Ahal)  and  Jezebel.  Each 
of  these  j)erio(ls  of  religious  decay  was  fol- 
lowed by  reformation,  the  first  under  king 
Asa  and  the  second  under  .Tehoash,  l)nt  Jeho- 
ash  himself  afterwards  turned  away  from  the 
Lord,  and  another  religious  revival  became 
necessary,  only  to  be  followed  by  the  domi- 
nance of  idolatry  later  under  the  pernicious 
inlliience  of  Ahaz.  The  encroachments  of  the 
Assyrians  on  the  Hebrew  people  began  in  this 
jxridd.  The  divided  nation,  largely  degen- 
erate in  religion,  was  not  in  condition  to  olTer 
effective  resistance  ;  and  by  slow  but  steady 
advance,  which  began  in  the  days  of  Ahab, 
the  Assyrians  pushed  their  conquest  until 
they  had  overthrown  the  northern  kingdom. 
See  Israel,  Samaki.v,  Sakgox. 

III.  4.  The  monarchy  of  Judah  Hole  survivor. 
The  southern  kingdom  was  now  exposed  to 
the  attacks  of  the  Assyrians,  and  later  of 
their  successors,  the  Babylonians  ;  see  Heze- 
Ki.\.H.  Sennacherib,  Manasseh.  Nebu- 
chadnezzar. The  religious  condition  also 
of  the  people  was  not  good,  although  great 
prophets,  like  Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  and  Micah 
were  laboring  to  advance  the  truth.  Its 
kings,  with  the  exception  of  Hezekiah  and 
Josiah,  did  not  render  true  and  steadfast 
allegiance  to  Jehovah,  and  the  people  were 
like-minded.  There  was  an  idolatrous  party 
in  the  state  which  had  been  triumphant  in 
the  reign  of  Ahaz.  Idolatry  was  deep-rooted 
among  the  people,  and  the  reforms  of  any 
king  affected  the  nation  only  superficially. 
Foreign  idolaters  were  also  in  the  land.  The 
nation  drifted  to  destruction.  The  army  of 
Nebuchadnezzar  visited  Jerusalem  at  brief 
intervals  during  the  course  of  two  decades, 
several  deportations  of  Jews  to  Babylonia  took 
place,  and  the  city  was  taken  and  burned  in 
587  B.  c.  The  Hebrew  people  had  failed  to 
conserve  the  elements  of  national  strength, 
and  to  abide  under  the  shadow  of  the  Al- 
mighty, and  they  fell.     See  Judah. 

IV.  A  subject  people. — 1.  Judah  in  the  Baby- 
lonian e.xile.     See  Captivity. 

IV.  2.  Judah  in  PaleMine.  In  the  first  year 
of  his  reign  over  Babylon,  538  B.  c,  Cyrus 
issued  an  edict  wliich  iiermitted  the  Jews  to 
return  to  Palestine  and  rebuild  the  temple. 
Forty-three  thousand  embraced  the  oppor- 
tunity and  returned  under  Zerubbabel.  This 
colony  was 

(o)  A  prorince  of  the  Persian  empire,  subor- 
dinated to  the  prorince  Beyond-the-river.  It  re- 
mained such  for  two  hundred  years.  Twice 
it  enjoyed  local  governors  of  its  own,  ap- 
pointed by  the  Persian  monarch  ;  s(H'  Zerub- 
babel and  Nehemtah.  But  for  the  greater 
part  of  the  time  its  civil  affairs  were  subject 
to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Persian  satrap  be- 
yo!id  the  river.  He  had  authority  to  aj)- 
poiiit  a  deputy  for  .ludah,  and  to  call  on  the 
Jews  for  men  or  money.  But  the  local  ad- 
ministration was  left  to  the  high  i)riest,  and 
he  gradually  came  to  be  regarded  as  the  ])o- 
litical  as  well  as  the  religious  head  of  the 


nation.  Immediately  on  the  return  of  the 
exiles  from  Babylon  the  foundations  of  the 
temple  were  laid.  The  work  was  pushed  on 
under  the  exhortations  of  the  prophets  Hag- 
gai  and  Zechariah  desiiite  interrui)tions  and 
opposition,  and  the  building  was  com])leted  in 
515  b.  c.  The  walls  were  erected  under  the 
su])ervision  of  Neheniiah  by  authority  of 
Artaxerxes  in  445  b.  c.  ;  see  Jerusalem. 
At  this  time  also  Ezra  the  i)riest  was  in  the 
city,  zealous  for  the  law  of  (jod,  and  success- 
fully laboring  for  llie  ))urity  of  religion;  see 
Ezra  and  C.\non.  About  3(i5  b.  c.  there  was 
a  dispute  between  two  brothers  about  the 
high-i)riestliiiod,  which  ended  by  one  killing 
the  other  within  the  iirccincts  of  the  temple. 
In  connection  with  thisaffair  Bagoses,  general 
of  the  army  of  Artaxerxes  Mnemon,  entered 
the  temple  (Antiq.  xi.  7,  1).  In  March  or 
April,  334  B.  c.  Alexander  of  Macedon  crossed 
the  Hellespont,  defeated  the  Persian  satraps, 
then  marched  on,  and  the  next  year  gaiued 
a  victory  over  the  Persian  monarch  Darius 
Codomannus  at  Issus,  a  defile  near  the  north- 
eastern angle  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  laid 
Syria  at  his  feet,  and  entered  Jerusalem. 
After  an  almost  uninterrupted  career  of  con- 
quest, extending  eastward  as  far  as  the  Pun- 
jab, Alexander  died  at  Babylon  in  June,  323 
B.  c.     See  Alexander. 

(6)  Judaea  subject  to  Erjyjit.  Ptolemy  Soter 
wrested  Palestine  from  Syria,  to  which  it  bad 
fallen  after  Alexander's  death,  in  320  B.  C, 
and  the  Ptolemies  retained  it,  except  for  oc- 
casional brief  periods,  until  198  B.  c,  when 
the  cruelty  of  Ptolemy  Philopator  drove  the 
Jews  to  seek  the  protection  of  Antiocluis  the 
Great ;  see  Ptolemy.  During  these  122  years 
the  Jews  were  governed  ))y  their  high  priest 
subject  to  the  king  of  Egypt.  At  this  time  the 
Hebrew  Scriptures  were  translated  into  Greek 
at  Alexandria  in  Egypt.     See  Version.s. 

(c)  Jndxa  subject  to  Syria.  Antiochus  the 
Great  wrested  Palestine  from  Egypt  in  198 
B.  c.  by  his  victory  over  Ptolemy  Philopator 
at  Paneas.  The  Syrians  not  only  su]iported 
the  Grecian  party  among  the  Jews  which  at- 
tempt(Hl  to  hellenizethe  nation,  but  they  also 
eiuleavored  by  force  to  impose  idolatry  upon 
the  Jews.  The  sacrilegious  tyranny  of  the 
Syrians  became  intolerable  to  the  pious  por- 
tion of  the  nation,  and  led  to  the  Maccabaean 
revolt  in  KiG  B.  c.  See  Gymnasium,  Jason, 
Antiochus. 

A  period  of  independence  under  the  Mac- 
cabfen  ])riest-kings  followed  ;  see  Maccabees. 
It  lasted  from  Kifi  v..  c.  until  Pom]iey  took  .Je- 
rusalem in  (i;!  B.  c. :  but  the  Maccabees  were 
allowed  to  hold  the  throne  until  10  B.  c.  when 
Herod  the  Great  was  appointed  king  of  Jiuhva 
by  the  Roman  .senate.  He  began  his  actual 
reign  by  the  cai)ture  of  Jerusalem  in  37  B.  c. 
During  this  period  the  Pharisees  and  Saddu- 
eees  became  recognized  parties,  exertinggreat 
l)olitical  and  religious  influence.  See  Phari- 
sees, Sadducees,  Council. 

{d)  Under  the  Fomatis.     During  this  period 


History 


305 


Hittites 


the  affairs  of  Judsea  were  administered  by 
appointt'fs  of  the  Koniaiis  ;  first  by  Hemd  the 
(Ireat.  tlien  J)y  Arclielaus.  and  alterwanls 
liy  i)niciirat<>l's.  t'XC'cpt  from  A.  I).  11— 11,  wliuu 
liiidil  A^'rippa  I.  rfi>,'iu'd  as  kin^c ;  sieJlD-KA, 
lli;i;<>i>,  I'ltoi'iKAToK.  'i'lif  iiiaiadniiiiistra- 
tion  of  tliesi-  ollicials  exaspcrattd  the  people 
and  drove  them  to  revolt.  Obstinate  war 
r.ifjed  from  A.  1).  (><>  until  tlie  fall  of  .lenisa- 
lem  in  A.  1).  7tl.  The  itniiiant  <p|'  the  Jewish 
l^'dple  %vho  remained  in  i'akstine  were  de- 
nied aeeess  to  their  capital,  and  had  no  longer 
national  existence.  While  the  .lews  still  con- 
stituted a  nation  under  the  Romans,  in  the 
days  of  Ilerod  the  kinj;,  .lesus  of  Na/.arelh 
was  born  and  a  new  period  of  biblical  liis- 
tory  bcfian. 

4.  TnK  History  of  the  Establishment 
f)F  tiikChkistiax  Chikcii,  which  isto  reach 
all  nations. — I.  ChriM's  prt-jxiriiliini  for  the  cn- 
tiihlixhmeiit  of  his  Church,  by  example,  teach- 
in^;,  and   redemption.    See  Jesus,   Gospel, 

Al'OSTLKS. 

II.  Till  Chitrch  ttmouij  the. Jews.  The  elinrch 
was  fi)Unded  by  the  risen  Christ.  Ten  days 
later,  at  Pentecost,  the  i>romised  Sjiirit  was 
given,  and  the  ehureh's  work  was  initiated 
by  Peter's  sermon,  increase  <»f  believers,  and 
baptism;  sec  Pkxtecost.  IIoi.v  Spirit, 
To.NCiiEs,  Baptism,  Church.  During  the 
next  few  years,  six  ])erhaps,  the  church  ex- 
l)erienced  the  ditliciilties  incident  to  the  im- 
perfections of  believers  and  to  ]iersecution  ; 
but  it  grew  steadily  in  ]>urity  and  nund)ers. 
See  Ananias,  Deacons,  .Stkphkn.  The  ])er- 
secution  which  arose  on  the  death  of  Ste]dien 
.scattered  the  brethren  abroad,  and  the  evan- 
gelization of  the  .lews  in  Palestine  and  Syria 
began.  The  gospel  was  carried  to  Samaria 
and  to  the  cities  on  the  seacoast  from  (laza  to 
<  tesarea.  See  PiiiLlP.  For  the  purpose  of 
]icrs(cuting  the  believers  wlm  were  now  found 
in  the  .lewish  colony  in  Damascus,  Saul  went 
thither,  and  was  converted,  and  was  told  that 
he  was  to  be  a  teadu-r  of  the  gentiles.  The 
vision  of  Peter  at  .Iop|ia,  ami  its  eoiniilenuiit 
in  the  conversion  of  ('onulius  and  his  bap- 
tism with  the  Holy  Siiirit,  o]i(iicd  the  eyes 
of  the  church  to  the  truth,  already  theoreti- 
<-ally  known,  that  the  Holy  Spirit  is  for  all 
believers,  .U'w  and  gentile.  Si'c  CoKNia.US. 
At  .Vntioch  ,Ii  wish  believers  from  the  West, 
who  had  lieen  driven  from  .leru.salem  by  the 
l)erseeution  which  had  arisen  on  the  death 
<d'  Stephen,  began  to  ]>reaeh  .Testis  to  the 
(ireeks  also  (Acts  xi.  20.  R.  V.).  and  now  the 
followers  of  .Festis  beiran  to  be  called  Chris- 
tians, no  longer  being  idenlilied  with  the 
.lews.  The  church  was  now  ready  to  tinder- 
take  the  evangelization  of  the  gentiles;  the 
truth  of  the  ei|uality  of  all  believers  was 
known,  a  man  had  been  rai.sed  up  to  work 
;iinoiig  the  gentiles,  and  the  first  beginnings 
had  Iktii  made. 

III.  The  ( 'h II reh  mnonfj  Jetrs  niul  (tentiles.  Paul 
and  Harnabas.  called  by  tin-  Holy  Ghost,  be- 
gan the  evangelization  of  .lews  and  gentiles  in 

•JO 


Asia  Minor.  The  question  about  the  obliga- 
tions of  gentile  converts  arose.  The  council 
at  Jeru.siileni  took  a  firm  stand  for  Christian 
liberty,  refused  to  inijiose  circumcision  and 
the  ol)servance  of  the  Mosaic  law  upon  gen- 
tile converts,  and  only  insisted  upon  certain 
moral  duties  and  certain  matters  of  expe- 
diency which  it  was  neces.sary  to  enij)hasize 
on  account  of  the  state  of  imblic  opinion. 
The  rights  of  gentile  Christians  were  now 
secure.  On  a  second  missionary  journey, 
Paul,  under  the  direction  of  the  l<]»irit,  came 
toTroas,  and  was  called  by  a  vision  to  extend 
his  labors  to  iMirope,  and  the  evangelization 
of  Eurojpc  from  Philippi  to  Home  ensued.  .See 
Paul,  .Iuiin,  Peter. 

Hit'tites. 

A  people,  known  also  as  children  of  Heth, 
and  connecti'd  by  blood  or  cfanjuest  with 
Canaan  (tien.  x.  15;  xxiii.  3).  For  centuries 
they  occupied  the  region  extending  from 
northern  Palestine  to  the  Euphrates,  and 
numbered  Kadesh  on  the  Orontes,  Hamath 
and  Carchemish  among  their  iniixirtant  cities 
(.losh.  i.  4  ;  1  Kin.  x.  2!»i.  As  early  as  the 
time  of  Abraham,  bodies  of  them  had  taken 
up  their  abode  in  Canaan  jiroper,  and  apjiar- 
tiitly  had  ado]>ted  the  language  of  Canaan. 
Alu'aham  met  with  them  at  Hebron,  and  it 
was  from  a  Hittite  that  he  purchased  the  cave 
of  Machpelah  (Gen.  xxiii.  1-20;  xxv.  9).  E.sau 
married  two  Hittite  wivcs(xxvi.34,3.");xxxvi. 
2).  The  sjiies  sent  out  by  Mf)ses  found  the 
Hittites  occupying  the  mountains  (Num.  xiii. 
2!i).  They  took  part  in  the  war  against  the  in- 
vading Hebrews  under  Joshua  (Josh.  ix.  1,  2), 
They  were  also  among  the  tribes  which  aided 
Jabin,  king  of  Hazor,  in  the  great  battle  in 
which  he  was  so  signally  defeated  by  Joshua 
at  the  waters  of  Merom  (xi.  3).  The  man  who 
betrayed  Luz,  or  P.ethel,  built  a  second  Luz 
in  the  land  of  the  Hittites  (Judg.  i.  2(i).  After 
the  conquest  of  Canaan  by  Joshua.  Hittites 
still  remained  in  the  country,  intermarriages 
taking  place  between  them  and  the  Israelites 
(iii. ."),  (ii.  ( hie  of  David's  followers  was  Ahim- 
elech  the  Hittite  (1  Sam.  xxvi.  (i).  Uriah, 
against  whom  David  sinned  so  deeply,  was 
of  the  same  race  (2  Sam.  xi.  3,  17,  21).  In  the 
reign  of  Solomon  the  Hittites  and  other  tribes 
who  rcmaiiieil  in  the  land  had  K'vied  on  llicm 
a  tribute  of  bond-service  (1  Kin.  ix.  20,  21  :  2 
Chron.  viii.  7,  8).  Hittite  women  were  in 
Solomon's  harem  (1  Kin.  xi.  1).  The  Hit- 
tites were  the  Kheta,  or  Khita,  of  the  Egyp- 
tian monuments,  the  l.Iatti  of  the  Assyrian 
inscrii>tions,  and  the  Keteioi  of  Homer  i  Odys- 
sey xi,  .'i21).  From  Egyjitian  and  Assyrian 
sources  and  Hittite  remains  we  learn  that 
when  the  jiower  of  the  Hittites  was  at  its 
height,  their  sway  or  their  inlhience  was  para- 
mount from  the  Archiiielago  to  the  Euj)hr.ites, 
their  northern  or  northeastern  capital  being 
Carchemish,  on  that  river,  and  their  southern 
or  south w<'stern  one  Kadesh.  oji  the  Orontes. 
For  live  hundred  years  they  carried  on  a  strug- 


Hivites 


306 


Hoham 


gle,  with  intervals  of  peace,  with  the  Egyp- 
tians, fifjlitinj;  great  battles  with  Thothmes 
III.,  in  the  sixteentli  century  H.  c,  and  with 
Sell  I.  anil  Kainses  II.  The  siege  of  Kadesh 
by  the  latter  Hgyptiau  monarch  was  cele- 
brated in  an  epic  by  the  poet  I'eutaiir.  For 
four  hundred  yours,  beginning  IKIO  u.  c,  they 
carried  on  a  contest  with  the  Assyrians,  gen- 
erally liolding  tlieir  own  against  that  great 
power,  till,  in  717  B.  c,  Sargon,  the  Assyrian 
king,  captured  Carcheruish,  and  terminated 
their  cnii)ire.  Sculptnres,  doubtless  Hittite, 
with  hieroglyitliics  not  yet  .satisfactorily  read, 
have  l)i'eu  found  at  t'archemish,  at  Hamath, 
and  tliroughout  a  great  part  of  Asia  Minor. 
The  Ilittites  were  a  sturdy  race  of  men.  They 
are  generally  represented  as  beardless.  They 
wore  pointed  liats  and  loose  tunics.  Their 
shoes  were  tilled  up  at  the  tijis,  and  fastened 
by  a  large  bandage  round  the  foot  and  ankle. 
They  are  like  the  shoes  still  worn  by  the 
peasantry  of  Asia  Minor,  and  are  the  best 
preservative  for  the  feet  when  the  country 
is  covered  with  snow.  The  Hittites  also  wore 
long  gloves,  covering  the  forearm,  with  one 
compartment  for  the  thumb  and  another  for 
the  four  fingers.  These  are  believed  to  be  a 
survival  of  the  time  when  the  Hittites  lived 
among  the  snowclad  range  of  Taurus  and  the 
Armenian  mountains. 

Hi'yites. 

One  of  the  races  of  Canaan  before  the  con- 
quest of  the  country  by  the  Hebrews  (Gen. 
X.  17;  Ex.  iii.  17  ;  Josh.  ix.  1).  They  scattered 
into  several  communities.  A  body  of  them 
dwelt  at  Shechem  in  the  time  of  Jacob  (Gen. 
xxxiii.  18  with  xxxiv.  2),  and  their  descend- 
ants still  had  influence  in  the  city  several 
generations  after  the  conquest  ( Judg.  ix.  28). 
A  body  of  them  also  dwelt  in  Gibeon  and  its 
vicinity.  They  obtained  a  treaty  of  peace  from 
Joshua  by  stratagem,  but  on  their  deceit  being 
discovered,  they  were  made  hewers  of  wood 
and  drawers  of  water  (Josh.  ix.).  They  had 
also  an  extensive  settlement,  probably  their 
principal  one,  at  the  foot  of  Lebanon,  from 
mount  Hermon  to  the  entering  in  of  Hamath 
(Josh.  xi.  3 ;  Judg.  iii.  3).  In  these  northern 
mountain  regions  they  had  villages  of  their 
own  as  late  as  tlie  time  of  David  (2  Sam.  xxiv. 
7).  Those  of  Palestine  proper  were,  with  the 
other  Canaanites  who  remained  in  the  land, 
re(}uired  to  render  bond-service  to  Solomon 
in  connection  with  his  extensive  building 
o])erations  (1  Kin.  ix.  20-22). 

Hiz-ki'ah.     See  Hezekiah  2. 

Hiz-ki'jah.     See  Hezekiah  4. 

Ho'bab  [li>vcr]. 

Tlie  fatlicr-in-law  of  !Moses,  according  to 
the  traditional  vowel  points  of  the  Hebrew 
text  (Judg.  iv.  11).  But  the  father-in-law  of 
Moses  was  Reuel.  or.  to  call  liim  by  what  ap- 
pears to  have  been  liis  honorary  title.  .Tt^thro, 
his  excellency.  H<ib;ili  is  delinitely  stated  to 
have  been  the  son  of  Reuel  (Num.  x.  29),  and 
if  the  traditional  vocalization  is  ignored,  and 


regard  paid  to  the  Hebrew  text  only,  the 
Hebrew  words  may  equally  well  be  translated 
"  Ilobab  the  brother-in-law  of  Moses"  (Judg. 
i.  Hi;  iv.  11.  II.  v.).  Mcises'  father-in-law 
Reuel.  or  .lethro,  visited  Mo.ses  in  the  camp 
at  Keiihidim  and  returned  to  his  own  land. 
(Ex.  xviii.  1.  ."i.  27).  A  year  later,  when  the 
Israelites  wen^  al)out  to  advance  from  Sinai, 
Moses  urged  Hol)ab,  the  son  of  Ketiel.  to  ac- 
comjjany  them  and  aid  them  with  his  knowl- 
edge of  the  desert.  Hobab  finally  consented 
^(Num.  X.  2i);  Judg.  i.  K! ;  iv.  11).  After  the 
contiue.st  of  Canaan,  his  family  settled  in 
Judali,  south  of  Arad,  and  were  still  there 
in  the  time  of  Saul  and  David  (Judg.  i.  16; 
1  Sam.  XV.  (i;  xxvii.  10;  xxx.  29).  Iltibab  be- 
longed to  the  Kcnites  (Judg.  i.  KJ ;  iv.  11),  a 
family  of  the  Midianites. 

Ho 'bah. 

A  town  on  the  left,  that  is  to  the  north,  of 
Damascus.  Hobah  was  tlie  extreme  limit  to 
which  Aliraham  pursued  the  defeated  eastern 
kings  (Gen.  xiv.  15).  Wetzstein  mentions  a 
l)lace  of  this  name  between  Tadmor  and 
Homs. 

Hod  [majesty]. 

An  Asherite,  son  of  Zophah  (1  Chron.  vii. 
37). 

Hod-a-vi'ah,  in  A.  V.  once  Ho-da'iah  (1 
Chron.  iii.  24)  [Jehovah  is  his  praise,  or  he 
hath  praised  Jehovah]. 

1.  A  son  of  Elioeiiai.  descended  through 
Shecaniah  from  David  (1  Chron.  iii.  24). 

2.  One  of  the  heads  of  the  half-tribe  of  Ma- 
nasseh  east  of  the  .Jordan  (1  Chron.  v.  24). 

3.  A  Benjamite  (1  Chron.  ix.  7). 

4.  A  Levite,  founder  of  a  family,  some 
members  of  which  returned  from  Babylon 
(Ezra  ii.  40).  He  is  called  Judah  (iii.  9),"vir- 
tually  a  synonymous  name,  and  through  a 
slight  corruption  of  the  Hebrew  text.  Hode- 
vah,  or,  as  traditionally  read,  Hodciah  (Neh. 
vii.  43  ;md  R.  Y.  margin). 

Ho-de'iah.     See  Hodaviah  4. 
Ho'desh  [new  moon]. 
A  wife  (if  Shaharaim  (1  Chron.  viii.  9). 
Ho-de'vah.    See  Hodaviah  4. 

Ho-di'ah,  in  A.  V.  of  Nehemiah  Ho-di'jah 
[splendor  of  Jehovah]. 

1.  A  man  who  was  reckoned  as  belonging 
to  the  tribe  of  .Tudah,  ])erhai>s  because  of  his 
marriage  with  the  sister  of  Naham  (1  Chron. 
iv.  19.  R.  v.).  A.  V.  does  not  give  a  correct 
rendering  of  the  Hebrew  text. 

2.  One  of  the  Levites  employed  by  Ezra  to 
explain  the  law  to  the  people  (Neh.  viii.  7), 
and  to  assist  on  the  day  of  penitence  and 
prayer  (ix.  5).  He  was  ]irobably  one  of  the 
two  Levite  Hodialiswho  sealed  the  covenant 
(x.  10  or  13). 

Hog'lah  [a  partridge]. 

A  daughter  of  Zelophehad  (Num.  xxvi.33). 

Ho 'ham. 

A    king   of   Hebron,   who   entered    into   a 


Holm  Tree 


307 


Honey 


league  against  Joshua,  ami  wasdefeateil,  cap- 
tureil,  and  cxocuted  (Josh.  x.  l-'27). 

Holm  Tree. 

'rill'  eviTjiifcn  oak  ((Jiifrvus  ilex),  the  ren- 
dering of  tlie  Hebrew  Thzah,  hard  tree,  in 
the  only  passage  where  it  occurs  (Is.  xliv.  14; 
in  A.  V.  cypress).  The  twotireek  translators, 
Aciuila  and  Theodotion,  render  it  hy  wild 
oak,  and  the  Vulgate  by  ilex. 

Ho'lon  [probably  sandy]. 

1.  A  town  in  the  liill  country  of  Judah 
(Josh  XV.  .")!),  given,  with  its  suburbs,  to  the 
priests  (xxi.  l;")).  Called  also  llilen  (1  C'liron. 
vi.  58).     Not  identified. 

'2.  A  Moabite  town  (Jer.  xlviii.  -Jl),  i)erliaps 
Horon. 

Ho'ly. 

The  ordinary  Hebrew  word  for  holy  is 
Kiidosh,  sejiarated.  It  is  represented  in  the 
N.  T.  by  the  Cireek  word  'A(ji(j.s.  It  is  used 
for  what  is  set  apart  from  a  common  to  a 
sacred  use,  as  the  utensils  and  ministers  of 
the  .sjinetuary,  and  certain  days  (Ex.  xx.  8; 
XXX.  :J1 ;  xxxi.  1(1 :  Lev.  xxi.  7  ;  Num.  v.  17  ; 
Neh.  viii.  !> ;  Zecli.  xiv.  -21)  ;  for  what  is  sep- 
arated Ironi  ceremonial  delilenient  (Ex.  xxii. 
31 :  Lev.  xx.  2G)  or  immorality  (2  Cor.  vii. 
1  ;  1  Thes.  iv.  7),  including  false  worship  and 
heathen  practices  (Lev.  xx.  (!,  7;  xxi.  (i).  In 
a  larger  sense  God  is  holy,  for  he  is  se]>arated 
from  all  other  beings  by  his  infinite  jierfec- 
tions.  by  his  being,  wi.sdom,  ])ower.  holiness, 
justice,  goodness,  and  truth,  the  glory  of 
which  (ills  the  earth  (Is.  vi.  :>>).  Even  holy 
angels  ascril)e  holiness  to  him  (Is.  vi.  3;  Kev. 
iv.  H  :  xvi.  .")i. 

Ho-ly  Ghost'. 

Tiie  Sjiirit  of  Cod.  tlie  Holy  Spirit.  The 
word  s]iirit  now  more  correctly  expressi'S  the 
idea  than  does  the  term  gbost.  wliicli  lias  nar- 
rowed its  meaning,  and  commonly  denotes  a 
disembodied  sjiirit  wandering  on  earth.  The 
name  IIolv  S|)irit  is  used  three  times  onlv  in 
theO.  T.  ('I's.  H.  11  ;  Is.  Ixiii.  10,11).  but  there 
are  numerous  references  to  bis  work.  The 
Spirit  of  (}o<l  is  the  divine  princijde  of  ac- 
tivity everywhere  at  work  in  the  world,  ex- 
ecuting the  will  of  God.  The  Spirit  is  .sent 
forth  bv(;od  (Ts.  civ. 'Jil,  30)  and  given  by 
God  (Niim.  xi.  ;.'!i:  Is.  xlii.  1.  .".i.  The  Sj.irft 
broofh'd  ovi'r  chaotic  juatter  in  the  beginning 
and  is  everywhere  jtresent  ((4eu.  i.  2;  Ps. 
cxxxix.  7),  and  is  thus  immanent  and  the 
energy  in  co^mical  ])rocesses  ( Job.  xxvi.  13 ; 
Is.  li\-.  1<)|:  is  the  source  of  i>hysical.  intel- 
lectual, and  moral  life  ((Jen.  vi..'!;  .lob  xxxii. 
H;  xxxiii.  -1;  xxxi  v.  11;  Ps.  xxvii.  3;  civ.  .30; 
eji.  Is.  xlii.  .">) ;  is  able  to  i)rodin'e  supernatural 
efTects  (1  Kin.  xviii.  li :  2  Kin.  ii.  Ki).  He 
abides  with  the  pioph-  of  Cod  (Is.  Ixiii.  11; 
Hag.  ii.  .■)),and  bestows  varied  powi'rs  for  the 
work  of  the  king<lom,  strength  (Judg.  iii.  10; 
vi.  ,34:  xi.  20;  xiii.2r):  xiv.  (1,  lit;  xv.  14;  1 
S,i!n.  xi.  <i ;  xvi.  l.'J;  1  Chron.  xii.  Ih),  skill 
(Ex.  xxxi.  ,'<),  wisdom  (Num.  xi.  17,  2ri; 
xxvii.  IS),  in  short,   everything  needful    for 


the  work  of  the  kingdom  (Is.  xi.  2;  Zech. 
iv.  ()i.  He  instructed  the  jieojile  of  Ciod  (Neh. 
ix.  20)  by  inspiring  the  prophets  (Num.  xxiv. 
2  ;  1  Sam.  x.  (I :  Hos.  ix.  7  ;  .Mic  iii.  >  ;  Zech. 
vii.  12).  He  works  upon  tlie  heart  of  the 
individual  child  of  tiod.  It  was  foretold  that 
this  work  would  be  especially  jiowerful  and 
widesiiread  in  the  Messianic  period,  when  the 
Sjiirit  shall  be  poured  out  on  the  iieople  of 
(iod  (Is.  xliv.  3i,  will  give  to  them  a  new 
heart  and  a  new  sjiirit  (Ezek.  xxxvi.  20), 
Iiroduce  sorrow  for  sin  (Zech.  xii.  10)  ;  yea, 
l)e  poured  out  on  all  llesh  (Joil  ii.  2h).  The 
Sjjirit  is  grieved  when  men  resist  his  holy 
work  (Is.  Ixiii.  10:  c]..  I's.  tvi.  33).  The  N. 
T.  treats  of  Messianic  times  and  the  dispen- 
sation of  the  Sjiirit,  and  it  follows  that  in  the 
N.  T.  the  Spirit  is  mentioned  miicli  more  fre- 
{luently  than  in  the  ().  T.  All  ibe  attributes 
of  the  Spirit  revealed  in  the  O.  T.  are  dis- 
closed in  the  N.  T.  in  exercise.  The  doctrine 
of  the  Spirit  advances  beyond  the  teach- 
ing of  the  O.  T.  chiefly  in  becoming  more 
definite  in  ri'S]iect  to  liis  ]iersonalily.  Tliongli 
the  word  s])irit  is  neutia-  in  Creek  and  1'enii- 
nine  in  Hebrew,  yet  the  Sjiirit  is  sometimes 
called  who.  not  which  (Ei)h.  i.  13;  cp.  cau- 
tiously John  xvi.  13).  The  S])irit  further 
speaks  in  the  first  jierson,  using  the  ])ronouns 

1  and  me  (Actsx.  l!l,  20;  xiii.  2)  ;  is  associated 
with  the  Father  and  the  Son  in  the  bajitismal 
formula  and  the  ajiostolic  benediction  (Mat. 
xxviii.  19:  2  Cor.  xiii.  14);  can  be  grieved 
(E]ih.  iv.  30;  l]>.  Rom.  viii.  26).  Especially 
memorable  acts  of  the  Sjiirit  at  the  beginning 
of  the  Christian  dis]ien.sation  are  the  mirac- 
ulous eonce]ition  of  .lesus  by  the  Holy  (ihost 
(Mat.  i.  18-20) ;  the  descent  of  Ibe  Spirit  ujion 
Jesus  at  his  bajitism,  in  the  form  of  a  dove 
visilile  to  him  and  to  John  the  Bajitist  (Mat. 
iii.  Ki:  Mark  i.  10;  John  i.  32).  and  the  etl'u- 
sioii  of  the  Holy  (ihost  in  the  likeness  of 
tongues  of  fire  on  the  day  of  Pentecost,  and 
the  accimijianying  gift  of  languages  (Actsii. 
4).     See  (Jon,  IxsriHATioN.  Pkxtkcost. 

Ho'ly  Place.    See  T.\i!i;un.\cle,  Temple. 

Ho-ly  Spir'it.     See  Holy  (Jhost. 

Ho'mam  [jiossibly  destroyer]. 

Son  of  Lotan,  and  grandson  of  Seir  (1 
Chnm.  1.  39).  The  name  apiiears  in  (Jen. 
xxxvi.  22  as  Heniam.  The  difUrence  in  He- 
brew is  trifiing.  and  is  doubtless  due  to  a  mis- 
ri'ading.  The  latter  name  has  jod  where  the 
former  has  van  (((.  v. '. 

Ho'mer  [a  heap]. 

.\  measure  for  (Iry  substanc<'s  and  li(|iiids. 
It  contained  ten  baihs  or  ejihahs  (E/ek.  xiv. 
11,  111  and  one  hundred  oniers  (Ex.  xvi.  .'!()). 
It  held  aiiout  thirty-six  pecks.  I'.S.  measure. 
Sei    Ki'ir  \ii,  MK.\sri<K. 

Hon'ey. 

A  sweet,  thick  fluid  collect<'d  hy  bees  from 
flowers  and  fruit  and  deposited  in  the  cells 
of  a  comb  (Judg.  xiv.  .'-i;  Ps.  xix.  10);  nnich 
esteemed  as  an  article  of  food  ((Jen.  xliii.  11  ; 

2  Ssun.  xvii.  29),  and   lateii   as  found   in   the 


Hook 


308 


Hor 


comb  or  as  prepared  in  various  ways  (Ex. 
xvi.  31 ;  1  Sam.  xiv.  26).  Wild  honey  was  de- 
posited by  bees  in  rocks,  trees,  and  other 
places  (Deut.  xxxii.  13;  Jiid};.  xiv.  8;  1  Sam. 
xiv.  i.") ;  Mat.  iii.  4).  Ik-cause  it  acts  like  a 
leaven,  pruducing  fermentation,  honey  might 
not  be  used  in  otterings  made  by  lire  unto 
the  Lord  (Lev.  ii.  11).  An  artificial  honey 
or  syruj)  was  prepared  from  dates  ( War  iv. 
8,  3)'. 

Canaan  was  described  as  flowing  with  milk 
and  honoy  (Kx.  iii.  !-i,  17). 

Hook. 

The  Hebrews  and  contemporary  peoples 
used  hooks  of  various  kinds  : 

1.  Curtains  were  hung  by  means  of  hooks, 
those  employed  about  the  tabernacle  being 
made  of  gold  and  silver  (Ex.  xxvi.  32,  37; 
xxvii.  10). 

2.  By  means  of  flesh  hooks  meat  was  lifted 
from  tiu'  pot  (Ex.  xxvii.  3;  1  Sam.  ii.  13,  14), 
and  on  firmly  fixed  hooks  slain  animals  were 
hung  up  (Ezek.  xl.  43,  but  the  meaning  of 
the  word  rendered  hook  in  this  passage  is 
disputed). 

3.  Hooks  resembling  thorns,  and  sometimes 
called  so  in  Hebrew  (Amos  iv.  2),  were  used 
in  fishing  (Job  xli.  1 ;  Hab.  i.  15).  See  Fish- 
ing. 


5.  Pruning  hooks  were  used  by  vinedress- 
ers (Is.  ii.  4  ;  xviii.  ")). 

Hoph'ni  [pertaining  to  the  fist]. 

A  sou  of  Eli.  He  and  his  Ijrolber  Phinehas 
discharged  the  priest's  oliice  in  the  old  age 
of  Eli,  but  showed  themselves  uuwortliy  of 
the  sacred  ottice  by  scandalous  behavior.  Eli 
mildly  remonstrated  when  summary  proceed- 
ings were  required  ;  and,  in  coiiseiiiience,  the 
divine  judgment  was  pronounced  against  him 
and  his  house.  When  it  was  resolved  that 
the  ark  of  God  should  be  taken  to  tlie  battle- 
field, Hophni  and  Phinehas,  whoasorticiating 
priests  were  its  custodians,  accoiiiitauied  it, 
and  were  both  slain  in  the  disastrous  battle 
which  followed  (1  Sam.  ii.  22-iv.  22). 

Hor  [mountain]. 

1 .  A  mountain  on  the  border  of  the  Edomite 
country,  where  Aaron  died  and  was  buried 
(Num."  XX.  22-29 ;  xxxiii.  37-39,  41  ;  Deut. 
xxxii.  50).  Jo.sephus  says  that  it  was  one  of 
the  mountains  surrounding  Petra  (Autii).  iv. 
4,  7).  Tradition  has  settled  on  Jebel  Harun, 
meaning  Aaron's  mountain,  a  great  two-top- 
ped eminence  about  4800  feet  high,  on  the 
eastern  side  of  the  Arabah,  nearly  midway 
between  the  southern  extremity  of  the  Dead 
Sea  and  the  northern  end  of  the  gulf  of 
Akaba.     It  is  the  highest  and  wildest  of  the 


MlUIiI  llor  c,r  Traditiuii 


4.  A  large  hook  was  thrust  through  the 
mouth  of  a  fish  or  other  acjuatic  animal,  and 
attached  by  a  cord  to  a  stake,  when  it  was  de- 
sired to  keep  it  alive  (Job  xli.  2;  Ezek.  xxix. 
4).  A  similar  hook  was  used  for  leading  about 
lions  and  otber  beasts  (2  Kin.  xix.  28;  Ezek. 
xix.  4,  in  A.  V.  chains;  cp.  xxxviii.  4),  and 
for  a  like  purpose  were  inserted  in  the  lips 
©•.captives  (2  Chron.  xxxiii.  11,  E.  V.  mar- 
gin).    Sec  illustration  under  Blindness. 


whole  Edomite  range  of  mountains.  It  is 
close  to  Petra  in  the  west,  but  the  ruined  city 
is  not  visible  from  its  summit.  On  its  sum- 
mit stands  a  tomb,  nominally  that  of  Aaron  ; 
but  the  ujijier  ]iart  of  it,  at  least,  is  only  a 
modern  I\I(jhamuic<lau  nios((ue.  The  tradi- 
tion, however,  is  o]ieu  to  serious  question.  It 
appears  to  rest  on  the  false  identification  of 
Kadesh  with  Petra.  Jebel  Harun  is  in  the 
midst  of  Edom,  and  not  on  its  border,  as  was 


Horam 


309 


Horn 


Hor.  If  Edom  extended  to  the  gulf  of  Aka- 
lui  (Dcut.  ii.  S),  the  Isniclites  coujd  not  reaeh 
the  traditional  nimintain  withnut  crossing 
Edoni,  whieh  they  were  torhiihk'n  to  do. 
.Ichel  Madara,  ahout  l.">  miles  northeast  of 
Kadesh,  lias  heen  suggested,  and  satisfies  the 
eonditiniis.  Still,  if  .Madara  is  really  writ- 
ten ill  Arable  with  the  letter  tlal  (Seetzen),  it 
is  (k)iihtl'ul  whether  the  name  echoes  Moserah 
^NllIn.  xxxiii.  37  with  Deut.  x.  (i). 

2.  A  mountain  on  the  northern  houndary 
of  Palestine,  hetwecii  the  Mciliterranean  Sea 
and  the  entering  in  of  llaniath  (  Num.  xxxiv. 
7,  J^).  It  was  jirobahly  a  iiruminent  i>eak  of 
Lebanon. 

Ho'ram  [elevation]. 

A  king  of  tJezer,  defeated  and  slain  by 
Joshua  (Josh.  X.  33). 

Ho'reb  [dry,  desert]. 

The  mount  of  (iod  in  the  peninsula  of 
Sinai  (Ex.  iii.  1 ;  xviii.  ")),  where  the  law  was 
given  to  Israel  (Dent.  iv.  10-15;  v.  2;  1  Kin. 
viii.  H  :  xix.  H).  The  names  Horeh  and  Sinai 
are  used  almost  iiiterchangeal)ly.  This  jihe- 
uomenoii  has  been  variously  explained.  It 
has  heen  held  that  the  two  terms  did  not 
denote  exactly  the  same  thing.  Horeb  has 
heen  regarded  as  the  name  of  tlie  range,  and 
Sinai  as  a  prominent  peak  (Heiigstenherg, 
Kobinson) ;  or  Jldi'eb  is  thought  of  as  a  lower 
jtart  or  peak  of  mount  Sinai  ((U'senius)  ;  or 
Horeb  was  the  nurthern  and  lower  portion 
of  the  range,  while  Sinai  was  the  southern 
jiortion,  especially  its  highest  point.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  two  terms  have  lieeii  held  to 
denote  the  same  object.  Ewald  l)elieved  Sinai 
to  be  the  older  name  of  the  mountain  after- 
warils  called  Horeb  (cp.  Judg.  v.  5). 

Ho'rem  [enclosed,  sacred]. 

A  ftiiced  city  of  Xaphtali  (Josh.  xix.  38). 
Not  identified.  There  is  no  reason  to  think 
of  Hura  or  Kurah,  3^  miles  west  by  north  of 
Yarun.  nor  of  llarali,  (Ji  miles  north  by  east 
of  Variiii. 

Ho'resli  [a  dense  wood  or  thicket]. 

.\  locality,  ]>robably  at  the  time  overgrown 
with  Iiush,  where  David  lurked  (1  Sam.  xxiii. 
Hi,  K.  V.  margin).  In  the  text  the  word  is 
rendered  wood. 

Hor-hag-gid'gad,  in  A.  V.  Hor-hagidgad 
[mountain  or  cavern  of  (lidgad,  /.  c  perba]is, 
thunder]. 

.\n  encamjiment  of  the  Israelites  in  the 
wilderness  (Num.  xxxiii.  3vJ|.  The  .same  as 
<iudgo(lah  (Deut.  x.  (i.  7;  cp.  Num.  xxxiii. 
31-33).  Site  uiikiiown.  It  must  not  be  iden- 
tified with  wady  (Jhudagbid.  for  the  names 
are  entirely  ditfereiit  in  etymology. 

Ho'rl  [cave-dwcllerl. 

1.  A  Ilorite  tribe  descended  from  Lotan, 
and  called  hy  the  general  name  of  the  stock 
to  which  it  belonged  ((Jen.  xxxvi.  '2'2). 

■J.    Father  of  Shaphat  the  sjiy  i  Num.  xiii.  .■>). 

Ho'rlte,  in  A.  V.  of  Diiit.  Ho'rims. 

Cave-dwellers,    the    aliorigines    of   mount 


Seir,  and  hence  called  the  children  of  Seir 
(Gen.  xxxvi.  20).  They  were  defeated  by 
Chcdorlaoiner  an<l  his  allies  (tien.  xiv.  fi). 
They  were  governed  by  chieftains  (xxxvi.  29, 
30).  They  were  subseiiuently  destroyed  by 
the  posterity  of  Esau  (Deut.  ii.  12,  22). 

Hor'mah  [a  devoted  place,  destruction]. 

1.  A  region  to  the  south  of  Canaan,  in  Seir, 
north  of  both  Kadesh  and  mount  Hor.  When 
the  Israelites  after  their  loss  of  faith  presumed 
to  advance  from  Kadesh  toward  Canaan,  the 
Anialekites  and  Canaanites  came  down,  smote 
them,  and  drove  them  as  far  as  "  the  desola- 
tion," as  the  district  was  called  from  its  dev- 
astation some  thirty-eight  years  later  (Num. 
xiv.  45 ;  Deut.  i.  44).  ( >n  the  second  dejiar- 
ture  of  the  Israelites  fnun  Kadesh,  after  the 
lapse  of  these  thirty-eight  years,  while  they 
were  encamped  at  mount  Hor,  the  Canaanites 
under  the  king  of  Aiad  again  attacked  them 
and  made  some  cajitives.  Israel  vowed  their 
destruction  if  Jehovah  would  aid,  devastated 
their  cities,  and  called  the  wasted  region 
Hormah,  desolation  (Num.  xxi.  1-3). 

2.  The  town  Zeiibath,  called  Hormah  after 
its  devotion.  It  was  situated  in  the  south 
country,  toward  the  border  of  Edom,  near 
Ziklag,  and  was  allotted  to  Judah,  but  was 
afterwards  transferred  to  Simeon  (Josh.  xv. 
30:  xix.  4).  After  the  death  of  .loshua,  Ju- 
dah assisted  Simeon  to  take  the  town.  It 
was  inhabited  by  Canaanites;  and  had  either 
escaped  destruction  when  the  region  was  first 
devastated  in  fulfillment  of  the  vow  (Num. 
xxi.  2),  or  it  had  heen  relniilt  by  fugitives 
who  returned.  At  any  rate,  it  was  still  in- 
cluded in  the  old  vow;  and  it  was  now  de- 
voted to  destruction,  man  and  beast  were 
slain,  and  the  town  was  henceforth  called 
Hormah  (Judg.  i.  17).  Joshua  had  already 
defeated  its  king  (called  jiroleptically  king 
of  Hormah),  who,  it  may  be  judged,  was  ab- 
sent from  his  city,  assisting  men  of  his  own 
race  at  Hebron  at  the  time  of  his  defeat,  as 
the  king  of  Jerusalem  and  the  king  of  Ge/er 
were  away  from  their  cities  when  Joshua 
smote  them  (Josh.  xii.  14  ;  cj).  x.  10.  33).  .\fter 
the  town  had  been  devoted,  it  was  inhabited 
by  Simeonites  (1  Chron.  iv.  30).  It  was  hos- 
pitable to  David  when  he  lived  as  an  outcast, 
and  to  his  friends  there  Davi<l  sent  of  the 
spoils  of  Ziklag  (1  Sam.  xxx.  30). 

Horn. 

I'art  of  Palestine,  especially  its  sonfliern 
portion,  being  a  pastoral  country,  the  Israel- 
ites were  exceedingly  familiar  with  the  horns 
of  animals.  In  early  linns  they  converted 
them  into  trumpets  (.losh.  vi.  13),  or  into 
flasks  for  such  substances  as  oil  (1  Sam.  xvi. 
1,13;  1  Kin.  i.  .3!t).  When  (Jod  exalts  the 
horn  of  an  individual,  the  meaning  is  that 
he  confers  great  jxiwerand  prosiu-rity  (1  Sam. 
ii.  10:  Ps.  Ixxxix.  21)  ;  but  when  one  exalts 
or  lifts  up  the  horn,  it  means  that  he  indulges 
in  arrogani'e  and  insolence  (Ps.  Ixxv.  4,  5). 
Horn  denotes  political  ]iower.  the  image  being 


Hornet 


310 


Hosea 


drawn  from  hulls  wliicli  push  with  their  horns 
(I's.  cxxxii.  17;  Jer.  xlviii.  "J.")),  and  in  pro- 
phetic language  signilius  a  kingdom  (Dan. 
vii.  8,  11,  21;  Zech.  i.  18,  19)  or  kings  (Rev. 
xvii.  1-2,  1(5). 

Horns  of  the  altar  were  projections  resem- 
l)ling  horns  placed  at  tlie  corners  of  the  altar 
of  burnt  otlering  (War  v.  5,  (J).  They  were 
smeared  with  the  blood  of  the  sacrifice  (Ex. 
xxix.  12  ;  Lev.  iv.  7),  and  the  bodies  of  the 
victims  ottered  in  sacrifice  ai)])ear  to  have 
been  bound  to  them  (Ps.  cxviii.  27),  and 
olfenders  clung  to  them  for  safety  from  pun- 
ishment (1  Kin.  ii.  2.S). 

Horn  was  also  used  to  denote  a  peak  (Is.  v. 
1,  E.  V.  margin).  The  horns  of  Hattiu  are 
the  traditional  mount  of  Beatitudes. 

Hor'net. 

Th(^  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  word  Sir'ah, 
according  to  the  ancient  versions.  The  hornet 
{Vespa  criibro)  is  of  the  same  genus  as  the 
wasp,  but  larger  and  more  formidable.  Either 
the  common  hornet  or  a  closely  allied  species 
is  common  in  Palestine.  Hornets  were  to  be 
sent  to  drive  out  the  Cauaauite  nations  be- 
fore the  Israelites  (Ex.  xxiii.  28  ;  Deut.  vii. 
20 ;  Josh.  xxiv.  12;  Wisd.  xii.  8).  It  is  doubt- 
ful whether  hornet  is  here  used  in  a  literal 
or  a  figurative  sense.  In  favor  of  the  former 
it  may  be  alleged  that  ^Elian  relates  that  the 
Phaselites  were  driven  from  their  territory 
by  hornets,  and  in  favor  of  the  latter  that  we 
have  no  detailed  account  of  the  Canaanites 
being  thus  expelled.  If  used  figuratively, 
the  sting  of  the  hornet  would  stand  for  the 
terror  produced  in  Canaanite  minds  by  the 
approach  of  the  irresistible  Israelite  armies. 

Hor-o-na'im  [two  caverns  or  ravines]. 

A  Moabite  city  at  the  foot  of  a  declivity, 
and  apparently  not  far  from  Zoar  (Is.  xv.  5  ; 
Jer.  xlviii.  '.i,  .">,  .34  ;  Moabite  .Stone  31 ).  Doubt- 
less the  town  Oron.e  which  Alexander  Jan- 
nseus  took  from  the  Arabians,  and  his  son 
Hyrcanus  restored  to  Aretas  (Antiq.  xiii.  15, 
4;  xiv.  1,  4).     Situation  unknown. 

Hor'o-nite. 

A  native  or  inhabitant  of  Horonaim  or, 
more  probably,  of  Beth-horon  (Neh.  ii.  10, 19). 

Horse. 

The  liorse  was  early  subdued  by  man.  Men- 
tion is  made  of  its  rider  in  the  time  of  Jacob 
(Gen.  xlix.  17).  Mountainous  Palestine  was 
not  well  adai)t('d  for  its  use,  and  in  early 
times  it  was  i)rincipally  employed  in  the 
maritime  )ilain  and  in  the  valley  of  .Tezreel. 
There  were  many  horses  in  P]gy]it  (xlvii.  17  ; 
Ex.  ix.  3).  When  the  exodus  took  jtlace 
Pharaoh's  pursuing  army  was  e(iuipped  with 
chariots  and  horses  (xiv.  9 ;  xv.  19).  They 
existed  also  in  the  force  of  the  northern  Ca- 
naanites led  by  Si.sera,  Jabin's  conunander- 
in-chief  (.ludg.  iv.  1.");  v.  22).  In  Deut.  xvii. 
16,  the  king  who  was  to  be  elected  when 
monarchy  was  established  among  the  Israel- 
ites was  forbidden  to  multiply  horses,  not- 
withstanding whicli  prohibition  Solomon  im- 


ported them  in  great  numbers  from  Egypt, 
paying  for  each  animal  150  shekels  of  silver 
(a  little  more  than  .'<97).  He  afterwards  ex- 
ported them  to  the  kings  of  the  Hittites  and 
those  of  tlie  Syrians  (1  Kin.  x.  2!^,  29;  2 
Chron.  i.  IG,  17;  ix.  28).  Horses  afterwards 
became  common  in  Israel  and  Judah  (2  Kin. 
ix.  18;  Is.  ii.  7),  and  were  used  in  battle  (1 
Kin.  xxii.  4  ;  2  Kin.  iii.  7  ;  ix.  33).  Foreign 
kings  rode  on  horseback  (Esth.  vi.  8),  while 
it  was  considered  lowly  in  a  sovereign  to  sit 
upon  an  ass  (Zech.  ix.  9),  and  accorded  with 
the  simple  manners  of  the  early  Hebrew 
patriarchs,  judges,  and  kings  (Gen.  xxii.  3; 
Judg.  X.  4;  xii.  14;  1  Kin.  i.  33).  Horses 
were  sometimes  dedicated  to  the  sun  (2  Kin. 
xxiii.  11).  They  are  frequently  mentioned 
in  the  jirophecies  of  Zechariah  (Zech.  i.  «  ;  vi. 
2.  3 ;  X.  5  ;  xiv.  20),  and  in  the  book  of  Reve- 
lation (Rev.  vi.  2,  4,  5,  8;  xix.  11.  etc.). 

Horseleech. 

A  large  leech  (Hiemopsis  saiKjuisuga),  com- 
mon in  Palestine.  The  leech  was  known  to 
the  Hebrews  by  the  name  '"Inkah,  to  the  Ara- 
maeans '"liika,  to  the  Arabs  'alakat,  from  its 
adhering  to  the  flesh  (Prov.  xxx.  15).  It  is 
noted  for  its  insatiable  appetite  for  blood.  In 
the  proverb  it  is  used  figuratively.  Its  two 
insatiable  daughters  are  perhaps  named  in  the 
first  line  of  ver.  16.  The  margin  of  the  R.  V. 
substitutes  vampire.  The  blood-sucking  vam- 
pires (Desmodidie),  which  are  confined  to  the 
warmer  parts  of  South  America,  are  not 
meant ;  but  certain  female  specters,  which 
are  superstitiou.sly  believed  to  haunt  graves 
and  suck  human  blood.  The  ground  for  this 
interpretation  is  that  in  Arabic  'anJnk  is  the 
name  of  a  demon,  and  'aluk  is  equivalent  to 
ghoul. 

Ho'sah  [fleeing  for  refuge]. 

1.  A  ])orter  in  the  time  of  David  (1  Chron. 
xvi.  38 ;  xxvi.  10). 

2.  A  frontier  village  of  Asher,  not  far  from 
Tyre,  and  apparently  south  of  that  city  (Josh, 
xix.  29).  Not  identified.  Conder  suggests  the 
ruin 'Ezziyat  el-F6ka,  about  7  miles  south  by 
east  of  Tyre,  and  2^  inland  from  the  Medi- 
terranean. The  names,  however,  are  quite 
dissimilar. 

Ho-san'na  [save,  we  pray]. 

A  short  prayer  to  Jehovah  for  deliverance, 
taken  from  Ps.  cxviii.  25.  It  was  an  acclama- 
tion of  the  ])eo])le  when  they  marched  around 
the  altar  at  the  feast  of  tabernacles,  and  most 
of  the  prayers  used  at  that  festival  began  with 
it.  It  was  taken  uji  by  the  multitude  of  the 
disciples  at  the  triuni|)hal  entry  of  .Tesus  into 
.Tenisaiem.  when  they  hailed  him  as  the  son 
of  David  (Mat.  xxi.  9,  15;  with  Ps.  cxviii. 
25,  26). 

Ho-se'a,  in  A.  Y.  of  X.  T.  Osee,  in  imita- 
tion of  the  (Ti-eek  form  [.save].  Identically 
the  same  word  as  Oshea  or  Hoshea  (Xum. 
xiii.  8,  16),  the  first  name  of  Joshua,  and  as 
Hoshea,  king  of  Israel  (2  Kin.  xv.  30). 

A    prophet,   son   of    Beeri,    whose   })redic- 


Hosea 


311 


Hoshea 


tions  were  uttered  in  the  reigns  of  Uzziah, 
Jotluini,  Aliiiz.  and  Hezekiali,  kinj^s  of  Jii- 
dali.  anil  .Icrol)iiaiii  II.,  kiiiji  of  I>rat'l  (llos. 
i.  1),  a  iKTiod  iif  sonic  tliirly  odd  years. 
He  was  a  conteni])orai'yof  Isaiah,  who  jiroph- 
fsied  in  tlie  rei;;ns  of  tlie  same  kinj^s  of 
.Fudali  ;  hut  lie  l)e;ian  his  i»ro])h('tic  aetivity 
ill  the  rci;;n  of  .Jerolxiaiii,  (hmhth'ss  some 
Ncai-s  hefore  Isaiali,  and  lie  ceased  niiicdi 
carliiT  than  did  Isiiah.  Hi'  was  a  iirophet 
of  the  northern  kinjjdoni,  wliili-  Isaiah  la- 
i>orcd  in  .Iiidah.  Ilosea  was  also  a  coiiteni- 
iMiiary  nt'  Aiiios  in  the  iiortliciii  kingdom, 
and  uf  .Micah  who  i)roi)licsicd  in.Jndali.  Hosea 
denied  the  rit;ht  of  the  northern  kin-jdoni  to 
maintain  a  .sei>arate  existence  from  Judah 
(iii.  ,■)  :  viii.  1  ;  c]).  i.  1).  Ki'jiardinfi  his  mar- 
ria;,'e  with  an  unchaste  woman,  oiiinion  has 
l)cen  dividetl  from  ancient  times.  It  was  in- 
tended to  he  .symliolical  of  Jehovah's  relation 
to  his  ('rrin^'  iieojile,  hut  was  it  itself  an  alle- 
gory or  a  fact  ?  It  is  arjiued  that  it  was  alle- 
jiorical  ami  not  real,  because — 1.  It  is  inijxjs- 
sihle  that  (iod  would  have  eommanded  a 
jirophet  to  enter  into  such  a  revoltiiifr  alli- 
ance, and  one  which  was  apt  to  lessen  his 
inllneiicc  with  the  better  part  of  the  ]ieoi>le. 
'2.  The  law  of  Moses  forbade  a  priest  to  marry 
an  unchaste  woman  (Lev.  xxi.  7)  ;  and  as  the 
jiroplicts  were  also  a  sjicred  class,  althon':fh 
not  Ijound  by  the  strict  priestly  laws,  (iod 
would  scarcely  ilirect  them  to  enter  into  wed- 
lock with  the  unclean.  .'{.  The  action  of  the 
first  chaiUer,  if  real,  would  recinire  years 
for  its  performance,  involvinj;  not  only  the 
jiroplict's  marriaf^e.  but  also  the  birth  of  sev- 
eral children  :  and  the  symbolic  lesson  would 
be  lost.  On  the  other  hand,  the  command 
recorded  in  i.  2  is  regarded  as  directing  the 
]>idphet  to  "take  a  wife  of  adulteries,"  a 
Woman  whom  Hosea  liad  married,  but  who 
had  jiroved  unfaithful  to  her  marriage  vows 
and  been  divorced.  By  (iod's  direction,  the 
pro])liet  took  her  back  from  her  life  of  shame 
and  restored  her  to  her  former  position  ;  and 
thus  typitied  (!od's  readiness  to  restore  ai>os- 
tate,  idolatrous,  sinful  Israel  to  favor. 

The  book  of  Hosea  is  the  first  of  tlie  minor 
proplu'ts,  not  only  in  the  order  of  arrange- 
ment, but  ]iiiibably  also  in  the  order  of  time. 
It  consists  of  two  iiortioiis,  diajiters  i.-iii.  anil 
iv.-xiv.,  written  at  different  jteriods  of  the 
]irophet's  life.  The  first  cliaiiter  belongs  to 
the  reign  of  Jeroboam,  lu-fore  the  destruction 
of  the  house  of  ,lebii  li.  1).  The  lirst  three 
cli;ii)lers  furnish  the  key  to  the  whole  book, 
in  which  tlie  unfaithfulness  of  Isniel  to  .le- 
hovah  during  the  entire  natiomil  history  is 
jircssed  home  on  the  conscience  (iv.  i.-v.  7; 
vi.  1  vii.  lii;  viii.-xi.).  the  necessity  of  chas- 
tisement is  shown,  and  tlie  um|Uencliable  love 
of  Jehovah  for  his  erring  peojile  is  earnestly 
taught  (vi,  l-:5:  xii.-xiv.).  The  emiteiits  of 
the  book  do  not  consist  of  clearly  defined 
discourses,  but  a|>iiear  to  lie  a  summary  of 
the  i)roplu't's  teaching,  which  he  drew  ui)and 
committeil  to  writing  toward  the  close  of  his 


life ;  and  yet.  contrary  to  the  older  belief,  a 
chronological  arrangement  may  possibly  be 
discerned  in  the  light  <>f  the  details  of  an- 
cient history  which  until  recently  were  uu- 
known. 

Ho-sha'iah  [Jehovah  hath  saved]. 

1.  Father  of  Jezaniah  anil  Azariah  (Jer. 
xlii,  1  ;  xliii.  2). 

2.  A  man.  doubtless  a  iirime  of  Judah,  who 
walked  immediately  behind  the  chorus  of 
those  who  gave  thanks  in  the  jiroeession  at 
the  dedication  of  the  ,second  temple  (Neh. 
xii.  .32). 

Hosh'a-ma  [probably,  Jehovah  hath  heard]. 
One  of  the   family  or  descendants  of  king 
Jeconiali  il  Cliron.  iii.  IS). 

Ho-she'a,  in  A.  V.  of  Num.  xiii.  8,  16 
Oshea  [.sivc]. 

1.  The  earlier  name  of  Joshua,  the  son  of 
Nun,  which  was  changed  by  Moses  into 
Joshua  (Num.  xiii.  S.  Ki). 

2.  Son  of  Azaziah  and  j)rince  of  Ephraim 
in  David's  reign  (1  Cliron.  xxvii.  20). 

3.  A  son  of  Elah.  With  the  connivance 
of  Tiglath-])ileser.  king  of  Assyria,  he  cou- 
sjiired  against  I'ekah,  king  of  Israel,  slew 
him,  and  ascended  the  throne  (2  Kin.  xv. 
30).  His  reign  lasted  about  nine  yeai"s.  from 
about  7.'50  to  722  B.  c.  He  did  evil  in  the 
sight  of  Jehovah,  but  still  was  better  than 
the  average  of  the  jireceding  kings,  .^hal- 
maneser,  king  of  Assyria,  made  an  exj)edi- 
tion  against  him,  which  he  could  not  rejiel 
by  force.  He  thereftire  consented  to  become 
tributary  to  the  invader,  and  sent  him  jires- 
ents  (xvii.  3).  But  he  soon  sought  an  alliance 
with  Egypt  and  revolted  from  Assyria  (4). 
Of  course  the  yoke  was  galling,  and  as  the 
]iowerful  kingdom  of  Egyjit  looked  with  con- 
siderable jealousy  on  the  approach  of  the  As- 
syrian*  to  its  frontiers,  it  was  ijuite  natural 
tliat  Ho.shea  should  secretly  ask  assistance 
from  Egyjit.  Trusting  that  it  would  be  forth- 
coming, he  withheld  the  annual  tribute.  Shal- 
maneseragain  invaded  the  Israelite  territory, 
to(dv  Hoshea  captive,  and  laid  siege  to  Samaria. 
.See  Sii.\i,m.\nksi;k.  The  city  was  reduced  to 
great  stiaits.  but  it  held  out  three  years.  At 
the  eml  of  the  three  years  Shalmaneser  was 
killed  or  died.  an<l  was  succeeded  by  Sargou, 
who  claims  the  honor  of  capturing  the  city. 
He  carried  the  leading  inhabitants  into  cap- 
tivity, ami  i>laced  them  in  llalah  and  in 
Habor,  by  the  river  of  (Jozan.  and  in  the 
cities  of  the  Medes  (.").  (>).  This  event  is 
known  as  the  eai)tivity  of  the  ten  tribes.  It 
was  not  any  special  wickedness  on  the  ])art 
of  Hoshea  that  brought  it  on.  The  cni>  of 
Israel's  iniciiiity  had  been  tilling  for  centuries, 
and  Hoshea's  ini<|uities  only  added  the  last 
drop  which  made  the  cuji  full  to  overflowing 
(7-23).     See  S.\M.\RIA.  S.\kc;on,  Ish.xki.. 

4.  One  of  those  who  sealed  the  covenant 
(Neh.  X.  23). 

T).  The  Hebrew  name  of  the  prophet  Hosea. 
See  Hosea. 


Host 


312 


House 


Host. 

A  iiiullitiule,  esi)eci;illy  wlieu  organized  ; 
an  army  (Gen.  xxi.  "22  ;  Jiulg.  iv. '2)  or  the 
division  of  an  army  (Ex.  vii.  4,  in  A.  V.  ar- 
mies; xii.  41  ;  Num.  ii.  13,  in  A.  V.  armies;  1 
Kin.  ii.  5)  ;  the  angels,  constituting  a  heav- 
enly host  (1  Kin.  xxii.  I'J ;  Ps.  cxlviii.  2: 
Luke  ii.  13);  and  the  stars  (Deut.  iv.  It);  2 
Kin.  xxiii.  5).  The  Semites  comprehended 
heaven  and  all  its  forces  and  l)eings,  heaven 
and  all  that  is  therein,  in  the  jihra.se  host  of 
heaven  ;  and  in  the  phrase  host  of  the  earth, 
they  included  the  earth  and  all  that  is  there- 
in, the  forces  of  nature  like  wind,  lightning, 
heat  and  cold,  and  things  animate  and  inani- 
mate (Gen.  ii.  1 :  Ps.  xxxiii.  6  ;  and  see  Anshar 
and  Kisliar  in  Cke.\tion). 

The  title  Lord  of  hosts  has  sometimes  been 
explained  as  meaning  that  Jehovah  is  the 
God  of  the  armies  of  Israel.  In  proof  David's 
words  to  Goliath  are  cited  :  "  Thou  comest  to 
me  with  a  sword  and  with  a  si)ear,  but  I 
come  to  thee  in  the  name  of  the  Lord  of 
hosts,  the  God  of  the  armies  of  Israel  "  (1  Sam. 
xvii.  45).  The  i)rophet  Isaiah  is  also  quoted, 
who  says:  "The  Lord  of  hosts  shall  come 
down  to  fight  upon  mount  Zion  "  (Is.  xxxi. 
4).  But  this  is  too  narrow  a  generalization. 
Jehovah  did  fight  for  his  people  ;  he  was  in- 
deed "  the  Lord  strong  and  mighty,  the  Lord 
mighty  in  battle."  But  the  Lord  of  hosts  was 
more  than  the  war  God  of  Israel.  The  Greek 
translators  grasped  the  true  meaning  of  the 
title,  and  rendered  it  Pantokrator,  the  Al- 
mighty. The  word  hosts  which  is  used  in  the 
title  refers  to  the  armies  of  the  universe.  The 
designation  pictures  the  universe,  in  its 
spiritual  and  material  aspects,  as  forming  a 
vast  army,  in  numerous  divisions,  of  various 
kinds  of  troojjs,  in  orderly  array  under  the 
command  of  Jehovah.  One  division  consists 
of  the  angels.  It  was  the  Lord,  the  God  of 
hosts,  who  appeared  to  Jacob  at  Bethel  when 
he  beheld  the  ladder  and  the  angels  of  God 
ascending  and  descending  (Gen.  xxviii.  12, 
13;  Hos.  xii.  4,  5).  "Who  in  the  skies  can 
be  compared  unto  the  Lord?  Who  among 
the  sons  of  the  mighty  is  like  unto  the  Lord, 
a  God  very  terrible  in  the  council  of  the  holy 
ones,  and  to  be  feared  above  all  them  that  are 
round  about  him?  O  Lord  God  of  hosts,  who 
is  a  mighty  one  like  unto  thee,  O  Jehovah?" 
(Ps.  Ixxxix.  6-8  ;  cp.  E.  V.).  Another  host  con- 
sists of  the  stars,  in  their  beautiful  order  and 
wonderful  array.  Jehovah  is  their  connnand- 
er.  Isaiah  bids  those  who  would  know  God 
to  go  forth,  and  lift  up  their  eyes  on  high  and 
see.  "  Who  hath  created  these?"  he  asks.  He 
who  bringetli  out  [into  the  field  like  a  general] 
their  host  by  number,  he  who  calleth  them  all 
by  name,  and  ujion  them  layeth  commands 
(Is.  xl.  2(5 ;  xlv.  12).  Yet  another  host  con- 
sists of  all  the  forces  of  nature;  tlii'v  .stand 
at  the  bidding  of  .Jehovah,  worshiping  and 
serving  him  (Neh.  ix.  6;  Ps.  ciii.  21).  The 
Lord  of  hosts  sendeth  sword,  famine,  and 
pestilence  (Jer.  xxix.  17).    "  The  Lord,  which 


giveth  the  sun  for  a  light  by  day  and  the 
ordinances  of  the  moon  and  of  the  stars  for 
a  light  by  night,  wliich  stirreth  up  the  sea 
that  the  waves  tliereof  roar,  the  Lord  of  hosts 
is  his  name"  (Jer.  xxxi.  35,  K.  \'.).  The 
Greeks,  looking  at  the  heavens  above  them, 
and  at  the  earth  around  them,  called  what 
they  saw  cosmos,  the  beauty  of  harmony. 
The  Romans,  discovering  the  same  harmo- 
nious relations  and  movements,  named  the 
entirety  of  creation  a  universe,  combined  as 
one.  To  the  poetic  imagination  of  the  He- 
brews, with  their  knowledge  of  the  onniijio- 
tent  reigning  God,  the  regularity  anil  order 
everywhere  apparent  suggested  an  armj'  in 
vast,  numerous,  and  varied  divisions,  acting 
under  the  command  of  one  will.  The  Lord 
of  h<ists,  he  is  the  king  who  alone  commands. 

Ho'tham  [seal,  signet  ring]. 

1.  An  Asherite.  son  of  Hebcr,  family  of 
Beriah  (1  Chron.  vii.  32). 

2.  An  Aroerite,  two  of  whose  sons  were 
among  David's  mighty  men  (]  (,'hron.  xi.  44). 
The  misprint  of  Hotlian  for  Hotham  in  A.  V. 
has  been  corrected  in  K.  V. 

Ho'than    See  Hotham  2. 

Ho'thir. 

A  son  of  Heman,  David's  seer  and  singer 
(1  Chron.  xxv.  4). 

Hour.     See  Day  and  Night. 

House. 

In  Palestine  and  other  parts  of  the  East 
the  houses  of  the  common  people,  constitut- 
ing more  than  three-fourths  of  the  whole, 
have  only  one  story,  and  sometimes  only  one 
room.      'The   interior   is   frequently  divided 


(  j?^-> 


Eastern  House,  s^ihowing  Outer  Staircase. 

into  two  portions,  one  .several  feet  higher 
than  tlie  other.  The  door  from  the  outside 
leads  into  the  lower  portion,  which  is  occu- 
pied by  the  cattle.  Troughs  for  their  feed  are 
arranged  along  the  side  of  the  jilatform  where 
the  familv  dwell.   This  higher  fioor  is  reached 


House 


313 


Hunter 


by  a  short  flight  of  steps.  Sometimes  there 
is  a  loft  above  the  stable  for  guests.  These 
several  apartments  are  not  walled  tifl"  from 
each  other.  The  walls  of  the  house  are  often 
of  mud  or  sun-dried  brick,  even  wiu-n,  as  in 
Palestine,  stone  is  procurabk'  icii.  Job  .x.xiv. 
l(i ;  lOzek.  .xiii.  H)-l(i).  The  roofs  are  made 
of  branches  of  trees,  canes,  i)alm  leaves,  etc., 
covered  with  :i  thick  stratum  of  rarth.  Ma- 
terials so  llimsy  raniiot  long  resist  the  heavy 
niins  which  at  ci'rtain  seasons  fall  in  warm 
countries.  There  would  be  no  difficulty  iu 
temporarily  creating  an  ai>erture  in  the 
flimsy  roof,  and  letting  down  a  man  on  a 
bed,  as  was  done  at  (aiieriiaiim  in  liic  case 
of  the  paralytic  liealetl  by  our  Lord  (Mark  ii. 
1-12  ;  Luke  v.  18-2ti) ;  only  a  shower  of  dust 
would  descend. 

The  houses  of  the  better  class  a  re  generally 
built,  as  of  old,  in  a  (iiiadranglc.  around  a 
ceutral  courtyard,  which  in  certain  cases 
may  contain  a  fountain,  or  even  a  well  (2 
Sam.  xvii.  is).  The  upi)er  chamber  is  an 
important   room  in   the  .second  story,  some- 


17;  Mark  xiii.  15).  The  windows  are  gen- 
erally narrow,  and  mostly  open  into  the 
courtyard  instead  of  facing  the  street. 

The  Arabs  call  the  lower  story  the  winter 
house  or  simi)ly  the  house,  and  the  u]i)ierone 
the  summer  house.  ( »r  if  both  an-  on  the 
same  floor,  the  summer  house  is  the  outer 
and  the  winter  house  the  inner  room  or  rooms 
(Jer.  xxxvi.  22;  Amos  iii.  1.")). 

Huk'kok  [hewn  in,  decreed]. 

A  town  on  the  boundary  line  of  Xaphtali 
(Josh.  xix.  :54).  Yakuk,  ai)out  fi  miles  west 
by  north  of  Tell  Hum,  is  too  far  north. 

Hu'kok.     See  Hklkatii. 

Hul  [circle,  circuit]. 

Tlie  second  son  of  .\ram  (Gen.  x.  23;  1 
Chron.i.  17).  Huleh,  the  regi(m  immediately 
north  of  the  waters  of  Merom,  may  jiossibly 
preserve  the  name. 

Hul'dah  [wea.sel]. 

A  jiropheti'ss,  who  lived  in  the  second 
quarter  of  Jerusalem  (2  Kin.  xxii.  14,  R.  V.). 
She  was  the  wife  of  .Shallum,  keejier  of  the 


Ciiurt  of  ii  Ifouse  in  Damascus 


times  constituting  all  there  is  of  a  second 
.story,  being  built  above  the  general  level  of 
the  roof  (Judg.  iii.  20,  II.  V.  margin  ;  1  Kin. 
xvii.  19  ;  2  Kin.  iv.  10  ;  Mark  .\iv.  lo  ;  Acts  i. 
1:5 ;  ix.  37).  The  roofs  of  all  houses  are  flat. 
They  are  genenilly,  and  should  always  be.  sur- 
rounded by  l>atllements  (Deut.  .xxii.  M.  They 
an'  well  adapted  for  storing  and  drying  agri- 
cultural jirodiice  (.Josh.  ii.  (i),  for  walking  to 
and  fro  (2  .Sim.  xi.  2),  for  conversation  (1  Sam. 
ix.  2.").  2fi).  for  idolatrous  worship  (2  Kin.  x.xiii. 
12),  or  for  religious  nwditation  an<l  prayer 
(Acts  X.  !l).  There  is  a  staircase  outside  the 
hou.se,  by  which  the  roof  ean  be  reached 
without  entering  the  building  (cp.  Mat.  xxiv. 


wardrobe,  and  was  lield  in  the  highest  es- 
teem. She  lived  during  thi-  reign  of  .Tosiah, 
and  i)ro]iliesied  the  destruction  of  Jeru.><;ilem, 
but  added  that  on  account  of  his  jiiety  toward 
Jehovah,  the  king  sliould  die  l)efore  the  com- 
ing of  the  catastro|ihe  (2  Kin.  xxii.  12  20;  2 
Cliron.  xxxiv.  20-2S). 

Hunt'er  and  Hunt'lng. 

Hunting  was  a  lavorite  pastime  of  ancient 
kings  (den.  x.  0>.  The  Miiliylonian  an<l  .\s- 
syrian  monarchs  delighte<l  in  it.  and  were 
l)roud  of  their  achievements,  recording  their 
suc(;ess  in  in-M-riiJlions,  and  depicting  their 
deeds  in  sculi)ture  to  adorn  the  walls  of  their 


Humtah 


314 


Husk 


palaces.  In  Palestine  game  existed  during 
the  entire  l)il)lifal  period  in  certain  l<»calities, 
as  in  the  wilderness  of  Judah,  the  thickets 
of  the  Jordan,  the  more  notahle  forests,  and 
the  south  country  ((Jen.  xxv.  27;  Antiij.  xvi. 
10.  :?).  Many  of  I  he  animals  recognized  as 
clean  and  lit  for  food  were  wild,  and  could 
only  he  ohtained  hy  hunting.  Wlien  the  ani- 
mal was  slain,  its  hlood  was  poured  out  upon 
tlie  earth  and  not  eaten  (Dent.  xii.  15,  1(5,  ^S). 
llimting  was  jiracticed  in  order  to  extermi- 
nate noxious  beasts  (Ex.  xxiii.  29  ;  1  Kin.  xiii. 
24),  to  secure  food  (Gen.  xxvii.  3;  Ecclus. 
xxxvi.  19),  and  as  sport  (War  i.  21.  13).  People 
liunted  alone  or  in  cnuipanies  (Jer.  xvi.  1(5), 
on  foot  or  on  horseback  (War  i.  21,  13),  and 
on  the  great  plains  in  chariots.  The  hunter 
used  bow  and  arrows  (Is.  vii.  24)  and  the 
spear  (Autiq.  xvi.  10,  3).  Decoys  were  em- 
ployed (Jer.  V.  20,  27),  and  nets  and  traps 
(Job  xviii.  10;  Ecclus.  xxvii.  20)  and  pits  (2 
Sam.  xxiii.  20;  Ezek.  xix.  4,  8).  Ijabylonians, 
Assyrians,  and  Persians  kept  dogs  trained  for 
the  chase. 

Hum'tah  [place  of  lizards  or,  perhaps,  for- 
tress] . 

A  town  ill  the  hill  country  of  Judah  (Josh. 
XV.  .")!).     Site  unknown. 

Hu'pLam. 

A  son  or  remoter  descendant  of  Benjamin, 
and  founder  of  a  tribal  family  (Num.  xxvi. 
39).  Called  Hui)pim  (Gen.  xlvi.  21;  cp.  1 
Chron.  vii.  12,  15).  and  jierhaps  Huram  (1 
Chron.  viii.  5).  llnraiii  would  seem  to  be  de- 
scended from  Bela  or  (Jera.  Huppim  is  not 
registered  with  either  Bela,  Becher,  or  Jediael 
in  1  Chron.  vii.  12,  unless  he  is  descended 
from  Bela  through  Ir  or  Iri  (ver.  7). 

Hup'pah  [a  covering]. 

A  descendant  of  Aaron.  His  family  he- 
came  the  thirteenth  course  of  the  priests  (1 
Chriin.  xxiv.  13). 

Hup'pim.     See  Hupham. 

Hur  [whiteness,  splendor]. 

1.  A  man  of  Judah,  Himily  of  Hezron, 
house  of  Caleb  (1  Chrou.  ii.  1«.  19).  He  was  the 
grandfather  of  Bezaleel  (20;  Ex.  xxxi.  1,  2). 
With  Aaron,  he  supported  the  arms  of  Moses 
during  the  fight  with  the  Amalekites  (Ex. 
xvii.  10-12).  He  was  associated  with  Aaron 
in  the  government  of  the  Israelites  wiiile 
Mo.ses  was  absent  in  mount  Sinai  (xxiv.  14). 
Jo.sephus,  writing  many  centuries  after  the 
event,  calls  Hur  the  hii.sband  of  Miriam, 
Moses'  sister  (Aiititi-  iii.  2,  4).  The  O.  T.  is 
silent  on  the  subject. 

2.  One  of  five  kings  of  Midian  slain  ))y 
Moses  (Num.  xxxi.  8  ;  Josh.  xiii.  21). 

.3.  Father  of  Solomon's  juirveyor  in  mount 
E])hraini  (1  Kin.  iv.  8). 

4.  Father  of  a  certain  Kejihaiah  (Neh. 
iii.  9). 

Hu'rai  [pcrhajis,  a  linen  weaver]. 

One  of  David'smighty  men  from  the  brooks 
of  Gaash  (1  Chron.  xi.  32).  Called  Hiddai  in 
2  Sam.  xxiii.  30. 


Hu'ram  [noble,  ingenuous]. 

1.  A   king  of  Tyre  (2  Chnm.   ii.  3).     See 

HlU.\M. 

2.  A  Tyrian  artificer  (2  Chron.  iv.  11,  10). 
See  HiK.\M. 

3.  A  Benjamite,  perhaps  a  .son  of  Bela  (1 
Chron.  viii.  5).     See  Huph.\m. 

Hu'ri  [perhaps,  a  linen  weaver]. 

A  (iadite  (1  Chron.  v.  14). 

Hu'shah  [haste,  emotion]. 

A  town  of  Judah,  to  judge  from  1  Chron. 
iv.  4.  and  xxvii.  11. 

Hu'shai  [hasty,  hastening]. 

An  Archite,  one  of  David's  two  leading 
counselors.  He  remained  faithful  to  his 
sovereign  during  Absalom's  rebellion,  and 
efiectually  defeated  the  counsel  of  Ahithoi)hei 
(2  Sam.  XV.  32-37  ;  xvii.  5-16).    See  Ahith- 

OPHEL. 

Hu'sham  [haste,  passion]. 

A  man  of  the  laud  of  the  Temanites,  who 
succeeded  Jobab  as  king  of  Edom  (Gen. 
xxxvi.  34,  35;  1  Chron.  i.  45,  46). 

Hu'shath-ite. 

All  iiiliabitaiit  of  Hushah  (2  Sam.  xxi.  18; 
xxiii.  27). 

Hu'shim  [not  impossibly,  opulent,  rich  in 
children]. 

1.  The  son  of  Dan  (Gen.  xlvi.  23).  Called 
in  Num.  xxvi.  42  Shuham.  The  difference 
is  due  to  a  transposition  of  the  consonants. 

2.  A  Benjamite  familv,  sons  of  Aher  (1 
Chron.  vii.  12). 

3.  One  of  the  three  wives  of  the  Benjamite 
Shaharaim  (1  Chron.  viii.  8,  11). 

Husk. 

A  kind  of  food  eaten  by  swine,  and  which 
the  prodigal  son,  when   in  poverty  and  de- 


Pod  and  Branch  of  Cnrob  Tree. 

serted  hy  his  fair-weather  friends,  was  glad 
to  share  (Luke  xv.  16).  It  is  the  pod  of  the 
carob  tree  {Cerafuiiiii  sUiqnii).  and  Ls  also  called 


Huz 


315 


Hyssop 


locust  l)C'an  and  St.  John's  hrcad.  The  tree 
is  a  handsome  ever-ireeu,  attaininj;  a  lieiirlit 
(iC.'iO  ffct.  tliornh'ss,  and  witli  leaves  likf  the 
ash.  The  le^iiiiiiesare  home  in  jireat  prolusion, 
and  are  often  a  foot  hm-;.  Wlien  f;reon  they 
are  used  lor  ealtk'  and  swine  and  in  times  of 
j;reat  famine  are  eaten  liy  jieople.  A  syru]!  is 
made  of  the  pulp  of  the  pods. 

Huz.     See  Uz. 

Huz'zab. 

Apparentlya])octicterm  for  Nincvcdi  (Nah. 
ii.  7i.  Tile  Tar^ium  understands  it  to  mean 
tlie  (lueen.  I'.ut  in  tlie  marjrin  of  tlie  A.  V. 
it  is  rendered  "tiiat  whicii  was  estahlished  " 
or  "  there  was  a  stand  made."  and  in  that  of 
the  K.  y.  "'and  it  i^deereed."  Hotii  of  tliese 
renderin;;s  make  Huz/ah  sim|)ly  a  part  of 
the  llel)rew  \erl)  i/iisith,  to  jiUiee  or  estah- 
lish. 

Hy'a-cinth,  or  in  m<idified  form  Ja'clnth. 

1.  Tht-  name  of  a  color  (Kev.  ix.  17). 

2.  A  precious  stone,  constitutint;  the  elev- 
enth foundation  of  the  New  .Terusalem  (Rev. 
xxi.  'JO).  It  is  supposed  to  he  the  sapjihire  (U. 
V.  mar;;iii).  In  modern  usage  the  name  is 
jriveii  to  tiie  mineral  zircon. 

Hy-e'na. 

An  animal  which  feeds  on  offal,  but  is 
often  driven  from  it  hy  the  dogs  (Ecdus. 
xiii.  IS).  The  strijied  liyena  (lli/uiiit  striata) 
is  common  in  every  jiart  of  Palestine,  living 
in  caves  and  tomt)s,  coming  fiprtli  after  dark 
to  ritle  graves  or  otherwise  seek  after  prey. 
The  valley  of  Zehoim  in  1  Sam.  xiii.  18 
means  the  valley  of  hyenas. 

Hy-me-nse'us  [pertaining  to  Hymen,  the 
god   of  marriage]. 

One  who  matlc  shipwreck  of  his  faith, 
hlas]diemed,  and  was  excommunicated  by 
Paul  (1  Tim.  i.  20).  lie  declared  tiiat  the 
rosurrection  was  already  ])ast.  Philetus  was 
associated  with  hiiu  in  this  error  {2  Tim.  ii. 
17.  IS). 

Hymn. 

.\  sjiiritual  meditation  designed,  or  at  least 
suitable,  for  singing  or  chanting  in  the  wor- 
shiji  of  (iod.  Tiie  Book  of  P.salms  is  the 
earliest  hymn  book  in  existence.  Other  niag- 
niliceiit  Hebrew  religious  odes  arc  the  songs 
of  >[oses  (Kx.  XV.  1-1!) ;  Dent,  xxxii.  l-4:i). 
Deborah  (.ludg.  v.).  Hannah  (1  Sam.  ii.  1-1(»), 
Mary  (Lukei.  Ui  .5.^),  and  Zacharias  ((iH-79). 
The  last  two  are  known  as  the  Magnificat 
and  the  Heiiedictus  respectively,  from  the 
lirst  word  of  the  J^atiii  translation.  The 
Hebrew  jisalms  were  often  sung  to  the  ac- 
I'ompaniment  of  music  (2  (^liron.  xxix.  27, 
•'-<:  cp.  \l.  V.  of  1  C'hron.  xvi.  42).  In  the 
N'.  T.  three  terms  are  used  for  Cliristian 
songs:  iisalms,  hynnis.  and  spiritual  songs  or 
odes  (l",ph.  v.  lit;  Col.  iii.  Hii.  .Tose])hus  uses 
two  of  these  words,  nanndy  hymns  and  odes, 
in  reference  to  the  p.salms  of  David  (Anti(|. 
vii.  12,  3).  The  hymn  wliich  Christ  and  his 
discii)k's  sang  after  su]iper  on   the  night  of 


the  betrayal  (Mat.  xxvi.  30)  was  doubtless 
part  of  Ps.  cxv.-cxviii.,  whicli  were  sung  by 
the  .Jews  on  the  night  of  the  ])a.>isover  after 
supjicr.  The  early  Christians  .sjing  hymns  in 
public  wfirship  and  privately  as  a  means  of 
worshi))ing  Cod  and  of  e(li(ication  and  com- 
fort (Acts  xvi.  2."> ;  1  Cor.  xiv.  2<i  ;  Eidi.  v. 
19;  Col.  iii.  l(i).  Fragments  of  early  Chris- 
tian hymns,  known  as  such  from  the  meter 
in  the  (ireek  text,  arc  jircserved  in  1  Tim. 
iii.  K;  ;  Eph.  v.  11  ;  ep.  Kev.  xv.  :5,  4.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  second  century,  in  the  reign 
of  Trajan,  tlu^  Christians  of  Hithvnia  were 
re]iorted  hy  I'liny  as  singling  songs  to  Chri.st 
as  (iod  I  ICpis.  X.  \H>). 

Hys'sop. 

A  jilant  of  Egypt  and  Palestine  (Ex.  xii. 
22),  in  Hebrew  'Ezol>.  in  (ireek  'U.sHdpon, 
which  sjirings  out  of  walls,  and  was  of  so 
small  a  size  that  it  stood  at  one  end  of  the 
scale  of  magnitude  whicli  had  the  cedar  of 
Lebanon  at  the  other  (1  Kin.  iv.  'S.i,.  It  was 
aromatic,  and  was  largely  useii,  under  the 
law,  often  in  bunches,  with  cedar  wood  and 
wool,  for  ceremonial  i)urilication  (Lev.  xiv. 
4.  (),  49,  51.  .^)2;  Num.  xix.  (J.  ]S;  Ps.  Ii.  7; 
Heb.  ix.  19).  A  sjioUiie  tilled  with  vinegar 
was  i)ut  upon  hyssoj)  and  raised  to  the  lijis 
of  Jesus  when  he  was  on  the  cros,s  (.John 
xix.   29).    The    common    hyssop    (Ilyssopits 


^^ 


<'^' 


Common  Hyssop. 

officiiKtliK)  is  a  sweet-smelling  jilant,  belong- 
ing to  the  order  Lithiatir.  or  Mints.  It  is  a 
small  bushy  herb  which  grows  to  a  height  of 
12  or  18  inches,  and  has  small,  hairy,  lance- 
olate leaves,  liut  Tristram  states  that  its 
area  is  the  south  of  Europe,  the  Daniibian 
province,  and  Siberia.  Moreover,  tin-  state- 
ment of  two  of  the  evangelists  (Mat.  xxvii. 
4M  ;  Mark  xv.  ;{<i)  that  the  sponge  of  vinegar 
oftered  to  Jesus  was  juit  upon  kiilmnos,  a  reed 


Ibhar 


316 


Iddo 


which  the  common  hyssop  docs  not  produce, 
has  led  some  interpreters  to  think  tliat  a  dif- 
ferent phiut  from  the  common  liysso]!  is  in- 
tended, perhaps  tlie  caper  phuit  (('iipparis 
spinosd),  sometimes  caHed  l)y  llie  Aralis  'asiif. 
It  is  common  in  Palestine  and  the  adjacent 
regions,  grows  out  of  walls,  and  could  fur- 
nish a  reedy  stem  tliree  or  four  feet  long,  to 
which  a  si)onge  might  )>e  affixed.  Kahhiuical 
tradition  identifies  the  Hebrew  'ezoh  with  the 
Arabic  m'tar,  commonly  held  to  be  Ori<janum, 
marjory.  This  plant  is  common  in  Palestine, 
growing  on  walls  and  rocks.  Its  thick,  hairy 
leaves  and  hairy  branches  can  be  made  into 
a  bunch,  and  would  hold  liquids  for  sprink- 
ling. It  is  a  small  lierlt.  iuiwever,  and  could 
not  furnish  a  rod  ;  but  the  l)un(li  of  hyssop 
used  in  sprinkling  was  attached,  it  is  argued, 
to  a  rod  of  cedar,  and  such  a  sprinkler  was 
seized  as  the  most  available  means  at  hand 
of  reaching  the  sponge  to  the  lips  of  the 
crucitied  Jesus. 


I. 


Ib'har  [(God)  doth  choose]. 

One  of  king  David's  sons  born  at  Jerusalem 
(2  Sam.  v.  15 ;  1  Chrou.  xiv.  5). 

I'bis. 

A  bird  (Lev.  xi.  19,  E.  V.  margin),  allied 
to  the  herons  and  storks.  It  was  formerly 
venerated  by  the  Egyptians.     See  Heron. 

Ib'le-am  [the  people  faileth]. 

One  of  the  cities  within  the  territory  of 
Issachar  which  belonged  to  the  tribe  of 
Manasseh.  The  Manassites,  however,  did 
not  drive  out  the  Canaanite  inhabitants 
(Josh.  xvii.  11,  12  ;  Judg.  i.  27).  It  was  near 
Ibleamthat  Ahaziah,  kingof  Judah,  wasmor- 
tally  wounded  by  the  followers  of  Jehu  (2  Kin. 
ix.  27).  It  is  generally  identified  with  the 
town  Bileam,  which  belonged  to  Manasseh, 
but  was  assigned  to  the  Levites  (1  Cliron.  vi. 
70)  ;  perhai)s  Bel'ameh,  a  ruin  and  well  one 
mile  south  of  Jenin  (cp.  Judith  iv.  4;  vii.  3). 

Ib-ne'iab  [Jehovah  doth  build]. 

A  Benjamite,  son  of  Jeroham  and  head  of 
a  father's  Ikjusc  (1  Chron.  ix.  8). 

Ib-ni'jah  [Jehovah  doth  build]. 

A  Benjamite,  father  of  Reuel  (1  Chron. 
ix.  8). 

Ib'ri  [a  Hebrew]. 

A  son  of  Jaaziah  (1  Chron.  xxiv.  27). 

Ib'sam,  in  A.  V.  Jibsam  [fragrant]. 

A  man  of  Issachar,  family  of  Tola  (1  Chron. 
vii.  2). 

Ib'zan  [active]. 

A  judge  who  ruled  over  Israel,  or  part  of 
it,  for  seven  years.  He  was  a  native  of  Beth- 
lehem, apiiarently  that  in  Zcbuhin,  was  l>ur- 
ied  in  his  native  jdace,  and  was  succeeded  by 
a  Zebulunite.  He  had  thirty  .sons  and  thirty 
daughters,  doul)tless  by  a  plurality  of  wives 
(Judg.  xii.  8-10). 


Ich'a-bod  [the  glory  is  not]. 

Son  of  I'hinelias  and  grandson  of  Kli.  The 
name  commemorated  tiie  fact  that  tlie  glory 
had  dei)arted  from  Israel,  for  the  ark  of  God 
was  taken  (1  Sam.  iv.  19-22). 

I-co'ni-um. 

A  city  of  Asia  Minor,  which  is  described  by 
Xenophon  as  the  last  city  in  Phrygia  to  one 
traveling  eastward  (Anabasis  i.  2,  19).  Un- 
der the  Komanand  the  (ireek empires  Iconium 
was  considered  the  cajiital  of  Lycaouia.  It 
was  situated  in  a  fertile  plain.  Barnabas  and 
Paul  visited  it  on  the  first  missionary  journey 
both  going  and  returning  (Acts  xiii.  51,  .52; 
xiv.  1-6,  19-22:  cp.  xvi.  2;  2  Tim.  iii.  11). 
It  has  had  an  unbroken  history  and  the  same 
name  until  the  i)reseut  time,  being  nov? 
known  as  Koniah.  It  is  the  capital  of  the 
pashalic  of  Karamau  ;  and  is  a  large  city 
surrounded  by  a  wall  built  of  the  materials 
derived  from  older  structures. 

Id'a-lab. 

A  border  town  of  Zebuluu  (Josh.  xix.  15). 
Site  unknown. 

Id'bash  [perhaps  honey-sweet]. 
A  man  of  Judah  (1  Chron.  iv.  3). 

Id'do,  I.  [hap,  happy]. 

The  chief  at  Casiphia  through  whom  Ezra, 
when  conducting  a  company  of  exiles  from 
Babylonia  to  Jerusalem,  obtained  the  con- 
tingent, which  was  lacking,  of  Levites  and 
Nethinim  for  the  service  of  the  temple  (Ezra 
viii.  17-20). 

Id'do,  II.   [loving,  affectionate]. 

1.  Sou  of  Zechariah,  and  a  chief  in  David's 
reign  of  the  half-tribe  of  Manasseh  east  of 
the  Jordan  (1  Chrou.  xxvii.  21). 

2.  A  man  induced  by  Ezra  to  put  away  his 
foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  43).  In  A.  V.  the  name 
is  written  Jadau,  a  mongrel  word  arising 
from  the  translators'  pronouncing  the  conso- 
nants of  the  text  with  the  vowels  of  the  mar- 
gin. The  real  alternative  to  Iddo  is  Jaddai, 
as  in  the  margin  of  R.  V. 

Id'do,  III.  [decked,  adorned]. 

1.  A  Levite,  a  descendant  of  Gershom  (1 
Chron.  vi.  21).  Apparently  called  Adaiah 
synonymously  (41). 

2.  Father  of  Ahinadab,  Solomon's  pur veyoi 
at  Mahanaim  (1  Kin.  iv.  14). 

3.  A  seer  who  wrote  a  book  of  visions  con- 
cerning Jeroboam  and  in  which  events  of 
Solomon's  reign  were  related  (2  Chron.  ix. 
29),  a  book  on  genealogies,  in  which  deeds  of 
Rehoboam  were  recorded  (xii.  15),  and  a  his- 
torv  which  treated  of  king  Abijah's  acts  (xiii. 
22)! 

4.  Grandfather  of  the  prophet  Zechariah 
(Zech.  i.  1,  7  :  cp.  Ezra  v.  1  ;  vi.  14).  He  is 
not  unreasonably  Ix'lieved  to  be  identical 
with  Iddo,  a  chief  of  the  priests  who  re- 
turned with  Zeru))bal)el  to  Jerusalem  and 
whose  name  is  that  of  a  father's  liouse  in  the 
next  generation.  The  head  of  thislxiuseatthe 
time  mentioned  is  a  priest  named  Zechariah 


Idol 


317 


Igal 


(Nell.  xii.  4,  Hi).  Tlio  (lillcTinie  in  spfllin,!; 
till'  iiaiiR'  lildii  ill  llii'si.'  two  viTst'S  of  Nehe- 
niiah  in  tlu'  llrln-cw  is  merely  the  ilill'erence 
between  jud  and  vau  (q.  v.)- 

I'dOl  [a  mental  or  material  imafie]. 

An  image,  a  senli)tnre,  or  other  represen- 
tation ot  any  pei-son  or  being,  intended  as  an 
objeet  of  worshi]),  or  as  the  embodiment  and 
etlieieiit  i)resiiut'  of  a  deity  (Ex.  xx.  4,  .">, 
'2'.i ;  Jiidfr.  xvii.  15  ;  1  Sam.  v.  '.i,  4  ;  Hom.  i. 
23).  They  were  made  of  silver,  of  gold  (Ps. 
cxv.  4  :  fxxxv.  15),  of  wood,  or  other  material 
(Is.  xliv.  KJ-IT).  When  melallic,  they  were 
fashioned  by  running  nultcd  metal  into  a 
mold,  in  wliieh  ease  they  were  ealled  mol- 
ten images;  or  they  eonsisted  of  plates  of 
metal  over  a  wooden  frame  or  over  a  molten 
body,  and  were  termed  graven  images.  When 
of  wood  or  stoiK',  they  were  made  by  graving 
t(M)ls  or  other  instruments,  and  were  also  ealled 
graven  images.  The  process  of  manufacture 
is  described  in  Isaiah  and  Jeremiah  (Is.  xl. 
lit,  -20  ;  xliv.  9-'J0;  Jer.  x.  9).  Some  were 
small,  esjiecially  those  designed  as  hou.se- 
hold  gods  or  teraphini  (Gen.  xxxi.  34  ;  xxxv. 
1-4)  ;  .some  were  as  large  as  a  human  being 
(1  Sam.  xix.  lb)  ;  some,  .such  as  that  erected 
by  Nebuchadnezzar  in  the  plain  of  Dura,  were 
colossal  (l>an.  iii.  1).  Various  ejiithets  are 
applied  to  idols,  which  exjiress  the  com- 
mingled loathing  and  contemi>t  with  which 
they  were  regarded  by  the  enlightened  serv- 
ant of  Jehovah.  One  of  the  most  notable 
is  vanity. 

I-dol'a-try. 

Molairy  was  practiced  at  a  comparatively 
early  piTiod  of  man's  history.  The  immedi- 
ate ancestors  of  Abraham  worshiiicl  other 
gods  (Josh.  xxiv.  2),  in  addition  to  .lebovah. 
it  may  be  believed,  and  doubtless  by  means 
of  idols.  Laban  had  images,  which  Kachel 
was  too. justly  accused  of  stealing  ((ieii.  xxxi. 
30,  .32-3.")).  The  Egyiitians  made-  ligures  of 
the  gods  to  serve  as  objects  of  worshij),  and 
in  the  innermost  sanctuary  of  their  temi)les 
lay  the  symbol  of  a  god  and  a  .sacred  animal 
( Herod,  ii.  (J3.  \:'t»].  The  Canaanite  nations  had 
idols,  w  hicli  the  Isnielites.  on  succeeding  to 
the  land,  were  ordered  to  destroy  (ICx.  xxiii. 
24j;  xxxiv.  13  ;  Lev.  xix.  4;  Num.  xxxiii.  .V2; 
Dent.  vii.  .5  ;  xxix.  17).  The  second  com- 
mandment was  directed  against  idolatry  (Ex. 
XX.  4,  .") ;  Dent.  v.  .'',  !i|,  forbidding  man  to 
bow  down  to  images,  sculjitures,  statues,  and 
pictures.  And  the  tea<'h<'rsof  Israel  followed 
U])  this  injunction  by  pointing  out  and  ridi- 
culing the  iiniiotencv  of  idols  (I's.  cxv.  ;  Is. 
ii.  H,  IH,  20.  21  :  xl.lii,  20;  xliv.  it  20  ;  Jer. 
X.  3-.">).  Their  hel|ilessness  was  tliscovered 
wlien  the  ark  of  the  Lord  was  in  the  temjile 
of  Dagon  (1  Sam.  v.  3-5).  The  apocryplial 
))ook  of  Hel  and  the  Dragon  treats  of  tbeile- 
eeitful  practices  of  the  jiriests  in  the  idol 
temples.  Of  the  nations  with  whom  the 
Israelites  were  l)rought  into  contact  during 
Siripturc  times,  all  but  the  Persians  were  idol- 


aters ;  and  the  divinities  whom  their  images 
represented  were  other  gods  than  ,Ieliovah. 
When  the  Israelites  borrowi-d  idolatrous 
practices  from  the  neighboring  nations,  two 
well-marked  stages  were  traceable  in  the 
jirogress  of  error.  At  first  they  attemi)ted  to 
worshij)  .lebovah  by  means  of  images  ;  see 
Jkkdhoam.  Then  they  entirely  departed 
from  .Jehovah,  and  the  idols  tl.ey  made  were 
designed  to  rei>resent  other  divinitii-s  ;  see 
H.\AI,.  In  N.  T.  times  directions  bad  to  be 
given  as  to  the  ]ue(:iutioiis  which  church 
members  who  lived  in  heathen  coimiiunities 
were  required  to  take  to  avoid  compromising 
them.selves  with  idolatry.  The  council  of 
Jerusalem  enjoined  that  they  should  abstain 
from  meats  oU'ered  to  idols  (Acts  xv.  2il). 
Paul  gave  the  same  injunction,  but  exjilaiiied 
that  in  the  case  of  those  wlio  had  no  faith  in 
idols,  abstinence  was  designed  to  avoid  cast- 
ing a  stumbling-block  in  the  i)atli  of  the 
weaker  brethren  (1  Cor.  viii.  4-l.'!|.  If  re- 
ceiving hospitality  at  any  hou.se.  and  meat 
which  might  possibly  have  been  ofJ'ered  to  an 
idol  was  set  on  the  table,  the  I'hristian  guest 
was  not  re<iuired  to  ask  any  questions  for  con- 
science' saki'  :  but  if  he  was  expressly  told 
that  the  food  had  been  oflered  to  an  idol, 
then  he  was  to  abstain.  The  .same  rule  was 
to  be  carried  out  with  regard  to  food  ])ur- 
chascd  for  the  household  in  the  ordinary 
market  (x.  18-33).  About  A.  D.  3(K)  images 
were  introduced  into  some  Christian  churches 
for  instruction  and  ornament  only.  In  736 
the  eastern  emjieror  Leo  issued  edicts  against 
tliem.  In  7S0  the  em]n-ess  Irene  introduced 
image  worship  into  the  eastern  church,  and 
in  7>7  the  second  council  of  Nice  gave  them 
ecclesiastical  sanction. 

Id-u-mae'a,  in  A.  V.  of  O.  T.  and  Apocry- 
pha Idumea  [jiertaining  to  Ed(mi]. 

The  name  usi'd  by  (ireeks  and  Komans  in 
slightly  did'erent  si>elling,  for  the  country  of 
Edoiii  (Mark  iii.  S;  and  in  A.  A',  only.  Is. 
xxxiv.  5,  () ;  Ezek.  xxxv.  15  ;  xxsvi.  51.  After 
the  fall  of  .Feru.siilem,  in  5S7  R.  c,  the  Edom- 
ites  began  to  i)ress  northward  (Ezek.  xxxvi. 
5).  They  themselves  wi're  driven  from  Petra 
westward  by  the  Nabathieans  about  .30(t  n.  f.. 
and  before  the  middle  of  the  second  century 
R.  C.  they  were  occupying.  Jiot  only  southern 
Judah,  but  also  Hebron  and  the  country  to  its 
north  as  far  as  Bethzur  (1  Mac.  iv.  2!l:  v.  fi5). 
.ludas  Ma<'cabieus  warred  against  tlii'in  suc- 
cessfully :  and  .lohn  Hyrcatius,  about  126 
R.  c,  completely  subjugated  them  and  i)laced 
them  under  a  Jewish  governor  (Autiq.  xiii. 
!).  1). 

I-e'zer.     Sec  Abiezer. 

I-e'zer-ite.     See  .\rie/ki!Ite. 

I'gal,  in  A.  V.  once  Igeal  (1  Chron.  iii.  22) 
[he  will  vindicate]. 

1.  The  spy  sent  forth  by  th(>  tribe  of  Is.'^- 
cliar  to  search  out  the  land  of  Canaan  (Num. 
xiii.  7). 

2.  One  of  David's  mighty  men.  the  .son  of 


Igdaliah 


318 


Immanuel 


Xathan  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  3(5).  He  occupies  the 
same  position  in  the  catalof^ue  as  ihics  Joel 
in  1  ciiroii.  xi.  oS,  anil  it  is  natural  to  identify 
the  two.  I>ut  the  relation  of  the  two  lists  at 
this  jioint  is  ditticiilt  to  determine  ;  and  as 
I<;al  and  .Joel  are  ditiereutly  descrihed,  they 
may  lie  diU'erent  inrsons,  neiihew  and  uncle. 

'.i.  A  son  of  Sliemaiah,  a  descendant  of  king 
Jeconiah  (1  Chron.  iii.  ^^). 

Ig-da-li'ah  [great  is  Jehovah]. 

Father  of  the  prophet  Uanan  (Jer.  xxxv.  4). 

I'ge-al.     See  lv,\i,. 

I'im  [ruins]. 

1.  A  town  east  of  the  Jordan  (Num.  xxxiii. 
45).     See  Iye-ab.\rim. 

2.  A  town  in  the  extreme  south  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  29).     .Site  unknown. 

I-je-ab'a-rim.     See  Iye-.\baeim. 

I'jon  [a  ruin]. 

A  fortified  city  of  Xaphtali.  one  of  those 
captured  hy  Benhadad,  king  of  Syria,  at  the 
instigation  of  Asa  (1  Kin.  xv.  20;  2  Chron. 
xvi.  4).  Its  inhahitants  were  subsequently 
carried  into  captivity  by  Tiglath-pilei5er  (2 
Kin.  XV.  29).  Robinson  located  it,  probably 
correctly,  on  Tell  Dibbin,  a  hill  110  feet  high, 
on  the  eastern  border  of  Merj  'Ayun,  meadow 
of  springs,  whicli  seems  to  preserve  a  trace 
of  the  old  name.  The  site  is  about  8  miles 
north-northwest  of  Banias. 

Ik'kesh  [perverse]. 

Father  of  David's  captain  and  mighty  man 
Ira  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  26;  1  Chron.  xi.  28). 

I'lai  [supreme]. 

One  of  David's  mighty  men  (1  Chron.  xi. 
29),  called  Zalmon  in  2  Sam.  xxiii.  28. 

Il-lyr'i-cum. 

A  country  bounded  on  the  north  by  Pan- 
nonia,  on  the  south  by  J^pirus,  on  the  east  by 
Macedonia,  and,  when  it  included  Dalmatia, 
on  the  west  by  the  Adriatic  Sea.  It  is  trav- 
ersed from  northwest  to  southeast  by  the 
Noric,  Carnic,  and  Julian  Alps,  constituting 
the  most  easterly  portion  of  the  great  Al- 
pine chain.  Along  the  coast  are  excellent 
harbors  and  numerous  islands.  The  Illyrian 
race  inhabiting  the  rcgiim  were  wild  moun- 
taineers, who  were  a  thorn  in  the  side  of 
their  neighbors,  the  Macedonians;  and,  when 
they  descended  to  the  seacoast,  they  so  prac- 
ticed piracy  as  to  bring  them  into  collision 
with  the  Romans,  who,  in  229  B.  c,  began  to 
conquer  them,  and  finally  made  lUyricum, 
or  Illyria,  a  province  of  the  empire.  The 
ajiostle  Paul  preached  the  gospel  from  Jeru- 
salem and  round  about  even  to  Illyricum 
(Rom.  XV.  19).  In  the  later  years  of  the  Ro- 
man emi)ire  the  name  Illyricum  gained  a 
much  wider  meaning.  A  great  part  of  Illyr- 
icum in  the  more  limited  sense  constitutes 
Bosnia,  Herzegovina,  and  Montenegro. 

Im'age.     Sec  Idoi,. 

Im'la  or  Imlah  [he.  /.  c  God,  doth  fill]. 

Father  of  the  prophet  Micaiah  (1  Kin.  xxii. 
8,  9;  2  Chron.  xviii.  7,  8). 


Im-man'u-el,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Emmanuel, 
the  (ireek  pronunciation  [God  with  us]. 

A  son  whom  "  the  maiden  "  should  hear  '  Is. 
vii.  14,  R.  \'.  margin).  Before  the  son  is  born, 
oratthetimeof  his  ttirth,  historical  events  will 
ju.stify  naming  him  "  ( iod  with  us ;"  before  he 
attains  to  years  of  moral  determination,  the 
land  of  northern  Israel  and  Daniax  us  will  be 
forsaken  of  its  kings,  and  unexampled  i)unish- 
ment  will  be  inflicted  on  Judah  (ver.  Hi,  17) ; 
and  during  the  years  of  his  moral  maturity, 
he  shall  eat  the  ]n-oducts  of  a  land  that  has 
been  wasted  by  the  nations  (ver.  L"),  1^  seq.). 
Isaiah  had  in  mind  that  worthy  Son  of  David 
about  whom  }iroj)hecy  had  begun  to  cluster : 
for  1.  He  foretells  the  birth  of  a  son,  not  sim- 
ply of  a  child.  2.  He  utters  this  prophecy  to 
the  house  of  David  in  view  of  God's  rejec- 
tion of  the  faithless  successor  of  David  who 
then  occupied  the  throne.  3.  On  the  natural 
interpretation  of  viii.  8,  which  observes  the 
previous  use  of  Immanuel  as  the  name  of 
the  son,  does  justice  to  the  pronoun  of  the 
second  person  in  the  clause  jireceding  Im- 
manuel, and  aflbrds  an  easy  transition  to  the 
succeeding  verse,  Immanuel  is  a  person  ;  and 
if  so,  he  is  a  native  of  Judah.  and  sufficiently 
great  to  be  singled  out  as  a  representative, 
for  Judah  is  spoken  of  as  the  laud  of  Im- 
manuel ;  and  he  is  a  powerful  persouage,  for 
because  of  him  the  rage  of  the  nations  is 
vain  (ver.  9seq.).  4.  The  Messiah  is  definitely 
before  the  prophet's  mind  in  ix.  6,  7  and  xi. 
1  ;  and  violence  is  required  to  separate  these 
projihecies  from  that  of  chap.  vii.  The  Mes- 
sianic hope  was  awake  at  this  period  of  his- 
tory. 5.  The  use  of  the  article  with  maiden 
is  adequately  explained.  Isaiah  uses  it  to 
designate  the  young  wimian,  unknown  by 
name,  yet  definite,  who  is  to  be  the  mother 
of  Messiah  (cp.  Mic.  v.  3).  (i  Looking  back, 
this  meaning  seems  to  have  been  the  mind 
of  the  Spirit  (Mat.  i.  22,  23). 

The  projihct  is,  therefore,  thinking  of 
David's  son.  who  might  ajqiear  at  any  time. 
But  he  is  not  predicting  the  birth  of  Heze- 
kiah  and  expecting  him  to  be  the  Messiah ; 
for  1.  Hezekiah  was  already  born.  This 
ju'ophecy  was  delivered  in  734  B.  c.  and 
Hezekiah  was  on  the  throne,  a  vigorous 
ruler  in  727  B.  c.  2.  After  the  lapse 
of  a  year  and  when  Hezekiah  was  a  youth, 
the  prophet  still  continues  to  look  forward 
to  the  future  for  the  going  forth  of  the 
shoot  out  of  the  root  of  .lesse.  3.  Heze- 
kiah did  not  eat  curds  and  honey;  the  ]iro- 
ce.sses  which  issued  in  the  s]>oli;ition  and  sub- 
jection of  the  land  had  only  begun  in  Heze- 
kiah's  time.  If  ver.  1^^-25  of  Is.  vii.  are  in- 
cluded in  the  iirojihecy,  the  fiy  of  Kgyjit  did 
not  come  upon  .ludah  in  Hezekiah's  day. 
Even  ver.  17  presents  a  picture  which  belongs 
to  the  remoter  future  ;  days  such  as  liad  not 
been  were  not  brought  \i\nm  \h;\/.  and  his 
]ie(iiih>,  only  tlu^  beginning  of  the  jirocess 
which  resulted  in  the  predicted  calamity  was 
seen. 


Immanuel 


319 


Imnah 


Imraauuel  was  a  si};ii.  Hut  Aliaz  did  not 
live  until  auy  fliild  born  that  yt-ar  ruaclu'd 
tlie  an*.'  of  moral  .scll'-di'tcrinination,  I'or 
Aliaz  <licd  bt't'ort-  the  fail  of  Samaria  in  7"J'J. 
Ill-  (lid  not  live  to  si-e  tiu-  land  forsaken  (KJ). 
Immanuel  was  not  a  si^iii  to  comiiel  faith  in 
Aliaz,  hut  one  that  called  for  faith.  Like 
many  other  sij^ns  of  the  ().  T..  it  called  for 
jiresent  faith  and  occurred  only  wheu  the 
l)roiihecy  was  fultilleil  (Kx.  iii.  V2). 

The  l>irth,  infancy,  and  youth  of  ^Messiah 
are  described  as  actually  iiassin;;  before  the 
])ro]ih<'t's  sif;ht  ;  l)Ut  the  ]iro])het  himself  did 
not  understand  tliat  tiie  Messiali  was  neces- 
sjirily  to  lie  born  immeiliately,  for  when  the 
Messiah  did  not  appear  within  a  year,  Isaiah 
shows  no  si<;ns  of  disajipointment,  loses  no 
faith  in  the  ]iro])hetic  revelation,  continues 
his  activity,  makes  still  t^reater  disclosuri'S  re- 
pa  rdin;,'  Immanuel.  and  enj«iys  the  continued 
uonlideiice  of  his  fellow  countrymen.  Isitiah 
would  iiwiuire  wlial  and  \\  iiat  manner  of  time 
the  Spirit  which  was  in  him  did  signify. 

The  promise  of  immediate  deliverance 
from  the  advancinji  enemy  (Is.  vii.  :5-ll)  is 
confirmed  by  an  appeal  to  an  (>vent  wiiich 
might  occur  sooner  or  later,  liut  whether 
occurring  at  once  or  long  sul)se(iuently,  it  is 
conlirmatory,  because  it  implies  the  deliver- 
ance jiromised  to  Ahaz.  The  assurance, 
already  given  by  (iod  (2  Sam.  vii.  11-17), 
that  the  Messiah  should  l)e  born  of  the  royal 
family  of  David  was  a  sign  to  the  house  of 
David,  including  Ahaz,  that  the  jmrpose  of 
Rezin  and  I'ekah  to  destroy  the  kingdom  and 
place  a  new  king  over  the  peojile  sliould  imt 
stand  (Is.  vii.  Ki.  11).  And  the  remoter  the 
sign,  that  istlie  remoter  the  birth  of  ^Messiah, 
the  stronger  was  the  guarantee  of  the  long 
continuance  of  the  royal  family  of  Judah. 

The  birth  and  infancy  of  Immanuel  meas- 
ure the  ]irogri'ss  of  the  jiredicted  I'vents.  "  I 
see  his  birth,  who  is  (Jod's  guarantee  of  the 
continued  existence  and  deliverance  of 
Judah,  as  though  it  is  already  at  hand.  I  do 
not  know  the  times  and  the  seasons,  but  it  is 
revealed  t((  me  as  a  sign  to  you.  and  as  though 
about  to  occur.  As  such  it  contains  a  meas- 
ure of  tijne  for  th(^  immediate  future.  He- 
fore  the  child  comes  to  the  years  when  one 
choos«-s  between  right  and  wrong.  liie  nortli- 
ern  land  shall  be  forsaken.  At  tlu'  timt-  of 
life  when  om-'.s  moral  faculties  have  matured, 
he,  the  scion  of  the  royal  house  of  .Judah. 
will  dwell  in  a  wasted  land."  Any  child  would 
serve  for  measuring  the  lime  ;  but  the  child 
cho.sen  is  Mes-siah  becau.se  the  pro]ihecy  of 
deliverance  rested  ujion  the  jiromises  which 
tentert'd  in  the  Messiah. 

Now  U't  us  measure  the  iierio<l.  1.  Before 
Christ  attained  the  age  when  man's  moral 
faculties  are  mature  the  northern  kingdom 
was  desolate.  In  fact  before  a  child,  liorn  in 
the  year  of  this  meeting  betweiii  Isaiah  and 
Ahaz,  could  have  reached  moral  maturity  the 
land  of  the  north  was  ilesolate.  The  meet- 
ing is  known  to  have  taken  phwe  in  7.'}4  n.  C. 


In  7~~  Damascus  and  the  district  povemed 
by  it  had  been  ravaged  by  the  Assyrians,  the 
two  ami  a  half  tribes  of  Israel  east  of  the 
.lordan  had  been  carried  oil",  Samaria  had 
fallen  and  a  large  body  of  its  inhabitants  had 
been  deported.  Ahaz  saw  the  beginnings  of 
this,  but  died  liefore  its  accoiniilishment.  The 
hou.se  of  David  saw  the  complete  fulfillment. 
The  ]irocess  thus  begun  continued.  In  (i.5 
years  Kphraim  had  ceased  to  be  a  i)eoi)le.  At 
Christ's  appearance,  this  was  still  true.  The 
ten  tribes  n(»  longer  existed  as  a  nation,  and 
no  longer  occuiiied  the  land  of  their  fathers. 
'2.  At  a  time  whi-n  a  child's  moral  faculties 
would  be  maturi',  Ahaz  himself  had  gone  to 
Damascus,  had  done  homage  to  the  Assyrian 
king,  and  had  acknowledgid  that.ludaii  was 
a  tributary  state  to  Assyria.  The  land  itself 
was  not  actually  devastated,  but  it  had  bowed 
itsi'lf  down  to  the  foreign  yoke.  From  this 
time  onward,  with  the  excejition  of  short  in- 
tervals, it  was  in  a  sense  subject  to  the  domi- 
nant world-jiower,  and  it  was  looked  uikmi  by 
the  great  empire  of  each  ju-riod  as  a  dejien- 
dency,  and  whenever  .Itidah  claimed  inde- 
pendence if  was  visited  sooner  or  later  by 
tlu'  imiieiial  i)ower  which  claimed  sov- 
ereignty and  was  iiunished  and  wasted.  Its 
nationality  was  not  blotted  out  and  the 
royal  family  was  not  destroyed  nor  over- 
looked :  but  ,Tudah  was,  generally  sjieaking, 
a  depeiHh  IK  y.  When  Christ  actually  aji- 
jieared,  .ludali  w:is  still  acknowledging  a  for- 
eign sovereign.  In  other  words,  all  the  ]iro- 
cesses  foretold  by  Isaiah  began  in  the  life- 
time of  Ahaz,  and  their  results  were  in  full 
force  when  the  Messiah  actually  ajipeared. 

Im'mer  [talkative]. 

1.  A  (li'scendant  of  Aaron.  His  family  had 
become  a  father's  hou.se  in  the  lime  of  David, 
and  was  made  the  sixteenth  course  of  priests 
(1  Chron.  xxiv.  1.  6,  14).  The  ruler  of  the 
house  of  (lod  in  the  days  of  .leremiah.  and 
an  antagonist  of  the  i>rii]ihet,  aiiiiareiitly  be- 
longed to  this  hou.se  l.ler.  xx.  ll,  and  doulit- 
less  they  were  membersof  this  family  whore- 
turned  from  Habylon  with  Zeruliliabel  (Kzra 
ii.  :{7:  Neh.xi.  l.'l).  Two  jiriests  of  this  house 
wen'  among  those  who  about  a  century  after 
the  return  were  guilty  of  marrying  fori'ign 
wives  (Ezra  x.  tiO).  A  little  later  anofhi-r  son 
of  Immer  took  jiart  in  the  honorable  work 
of  rebuilding  the  walls  of  Jeru.saleni  (Neh. 
iii.  :>!»). 

'2.  A  jierson  or  a  jilace  in  Habylonia  whence 
exih^s  returned.  He  or  they  failed,  however, 
to  prov»!  their  genealogy  (Kzra  ii.  ")!> ;  Nell, 
vii.  fil). 

Im'na  [he,  i.  e.  luobably  (iod,  doth  re- 
strain]. 

\\\  .\slierite.  a  son  of  Helem  (I  (  linm. 
vii.  ;!.".i. 

Im'nah,  in  .\.  V.  once  Jimna  and  once 
Jimnah  uun.  xlvi.  17:  Num.  xxvi.  I4t  [he 
allotleth]. 

1.  Sou  of  Asher  and    foumler  of  a  tribal 


Imrah 


320 


Inspiration 


family  (Num.  xxvi.  44  ;  1  Chron.  vii.  30  ;  Gen. 
xlvi.  17). 

2.  A  Levite,  father  of  Kore,  iu  Hezekiah's 
reign  (2  Chron.  xxxi.  14). 

Im'rah  [stubborn,  refractory]. 

An  Ashorite,  son  of  Zoi)hah  (1  Chron.  vii. 
3«). 

Im'ri  [eloquent]. 

1.  A  man  of  Judah.  son  of  Bani,  and  a  de- 
scendant of  Perez  (1  Chron.  ix.  4). 

2.  Father  of  that  Zaccur.  who  rebuilt  part 
of  tlie  wall  of  Jerusalem  after  the  captivity 
(Neb.  iii.  2). 

In'cense. 

P^-ajirant  substances  designed  to  be  burnt, 
€Si)ecially  in  religious  worship.  Sweet  iu- 
cen.se  was  largely  used  as  an  element  in  the 
Israelite  ritual  (Ex.  xxv.  6;  xxxv.  8,  28; 
xxxvii.  29).  The  ingredients  were  stacte  or 
opobalsamum,  onycha,  galbanum,  and  pure 
frankincense  in  equal  proportions,  tempered 
with  salt.  It  was  not  allowed  to  be  made  for 
■ordinary  purposes  (Ex.  xxx.  34-38;  Lev.  x. 
1-7).  An  altar  of  incense  was  fashioned  of 
acacia  wood  overlaid  with  pure  gold,  and  was 
placed  in  the  holy  place,  just  outside  the  veil 
which  concealed  the  holy  of  holies ;  and  each 
morning,  when  the  high  priest  dressed  the 
lamps,  he  burned  incense  on  it  (Ex.  xxx.  1-9  ; 
Luke  i.  10)  ;  see  Altar.  Once  a  year  on  the 
great  day  of  atonement,  he  brought  the  in- 
cense within  the  veil,  and,  burning  it  on  a 
fire  iu  a  censer  in  the  most  holy  place,  envel- 
oped the  mercy  seat  in  a  cloud  of  the  odorifer- 
ous smoke  which  it  sent  forth  (Lev.  xvi.  12, 
13).  When  the  altar  was  dedicated,  each  of 
the  princes  brought  a  gift  of  incense  carried 
in  a  spoon  (Num.  vii.  14,  20,  etc.).  Where  so 
many  animal  sacrifices  were  offered  as  there 
were  iu  the  courts,  both  of  the  tabernacle 
and  the  temple,  the  smell  of  blood  must  have 
polluted  the  atmosphere,  and  the  burning  of 
incense  exerted  a  good  sanitary  influence. 
But  it  had  also  a  symbolic  reference.  It 
availed  to  make  atonement  (Num.  xvi.  46, 
47),  for  it  was  typical  of  the  intercession  of 
the  appointed  high  priest.  The  psalmist  re- 
quested that  his  prayer  might  be  set  forth 
before  Jehovah  as  incense  (Ps.  cxli.  2)  ;  the 
worshipers  prayed  outside  the  temi)le  while 
Zacharias  offered  iucen.se  within  its  walls 
(Luke  i.  10) ;  and  iu  an  apocalyptic  vision  an 
angel  burnt  incense  on  the  golden  altar,  the 
smoke  ascending  with  the  prayers  of  saints 
(Eev.  viii.  3-'^).  The  worshipers  of  false  di- 
vinities, no  less  than  those  who  adored  the 
true  God,  burnt  incense  (2  Chron.  xxxiv.  25; 
Jer.  xlviii.  3,')). 

In'di-a  [in  Hebrew  Hoih'i.  through  Persian 
Ilidhn.  I'mm  Hindu,  the  river  Indus]. 

A  district  on  the  lower  Indus,  conquered 
by  Darius  the  (ireat  aiul  incorporated  with 
the  Persian  empire  (Herod,  iii.  94  ;  iv.  44  ; 
Per.sepolis  inscription).  It  formed  the  eastern 
limit  of  the  Persian  empire  (Esth.  i.  1  ;  viii. 
9;  cp.  Herod,  iv.  40).     Alexander  the  Great 


crossed  the  Indus  on  his  career  of  conquest. 
The  occurrence  of  the  name  in  1  Mac.  viii. 
8  is  suspicious.  Luther  substituted  Ionia.  At 
any  rate  Judas  Maccabaius  was  misinformed 
if  hi^  was  told  that  the  Komaus  had  taken 
India  from  Antiochus. 

In'gath-er-ing,    Feast    of.     See    T.a.bek- 

NACLEs.  Feast  ok. 

In-her'it-ance.     See  Heik. 

Ink'horn. 

A  horn  or  anything  similar  for  holding 
ink.  It  was  carried  at  the  side  (Ezek.  ix.  2). 
The  inkhorn  is  still  in  use  in  the  East.  It 
consists  of  a  case  of  wood,  born,  or  metal, 
with  a  head  at  one  end  for  holding  the  ink, 
and  a  long  shaft  in  which  the  reeds  for 
writing  are  kept.  The  case  is  worn  stuck  in 
the  girdle. 

Inn. 

An  oriental  inn  bears  little  resemblance  to 
an  occidental  hotel.  The  inn  was  not  so  nec- 
essary iu  jirimitive  times.  Travelers  readily 
found  reception  in  the  houses  of  the  hospita- 
ble (Ex.  ii.  20;  Judg.  xix.  15-21 ;  2  Kin.  iv. 
8  ;  Acts  xxviii.  7 ;  Heb.  xiii.  2).  The  public 
inn  was  a  mere  place  of  shelter  for  man  and 
beast.  Like  the  modern  khans,  it  was  prob- 
ably a  large,  quadrangular  court,  with  a  well 
in  the  center  and  around  the  sides  rooms  for 
travelers,  chambers  for  goods,  and  stalls  for 
cattle.  The  rooms  were  destitute  of  furni- 
ture. The  traveler  spread  his  mat  on  the 
floor,  if  he  had  one  to  .spread  ;  if  not,  then 
his  shawl-like  mantle  sufficed  for  mattress 
and  covering.  He  also  provided  food  for 
himself  and  fodder  for  his  cattle.  Free  lodg- 
ing places  of  this  sort  were  erected  by  liberal 
wealthy  men  for  the  benefit  of  wayfarers 
(cp.  Jer.  xli.  17).  Rarely  was  there  a  host 
from  whom  food  could  be  purchased  (Luke 
X.  34,  3.5). 

In-spi-ra'tion. 

The  terms  insjjiration  and  inspired  are 
used  in  English  with  .great  latitude  of  mean- 
ing, and  this  latitude  is  reflected  to  some  ex- 
tent in  their  usage  in  the  English  Bible. 
They  occur,  however,  only  twice  in  the 
English  Bible,  and  in  both  cases  in  a  reli- 
gious sense  (Job  xxxii.  8 ;  2  Tim.  iii.  Ki). 
In  the  former  pas.sage  the  word  is  used 
loosely  to  give  expression  to  the  broad  fact  that 
men  are  not  indc])endeut  of  (iod  as  intellec- 
tual beings,  but  that  for  .small  and  great,  old 
and  young  alike,  it  is  "the  breath  [or  inspi- 
ration] of  the  Almighty  [that]  giveththem  un- 
derstanding." In  the  latter  jiassage  the  word 
inspired  is  used  in  its  more  ])ro]ier  ami  s]ie- 
cific  sense  as  a  direct  predicate  of  (he  written 
Scriptures,  ^iffirming  that  (luality  of  divinity 
in  them  by  virtue  of  which  they  are  "  ])rofila- 
ble  "  for  the  great  cuds  for  wliich  they  are 
given.  The  Scriptures  which  the  apostle 
had  i)articularly  in  mind  in  this  jiassage  were 
the  sacred  books  of  the  .lews,  what  we  call 
the  O.  T. ;  but  the  affirnuitiou  he  makes  will 


Inspiration 


321 


Ir-nahash 


naturally  hold  ponrl  of  all  writings  which 
rijilitly  shart'  tlir  hi>;ii  titlo  of  Scriiiture  with 
them.  Tlie  iiualily  whic-li  lio  thus  iiiakcs 
tlie  fiiiidaiiR'iital  characlfristii'  of  ScTiiiture 
is  cxpresseil  in  the  ori};inal  (Jreck,  not  by 
the  simple  word  iiis]iired,  hut  hy  a  coin- 
jiound  woi-il,  (!(i(l-inspireil.  possilily  of  his 
own  coinaire,  liy  wliieh  tlie  divine  source 
of  the  insjiiration  is  empiiasized.  He  ad- 
duces this  fundamental  ((Uality  of  Scrip- 
ture as  the  ground  on  which  the  uni(|ue 
value  of  tile  Scriptures  rests:  "All  scriii- 
ture,"  he  s;iys,  "is  given  hy  insi)irati(in  of 
Ciod,  and  is  [therefore]  profiUihle,  etc."  (A. 
v.),  or,  ■' Every  Scripture,  [seeing  that  it  is] 
inspired  of  (ind,  is  also  profitable,  etc."  {R. 
v.).  Inspiration,  according  to  the  apostle, 
is,  therefore,  the  fundamental  quality  of 
the  written  Scrii>tures,  by  virtue  of  which 
they  are  the  word  of  God,  and  are  clotlied 
with  all  tlie  characteristics  which  jtroperly 
belong  t(j  the  word  of  (iod.  In  acconlance 
with  the  teadiing  of  this  classical  i)as.sage, 
Scripture  is  uniformly  recognized,  tlirough- 
oiit  the  N.  T..  as  the  very  word  of  (4od.  and 
is  treated  as  i)o.'<sessingall  the  <iualitifs  which 
Would  naturally  flow  from  its  divine  origin. 
Thus  it  is  currently  cited  l)y  the  exclusive 
titles  Scripture,  the  Scriptures,  the  Oracles 
of  (tod  (Rom.  iii.  2)  or  the  Living  Oracles 
(Act.s  vii.  '.]H,  R.  v.).  and  its  words  are 
ordinarily  adduced  by  the  authoritative 
formula,  "  It  is  written."  Its  divine  cliarac- 
ter  is  explicitly  exjtressed  in  the  constant 
ascrijition  of  the  words  cursorily  (pioted  from 
it  to  (iod  as  their  author  ( .\cts  xiii.  31  ;  1  Cor. 
vi.  l(i  ;  Mat.  i.  22;  ii.  1.1;  Rom.  i.  2),  or  more 
sj)eciticallv  to  the  IIolv  Sjjirit  (Ileb.  iii.  7  ;  ix. 
8  ;  X.  1.") ;  Acts  i.  Ki  ;  iv.  2."),  R.  V.  ;  xxviii.  2.''))  : 
and  that,  even  when  they  are  not  a.scribed  to 
trod  in  the  original  passages,  l)ut  are  sjjokon 
of  or  even  addressed  to  him,  and  can  he 
thouglit  his  only  becau.se  they  are  part  of 
the  Scripture  text  (Acts  iv.  2-"l,  2.5  ;  xiii.  :54, 
3.") ;  Mat.  xix.  ."> ;  Heb.  i.  (>.  7,  H,  10  ;  iv.  4,  7  ; 
vii.  21  ;  X.  .'Ul).  While  on  the  other  hand  the 
human  writers  of  .'-Scripture  are  .slid  to  have 
Spoken  "in"  the  Holy  Spirit  (Mark  xii.  :!(>; 
Mat.  xxii.  W,.  both  R.  \.).  and  are  treated  as 
merely  the  media  through  wbom  (iod  the  Holy 
Ghost' sjieaks  (Mat.  i.  22  ;  ii.  1.") ;  Acts  i.  Ki ;  iv. 
2.");  xxviii.  2.");  Rom.  i.  2).  Accordingly,  the 
very  words  of  Scrii)tiirc  are  accounted 
authoritative  and  "not  to  be  broken"  (Mat. 
xxii.  i;{;  .lolin  x.  .'51,  :r>  ;  Gal.  iii.  Ki)  ;  its 
l)roph(^cies  sure  (2  Pet.  i.  20;  .John  xix.  36, 
37  ;  XX.  9  ;  Acts  i.  Ki ;  c]).  Kzra  i.  1  ;  Dan.  ix. 
2)  ;  and  its  wliole  contents,  historical  as  well 
as  doctrinal  ami  ethical,  not  only  entirely 
trustworthy,  but  designedly  framed  for  the 
spiritual  profit  of  all  ages  (2  Tim.  iii.  Ki; 
Rom.  XV.  4;  1  Cor.  x.  11;  Rom.  iv.  23  ;  ix. 
17;  1  Cor.  ix.  10;  Gal.  iii.  S,  22 ;  iv.  30;  1 
I'et.  ii.  (i  :  cp.  2  Chron.  xvii.  !>;  Neli.  viii.  1). 
That  the  books  of  the  N.  T.  are  given  to  the 
church  as  ecpially  Scriptun-  with  those  of  the 
<).  T.,  and  share  with  them  in  all  their  di- 
21 


vine  qualities,  is  shown  by  the  equal  claim 
to  authority  which  is  made  for  them  (1  Cor. 
vii.  40;  xiv.  .37;  2  Tlies.  iii.  4,  14;  (ial.  i. 
8)  ;  the  similar  representation  of  their 
authors  as  the  organs  of  (iod  (1  Thes.  ii.  13  ; 
iy.  2  ;  1  Cor.  ii.  1.3,  Ki ;  vii.  40)  ;  and  the  inclu- 
sion of  N.  T.  books  along  witii  those  of  tlie 
O.  T.  under  tlie  conimou  sacred  title  of 
Scripture  (2  Ret.  iii.  Ki  ;  1  Tim.  v.  If^). 

B.  n.  w. 

In'stant  and  In'stant-ly. 

As  an  adjective  or  adverb,  in  the  obsolete 
sense  of  earnest  or  stea<lfa.st  (Luke  vii.  4; 
Acts  XX  vi.  7;  Rom.  xii.  12,  A.  V. ;  2  Tim.  i  v.  2.) 

I'ob,  in  A.  V.  Job.     See  J.\sht'i?. 

Iph-de'lah,  in  A.  V.Iph-e-de'iah  [.leliovah 
doth  deliver]. 

A  IJenjamite,  son  of  Sliashak  (1  Chron. 
viii.  25). 

Iph'tah.  in  A.  V.  Jiphtali  [he  openeth  or 
scttelh  free]. 

A  town  of  Judah  (Josh.  xv.  43).  Site  un- 
known. 

Iph'tab-el,   in    A.    V.   Jiphthah-el    [God 

dofb  u]K'n  or  set  free]. 

A  valley  on  the  boundarv  line  between 
Zebulun  and  Asher  (.losh.  xi.x.  14,  27).  The 
name  is  jierhajis  found  in  Jotopata,  the  mod- 
ern Tell  .lefat,  'J  miles  north  by  west  of  Naz- 
areth. 

Ir.     See  Iki. 

I'ra  [watchful]. 

1.  A  Jairite  who  was  priest  or  chief  minis- 
ter to  David  (2  Sam.  xx.  2f>). 

2.  One  of  David's  mighty  men,  a  Tekoite, 
son  of  Ikkesh  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  26  ;  1  Chron, 
xi.  28). 

3.  An  Ithrite,  one  of  David's  mighty  men 
(2  Sam.  xxiii.  38  ;  1  Chron.  xi.  40). 

I'rad. 

A  descendant  of  Cain  ((ien.  iv.  18). 

I'ram  [perhajis,  pertaining  to  a  city,  or 
watchful]. 

A  chii'ftain  of  Edom  (Gen.  xxxvi.  43;  1 
Chron.  i.  .")4). 

I'ri  and  i)robal)ly  Ir  [pertaining  to  a  city, 
or  watchful]. 

A  IJenjamite,  familv  of  Bela  (1  Chron.  vii. 
7,  12). 

I-rl'jah  [.lehovah  doth  see  or  jirovide]. 

A  caiitain  of.  the  guard.  During  the  tem- 
l)orary  dejiarturi' of  the  Clialdeans  from  the 
siege  of  .lerii.silem,  he  arrested  ,Ieiemiah, 
who  was  going  out  at  the  gate  of  Heiijainin, 
on  the  charge  of  attempting  to  fall  away  to 
the  enemy  (.)er.  xxxvii.  1.3). 

Ir-na'basli  [city  of  Nahash  or  of  a  ser- 
pent]. 

A  town  of  wliicli  a  man  of  .ludah  was  the 
leading  citizen  il  Chron.  iv.  12).  The  mar- 
gin renders  city  of  Nahash.  The  clirnnicler 
may  intend  the  town  of  Abigail's  father  (2 
Sam.  xvii.  2o). 


Iron 


322 


Isaac 


I'ron,  I. 

A  metal,  in  Hebrew  Barzel,  in  Greek 
Sideros.  Tubal-ciiiu,  of  the  race  of  Cain, 
worked  in  brass  and  iron  (Gen.  iv.  22).  As 
early  as  the  Mosaic  period,  tliere  were  axes 
and  other  instruments  of  iron  (Num.  xxxv. 
IH ;  Dent.  xix.  5,  margin).  Og,  king  of 
Baslian,  had  a  bedstead  of  iron  (iii.  11).  In 
the  time  of  Joshua,  vessels  were  made  of  the 
metal  (Josh.  vi.  19,  24) ;  and  chariots  of  iron 
for  war  purpo.ses  were  in  use  (Josh.  xvii.  16), 
continuing  through  the  period  of  the  judges, 
and  on  to  later  times  (Judg.  i.  19  ;  iv.  3,  13). 
Of  iron  were  made  armor  and  weapons,  as 
spearheads  and  breastplates  (1  Sam.  xvii.  7; 
Rev.  ix.  9)  ;  agricultural  implements,  as  har- 
rows and  threshing  instruments  (2  Sam.  xii. 
31 ;  Amos  i.  3) ;  builder's  tools  and  nails  (1 
Kin.  vi.  7;  1  Chron.  xxii.  3)  ;  graving  tools 
(Job  xix.  24;  Jer.  xvii.  1)  ;  barbed  irons  for 
fishing  (Job  xli.  7) ;  gates,  bars,  fetters  (Ps. 
cv.  18 ;  cvii.  10,  16  ;  cxlix.  8  ;  Is.  xlv.  2  ;  Acts 
xii.  10)  ;  idols  (Dan.  v.  4).  Iron  was  imported 
from  Tarshish,  Greece,  and  the  north,  doubt- 
less from  the  vicinity  of  the  Black  Sea  (Jer. 
XV.  12  ;  Ezek.  xxvii.  12,  19).  It  was  obtain- 
able in  Palestine  (Dent.  viii.  9),  being  abun- 
dant on  the  Lebanon  mountains.  The  ore 
was  reduced  in  furnaces  (Deut.  iv.  20;  1  Kin. 
viii.  51)  which,  to  judge  from  those  in  u.se  in 
Lebanon,  were  built  of  stone,  about  ten  feet 
in  height  and  three  in  diameter.  Charcoal 
was  used  in  them,  and  the  fire  was  blown  by 
bellows  (Ezek.  xxii.  20;  cp.  Jer.  vi.  29).  The 
process  was  laborious  and  involved  enormous 
waste.     See  Smith. 

I'ron,  II.  [timidity,  reverence,  or  rather, 
possessing  a  view,  conspicuous]. 

A  fortified  city  of  Naphtali  (Josh.  six.  38) ; 
probably  the  present  village  of  Yarun,  10 
miles  west  from  the  waters  of  Merom. 

Ir'pe-el  [God  hcalcth]. 

A  town  of  Benjamin  (Josh,  xviii.  27).  Con- 
der  thinks  it  probably  the  village  Rafat,  6i 
miles  north  by  west  of  Jerusalem,  the  an- 
cient and  modern  names  having  the  same 
meaning. 

Ir-she'mesh  [city  of  the  sun]. 
A  town  of  Dan  (Josh.  xix.  41),  probably  the 
same  as  Beth-shemesh. 

I'm  [pertaining  to  a  city,  or  watchful]. 

A  son  of  the  celebrated  Caleb  (1  Chron. 
iv.  1.")). 

I'saac  [he  laughcth,  or  laughing  one]. 

The  son  of  Abraham,  by  Sarah  his  wife,  born 
when  his  father  was  1 00  years  old  and  his  moth- 
er about  90  (Gen.  xxi.  ,5;  cp.  xvii.  17).  When 
the  promise  was  made  toAlirahain  that  Sarah 
should  bear  him  a  son,  he  laughed  (lucsfion- 
ingly  (xvii.  17-19).  Later  when  Sarah  heard 
the  promise  from  the  mouth  of  the  stranger 
stopping  at  the  camp,  she  laughed  incredu- 
lously (xviii.  9-1(1)  ;  and  when  the  child  was 
born  she  jt>yfully  confessed  that  God  had 
prepared  laughter  for  her  and  her  friends 


(xxi.  6).  To  commemorate  these  events  and 
the  faithfulness  of  (Jod,  Abraham  called  the 
boy's  nanii'  Isaac,  one  lauglieth.  He  was  cir- 
cumcised on  the  eighth  day,  and  being  the 
child  of  i)romi.se  had  from  the  first  higher 
privileges  than  were  accorded  to  Isliniael, 
Abraham's  son  by  the  Egyptian  maid  Hagar 
(xxi.  1-12).  To  exhibit  and  develop  Abra- 
ham's faith,  God  commanded  him  to  offer 
Isaac  as  a  burnt  ofl'eriug.  I.saac  was  then 
a  youth  (xxii.  6),  perha^is  25  years  old,  as 
Josephus  says  :  but  he  filially  acquiesced  in 
the  purjiose  of  bis  fatlicr.  When  Abraham 
had  laid  him  upon  the  altar,  and  thus 
shown  his  readiness  to  give  all  that  he  i)os- 
sessed  to  God,  the  angel  of  the  Lord  for- 
bade the  sacrifice  and  accepted  a  ram  instead, 
thus  testifying  against  the  idolatrous  prac- 
tices of  the  Canaanites,  and  many  other  idol- 
atrous peoples,  and  teaching  to  all  men  that 
human  sacrifices  are  an  abomination  to  the 
Lord  (xxii.  1-18).  The  temperament  of  Isaac 
fitted  him  for  a  retired  and  contemplative, 
rather  than  an  active  life.  He  had,  moreover, 
an  ati'ectionate  heart,  and  when  the  death 
of  his  mother  occurred  he  felt  it  deeply  and 
was  not  again  hajtpy  till  Rcbekah  was  brought 
from  Mesopotamia  to  be  his  wife  (xxiii.  1,  2; 
xxiv.  1-U7).  He  was  then  about  40  years  old. 
Twenty  years  later  Rebekah  gave  birth  to 
twins,  p]san  and  Jacob.  Esau  was  the  elder 
and  the  favorite  of  Isaac ;  but  God  had  de- 
clared that  the  elder  should  serve  the  younger. 
Jacob  was  Rebekah's  favorite  (xxv.  19-28). 
The  consequences  of  this  partiality  were  harm- 
ful to  all  the  parties  concerned.  When  Isaac 
was  about  137  years  old.  Rebekah  took  ad- 
vantage of  his  age  and  of  the  blindness  and 
the  bluntness  of  feeling  which  it  produced,  to 
pass  Jacob  off  for  Esau,  and  obtain  the  spe- 
cial blessing  which  the  father  had  intended 
for  his  favorite  son.  Then  Jacob  had  to  be 
sent  out  of  the  country,  to  escape  the  threat- 
ened vengeance  of  the  brother  whom  he  had 
cheated  ;  and  as  he  was  away  twenty  years, 
Rebekah  a])parently  never  saw  him  more 
(xxvii. -xxxiii.).  Isaac  had  grown  up  in  the 
south  country  ;  and  after  the  death  of  his 
mother  he  dwelt  there  for  a  long  time,  chietiy 
at  Beer-lahai-roi  (xxiv. 62  ;  xxv.  11)  and  Beer- 
sheba  (xxvi.  17-33;  xxviii.  10).  But  on  one 
occasion,  during  famine,  he  for  a  considerable 
time  sojourned  near  Gerar,  in  the  Philistine 
country,  where,  like  Abraham  on  a  similar 
occasion,  lie  denied  his  wife  (xxvi.  1-33) ;  and 
he  was  residing  at  Mamre,  near  Hebron,  when 
Jacob  returned  from  Paddan-aram  (xxxv.  27). 
Isaac  had  inherited  the  wealth  of  Abraham 
(xxv.  5).  He  died  at  the  age  of  180,  and  was 
buried  by  Esau  and  Jacob  (xxxv.  28,  29)  in 
the  cave  of  Machpelah,  where  already  the 
mortal  remains  of  his  parents  and  of  his  wife 
had  been  laid  (xlix.  31).  The  N.  T.  alludes 
to  Isaac  as  a  child  of  promise  (Gal.  iv.  22,  23), 
and  instances  his  tent  life  and  his  blessing 
Esau  and  Jacob  as  evidences  of  his  faith 
(Heb.  xi.  9,  20). 


Isaiah 


323 


Isaiah 


I-sa'lah,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Esaias,  the  Greek 

luodiliciition  [Jehovali  hath  saved]. 

A  propliet  of  Jiidah  in  the  roijiiisof  Uzziah, 
Jothani,  Ahaz,  and  llezekiah,  kiujjs  of  Judah 
(Is.  i.  1  ;  cp.  vi.  1  ;  vii.  3;  xiv.  'Jb  :  xx.  1,  •2; 
xxxvi.-xxxix.).  Ue  was  the  son  of  Auioz, 
who  must  not  be  confoundod  witli  the  [)roiihet 
.\mos.  He  lived  in  Jerusalem,  and  ]irnj)liesied 
eoucerninf;  .fudah  and  Jerusalem;  his  iirojili- 
ecies  eoneerninji  Samaria.  Damascus,  I'hilis- 
tia  and  other  nations  beinj;  subordinate  to 
those  whieh  direetly  concerned  Jerusalem, 
and  bein^  introduced  because  of  their  rela- 
tion to  Zion  and  the  people  of  (iod.  It  is  dis- 
puted whether  the  vision  whieh  ho  saw  in 
the  year  that  king  Uzziah  died  (vi.)  marked 
Lis  call  to  the  proi)hetic  oHice,  or  was  in- 
tended to  deepen  his  spirituality.  Other 
prophets  experienced  similar  renewed  rjuick- 
eniug.  Ezckiel's  inauf^ural  call  was  by  a 
vision  ;  and  long  afterwards,  when  he  was 
a  distinguished  prophet,  his  call  to  the 
prophetic  otlice  was  confirmed,  and  he  was 
warned,  like  Lsiiah,  of  the  inditlerence  with 
which  the  people  would  receive  his  message 
(Ezek.  xxxiii.  21-33).  Peter,  after  .several 
years  of  service  as  a  discii)le  of  Christ  and 
in  the  ajjostolic  office,  had  his  insight  into 
Christ's  teaching  deei)ened  and  was  intro- 
duced into  a  wider  work  by  a  vision  (Acts 
X.).  Paul,  long  after  he  had  bei'n  called  to 
labor  among  the  gentiles,  was  summoned  by 
a  vision  to  work  in  a  new  field,  Europe 
(Acts  xvi.  9,  10).  So  God  may  have  pur- 
posed an  increase  and  a  deepening  of  the 
spiritual  life  of  Isaiah,  in  sending  him  this 
vision.  From  the  time  that  Isaiah  began 
his  projihetic  ministry,  he  was  the  adviser  of 
the  successive  kings,  conveying  them  mes- 
sages from  .Tehovah  and,  in  some  cases  at 
least,  inducing  them  to  act  on  the  advice 
which  he  oirere<l.  In  T.'JI  B.  C,  when  Syria 
and  Israel  in  alliance  sought  to  capture  .Jeru- 
salem, and  jiiit  a  creature  of  their  own  upon 
the  throne,  he  declared  Jehovah's  purpose 
that  the  attenqit  should  fail,  and  he  vainly 
endeavored  to  jiersuade  .Miaz  to  rely  on  Je- 
hovah and  not  i)nt  conlidence  in  heathen 
princes  (vii.).  At  this  time  Isaiah  was  a  mar- 
ried man  (viii.  3),  with  a  son  Shear-jashub  (vii. 
3'.  A  second  son  was  afterwards  born  to  him. 
and  was  called  by  the  divine  direction  Maher- 
shalal-hash-baz.  which  means  sjKiil  sjieedeth, 
prey  hastelh,  both  names  enshrining  iiro()h- 
ccies.  Isaiah's  wife  is  called  a  jiroidietess 
(viii.  3),  jirobably  merely  as  being  the  wife 
of  a  i)ropliet.  Though  the  extreme  ix-ril  into 
which  .ierus;ilem  was  brought  in  Ahaz'  reign 
was  from  the  confederacy  between  Israel  and 
Syria,  the  more  ])ermanent  danger  was  from 
another  ijuarter,  namely,  from  Assyria,  which 
was  anxious  to  possess  itself  of  Palestine,  to 
open  a  way  for  the  conciuest  of  Egypt,  which 
was  its  great  rival.  Isaiah's  counsel  was  to 
avoid  entangling  alliances  with  any  of  the  gen- 
tile nations,  and  simjily  to  trust  in  Jehovah 
(viii.  12,  etc.).     .\haz  unwi.sely  rejected  this 


advice,  called  in  Tiglath-pileser,  king  of  As- 
syria, and  became  Ids  vassal  (2  Kin.  xvi.  7, 
8,  10) ;  see  TifiL.\TH-i'iLEPEU.  Under  lleze- 
kiah the  prophet's  counsel  was  treated  with 
more  respect.  The  A.ssyrians  invaded  Judah 
in  Ilezekiah's  fourteenth  year,  about  711  k.  c. 
(2  Kin.  xviii.  13  ;  Is.  xxxvi.  1).  Shortly  after- 
wards, in  the  .same  year,  Hezekiah  fell  dan- 
gerously sick,  and  Isaiah  foretold  his  recovery 
(2  Kin.  XX.  1-11).  Then  followed  the  embassy 
of  .Merodach-baladan,  712  or  711  n.  c.  (Is. 
xxxix.),  the  conquest  of  Ashdod  by  Sargon's 
army,  711  B.C.  (xx.  i.  and  the  unsuccessful 
siege  of  Jerusalem  by  Sennacherib,  701  B.  c. 
(2  Kin.  xviii.  14).  During  the  last-named 
crisis,  Isaiah's  proi)hecies  and  encouraging 
words  were  imjiortant  factors  in  jiroducing 
the  successful  resistance  to  the  besieging 
army.  Hezekiah  died  in  (jyb  or  ()'J7  B.  c. 
The  murder  of  Sennacherib  and  accession  of 
Esarhaddon,  which  occurred  in  (ilSl  and  680, 
are  recorded  (Is.  xxxvii.  3H).  Doubtful  Jew- 
ish tradition  affirms  that  I.suiah  was  martyred 
by  Manasseh,  having  been  siiwn  asunder, 
and  some  have  supi>osed  that  Heh.  Jii.  '.i7 
alludes  to  the  manner  of  his  death.  The  date 
involved  is  not  impossible,  for  Isaiah  may 
have  begun  his  ministry  after  740  is.  c,  proph- 
esied in  the  reigns  of  the  four  kings.  Uzziah, 
Jotham,  Ahaz,  and  Hezekiah,  survived  Heze- 
kiah, and  written  his  acts  lirst  and  last  (2 
Chron.  xxxii.  .'52),  heard  of  the  murder  of 
Sennachorib,  and  have  sutlered  martyrdom  in 
or  after  the  eighteenth  year  of  Manasseh,  at 
the  age  of  not  more  than  80  years.  Isaiah 
wrote  a  history  of  the  reign  of  Uzziah  (2 
Chron.  xxvi.  22),  jirobably  using  records  and 
other  authoritative  sources  for  the  eiirlier 
part  of  the  reign. 

Tlie  Book  of  the  Projihet  Isaiah  is  divisible 
as  follows:  I.  Introduction  (i.).  II.  A  ]iroph- 
ecy  against  Jerusalem  (ii.-iv.),  with  a  con- 
tinuation or  closely  related  proiihecy  (v.). 
The  denunciation  culminates  in  iv.  with  the 
effect  of  the  judgment  and  a  jiicture  of  the 
glory  of  Messianic  times.  This  projihecy  may 
have  been  delivered  during  the  iirosjierous 
times  of  the  joint  reign  of  Uzziah  and  .lo- 
tham.  III.  The  vision  of  chap,  vi.,  which, 
as  every  one  admits,  stands  in  clo.se  relation 
to  the  Hook  of  Immanuel  (vii.-xii.).  IV. 
Ti'ti  burdens  on  the  nations  (xiii.  xxiii.),  di- 
videtl  by  cliaj).  xx..  which  is  of  international 
imiiort.  into  two  series  of  live  burdens  (liich, 
and  culminating  in  judgment  upon  the  whole 
World  (xxiv.).  V.  Historical  section  (xxxvi.- 
xxxix.),  describing  the  initiatory  oiierations 
of  the  .\ssyro-I5abylonian  jiower  in  ,Tudah, 
and  serving  as  an  introduction  to  the  Hook 
of  Consolation,  which  was  oll'ered  in  view  «if 
the  .sore  judgment  ujioii  .ludah  (xl.-lxvi.).  It 
treats  of  the  relation  of  tlie  church  of  Israel 
to  .lehovah  (xl.  xlviii.).  the  relation  of  the 
church  to  the  nations  (xlix.-lvii.).  the  abro- 
gation of  national  distinctions,  ami  the  glo- 
rious future  of  the  church  (Iviii.-lxvi.).  Tlie 
prominent  figure  in  these  chapters  is  the  serv- 


Isaiah 


324 


Isaiah 


ant  of  the  Lord.  The  view  most  widely  enter- 
tained by  modern  commentators  is  tliat  the 
servant  of  the  Lord  is  Israel,  the  eye  of  the 
proi)iiet  heiiiji  (ixed  soiiii-liiiii's  on  the  nation 
as  a  whole,  sometimes  on  the  godly  portion, 
sometimes  on  that  jjerfect  representative  of 
Israel,  that  Israelite  indeed,  Christ.  Against 
other  views  tiicre  may  l)e  urged  :  1.  The  serv- 
ant of  chap,  liii.  is  interjireted  by  the  Jewish 
Targums  as  Messiah.  2.  Tiie  prophet  Zecha- 
riah  appan^ntly  identifies  the  Branch,  a  fa- 
miliar desigiialioM  of  Messiah,  with  the  serv- 
ant whereby  tlie  iniquity  of  the  land  is  taken 
away  (Zech.  iii.  S-10;  cp.  Jer.  xxiii.  5-8).  3. 
The  description  of  the  sulFering  servant  of 
chap.  liii.  actually  finds  its  counterpart  in 
Christ. 

The  genuineness  of  chapter  1.  was  called  in 
question  by  Koppe  in  1797.  Soon  afterwards 
Doderlein  assigned  the  composition  of  the 
last  twent.v -seven  chapters  to  the  time  of  the 
exile.  This  theory,  enlarged  to  include  xiii- 
xiv.  23;  xxi.  1-10;  xxiii. -xxvii.  ;  xxxiv.  ; 
XXXV.,  has  found  innumerable  advocates. 
The  arguments  advanced  in  its  support  are 
all  comprehended  in  three.  1.  The  language 
is  late  and  the  style  is  peculiar.  2.  The 
allusions  to  the  condition  of  Jews  and  gen- 
tiles reveal  the  time  of  the  exile.  3.  The 
statements  concerning  the  condition  of  the 
people  agree  with  the  historical  facts,  but 
those  which  relate  to  the  future  have  fallen 
short  of  fulfillment. 

To  these  arguments  the  answer,  which 
must  unfortunately  be  stated  summarily,  is 
rendered :  1.  There  has  not  been  shown  a 
single  word  of  known  late  date,  nor  a  single 
foreign  element  which  there  is  any  reason  to 
believe  was  not  current  in  Jerusalem  in  the 
days  of  Isaiah.  Every  word,  phrase,  and 
form  is  found  in  earlier  Hebrew  literature  or 
may  be  explained  by  the  history  of  the  times. 
As  to  the  style  being  peculiar,  change  of 
style  is  consistent  with  unity  of  authorship. 
The  style  of  Shakespere  changed.  His  liter- 
ary activity  lasted  but  twenty-five  years,  yet 
four  distinct  periods  are  discernible  in  his 
plays,  marked  by  differences  of  style.  The 
literary  activity  of  Isaiah  was  continued 
through  at  least  forty  years  and  perhaps 
sixty.  And  is  the  style  .so  peculiar  after  all  ? 
Those  who  deny  the  Isaianic  authorship  find 
it  incumbent  upon  them  to  explain  the  simi- 
larity of  style.  Augusti  accounts  for  the 
ascription  of  these  chapters  to  Isaiah  in  the 
first  instance  by  the  fact  that  "they  were 
composed  so  entirely  in  the  spirit  and  man- 
ner of  Lsaiah."  Gesenius  and  De  Wette 
ascribe  the  similarity  of  style  to  imitation  or 
the  work  of  a  conforming  hand.  Unibreit 
calls  the  unknown  author  of  the  chapters  in 
dispute,  "  Lsaiah  risen  again  "  as  from  the 
dead.  2.  To  the  argument  that  the  allusions, 
which  are  made  in  these  chai)ters  to  the  con- 
dition of  Jews  and  gentiles,  reveal  the  time 
of  the  exile,  it  is  replied  :  a.  The  ])ro]ihets 
frequently  transport  themselves  to  the  future 


and  describe  what  they  are  predicting  as 
already  past ;  for  instance,  although  Zebuluu 
and  Xa])htali  had  been  ravaged  and  their  in- 
hai)itants  carried  into  captivity,  the  acknowl- 
edged Isaiah  says  of  them :  "  The  people 
that  walked  in  darkness  have  seen  a  great 
light "  (ix.  2).  b.  The  explicit  references  to 
Babylon,  the  exile,  and  the  restoration  are 
few.  c.  The  acknowledged  Isaiah  and  his 
contemporary  projjhets  were  already  living 
in  anticipation  of  the  Babylonian  exile. 
There  is  scarcely  an  event  connected  with 
the  exile,  to  which  the  author  refers,  hut  was 
known  to  the  Israelites  in  the  time  of  Isaiah. 
The  projihets  of  the  time  predicted  tlie  de- 
struction of  Jern.salem  and  the  temple  (Amos 
ii.  5;  Micah  iii.  12;  Is.  iii.  8;  vi.  11),  the 
desolation  of  the  land  of  Judah  (Hos.  viii. 
14;  Amos  ix.  11,  14;  Is.  iii.  25,  26;  vi.  11, 
12  ;  xxxii.  13),  the  captivity  of  the  people  of 
Judah  (Is.  xi.  12;  cp.  Mic.  i.  14-16).  This 
captivity  was  to  be  in  Babylon  (Mic.  iv.  10 ; 
Is.  xi.  11  ;  xxxix.  6,  7).  There  should  be  a 
return  from  exile  (Joel  iii.  1  ;  Is.  xi.  11),  and 
Jerusalem  and  the  temple  should  be  rebuilt 
(Mic.  iv.  2 ;  although  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem  had  been  foretold,  iii.  12  ;  cp.  Joel 
iii.  16.  17,  20).  d.  The  spiritual  condition  of 
the  people,  as  exhibited  in  these  chapters,  is 
that  of  the  time  of  Isaiah ;  idolatry  under 
every  green  tree  (Ivii.  5  and  i.  29;  2  Kin. 
xvi.  4)  and  among  the  oaks  (Ivii.  5  and  i.  29  ; 
Hos.  iv.  13)  and  in  gardens  (Ixv.  3:  Ixvi.  17 
and  i.  29)  ;  the  slaying  of  children  in  the 
valleys  (Ivii.  5  and  2  Chron.  xxviii.  3: 
xxxiii.  6 ;  2  Kin.  xxiii.  10)  ;  ascending  a 
high  mountain  to  ofler  sacrifice  (Ivii.  7  and  2 
Chron.  xxviii.  4;  Hos.  iv.  13;  cp.  Ezek.  vi. 
13) ;  hypocrisy  (Iviii.  2-4  and  xxix.  13)  ;  Sab- 
bath-breaking (Iviii.  13  and  Amos  viii.  5 ; 
Jer.  xvii.  19-27) ;  bloodshed  and  violence  (lix. 
3,  7  and  i.  15;  Mic.  vii.  2)  :  falsehood,  injus- 
tice, and  oppression  (lix.  3,  4.  6.  7,  9  and  v. 
7,  23;  X.  1,  2;  Mic.  ii.  1.  2  ;  vii.  3)  ;  neglect 
of  the  temple  worship  (xliii.  23.  24  and  2 
Chron.  xxviii.  24  ;  xxix.  27 ;  2  Kin.  xv.  4  ;  2 
Chron.  xxvii.  2;  2  Kin.  xv.  35;  2  Chron. 
xxxiii.  10).  Burning  incense  upon  bricks 
(Ixv.  3)  was  appropriate  to  a  worship  derived 
from  either  Egypt,  As.syria,  or  Babylonia, 
and  was  practiced  in  Jerusalem  before  the 
exile  (2  Kin.  xxiii.  12;  Jer.  xix.  13).  Swine's 
flesh  was  oifered  and  eaten  (Ixv.  4)  by  the 
Egyptians  on  the  festival  of  Selene  and  Dio- 
nysus (Herod,  ii.  47,  48)  and  commonly 
enough  by  the  Babylonians.  3.  To  the  argu- 
ment that  the  statements  concerning  the 
condition  of  the  people  agree  witli  the  his- 
torical facts,  whereas  those  which  relate  to 
the  future  have  fallen  far  short  of  fulfill- 
ment, it  is  replied  that  the  assertion  aii])lies 
with  equal  force  to  the  acknowledged  writings 
of  the  prophet  Isaiah.  He  foretold  the  de- 
struction of  the  cities,  the  utter  desolation 
of  tile  land,  and  the  removal  of  the  inhabi- 
tants far  hence  (vi.  11,  12).  This  was  ful- 
filled to  the  letter.     But   he  prophesied  also 


Iscah 


325 


Ishma 


the  flocking  of  the  gentiles  to  the  standard 
of  Jcssi'"s  son,  the  return  of  the  cajitive  jieo- 
jili-  of  (iod  fniiii  all  parts  of  tlie  world,  the 
dryiu};  11)1  of  rivers  wiiich  were  ol)stacles  in 
the  ciiiirse  of  the  march,  a  iiifihway  frr)ni 
Assyria  for  the  renniant  of  the  jieople,  the 
wolf  dwelling  in  i>eace  with  the  lanih  (xi.  (J- 
b.  10-12,  15,  Kil.  These  are  tiie  simie  i)re- 
dietions  as  those  whieli  in  the  latter  ]>ortion 
of  the  hook  are  [lointed  to  as  the  extra  vagant 
ntteranei's  of  an  enthusiast  and  as  having 
fallen  short  of  fulfillment.  The  acknowl- 
edged Isaiah,  living  two  centuries  hefore  the 
fall  of  Kaliylon  and  the  hopes  wiiich  that 
event  are  supposed  to  have  awakened,  wrote 
in  precisely  the  same  manner  as  the  author 
of  the  last  seetictn. 

The  real  ground  on  which  the  denial  of 
the  genuineness  of  the  last  twenty-seven 
ehai)ters  rests  is  the  mention  of  Cyrus  hy 
name  (xliv.  'JS;  xlv.  I).  .So  also  Josiah  was 
foretold  by  name  (1  Kin.  xiii.  2).  If  pre- 
dictive j)rop]iecy  is  possible,  if  it  was  ever 
uttiTed  by  holy  men  taught  hy  the  Holy 
Cihost.  then  these  words  could  have  been 
penned  by  Isaiah.  Otherwise  they  were  not 
uttered  until  nearly  two  hundred  years  after 
Isiiiah.  The  church  has  always  believed  in 
I)redictive  prophecy  and  in  the  iu.spiration  of 
Is;iiah. 

Is'cah  [perhaps,  discerning  or  expectant]. 

A  daughter  of  Uaran  and  sister  of  Milcah 
(Gen.  xi.  29),  and  conseciucntly  sister  of  Lot 
(27).  I.scah  has  been  regarded  as  another 
name  of  Sarai  (Antic].  i.  (>,  5;  Targuni  .Jona- 
than) ;  but  in  that  case  Sarai  would  have 
been  Abraham's  niece  and  not  his  half-sister 
(Gen.  XX.  12). 

Is-car'i-Ot  [|irobably,  man  of  Kerioth]. 

A  designaliim  of  .ludas  the  traitor  (  Mat.  x. 
•1  :  Luke  vi.  1(!).  which  lieloiiged  to  his  father 
Simon  before  him  (.John  vi.  71,  K.  V.).  It 
was  u.sed  to  distinguish  him  from  the  other 
apostle  called  Judas  (Luke  vi.  l(i ;  Acts  i.  13, 
l(i).  It  seems  to  mean  that  .Judas  was  a 
native  of  Kerioth  in  the  snuth  of  .Tudah 
(Josh.  XV.  2."i).  In  the  codex  15e/.a-  the  word 
is  written  upo  Kdrnoton  everywhere  in  the 
Fourth  Gosjx'l,  and  is  so  written  in  John  vi.  71 
in  the  codex  Sinaiticus.  Accordingly  Judas  was 
a  Juda'an  ;  and  ]>erhaps  he  was  the  onlyajws- 
tle  from  .Fuihea.  an<l  the  rest  were  (lalibeans. 

Ish'bah  [he  i)raiseth  or  i)raising  one]. 

A  man  of  .Iiidah.  ancestor  or  head  of  the 
inlialiitaiits  of  l>liteinoa  (1   Chron.  iv.  17l. 

Ish'bak  [iierliajis,  he  Icaveth  or  rilini|uisli- 
int,'  oml. 

A  son  of  Al)rah;im  by  Ketiirah  Ku'U.  xxv. 
2i.  founder  ot'  an  Arab  tribe. 

Ish-bi-be'nob  [mv  dwelliui;  jilace  is  on  a 
height  1. 

.V  I'liilistiiie  giaiil  wIki  w;is  on  tlie])ointof 
killing  |)avid,  but  was  himself  slain  by 
.\bishai  (2  .><ani.   xxi.  l(i,   17). 

Ish-bo'sheth  [man  of  shame]. 

<  >ne    of    .Saul's    younger   sons,    originally 


called  Eshbaal,  the  Lord's  man,  which  was 
changed  to  Isli-bosheth.  man  of  shame,  either 
during  iiis  lifetime  when  the  glory  of  his 
house  departed,  or  in  later  times  when  the 
naini'  Baal  fell  into  disreiaite  through  its 
idolatrous  associations  (2  Sam.  ii.  >  with  1 
Chron.  viii.  'Xi:  ix.  :i!t).  lie  was  not  i)resent 
at  the  battle  of  (iilboa;  or,  if  present,  he  es- 
caped the  slaughti'r  on  that  disastrous  day. 
When,  on  the  death  of  Saul,  David  obtained 
tlie  sovereignty  over  .Itnlah.  the  other  eleven 
tribes  were  unwilling  to  offer  him  allegiance  ; 
and  when  Abner,  taking  Ish-bosheth  to 
Mahanaim.  ])roclaime(l  him  king,  they  gave 
him  su]i|i(irt,  as  considering  him  the  h'giti- 
niate  and  hereditary  successor  of  his  royal 
father.  He  was  then  aged  about  40,  and 
reigned  two  troubled  years  (2  Sam.  ii.  8-10). 
His  army  was  defeated  by  Joab  in  the  nei;;])- 
borliood'of  (Jibeon  (]2-.'5i).  In  other  battles 
his  followers  were  also  unsuccessful  (iii.  1). 
He  al.so  brought  a  .serious  charge  against 
Abner,  who.  taking  offense,  transferred  his 
services  to  David.  With  the  aid  of  Abner. 
Daviil  com])elled  Ish-boslietli  to  deliver  U]) 
Michal,  the  wife  whom  David  had  f)btained 
from  Saul  (0-21).  Abner  was  i)resently  mur- 
dered at  Hebron,  and  when  Ish-bosheth  heard 
thereof,  he  lost  heart  (27;  iv.  1).  He  was 
soon  afterwards  treacherously  murdered,  and 
with  his  death  the  dynasty  of  Saul  came  to 
an  end.  The  severed  head  of  Ish-bosheth 
was  interred  in  the  tomb  of  Abner  at 
Hebron,  a)id  the  murderers,  who  liad  boasted 
to  David  of  what  they  had  done,  were  by  his 
oixlers  comjielled  to  sufl"er  the  lu'iialty  of 
tlieir  crime  (iv.  5-12). 

Ish'liod,  in  A.  V.  Ishod  [man  of  .splendor]. 
A  Manassite  whose  mother  was  Hannnole- 
keth  (1  Chron.  vii.  IS). 

Ish'i,  I.   [my  husband]. 

\  name  by  which  the-  Israelites  call  Jeho- 
vah, when  they  return  to  their  allegiance.  It 
supersedes  the  synonymous  one  Hajili,  my 
master,  because  tlie  word  Baal  had  come  into 
ill  reimte  through  its  association  with  idol- 
atry (Hos.  ii.  10,  17). 

Ish'i,  II.  [saving,  salutary]. 

1.  A  man  of  Jiidab,  son  of  Apjiaim,  house 
of  .Jerahmeel  (1  Chron.  ii.  I!l). 

2.  A  man  of  Jmlab,  father  of  Zolieth  (I 
Chron.  iv.  2(t). 

;{.  .\  Simeonite  whose  sons  led  a  han<l  which 
overcame  the  .\malekites  of  mount  ."^eir, 
and  seized  on  their  settlements  (1  Cbnm. 
iv.    12). 

I.  Head  of  a  father's  house  of  the  half- 
tribe  of  Manas.seh  east  of  the  Jordan  (1 
Chron.  v.  21). 

I-shi'ah.     See  I.^siii  \it. 

I-shfJah.     See  Issiiljah. 

Ish'ma  [desolation  or,  i)erlinps.  distinction]. 
A   iniin   of  Judah,  descendeil  from   Hiird 
Chron.  iv.  II,  1). 


Ishmael 


326 


Ishuah 


Isb 'ma-el  [God  iR-urL'tli]. 

1.  Tlie  sdii  of  Ahraliaiii  Ijy  Hagar  the 
Egyi)tian  maid  ;  born  when  Abraham  was 
eiglily-six  years  okl,  after  he  had  been  ten 
full  years  in  Canaan  Kien.  xvi.  15,  15  ;  cp.  xii. 
4).  He  was  the  child  of  worldly  wisdom, 
not  of  faith  ;  he  was  born  of  parents  who,  in 
the  face  of  God's  promise,  were  blinded  by 
seeming  impossibilities,  and  soiigiit  by  earthly 
means  to  enable  (b>d  to  fulfill  his  engage- 
ments. Wlu-n  the  rite  of  circunuision  was 
instituted  for  the  family  of  Abraham,  Ishmael, 
then  thirteen  years  of  age,  was  circumcised 
(xvii.  25).  The  next  year  Isaac  was  born, 
when  his  mother  was  past  age,  the  child  of 
promise,  a  rebuke  to  unbelief  (xxi.  5).  At 
his  weaning,  the  custoTnary  feast  was  made, 
when  Ishmael  was  seen  to  be  mocking.  This 
was  the  first  occasion  in  the  family  of  Abra- 
ham that  those  born  after  the  tlesh  in  doubt 
of  God's  way  mocked  at  the  heirs  of  ])romise  ; 
and  Paul  seizes  upon  the  allegorj-  in  the  inci- 
dent (Gal.  iv.  22-31).  This  misbehavior  of 
Ishmael  led  to  the  expulsion  of  him  and  his 
mother.  They  wandered  in  the  wilderness 
of  Becr-sheba  till  both  were  nearly  perishing 
with  thirst.  The  angel  of  the  Lord  directed 
Hagar  to  some  water  among  the  shrubs,  and 
the  life  of  herself  and  her  son  was  preserved. 
Ishmael  grew  up  in  the  wilderness  of  Paran, 
south  of  Canaan,  where  he  lived  by  his  bow. 
Eventually  he  married  a  wife  from  Egypt, 
his  mother's  ancestral  home  (Gen.  xxi.  3-21). 
In  fulfillment  of  a  promise  made  by  God  to 
Abraham,  Ishmael  became  the  progenitor  of 
twelve  princes  (xvii.  20 ;  xxv.  12-1(3)  ;  see 
IsHMAELiTES.  He  had  also  a  daughter,  who 
was  married  to  Esau  (xxviii.  9  ;  xxxvi.  10). 
Ishmael  took  part  with  Isaac  in  burying  their 
father  Abraham  (xxv.  9).  He  himself  died  at 
the  age  of  137  (xxv.  17). 

2.  A  descendant  of  Jonathan  (1  Chron.  viii. 
38;  ix.  44). 

3.  A  man  of  Judah,  father  of  the  high  ju- 
dicial functionary  Zebediah  (2  Chron.  xix.  11). 

4.  A  sou  of  Jehohanan.  He  took  part  in 
the  successful  conspiracy  against  Athaliah 
(2  Chron.  xxiii.  1). 

5.  A  son  of  Nethaniab,  who  belonged  to 
the  seed  royal  of  Judah.  When  Nebuchad- 
nezzar departed  from  Palestine,  after  the  cap- 
ture of  Jerusalem,  he  left  behind  him  as  gov- 
ernor of  Judah  a  certain  Jew  called  Gedaliah, 
who  jiromised  protection  to  any  of  the  con- 
quered peoi>le  who  placed  themselves  under 
his  rule.  Among  others  Ishmael  came,  but 
with  hostile  intent.  Instigated  by  the  king 
of  the  Ammonites,  he  assassinated  (Tedaliah, 
massacring  at  the  same  time  the  peoi)le  with 
him.  After  further  murders  he  carried  off 
captives,  including  the  king's  daughters,  and 
finally  attenijited  to  nmke  his  way  to  the  Am- 
monite country.  Johanan,  son  of  Karcah, 
and  others  went  forth  to  fight  with  him. 
They  found  him  at  Gibeon.  His  captives 
turned  to  Johanan,  but  he  himself  succeeded 
in  escaping  with  eight  men  to  the   king  of 


Ammou,  who  had  instigated  his  crimes  (2 
Kin.  xxv.  25;  Jer.  xl.  7-lfJ ;  xli.  l-l&i). 

6.  A  son  of  Pashhur,  who  was  induced 
by  Ezra  to  put  awav  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra 
X.  22). 

Ish'ma-el-ite,  in  A.  V.  often  Ishmeelite, 
an  orthography  true  to  the  Hebrew  word,  but 
English  literature  has  adopted  the  former 
spelling. 

A  descendant  of  Ishmael.  The  Ishmael- 
ites  had  Egyptian  blood,  as  well  as  the  blood 
of  Abraham,  in  their  veins.  Twelve  i)rinces 
sprang  from  Ishmael  ((ien.  xvii.  20;  xxv.  12- 
16).  He  may  have  had  more  sous,  and  pos- 
sibly some  of  tho.se  enumerated  were  grand- 
sons. Twelve  was  an  ajiproved  number. 
Twelve  was  carefully  i)reserved  as  the  num- 
ber of  the  tribes  of  Israel,  and  twelve  was 
the  recognized  number  of  the  kings  of  the 
Hittites  in  their  confederacy.  The  Ishmael- 
ites  in  their  twelvefold  division  dwelt  in  set- 
tlements and  in  movable  camps  in  the  desert 
of  northern  Arabia,  in  the  region  included 
between  Havilah,  Egypt,  and  the  I^uphrates 
(xxv.  18  ;  Antiq.  i.  12,  4).  Occasionally  one 
of  their  tribes  acquired  permanent  residence 
and  civilization,  as  the  Nabatha'aus ;  but  they 
mostl.v  possessed  the  character  of  their  an- 
cestor and  dwelt  like  the  untamable  ass  of 
the  desert  (Gen.  xvi.  12).  Like  Ishmael,  too, 
they  were  celebrated  for  their  skill  with  the 
bow  (Is.  xxi.  17).  To  Ishmaelites  traveling 
as  carriers  between  Gilead  and  Egy])t.  or, 
more  definitely,  to  "  certain  Midianites.  mer- 
chants," in  the  caravan,  Joseph  was  sold  by 
his  brethren  (Gen.  xxxvii.  25-28).  In  Ps. 
Ixxxiii.  6  they  are  mentioned  with  Edomites, 
Moabites,  and  Hagarenes. 

In  a  wider  sense,  the  nomadic  tribes  of 
northern  Arabia  generally ;  either  because 
the  Ishmaelites  were  the  chief  people  of  the 
desert,  and  their  name  came  to  be  used  as 
a  synonym  for  any  nomad  of  the  region,  or 
because  an  Ishmaelite  confederacy  had  been 
formed  which  included  tribes  of  other  blood 
(Judg.  viii.  24  ;  cp.  vii.  25  ;  viii.  22,  26  ;  Judith 
ii.  23).  All  the  Arabs,  after  the  example  of 
Mohammed,  claim  descent  from  Ishmael. 

Ish-ma'iah,  in  A.  V.  oncelsmaiah  (1  Chron. 
xii.  4)  [Jehovah  heareth]. 

1.  A  Gibeonite  who  joined  David  at  Ziklag 
(1  Chron.  xii.  4). 

2.  Son  of  Obadiah  and  hc:ul  in  David's 
reign  of  the  Zebulunites  (1  Chron,  xxvii.  19). 

Ish'me-el-ite.     See  Ishmaelite. 
Ish'me-rai  [probably.  Jehovah  keepeth]. 
A  Benjamite,  sonof  Elpaal  (1  Chron.  viii.  18). 
I'shod.     See  Ishhoii. 
Ish'pah,  in  A.  Y.  Ispab  [i>crhaps.  bald]. 
A  I!enjamite,  son  of  Beriali  (1  Chron.  viii.  16). 
Ish'pan. 

A    Benjamite.    son  of   Shashak  (1    Chron. 
viii.  22). 
Ish'tob  [men  of  Tob].     See  ToB. 
Ish'u-ah.    Sec  IsnvAn. 


Ishuai 


327 


Israel 


Isb'u-al  and  Ishul.    See  Isnvi. 

Ish'vali,  ill  A.  V.  Ishuah  ami  Isuah  [per- 
haj)s,  etiuality). 

The  second  .sou  of  Asher  ((Jen.  xlvi.  17;  1 
Cliron.  vii.  30).  He  jiroljaljly  died  childless; 
or,  if  he  liad  descenilants,  they  did  not  con- 
stitute a  trihal  family  or  perpetuate  his  name 
(ci).  Num.  xxvi.  41). 

Ish'vi,  in  A.  V.  Ishuai,  Ishul,  Isui,  and 
Jesui  [|u  rhaps,  equal]. 

1.  The  third  st)n  tA'  Aslier,  and  founder  of 
a  tril)al  family  (den.  xlvi.  17;  Num.  xxvi. 
41  ;  1  t'hron.  vii.  :m. 

•_'.   A  sou  of  .Saul  (1  Sam.  xiv.  49). 

Isle,  Island. 

The  renderiufi  of  the  Hebrew '/,  meaning 
1.  Hahitai)le  land,  as  oi)ii()sed  to  water  (Is. 
xlii.  1.")).  J.  An  island  in  the  ordinary  sense 
of  the  word  (Jer.  xlvii.  4).  3.  A  maritime 
country,  even  when  constituting  part  of  a 
continent;  the  coast  laud  of  ralestint;  and 
Pha'uicia  (Is.  xx.  (i,  in  K.  V.  coast  land  ;  cp. 
xxiii.  2,  ti),  and  tlie  coasts  and  islands  of  Asia 
Minor  and  Greece  (Gen.  x.  5).  4.  The  re- 
motest regions  of  the  earth  and  their  inhab- 
itants (Is.  xli.  5;  Zeph.  ii.  11).  This  employ- 
ment of  the  term  may  have  arisen:  {<i}  By 
synecdoclie,  the  isles  of  the  Mediterranean 
being  remote  and  .scarcely  known,  [h]  From 
the  current  belief  that  the  world  was  sur- 
rounded with  water,  so  that  the  most  distant 
region  was  the  coast  land  of  the  world-ocean. 

Is-ma-chi'ah  [.Tehovah  su]ii>orteth]. 

\\\  overseer  connected  with  the  temple  in 
Ile/.ekiah's  reign  (2  Chrou.  xxxi.  13). 

Is-ma'iah.     See  IfiiiM.\iAH. 

Is 'pah.     See  IsHrAii. 

Is'ra-el  [he  striveth  with  (rod,  or  God 
striveth]. 

1.  Tlie  name  given  to  Jacob  when  he  was 
returning  from  Meso])otaniia  and  just  about 
to  cross  the  brook  .labbok,  where  he  exjiected 
to  meet  I'sau  (den.  xxxii.  22-3-2)  ;  see  .I.\<'f)i!. 

2.  The  whole  body  of  the  descendants  of 
Jacob  at  any  one  time.  This  u.se  of  the  word 
began  in  his  own  lifitime  ((Jen.  xxxiv.  7).  It 
was  common  during  the  wilderness  wander- 
ings (Kx.  xxxii.  4:  Deut.  iv.  1:  xxvii.  !)), 
though  the  designation  children  of  Israel  was 
yet  more  fre(|uent  both  during  this  and  tlie 
former  jn'rioil.  Down  to  the  death  of  Saul. 
Isniel  and  the  children  of  Israel,  when  used 
as  a  nati<iual  desii.'nation.  comiirclietided  tlie 
Hebrews  generally,  without  disliiii'tinu  of 
tribes.  There  were,  however,  geograjdiical 
and  other  causes  already  at  work  which 
tended  to  sejiarate  Judah  from  the  rest  of 
Israel  ;  and  the  ilistiiictioii  bad  come  to  be 
recognized  liefore  the  actual  division  of  the 
))eo))le  into  two  kingdoms  took  place  (1  Sam. 
xi.  H  ;  xvii.  .")2  ;  xviii.  Ki)  :  see  Jud.mi.  It  was 
used  also  under  the  uniled  uionarchy  (1  Kin. 
xi.  42).  In  the  iiarallelisiii  of  1  lebnw  iioi'i  ry 
it  often  eorres|iiin(ls  in  the  seconil  line  of  the 
couplet   to  Jacob  in   the  first  (Num.  xxiii.  7, 


10,  21 ;  xxiv.  5  ;  Ps.  xiv.  7).  After  the  exile 
the  reference  is  frequently  to  the  people  of 
the  various  tribes  who  returned  to  Jerusalem 
(Ezra  ix.  1  ;  x.  5:  Neh.  ix.  2;  xi.  3). 

3.  The  tribes  wliich  acted  indeiiendeiitly  of 
Judah.  The  split  of  the  Hi'i)rew])eople  into  two 
kingdoms  occurred  on  the  death  of  .Saul.  The 
northern  and  eastern  tribes  recognized  .Saul's 
son  Ish-bosheth  as  king,  and  the  tribe  of 
Judah  followed  David.  From  tliis  time  on- 
ward Israel  is  frequently  used  to  denote  the 
ten  tribes.  Isli-l)osheth  reigned  two  years 
and  was  a.ss;issiiiated,  but  seven  years  elai)sed 
before  the  l)reach  was  healed  and  David  was 
anointed  king  of  all  Israel  (2  Sam.  ii.  10,  11). 
The  Jealousies.  Iiowever,  remained,  and  on 
the  death  of  Solomon  the  ru](ture  became 
final.  Ten  trilies  followed  .leioboani  and  one 
clave  to  the  house  of  David.  The  ten  tribes 
which  were  rent  fnmi  the  hou.se  of  David 
were  Reuben,  (iad,  and  half  Mana.ssch  east 
of  the  Jordan,  and  west  oi'  the  river  half 
Manasseh,  Eiihraini.  Issachar.  Ze))ulun.  Xa|ih- 
tali.  Aslier,  I)an,  and  lastly  lienjaniin,  wiiicli 
belonged  in  jiart  to  the  northern  kingdom, 
Bethel,  Gilgal,  and  Jericho,  chief  i)laces  in 
the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  lieiug  within  the 
bounds  of  the  northern  kingdom. 

The  causes  which  led  to  the  .schism  were: 
1.  The  isolation  of  Judah  caused  by  nature 
and  augmented  by  Joshua's  blunder.  2.  The 
ancient  jealousy  between  the  two  i)owerful 
tribes  of  Kjiliraini  and  , Judah.  It  had  caused 
a  temjiorary  disruj)tion  of  tlie  kingdtjin  after 
Saul's  ileatii ;  it  broke  out  again  after  the  de- 
feat of  Absalom  because  Judah  was  the  first 
to  welcome  the  king  back  (2  Sam.  xix.  l.'^, 
40-43).  It  had  been  freshly  jirovoked  by 
Solomon's  lavish  adornment  of  Jerusalem  on 
the  borders  of  .ludah.  and  at  his  death  re- 
sulted in  ])ermaiient  .sejiaration.  3.  Discon- 
tent caused  by  the  excessive  luxury  of  the 
throne.  The  people  were  groaning  under  op- 
jiressive  burdens.  Solomon's  love  of  sjilen- 
dor  had  led  to  taxation  to  sui)port  his  enor- 
mous household  and  maintain  his  display, 
and  to  enforcement  of  labor  to  carry  out  his 
great  works  (1  Kin.  iv.  22.  23,  2() ;  v.  ]3-l(>). 
The  reasonable"  request  of  the  peojde  for  re- 
lief was  perversely  refused  by  Kelioboam.  4. 
Idolatry,  fostered  t)y  foreign  marriages  11  Kin. 
xi.  1-11 ).  A  subtle  corru]ition  s^iread  through 
all  ranks  owing  to  the  encouragement  given 
to  false  religions,  attachment  to  the  worshij) 
of  Jehovah  was  weakened,  and  one  great 
unifying  force  was  destroyed.  ">.  The  folly 
of  Kelioboam  in  refusing  tlie  re(|Uest  of  the 
pcoi)le  for  relief  inteiisifieil  tlu-ilisiiitegrating 
forces  and  precipitated  the  catastrojdie  (1 
Kin.  xii.  3  .').  12  Hi). 

As  compared  with  Judah  in  respect  to 
strength  the  northern  kingdom  bad  ten 
tribes,  twice  the  poimlation,  and  nearly  three 
times  llie  extent  of  territory.  Hut  it  was 
more  exposed  to  war  and  less  easy  of  defense 
tli;ui  .ludali.  It  was  flu-  ajiostate  nation,  and 
defection  from  (iod  is  weakness  and  inevita- 


Israel 


328 


Issachar 


bly  umlerniiiies  the  stability  of  a  state.  It 
had  an  inferior  religion  with  its  lower  moral 
tr)ne,  anil  many  of  its  best  spirits  forsook  it ; 
the  jiriests  and  Levites  migrated  into  Judah 
(2  Chron.  xi.  l.i,  14). 

The  eai)ital  of  the  northern  kingdom  was 
at  Shecheni  at  first.  It  was  soon  removed  to 
Tirzah,  and  then  Omri  founded  Samaria  iind 
transferred  the  seat  of  government  to  the 
new  eity  1 1  Kin.  xii.  25  ;  xiv.  17 ;  xv.  21 ; 
xvi.  23."  24). 

Jeroboam,  the  first  king,  was  afraid  that 
if  his  people  visited  Jerusalem  for  wor- 
ship, they  would  be  won  over  to  their  old 
allegianee ;  he  therefore  established  two 
shrines,  one  at  Dan  in  the  extreme  north, 
and  the  other  at  Bethel,  in  the  south  of  the 
kingdom.  At  each  of  these  plaees  he  ereeted 
a  golden  ealf,  which  he  designed  as  an  aid  to 
the  worship  of  Jehovah  ;  see  Calf.  Judg- 
ment was  threatened  against  him  and  his 
race  for  this  partial  apostasy,  and  after  his 
son,  Xadab,  had  reigned  two  years,  the 
dynasty  was  swejit  away.  Nineteen  kings  in 
ail  sat  upon  the  throne.  See  Chronology. 
Their  united  reigns  covered  a  period  of  about 
210  years ;  seven  of  them  reigned  but  two 
years  or  less  ;  eight  were  slain  or  committed 
suicide  and  the  throne  was  transferred  to 
another  family,  and  in  only  two  instances 
was  the  royal  power  held  by  as  many  as  four 
members  of  the  same  family  in  succession. 
None  of  the  kings  removed  the  calves  from 
Bethel  and  Dan  ;  indeed,  under  Ahab,  who 
was  influenced  bj^  his  wicked  heathen  wife, 
Jezebel,  the  apostasy  was  rendered  complete 
by  the  introduction  of  the  worship  of  Baal 
instead  of  Jehovah.  But  God  raised  up 
prophets  who  contended  steadfastly  for  the 
worship  of  Jehovah,  at  whatever  risk  to 
themselves.  The  most  notable  were  Elijah 
and  Elisha  (q.v.).  After  the  suppression  of 
Baal  worship,  other  prophets,  especially 
Hosea  and  Amos,  labored  for  the  reformation 
of  the  moral  life  of  the  nation. 

The  northern  Israelites  were  frequently  at 
war  with  Judah.  Indeed,  the  two  kingdoms 
were  in  hearty  alliance  only  while  the  house 
of  Omri  held  the  throne  of  Israel,  when  the 
royal  families  of  Israel  and  Judah  were 
united  by  intermarriage.  When  the  Syrian 
kingdom  of  Damascus  rose  to  power  it  neces- 
sarily aflected  the  politics  of  the  adjacent 
kingdom  of  Israel.  Often  the  two  were  at 
war.  They  uiiited,  however,  in  making  com- 
mon cause  against  the  Assyrijins  in  the  days 
of  Ahab  ;  and  120  years  later  tliey  were  again 
in  alliance,  their  common  object  being  the 
capture  of  Jerusalem.  It  was  this  danger 
that  led  Ahaz,  king  of  Judah,  terrified  for 
his  throne  and  life,  and  having  no  faitli  in 
Jehovah,  to  act  contrary  to  the  exhortations 
of  Isaiah  and  to  call  in  Tiglath-pileser,  king 
of  Assyria,  at  the  ])rice  of  independence. 
Judah  became  tributary  to  Assyria,  antl  its 
king  did  homage  to  the  Assyrian  monarch  at 
Damascus  (2  Kin.  xvi.  8-10).    Tiglath-pileser 


relieved  Judah  of  the  invaders,  ravaged 
northern  Israel,  struck  a  blow  at  the  Phi- 
listines, besieged  and  ultimately  captured 
Damascus  and  slew  Kezin,  deported  tlie  Is- 
raelites from  the  country  east  of  the  Jordan, 
connived  at  the  death  of  Pekah  or  actually 
ordered  it,  and  i>laced  Hoshea  on  the  throne 
about  7.30  u.  v.  Ilushea  rebelled  against  As- 
syria after  Tiglath-pileser's  death.  The 
Assyrian  armies  returned,  in  722  Samaria 
fell  and  a  large  number  of  the  inhabitants 
were  carried  off  to  Assyria,  Sec  Captivity 
and  Sargon.  The  place  of  the  deported  Is- 
raelites was  supplied  by  colonists  from  five 
districts  in  the  Assyrian  empire,  who,  ming- 
ling with  the  remaining  Israelite  population 
of  central  Palestine,  laid  the  foundations  of 
whatafterwards  became  the  Samaritan  nation. 
The  cai)tivity  of  Israel  was  a  punishment 
because  the  people  had  sinned  against  the 
Lord  their  God  and  had  feared  other  gods, 
walking  in  the  statutes  of  the  nations  and 
of  the  kings  of  Israel  (2  Kin.  xvii.  7,  6). 
They  were  apostate.  They  had  broken  the 
covenant  (15;  cp.  Ex.  xx.-xxii.  ;  Hos.  vi. 
7  ;  viii.  1),  rejecting  the  statutes  of  the  Lord. 
Their  apostasy  had  manifested  itself  in  two 
directions :  they  walked  in  the  statutes  of 
the  nations  whom  the  Lord  cast  out  (2  Kin. 
xvii.  8,  15,  17  ;  cp.  Hos.  ii.  13  ;  iv.  2.«11,  15  ; 
Amos  ii.  6-9),  and  they  walked  in  the  stat- 
utes of  the  kings  of  Israel,  especially  in  the 
matter  of  the  calf  worship  and  its  attendant 
ceremonies  and  ordinances,  and  in  the  gen- 
eral idolatry  that  followed  in  its  train  (2 
Kin.  xvii.  8,  16 ;  Hos.  viii.  4-6  :  x.  5,  8 ;  xiii. 
2-4).  They  had  sinned  despite  the  fact  that 
the  Lord  had  testified  unto  them  by  projihets 
and  by  providences  (2  Kin.  xvii.  13  ;  Hos. 
xii.  10  ;  Amos  ii.  9-11  ;  iv.  6-13).  Their  sin 
issued  in  separation  and  degradation  and 
paved  the  way  for  punishment.  They  sepa- 
rated from  Judah,  and  thus  weakened  were 
overthrown.  Their  idolatry,  drunkenness, 
and  licentiousness  weakened  the  manhood  of 
the  nation,  deprived  it  of  sturdiness,  and 
made  its  soldiery  no  better  in  character  and 
moral  purpose  than  the  warriors  of  Egypt, 
Assyria,  and  Babylonia, 

Is'ra-el-ite. 

A  descendant  of  Israel,  i.  e„  of  Jacob  (Ex. 
ix.  7)  ;  and  consequently,  by  implication,  the 
possessor  of  true  religious  knowledge,  a 
faithful  servant  of  Jehovah,  and  an  heir  of 
the  promises  (John  i.  47 ;  Kom.  ix.  4  ;  xi.  1  ; 
2  Cor.  xi.  22). 

Is'sa-char  [there  is  hire]. 

1.  The  ninth  son  of  .Tacoh,  the  fifth  by 
Leah  (Gen.  xxx.  17,  18;  xxxv.  23).  Hissons 
were  Tola,  Plnivah  or  Pua,  Job  or  .Tashub, 
and  Shimron  !xlvi.  13  ;  Num.  xxvi.  23,  24  ;  1 
Chron.  vii.  1).  With  them  he  went  down 
with  .Jacob  into  Egypt  (Gen.  xlvi.  13:  Ex.  i. 
3).  Jacob,  shortly  before  death,  with  keen 
and  projihetic  insight  into  character,  de- 
scribed Issachar  and  his  children  as  a  strong 


Issachar 


329 


Ithamar 


ass,  couching  down  between  the  sheep  folds, 
who  submits  to  tlie  burdens  imi)ost'd  liy  for- 
eign nuistors,  {jrovitli-d  tlioy  pi-nnit  him  to 
remain  in  his  jilcasaiit  hind  ((u'li.  xlix.  1 1. 151. 

The  dcsccmiants  (>r  Issachar  rovnicd  a  tribe, 
consistinj;  nf  live  great  tribal  t'aniilies,  the 
posterity  of  bis  live  sons  (Num.  xxvi.  "23,24). 
Its  prince  in  the  early  j)eriod  of  the  wander- 
ings was  Netbaneel.  son  of  Zuar  (Num.  i.  S; 
ii.  .")  :  vii.  Irt ;  x.  1.")),  and  at  a  later  jicriod 
Paltiel.  son  of  Azzan  (xxxiv.  2()j.  At  the 
first  census  in  the  wilderness  it  nunil)ered 
54,-100  lighting  men  (i.  2K  29) ;  at  the  second 
64.300  (xxvi.  2."))  :  while  in  David's  reign  it 
reached  ^7.(J00  11  Chron.  vii.")).  Igal.  son 
of  Joseph,  was  the  sjjy  from  the  tribe  (Num. 
xiii.  7).  The  men  of  Issachar  were  among 
those  who  stood  on  mount  Gerizim  to  bless 
the  peojde  (Deut.  xxvii.  12).  Moses,  in  jirc- 
dicting  tho  future  of  the  tribes,  foretolcl  Is- 
sjichar's  .joyous  and  (juiet  life  (xxxiii.  IS). 
One  of  the  judges.  Tola,  belonged  to  the 
tribe  of  Issachar  (Judg.  x.  1)  ;  so  did  king 
Biiasha  (1  Kin.  xv.  27).  The  i>rinces  of  Is- 
sachar bad  the  ]iolitical  insiglit  to  discern 
the  lit  moment  for  turning  from  Saul's  fam- 
ily and  accei)ting  David  as  the  king  of  all 
Israel  (1  Cliron.  xii.  32).  About  that  time 
Oniri,  son  of  .Michael,  was  heail  of  the  tribe 
(xxvii.  18).  .Many  men  of  Issacliar,  although 
they  belonged  to  the  northern  kingdom,  at- 
tended Hezekiali's  passover  (2  Chron.  xxx. 
18).  In  the  apocalyi)tic  vision  12,000  of  the 
tribe  of  Is.sachar  were  sealed  (Rev.  vii.  7), 
this  being  tlie  normal  number. 

When  the  land  of  Canaan  was  distributed 
by  lot.  the  fourth  lot  taken  after  the  ark  was 
renu)ved  to  Shiloli  came  forth  f<ir  the  tribe 
of  Issachar.  Its  territory  was  bounded  on 
the  north  by  Zebulun  and  Naphtali,  on  the 
east  by  the  .Jordan,  on  tlu^  south  and  west  by 
Manasseh  and  prol)al)ly  .\slicr.  .\mong  the 
places  through  or  near  wliich  its  boundary 
line  nm  were  .Tezreel,  Shunem,  En-gannim, 
I-n-haddah,  mount  Tabor,  and  Heth-sbemesh 
(.Tosh.  xix.  17  23).  though  towns  within  it  were 
held  liv  Manasseh  (xvii.  10,  11)  and  others  by 
the  Gerslionite  Levites  (xxi.  <i.  2S,  2!»:  1 
Chron.  vi.  ()2-72).  The  tribe  of  Issachar  oc- 
cupied the  greater  part  of  tlu'  plain  of  .lezreel, 
or  Esdnu'loii.  cunstitutiiig  the  lo^v,  level,  and 
fertile  jilain  of  tlie  Kislion.  The  cliaracter 
of  their  t<'rritory  combined  with  the  tribal 
traits  explains  why  the  iieojile  of  Issachar, 
in  accordance  with  .Jacob's  ])rophecy,  were  so 
ready  to  submit  to  servitutle.  They  bad 
much  to  lose,  and  lived  on  ground  well 
adapted  for  the  action  of  the  war  chariots  of 
their  enemies,  while  the  tribes  located  among 
the  mountains  could  not  so  readily  be  at- 
tacked in  this  manner.  That  the  peoide  of 
Is.sacbar  were  not  exceiitioually  cowardly  is 
plain  from  their  conduct  in  tlie  battle  with 
Sisera.  which  elicited  the  commendation  of 
Deborah  (.Tudg.  v.  l'->). 

2.  A  Levite,  aiijtointcd  doorkeeper  in  Da- 
vid's reign  (1  Chron.  xxvi.  .5). 


Is-shi'ah,  in  A.  V.  once  IsMab  (1  Chron. 
vii.  3)  and  twice  Jesiah  (1  Cliron  xii.G;  xxiii. 
20)  [.Jehovah  lendeth  or  Jehovah  forgetteth 
(cp.  Jer.  xxiii.  .'W)]. 

1.  A  man  of  Issachar,  family  of  Tola  (1 
Chron.  vii.  3  . 

2.  Unc!  of  those  who  came  to  David  at  Zik- 
lag  (1  Chron.  xii.  (i). 

3.  A  Levite,  descemled  from  Moses,  and 
head  of  the  house  of  liehabiah  (1  Chron. 
xxiv.  21  ;  cji.  xxiii.  14-17). 

4.  A  Levite,  family  of  Kohath,  bouse  of 
Uzziel  (1  Chron.  xxiii.  20;  xxiv.  2.5). 

Is-sM'jah,  in  A.  V.  Ishijah  [Jehovah  lend- 
eth or  forgetteth]. 

A  son  of  Ilarim.  induced  by  Ezra  to  put 
away  bis  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  31). 

Is'sue. 

A  man's  di.sease,  probably  blennorrhea  or 
perhaps  gonorrhea  (Lev.  xv.  2-15;  cj).  War 
V.  .5,  () ;  vi.  i),  3).  An  i.ssue  of  blood  is  a  fe- 
male complaint  (Lev.  xv.  25-30;  Mat,  ix.  20). 

Is'u-ah.    .See  Ishvah. 

Is'u-i,     See  Ishvi. 

It'a-ly. 

A  geograiihical  name  which,  in  the  fifth 
century  is.  c,  meant  only  a  small  district  in 
the  extreme  south  of  what  is  now  called 
Italy;  but  which  gradually  extciuled  its  sig- 
Jii  flea  lion,  till  in  the  first  century  of  the  Chris- 
tian era  it  began  to  be  used  in  the  .same  sen.se 
that  we  now  attach  to  the  wcu'd.  In  theilays 
of  the  ajiostles  Italy,  and,  indeed,  the  greater 
part  of  the  civilized  world,  was  ruled  from 
liome  (().  v.).  Thecentiirion  Cornelius  who  was 
instructed  to  send  for  Peter  belonged  to  the 
Italian  band,  that  is.  a  regiim-nt  reciiiited  in 
Ital.v,  and  consisting  mainly  of  Italians  (.\cts 
X,  II.  Aquila  and  I'riscilla,  though  of  .Jew- 
ish descent,  resided  for  a  time  in  Italy  (xviii. 
2),  Paul's  ajipeal  to  Ca-sar  necessarily  in- 
volved his  sailing  into  Ital.v  (xxvii.  1.  (i).  The 
shi])  in  which  be  linally  reached  the  jieiiin- 
sula,  after  landing  at  Syracuse  in  .'-^icily, 
coasted  along  the  mainland  by  Hbegiiim  to 
Puteoli  (xxviii.  l.'i-l(i).  The  salutation  in  the 
Epistle  to  the  Hebrews.  ''  The.v  of  Italy  salute 
you"  diet),  xiii.  21),  indicates  the  iirogress 
of  Christianity,  not  only  in  Kome  itself,  but 
in  other  towns  of  the  country  (cp.  Acts  xxviii. 
14).  During  the  Honian  imperial  jieriod.  the 
state  of  the  country  in  comparison  with  the 
cajiital  was  wretched. 

I 'thai.     See  Itt.vi. 

Ith'a-mar  [jialm-coa.st]. 

Till'  youngest  son  of  .Xaron  (Ex.  vi.  23;  1 
Chron.  vi.  3;  xxiv.  1).  With  his  father  and 
his  three  older  brothers  he  was  consecrated 
to  the  priestly  oflice  (Ex.  xxviii.  1  ;  1  Chron. 
xxiv.  2l.  Cjion  him  devolved  the  duty  of 
enumerating  the  materials  gatliered  for  the 
tiihernacle  (Ex.  xxxviii.21).  TheCierslionites 
and  the  Merarites  acted  iind»T  his  sujicrin- 
tendence  (Num.  iv.  21-33).  He  founded  a 
priestly  family  (1  Chron.  xxiv.  4,  5,  (i),  which 


Ithiel 


330 


Izhar 


continiiod  after  the  captivity  (Ezra  viii.  2). 
To  thiri  family  l)el()iij;e(l  Eli  and  his  desceud- 
auts.  who  lield  the  office  of  h\}ih  i)riest  for 
several  fi;euerations.     See  High  I'eikst. 

Ith'i-el  [God  is  with  me,  or,  possibly,  there 
is  a  (Jod]. 

1.  One  of  the  two  persons  to  whom  Agur 
addressed  his  i)r()i)hecy  (Prov.  xxx.  1) ;  but 
see  K.  V.  marfjin  for  another  jjossibility. 

2.  A  Henjamite,  son  of  Jesaiah  (Neh.  xi.  7). 
Itb'lali,   in  A.  V.  Jethlah   [a  hanging  or 

lofty  place]. 

A  town  of  Dan  (Josh.  xix.  42).  Site  un- 
known. 

ItL'mah  [hcreavement]. 

A  MoahiU',  one  of  the  valiant  men  of  Da- 
vid's army  (1  Chron.  xi.  40). 

Ith'nan  [perhaps,  perennial]. 

A  town  in  the  extreme  south  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  23).     Situation  unknown. 

Ith'ra  [abundance,  excellence]. 

An  Israelite,  or  rather  Ishmaelite,  who  mar- 
ried Abigail.  David's  sister,  and  became  the 
father  of  Amasa  (2  Sam.  xvii.  25;  1  Kin.  ii. 
5,  32  ;  1  Chron.  ii.  17).  In  the  last  three  pas- 
sages he  is  called  Jether,  which  is  the  Hebrew 
form  of  the  name. 

Itb'ran  [abundance,  excellence]. 

1.  A  Horite,  son  of  Dishon  (Gen.  xxxvi. 
26;  1  Chron.  i.  41). 

2.  An  Asherite,  son  of  Zophah  (1  Chron. 
Yii.  37) ;  apparently  the  same  as  Jether  (38). 

Ith're-am  [abundance  of  people]. 

The  sixth  son  born  to  David  at  Hebron. 
His  mother  was  Eglah  (2  Sam.  iii.  5  ;  1  Chron. 
iii.  3). 

Ith'rite. 

A  family  who  dwelt  at  Kirjath-jearim  (1 
Chron.  ii.  53).  Two  of  David's  mighty  men 
were  Ithrites  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  38;  1  Chron. 
xi.  40). 

It-tah-ka'zin.    See  Eth-k.\zin. 
It'tai  [perha])s,  plowman]. 

1.  A  son  of  Ribai,  from  Gibeah  of  Benja- 
min. He  was  one  of  David's  mighty  men 
(2  Sam.  xxiii,  29).  Called  in  1  Chrou.'xi.  31, 
Ithai. 

2.  An  inhabitant  of  Gath,  the  commander 
of  600  men,  who  followed  David  from  that 
Philistine  city.  He  was  faithful  to  the  king 
through  all  vicissitudes,  and  led  a  third  part 
of  the  royal  army  in  the  battle  which  re- 
sulted in  the  death  of  Absalom  (2  Sam.  xv. 
18-22  ;  xviii.  2.  5). 

It-u-rse'a  [pertaining  to  Jetur]. 

A  region  occupied  by  a  people  called  Jetur, 
who  were  descended  from  Islimacl  ((tcu.  xxv. 
15  ;  1  Chron.  i.  31 ).  The  tribe  of  .Tetur  was  at 
war  with  the  Israelitish  tribes  cast  of  the 
Jordan  (v.  19).  In  Asmona-an  times  Aristo- 
buluscontiuered  a  portion  of  Itunea,  and  an- 
nexing it  to  Judaea,  comjiclled  the  van<|uished 
inhabitants  to  adojjt  the  rite  of  cin'miicision 
(Antiq.   xiii.   11,  3).     It  was  a  mountainous 


country,  including  part  of  Anti-Lebanon.  Its 
prince,  Ptolemy  Menna-us,  possessed  territ<try 
in  Ccelesyria,  with  Chalcis  as  stronghold,  and 
jiroved  a  bad  neighbor  to  Damascus  (Strabo 
xvi.  2,  18,  20;  Anti(i.  xiii.  ItJ,  3'.  In  (M  u.  c. 
be  purchased  immunity  from  Pompey  (xiv. 
3,  2).  His  son  Lysanias  was  put  to  death  by 
Antony  (xv.  4,  1),  and  the  country  was 
farmed  to  Zenodorus  (xv.  10.  1 ;  for  Zeno- 
dorus'  domain  cp.  also  2  and  3).  Part  of 
Itursea  and  Trachonitis  constituted  the  tet- 
rarchy  of  Philip  (Luke  iii.  1).  Josephus 
enumerates  the  constituent  parts  of  Philip's 
tetrarchy  diUerently,  and  he  is  not  careful 
always  to  enumerate  in  one  and  the  same 
way  (Antiq.  xvii.  8,  1;  11,  4.  where  i)art  of 
the  house  of  Zenodorus  is  included  ;  xviii.  4, 
6;  War  ii.  6.  3).  The  name  Itunea  or  Jetur 
is  radically  difl'erent  from  Jedur,  the  present 
designation  of  a  district  southwest  of  Da- 
mascus. 

I'vah.     See  Ivvah. 

I'vo-ry. 

A  substance  derived  from  the  tusk  of  the 
elephant,  hippopotamus,  walrus,  and  other 
animals.  In  Hebrew  it  is  called  Slieu,  tooth, 
or  Sheithabbim,  a  compound  word  in  which 
habbim  probably  denotes  some  animal.  It  is 
first  mentioned  in  the  Bible  as  having  been 
brought  from  abroad  by  Solomon's  ships  (1 
Kin.  x.  22;  2  Chron.  ix.  21).  It  seems  to 
have  come  from  India,  and  was  made  into  a 
throne  for  the  king  (1  Kin.  x.  18).  After- 
wards, when  luxury  had  established  itself  to 
a  larger  extent  in  .Jerusalem,  beds  (Amos  vi. 
4).  and  even  houses  were  made  or  overlaid 
with  the  precious  material  (1  Kin.  xxii.  39  ; 
Amos  iii.  15  ;  Ps.  xlv.  b).  The  Tyrians  in- 
laid benches  for  rowers  with  it  (Ezek.  xxvii. 
6).  Ethiopia  also  supplied  ivory  to  the  an- 
cient world  (Herod,  iii.  97,  114). 

Iv'vah,  in  A.  V.  Ivah. 

A  city  which  the  representative  of  Sen- 
nacherib could  boast  that  the  Assyrians  had 
captured  (2  Kin.  xviii.  34;  xix.  13;  Is. 
xxxvii.  13).  It  is  doubtless  the  same  as 
Avva  (q.  v.). 

I-ye-ab'a-rim,  in  A.  V.  Ije-abarim  [ruins 
of  the  district  of  Abarim]. 

A  halting  place  of  the  Israelites  in  the 
wilderness,  on  the  border  of  Moab  (Num. 
xxi.  11 ;  xxxiii.  44).  In  ver.  45  the  place  is 
called  simply  lyira,  in  A.  V.  lim  ;  because 
the  context  sufficiently  defined  the  locality 
to  be  in  Abarim. 

I'yim.     See  ])receding  article. 

Iz'har,  I.,  in  A.  V.  oncelz'e-har  (Num.  iii. 
19)  and  once  Jezoar  (1  Chron.  iv.  7)  [bright, 
oil,  especiallj'  olive  oil]. 

A  Lcvite,  son  of  Kohath,  and  founder 
of  a  tribal  family  (Ex.  vi.  18,  19;  Num.  iii. 
19,  27  ;  1  Chron. 'vi.  18,  38).  From  him  de- 
scended the  rebel  Korah  (Num.  xvi.  1). 

Iz'har,  II.  [whiteness]. 

A  man  of  Judah,  family  of  Hezrou,  son 


Izliah 


331 


Jabbok 


of  Ashhur  (1  Chron.  iv.  5-7).    Another  read- 
ing is  Ziiliiir. 

Iz-li'ah,  in  A.  V.  JezUab  [iierhaps,  deliv- 

eranri.-]- 

A  Benjaniite,  son  of  Elpaul  and  (lisctiultd 
from  Shaharaini  (1  Chron.  viii.  lb). 

Iz-ra-hi'ah  [Jehovah  dotli  arise  (cp.  Is. 
Ix.  2)]. 

A  man  of  Issacliar,  family  of  Tola,  and  son 
of  I'z/.i  (1  Chron.  vii.  3). 

Iz'ra-hite. 

A  iiienilxi' (if  the  I'aniily,  or  an  inhahitant 
of  the  town,  of  Izrah  (1  Chron.  x.xvii.  b), 
jierhajjs  the  s;unc  as  Ezrahite. 

Iz'ri  [fasliioning,  creative]. 

A  Levite.  son  of  .lediitliun,  and  head  of 
the  fonrth  eonrsc  lor  the  niiisieal  service  of 
the  sanctnary  (1  Chron.  xxv.  11).  Called  in 
ver.  3  Zeri  (q.  v.). 

Iz-zi'ah,  in  A.  V.  Jeziah  [perhaps,  .Jehovah 
exnlteth]. 

A  son  of  Parosh.  He  was  induced  by 
Ezra  to  put  away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra 
X.  25). 


J. 


Ja'a-kan,  in  A.  V.  of  1  Chron.  i.  42  Jakan. 
Wrilten  Akan  in  Gen.  xxxvi.  27  [Horite 
name  of  nnciTtain  meaning]. 

A  descendant  or  jiroininent  branch  of  the 
Horiles  of  mount  Seir,  who  were  eventually 
disposses.sed  bv  the  Edomites  {Gen.  xxxvi.  20, 
21,  27;  1  Chron.  i.  38,  42;  Deut.  ii.  12).  At 
the  time  of  the  exodus  sons  of  Jaakan  con- 
stituted a  tril>e  wiiich  occuiiied  a  district  on 
the  liorders  of  Edom  near  mount  llor,  where 
Aaron  died.  The  Israidites  encamjied  at  cer- 
tain of  their  wells  (I)eiil.  x.  G;  Num.  xx.  21- 
23  ;  xxxiii.  .Jl  i. 

Ja-a-ko'bah  [supplanting]. 

A  Siniconite  jirince  (1  Chron.  iv.  36). 

Ja'a-lah,  or  Jaala  [doe,  female  ibex]. 

The  founder  of  a  family,  ranked  among 
the  cliihlren  of  Solomon's  servants  (Ezra  ii. 
5G  ;   Xeh.  vii.  TkS). 

Ja'a-lam.     See  Jalam. 

Ja'a-nai,  in  U.  V.  Janal  [perhaps,  vora- 
cious or.  ]possibly,  ,Tehovah  answers]. 

A  Gadite  cliieV  (1  Chron.  v.  12). 

Ja'ar  [.i  forest]. 

A  proper  name  occurring  in  the  Tuargin  of 
P.salm  cxxxii.  (i,  K.  V.  It  is  believed  to  be 
the  same  as  Kirjatii-jearim. 

Ja-a-re-or'e-glm.    See  .Taik  II. 

Ja-ar-e-sM'ah,  in  .\.  V.  Jareslah  [.leho- 
vaii  doili  noiirisli  or  i)lant]. 

A  ISenJamite,  son  of  .leroham  (1  Chron. 
viii.  27  . 

Ja'a-sal  and  Ja'a-sau.    See  .Taasu. 


Ja-asi-el,  in  A.  V.  once  Jaslel  (1  Chron. 

xi.  47)  [God  maketh]. 

1.  A  Mesobaile,  one  (»f  David's  mighty 
men  (1  Chron.  xi.  47). 

2.  A  sou  of  Abner  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  21). 

Ja'a-8U,  in  A.  V.  Jaasau,  in  R.  V.  margin 
Jaasai  [possibly,  Jehovah  maketh]. 

A  son  of  Hani.  He  was  induced  by  Ezra 
to  put  away  liis  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  37). 

Ja-az-a-ni'ah  [Jehovah  doth  hearken]. 

1.  Son  of  a  Maacathite  (2  Kin.  xxv.  23). 
See  Jkzaniau. 

2.  A  Kechabite,  son  of  a  certain  Jeremiah, 
not  the  prophet  of  that  name  (Jer.  xxxv.  3). 

3.  A  son  of  Sliajdiaii.  He  was  a  leader  of 
idolatry  in  l']zekiel's  time  (Ezek.  viii.  11). 

4.  A  son  of  Azzur  and  prince  of  .ludah, 
who  was  seen  by  Ezekiel  in  vision  (Ezek.  xi. 
1  ;  cp.  viii.  1,  3  ;  xi.  24). 

Ja'a-zer.     See  Jazkk. 

Ja-a-zi'ah  [.Jehovah  consoleth]. 

A  Levite,  registered  as  head  of  a  father's 
house  with  the  family  of  Merari  (1  Chron. 
xxiv.  2(),  27),  and  perhaps  called  his  .son  or 
descendant  (lieno).  No  hint  is  elsewhere 
given  of  ^lerari  having  a  third  son.  Can 
Jaaziah  represent  the  liouse  of  the  dead 
Eleazar  (28 ;  cp.  xxiii.  22),  or  is  the  passage 
26'',  27  an  interpolation? 

Ja-a'zi-el  or  Aziel  [(iod  con.soleth]. 

A  Levite  of  the  second  rank,  one  of  the 
musicians  who  jilayed  on  the  jjsaltery  at  the 
removal  of  the  ark  tVom  the  liouse  of  Obed- 
edom,  and  afterwards  as  a  regular  duty  in 
the  tent  at  Jeru.salem  (1  Chron.  xv.  18,  20; 
and  iirol)ably  xvi.  5).  In  the  last  pas.sjige  the 
form  .lelel  is  jjrobably  a  copyist's  error. 

Ja'bal  [in  Hebrew  a  stream,  a  river]. 

Son  of  the  Cainite  l-amecli,  by  his  wife 
Adah.  He  was  the  father  of  such  as  dwell 
in  tents  and  have  cattle  ((ien.  iv.  20). 

Jab'bok  [effusion]. 

An  eastern  tributary  of  the  Jordan.  Jacob 
forded  it  ttn  his  way  l)ack  from  Mesojiotamia 
(Gen.  xxxii.  22).  Kising  near  Kabbath  .\m- 
mon,  it  flows  for  12  miles  from  that  town 
toward  tlie  nortbi^ast  and  then  sweejis  around 
toward  the  northwest.  After  holding  this 
course  for  about  l.">  miles  it  turns  westward, 
and  for  17  miles  Hows  through  a  valley  which 
cleaves  mount  (iilead  in  twain.  On  emerging 
into  the  valley  of  the. Ionian  it  liends toward 
the  southwest  and  enters  the  Jordan  at  a 
point  aliout  43  miles  south  of  the  sea  of 
(Jaiilee  and  23  miles  north  of  the  Dead  Sea. 
The  lower  i)art  of  its  cour.sc  is  now  called  the 
wady  es-Zerka.  The  Jabbok  was  a  recog- 
nized frontier.  It  formed  the  western  boun- 
dary of  the  .\minonites,  and  separate<l  them 
from  the  Aniorite  king<lom  of  Sihon  and 
later  from  the  trilx"  of  (iad.  It  divided 
mount  (iilead  into  two  jiarts.  of  which  the 
.southern  was  held  by  Sihon  before  the  Israel- 
ite conquest,  and  afterwards  was  assigned  to 


Jabesh 


332 


Jachin 


Gad,  while  the  northern  was  possessed  by 
Og  and  passed  from  him  to  the  half  tribe  of 
Manasseh  (Num.  xxi.  24;  Deut.  ii.  36,  37; 
iii.  1-2,  13,  Itj ;  Josh.  xii.  2-6). 

Ja'besh  [dry]. 

1.  A  town.     See  Jabksh-gi LEAD. 

2.  Father  of  king  Shallum  (2  Kin.  xv.  10). 

Ja-besh-gil'e-ad  [Jabesh  of  Gilead]. 

A  town  of  Gilead.  It  is  believed  to  have 
stood  at  ed-Deir,  9^  miles  southeast  and  in 
full  view  of  Beth-shean  on  the  other  side  of 
the  river.  It  is  on  a  brook,  wady  el-Yabis, 
which  seems  to  preserve  the  old  name  Jabe.sh. 
In  the  great  war  waged  against  Benjamin  in 
the  days  of  the  judges  on  account  of  the 
matter  of  the  Levite  and  his  concubine,  none 
of  the  men  of  .Tabesh-gilead  took  part.  For 
this  indifterence  to  a  national  sin,  they  were 
condemned  to  utter  destruction.  Only  400 
unmarried  girls  were  saved  alive  and  given 
for  wives  to  400  of  the  remaining  men  of 
Benjamin  (Judg.  xxi.  8-1.")).  The  place 
was  soon  reoccupied.  Shortly  after  Saul 
had  been  chosen  king,  Nahash,  king  of  the 
Ammonites,  besieged  Jabesh-gilead.  The 
town  was  sore  pressed  ;  and  the  Ammonite 
king  doomed  every  man  to  the  loss  of  the 
right  eye  on  the  surrender  of  the  town.  This 
was  intended  as  an  insult  to  the  whole 
Israelite  nation.  Saul  raised  the  siege  by 
defeating  tlu^  besieging  army  (1  Sam.  xi.  1- 
11).  The  men  of  tin*  town  rcmeml)ered  their 
deliverer  witli  gratitude,  and  when,  after  the 
battle  of  Gilboa,  his  headless  body,  with 
those  of  his  sons,  was  fastened  to  the  wall 
of  Beth-shean,  tliey  crossed  the  .lordan,  car- 
ried off  the  corpses,  burnt  them  and  buried 
the  bones  in  the  vicinity  of  ,Tabesh-gilead 
(xxxi.  11-13  ;  1  Chnm.  x.  11,  12)  from  which 
they  were  ultimately  removed  to  the  sepul- 
cher  of   Kish   (2  Sam.    xxi.    12-14).     David 


sent  the   men    of  Jabesh   his  personal 
thanks  for  what  they  had  done  (ii.  4-Tj. 

Ja'bez  [he  makes  sorrow]. 

1.  A  man  of  Judah,  whose  mother 
gave  him  the  name  Jabez,  because  she 
bore  him  in  sorrow.  He  was  more  hon- 
ora!)le  than  his  brethren.  lie  jtrayed 
that  God  would  enlarge  the  boundary 
of  his  possessions,  besides  keeping  him 
from  evil.  God  granted  his  request  (1 
Chron.  iv.  9,  10). 

2.  A  place,  doubtless  in  Judah,  where 
families  of  scribes  dwelt  (1  Chron.  ii.  55). 

Ja'Mn  [he  discerneth,  intelligent]. 

1.  A  (  anaanite.  king  of  Ila/.or  in  Gal- 
ilee and  its  dependent  towns  and  the 
head  of  the  confederacy  of  northern  and 
central  kings  whom  Joshua  defeated  at 
the  waters  of  Merom.  After  the  battle 
the  Israelites  took  and  burned  Hazor  and 
slew  its  king  (Josh.  xi.  1-14). 

2.  Another  king  of  Canaan  who  reigned 
at  Hazor,  probably  a  lineal  descendant 
of  the  first  (Judg.  iv.  2).     He,  too,  had 

kings  fighting  under  him  (v.  19).  He  op- 
pressed the  Israelites  twenty  years ;  l>ut  at 
length  his  conmiander-in-chief  Sisera  was  de- 
feated by  Barak  at  the  river  Kishon  and  after- 
wards murdered.  Jabiu  continued  the  war, 
but  was  ultimately  destroyed  (iv.  2-24). 
Jab'ne-el  [God  doth  cause  to  be  built]. 

1.  A  town  on  the  northern  border  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  5,  11).  It  is  the  same  jilace  as  the 
Philistine  city  of  Jabneh,  the  wall  of  which 
was  broken  down  by  Uzziah  (2  Chron.  xxvi. 
6)  ;  and  it  was  known  later  as  Jamnia  (1  Mac. 
iv.  15 ;  V.  58  ;  2  Mac.  xii.  8,  9).  It  is  rei>resented 
by  the  village  of  Yebnah,  about  4  miles  in- 
land from  the  Mediterranean,  and  9  north- 
east by  north  of  Ashdod. 

2.  A  frontier  town  of  Xaphtali  (Josh.  xix. 
33).  Conder  identifies  it  with  the  ruin 
Yemma,  about  7  miles  south  by  west  of 
Tiberias.  More  commonly  it  is  identified 
with  Jamnia  or  Jamnith.  a  village  of  upper 
Galilee,  built  on  a  rocky  height  and  fortified 
by  Josephus  (Life  37;  War.  ii.  20.  6);  and 
whose  site  is  sought  in  the  neighborhood  of 
the  plain  of  Huleh  and  Banias  (War  ii.  6.  3; 
but  text  is  uncertain). 

Jab'neh  [he  causes  to  be  l)uilt]r  See 
Jabxeei.. 

Ja'can,  in  A.  Y.  Jachan  [troublou.s]. 

A  (Jadite,  ])robably  head  of  a  father's 
house  (1   Chron.  v.  13). 

Ja'cMn  [he  doth  establish]. 

1.  A  son  of  Simeon,  and  founder  of  a 
tribal  family  (Gen.  xlvi.  10  :  Ex.  vi.  15  :  Num. 
xxvi.  12).  Called  .Tarib  in  1  Chron.  iv.  24, 
which  is  doubtless  due  to  an  erroneous  read- 
ing of  the  text  l)y  a  coiiyist. 

2.  A  desci'udant  of  Aaron.  In  the  time  of 
David,  his  family  was  made  the  twenty-first 
of  the  cour.ses  into  which  the  sacerdotal  body 
was  divided  (1  Chron.  xxiv.  17).     It  dwelt  at 


Jacinth 


333 


Jacob 


Jeriisiileiii,  acfordinn  to  the  probable  mean- 
ing i)f"  i.\.  10;  l)Ut  it  is  nut  at  all  certain  that 
the  jiriest  .Jaeliin,  wiio  was  resident  at  .lern- 
Siileni  alter  the  eai)tivity,  was  ol  this  family 
(Neh.  xi.  H)). 

3.  The  right-hand  i>illar  ol"  two  set  up  in 
the  poreh  of  Solomon's  temple  (1  Kin.  vii.  13- 
2-2).     See  BoAZ. 

Ja'cinth.     See  lIvAtiNTii. 

Jack  al. 

The  rendering  in  tlii'  K.  \'.  of  the  Hebrew 
plurals  Tuniiiin  and  Tmiiiulh,  which  in  the 
A.  \.  are  regnlarly  translated  by  dragon 
(q.  v.).  The  eroature  intended  is  a  mammal 
(Lam.  iv.  ;5,  in  A.  ^'.  sea  monsters]  and 
dwells  in  the  wilderne.ss  (Is.  xxxv.  7;  xliii.20) 
and  in  desertid  i)laces  (xxxiv.  13,  14;  Jer. 
xlix.  3;i;  li.  37). 

The  jat'kal  (Caiiis  aiireitu)  is,  it  will  be  seen, 
jilaeed  in  the  dog  genus  Cutiis.  It  differs 
from  the  dog  in  its  long  and  jioiuted  muzzle. 
The  name  aurrus,  golden,  refers  to  the  color 
of  tlie  undi-r  fur.  which  is  brownish  yellow, 
mottled  will)  black,  gray,  and  brown  hairs, 
lis  length  isaliout  thirty  inches,  and  its  height 
at  the  shoulder  seventeen.  It  hunts  in  packs, 
and  feeds  chiefly  on  carrion,  though  it  carries 
ofl'  and  devours  children  when  o]iiiorlunity 
arises.  It  has  lui-n  called  the  lion's  jirovider, 
the  ojiinion  being  entertaiiud  that  wln'U  its 
Voice  is  heard,  the  lion,  following  on,  tries  to 
claim  his  share  of  the  prey.  It  raises  the 
most  uneartldy  yell  of  all  of  its  compeers. 
It  is  found  in  Africa  and  southern  Asia,  and 
is  dilfused  throughout  I'alestine,  especially 
frequenting  ruins.     See  also  Fox. 

Ja'cob  [ho  supplanteth,  supplantcr]. 

A  son  of  Isaac  and  Kebekah.  a  twin  with 
Ksau.  but  born  a  short  time  after  him,  and 
therefore  considered  the  younger  brother 
((len.  XXV.  '21-2()).  He  was  born  when  his 
father  was  sixty  years  old  ("ifi).  As  he  grew 
be  l)ecam.'  a  (piiet,  inoffensive  man,  dwelling 
in  tents  (27).  He  was  his  mother's  favorite, 
while  the  father  i>referred  Ksau  (2S).  As  Esau 
came  in  from  hunting,  faint  with  hunger, 
.lacob  chanced  to  have  pottage  of  lentils  ready 
boiled,  but  sellishly  forbore  to  relievt-  his 
lirollier's  necessities  till  he  had  comjjelled 
him  lirst  to  surrender  the  jirivilege  of  his 
birtiiright  (29-34).  Positive  fraud  followed. 
When  Isaac  was  about  137  years  old  and 
nearly  l)lin(l.  Kebekah  induced  ,Iacob  to  dress 
himself  in  lOsau's  raiment,  make  his  neck 
and  handsartificially  hairy,  and  jiassing  him- 
self olf  as  E.s;iu.  obtain  from  Isaac,  who 
thought  himself  near  death,  the  blessing  be- 
longing to  the  birtiiright.  I']s;iu  recalle<l  the 
first  wrong  wlx'U  this  second  one  was  jierpe- 
trated.  and  resolved  that  when  his  father 
died,  he  would  kill  his  brother  (xxvii.  1-41). 
Kebekah  heard  the  threat,  and  to  give  time 
for  Ksaii's  wrath  to  cool,  sent  .lacob  away  to 
her  relatives  in  Haran.  on  the  pretext  of 
seeking  a  wife.  While  on  this  journey  he 
had  the  night  vision  in  which  a  ladder  con- 


nected earth  and  heaven,  angels  ascended 
and  descended,  and  God  standing  above 
assured  him  of  the  covenant  blessing  (xxvii. 
42-4<J ;  xxviii.  1-22).  Jacob  sojourned  in 
Paddan-aram  twenty  years,  all  of  which  time 
he  was  in  Laban's  emjiloy.  serving  him  four- 
teen yi-ars  for  his  two  daughters,  Leah  and 
Itaehel,  and  six  for  a  i)ayment  in  cattle.  Dur- 
ing this  jieriod  in  Haran  there  were  born  to 
him  eleven  sons  :  by  Leah  six,  Peuben, 
Simeon,  Levi,  .ludah,  Issachar,  and  Zebuluu, 
besides  a  daughter.  Dinah  ;  by  l?ilhab,  Ivachel's 
maid,  two,  Dan  and  Naphtali  ;  by  Ziljiah, 
Leah's  maid,  two,  Gad  and  Asher  :  and  by 
Kachel  one,  Joseiih  (xxix.,  xxx.).  The  last 
was  born  when  .lacob  was  ninety  or  ninety- 
one  years  of  age  (cji.  xlvii.  !»  with  xli.  Ui.  47, 
■")4  ;  xlv.  11).  Six  years  later,  iierceiving  that 
Laban  and  his  sons,  envying  his  jirosperity, 
were  turning  against  him.  he  liecame  alarmed. 
Whili'  jiasturing  his  flocks,  i)robably  three 
days  frcim  Haran  (x.\x.  'Mi:  xxxi.  22)  on  the 
Euphrates,  he  sent  for  his  wives  (xxxi.  4), 
crossed  the  river,  and  fled  with  his 
family  and  jiossessions  toward  Canaan 
(21).  Three  days  later  Laban  was  in- 
formed of  Jacob's  flight.  He  was  busy 
shearing  his  sheep;  but  he  jiresently  gath- 
ered his  male  relatives,  started  in  jmrsuit  of 
the  fugitives,  and  after  a  week's  journey  by 
forced  marches  overtook  thini  on  mount 
Gilead.  apparently  between  the  Yarnnik  and 
the  Jabbok,  scant  3(10 miles  from  the  luiphra- 
tes,  at  hast  ten  days  after  Jacob's  depar- 
ture and  probably  longer,  for  Laban  was  busy 
shearing  sheep  when  he  received  information 
of  the  flight  and  was  uniirepared  for  the 
journey.  God  shielded  Jacob  from  injury, 
and  a  reconciliation  and  a  treaty  of  amity 
between  the  alienated  parties  took  place. 
A  heap  of  stones  was  erected  and  a  covenant 
meal  eaten  to  establish  the  agreement  that 
neither  jiarty  should  pass  that  jioint  to  at- 
tack the  other  (xxxi.).  Jacob  had  mani- 
festations of  the  divine  favor  at  Mahanaim 
and  on  the  Jabbok,  where  a  man  wrestled 
with  him  until  break  of  day,  showed  his 
sujieriority  to  Jacob  by  disiibling  him  liy  a 
touch,  and  before  dejiarting  blessed  him,  .say- 
ing :  "Thy  name  shall  be  called  no  more 
Jacob,  but  Israel ;  for  thou  hast  striven  with 
God  and  with  men,  and  hast  jirevailed." 
And  ,Iacob  called  the  name  of  that  i)lace 
Peniel,  face  of  (iod,  for  he  said:  "I  have 
seen  (iod  face  to  face,  and  my  life  is  ]ire- 
served"  (xxxii.  22-32;  ci>.  the  name  xxxiii. 
20;  Hosea  xii.  4).  This  event  jiroved  a  erisi.s 
in  the  life  of  Jacob.  Heretofore  he  had  been 
trusting  to  his  own  strength  and  shrewdness 
for  success.  He  now  learns  that  his  own 
strength  is  of  no  avail  in  wrestling  with 
God  and  that  he  must  resort  to  jiniyer  for 
the  blessing  which  he  cannot  do  without. 
Henceforth  tlu'  record  of  his  woi-shiping  be- 
comes fre(|uent.  Before  he  crossiMl  the  Jor- 
dan, he  met  E.siu,  and  obtained  forgiveness 
for  the  wrongs  which  had  so  long  made  him 


Jacob 


334 


Jacob 


an  exile.  Then  the  brothers  parted,  Esau 
returning  to  mount  Seir  and  Jacob  ftoin<;  to 
Canaan  (xxxiii.  1-lS).  Jacob  sojourned  in 
Canaan  at  Shcchem,  where  he  l)ought  a  par- 
cel of  firouiul  from  the  chii't  of  Shcchem,  on 
which  he  jjitclied  liis  camp  and  erected  an 
altar  (xxxiii.  LS-20).  While  here  his  daugh- 
ter Dinali  wa.s  illtreated  l>y  the  cluef's  son. 
The  deed  was  avenged  by  two  of  .Jacol)'ssons, 
Simeon  and  Levi,  and  the  other  sons  joined 
in  spoiling  the  town.  .lacol)  feared  the  coii- 
se<iuenccs  of  this  act;  but  since  his  sons  had 
captured  the  place,  slain  the  males,  apjiro- 
priated  the  wealth,  and  made  cai)tive  the 
■women  and  children,  he  recognized  the  con- 
quest of  the  town  and  the  consequent  owner- 
ship of  it  by  his  tribe  (xlviii.  22  ;  cp.  xxxvii. 
12).  From  Sluchem  .lacob  removed  to  Betliel. 
There  Del)()rali  died  and  was  buried  (xxxv. 
6-8);  see  Dkhorah.  There  also,  where  God 
had  appeared  to  him  as  he  went  to  Paddan- 
aram,  (Jod  appeared  to  lum  again  when  he 
came  back  from  Paddan-aram  (xxxv.  9 ; 
xxviii.  10-22),  emphasizing  the  change  of 
name  (but,  of  course,  not  finding  it  necessary 
to  tell  why  the  new  name  had  been  given) 
and  confirming  the  blessing  of  the  Abraiiamic 
covenant  to  him.  As  he  was  approaching 
Bethlehem  on  his  way  to  Hebron,  his  twelfth 
and  last  sou,  Benjamin,  was  born,  and  his 
beloved  Rachel  died  (9-20).  At  length  Jacob 
came  to  his  father  Isaac  at  Mamre  (27). 
Isaac  died  about  twenty-three 
years  later,  and  was  buried  by 
Esau  and  Jacob  (28,  29).  Jacob 
seems  to  have  dwelt  at  Mamre 
during  tlie  next  thirty-three 
years  ;  for  he  was  at  Hebron 
about  ten  years  after  his  re- 
turn (xxivii.  14;  cp.  2),  and 
he  was  evidently  still  there 
when  he  was  summoned  to  go 
down  to  Egyjit  (xlvi.  1).  Jacob 
was  130  years  old  when  he  went 
to  Egypt  (xlvii.  9),  and  he  lived 
there  seventeen  years.  He  gave 
a  special  blessing,  first  to  Jo- 
seph's children  and  then  to  his 
own,  after  which  he  died  at 
the  age  of  147  (xlvii.  28;  xlviii. : 
xlix. ).  His  body  was  embalm- 
ed, taken  to  Canaan  with  much 
pomp,  and  interred  in  the  cave 
of  Machpelah  (1.  1-14).  Jacol) 
had  glaring  faults  of  character. 
For  his  sins  he  suffered  se- 
verely, and  in  his  old  age  he 
was  sorely  chasteiu^d  by  the 
loss  of  Jose])h.  In  his  later 
life  he  acknowledged,  at  least 
tacitl}-,  the  sinfulness  of  his 
earlier  career  and  his  failure 
to  walk  before  (xod,  and  he 
spoke  only  of  God's  grace  (xlviii.  15, 16).  He 
was  animated  also  in  his  latter  days  by  un- 
wavering faith  in  God  (21  ;  Hcb.  xi.  21). 
The    Hebrew   nation,   as   descended   from 


Jacob,  is  often  called  in  Scripture  the  chil- 
dren of  Israel  (Ex.  xiv.  16,  29;  xv.  1,  etc.). 
The  jirophcts  often  use  Jacob  and  Israel  as 
parallel  names  in  their  iioetic  couplets  (Dcut. 


Outer  Opening  of  Jacob's  Well. 

xxxiii.  10 ;    Is.  xliii.  1,  22  ;    xliv.   1).     See 
Israel. 

Jacob's  well,  beside  or  on  the  edge  of  which 
Jesus  sat  when  conver.<iing  with  the  woman 


.Subterranean  Vault  over  Mouth  of  .Jacoli's  Well. 


of  Samaria,  was  at  Sychar,  near  to  the  parcel 
of  ground  that  .lacob  gave  to  his  son  Joseph. 
"  Jacob."  the  woman  of  Samaria  said,  "  drank 
thereof  himself,  and  his  sons,  and  his  cattle  " 


Jada 


335 


Jahaziel 


(John  iv.  5,  6,  12;  cp.  Geu.  xxxiii.  18-20; 
xxxvii.  12).  A  traditiiiii,  >,'"'•"!-'  Uack  as  far 
as  tlio  time  of  tlic  Uunlciuix  jiilKiim  A.  i)., 
3:J3.  and  accuploil  by  .lews,  Samaritans, 
t'lirislians,  anil  Molianmiodans.  idontiflcs 
Jaci)l)'s  well  with  the  Bir  Yaki'il).  It  is 
situated  in  the  eastern  ]iart  of  the  valley  be- 
tween mount  Kbal  on  the  north  and  mount 
Gerizim  on  tlie  south,  about  2  miles  east- 
southeast  from  Nablus,  the  modern  She- 
ehem,  and  a  third  of  a  mile  south  from 
"AsUar,  believed  by  many  to  be  Syehar. 
Mauiuirell,  generally  very  accurate,  made  its 
diameter  S)  feet  and  its  depth  1(15.  Dr.  John 
Wilson,  measnring  a  line  with  which  a  boy 
was  let  down  into  it  with  a  lif;ht  in  1S1:5,  de- 
termined it  to  be  7")  feet  deej).  Conder 
reported  its  dejith  in  It^T.")  as  7.")  feet.  It  is 
less  now  than  it  once  was,  owiuff  to  the  num- 
ber of  stones  thrown  into  it  by  visitors.  It 
is  lined  with  masonry  in  llu'  uii|>er  jiart.  The 
lower  jiait  is  cut  thr(piigli  >(ifi  liinotone. 
Tliere  is  j;enerally  little  water  in  it,  and  that 
which  is  there  is  not  easy  to  reach  (John  iv. 
11).  A  low  sul)terranean  vault,  20  feet  long 
from  east  to  west  and  10  broad.  i)robably  the 
crypt  of  a  Christian  church,  is  built  over  the 
well,  the  mouth  of  which  is  contracted  and 
covered  with  one  or  more  larjie  stones.  There 
is  a  tine  fountain  a  little  to  the  west,  and 
many  others  in  the  valley.  The  wi-ll.  how- 
ever, was  dujr.  iicrhaps,  because  the  fountains 
were  ai)iiropriati'd.  It  is  in  the  vicinity  of 
what  from  the  fourth  century  has  been  pop- 
ularly considered  to  l)e  Josciih's  tomb. 

Ja'da  [wise]. 

A  son  of  Onam.a  man  of  Judali,  family  of 
Hezron,  house  of  Jerahnieel  (1  C'linm.  ii.  28, 
32). 

Ja'dau.     See  Iddo  II. 

Jad-du'a  [known]. 

1.  One  of  the  chiefs  of  the  peoiile  who, 
with  Nehemiah.  sealed  the  covenant  (Neh.  x. 
21). 

2.  .\  hif,'h  jiriest,  son  of  Jonathan  ami  the 
fifth  in  descent  from  the  hiuli  ]iriest  .leshua, 
who  returned  with  Zerubbaljel  from  I'abylon 
(Noll.  xii.  11,  22).  He  was  i)robably  a  youth 
in  tlic  reijin  of  Darius  Nothus,  and  sur- 
vived Darius  Codomannus.  the  Persian  sover- 
eij;n  defeated  by  Alexandci'  the  (Jreat  at 
.\rliela  in  :{:!!  it.  c.     See  llujii  I'uiKST. 

Ja'don  [he  ruleth.  jndf;eth,  or  a1)ideth]. 

A  Meronothite,  win>  rcjjaired  iiart  of  the 
wall  of  .lerusiilem  afti-r  the  captivity  (Nell, 
iii.  7). 

Ja'el  [wild  float,  ibex]. 

The  wife  of  lleber  the  Kenito  (Judg.  iv. 
17).  Siseni.  .labin's  jjeneral,  trustiiifr  to  the 
peace  subsisting  between  his  royal  master 
and  Ileber,  lied  to  her  tent  aft«'r  he  was  dc- 
feateii  by  Harak.  On  his  ajiiiroach  .lael  went 
out.  invitcil  him  to  enter,  and  L,'avc  him  milk 
to  relieve  his  thirst.  Hut  as  he  lay  sleei>infj 
in  tlie  tent,  she  took  a  hammer  and  drove 
a  tout  piu  through   his  temples,  iixing  his 


head  to  tlie  ground.  Wlu-n  the  victorious 
liarak  pa.ssed,  she  called  him  in  to  see  what 
she  had  done  (Judg.  iv.  11  22).  Deborah 
highly  commended  the  deed  of  Jael  (v.  24- 
27),  though  it  was  cruel  and  treacherous.  It 
reveals  a  rudeness  of  manners  and  a  hard- 
ness of  character  which  found  frequent  ex- 
emplitication  in  those  early  times. 

In  v.  0  a  judge  named  Jael  may  be  referred 
to,  who  is  not  elsewhere  mentioned.  A  sim|iler 
explanation  is  that  Deborah  means  that  al- 
though the  heroic  woman  .lael  was  then  liv- 
ing, yet  no  one  ventured  to  undertake  the 
deliverance  of  Israel  until  Deborah  arose. 

Ja'gur  [a  lodging,  an  inn]. 

A  town  in  the  extreme  south  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  21).     Site  unknown. 

Jah. 

A  form  of  Jehovah  occurring  in  jioetry 
(Ps.  lxviii.4;  R.  V.  of  Ixxxix.  8).  In  various 
other  places  Jah,  or,  rather.  Yah  in  Hel)rew 
is  rendered  Lord  in  the  A.  V.  .and  K.  V. 

In  the  Hebrew  sometimes  Jah  and  Jehovah 
stand  together.  Jah  first  (Is.  xii.  2  and  xxvi. 
4,  margin  of  K.  ^'.). 

Ja'hath  [perhaps,  grasping;  c]).  Maliath]. 

1.  A  man  of  Judah,  family  of  Hezron,  de- 
scended through  Shobal  (1  C'hron.  iv.  2 ;  cp. 
ii.  19,  .'SO). 

2.  A  son  of  Libni,  a  Levite,  family  of  Ger- 
shom  (1  Cliron.  vi.  20,  and  ])erha]is  43).  The 
reference  in  ver.  43  may  belong  to  the  suc- 
ceeding. 

3.  A  Levite,  family  of  Gershom  and  head 
of  a  subdivision  of  the  house  of  Shimei 
(1  Chron.  xxiii.  10). 

4.  A  Levite,  family  of  Kohath,  house  of 
Izhar  (1  Chron.  xxiv.  22). 

5.  A  Merarite  Levite,  an  over.seer  of  the 
workmen  engaged  in  re])airing  the  temple 
during  Josiah's  reign  (2  Chron.  xxxiv.  12). 

Ja'haz  and  Jahzali,  in  .\.  ^'.  once  Jahaza 
(Josh.  xiii.  1^).  and  twice  Jahazab  i.losh. 
xxi.  3() ;  Jer.  xlviii.  21)  [a  place  trodden 
under  foot,  an  oi)en  space]. 

A  ]dace  in  the  jtlain  of  Moah  (Jer.  xlviii. 
21)  where  Sihon,  king  of  the  Amorites,  was 
defeated  by  the  Israelites  (Num.  xxi.  23; 
Dent.  ii.  ."Vi ;  Judg.  xi.  20).  It  was  assigned 
to  the  Keubenites  (Josh.  xiii.  18).  and  set 
apart  for  the  Merarite  Levites  (Josh.  xxi.3fi; 
1  Chron.  vi.  ~^i.  It  was  taken  from  Israel 
by  Mesha,  king  of  Mtiab  (Moabite  Stone,  is- 
20).  and  it  was  held  by  .Moab  in  the  time  of 
Isaiah  and  Jeremiah  (Is.  xv.  4;  Jer.  xlviii. 
21,  .34).     Its  site  is  unknown. 

Ja-ha-zi'ah.     Sec  J.vhzkiaii. 
Ja-ha'zi-el  [God  seetli]. 

1.  A  Levite.  family  of  Kohath,  house  of 
Hebron  (1  Chron.  xxiii.  10). 

2.  One  of  the  Henjamite  warriors  who 
joined  David  at  Ziklag  (1  Chron.  xii.  1). 

.3.  A  Jiriest  in  Davids  reign  who  was  ein- 
liloyed  to  .sound  a  trumpet  in  the  sanctuary 
(1  Chrou.  xvi.  ti). 


Jahdai 


336 


Jambri 


4.  A  Levite,  sou  of  Zechariali  of  the  Asaph 
family,  who  i)roi)liesied  in  the  time  of  Jehosh- 
apliat  (2  Chniii.  xx.  14). 

5.  Fatlier  of  a  chief  of  the  i)eople  who  re- 
turned from  BaltyUm  (Ezra  viii.  5). 

Jah'dal  [perliaps,  he  direeteth  or  direc- 
tive]. 

A  mau  of  Judah,  enrolled  with  Caleb's 
posterity  (1  Chron  ii.  47). 

Jah'di-el  [Clod  niaketh  plad]. 

A  leadinji  man  in  the  half  Irihe  of  Manas- 
seh  east  of  the  Jordan  (1  Clin)n.  v.  24). 

Jah'do  [union]. 

A  (iadile.  sou  of  Buz  (1  Chrou.  v.  14). 

Jah'le-el  [(Jod  doth  grievously  aiiiict]. 

A  son  of  Zehulun,  and  founder  of  a  tribal 
family  ((ten.  xlvi.  14;  Num.  xxvi.  2(}). 

Jah'mai  [perhaps,  lusty]. 

A  prince  of  Issaehar,  of  the  family  of  Tola 
(1  Chron.  vii.  2). 

Jah'zah.     See  Jahaz. 

Jah'ze-el  and  Jahziel  [God  distributeth], 

A  son  of  Naphtali,  and  founder  of  a  tribal 
family  (Gen.  xlvi.  24:  Num.  xxvi.  48;  1 
Chron.  vii.  115). 

Jah-zelab,  iu  A.  V.  Jahaziah  [.Jehovah 
seeth] . 

A  son  of  Tikvah  who  opposed  the  proposi- 
tion that  the  Jews  jiut  away  their  foreign 
wives  (Ezra  x.  15,  E.  V.). 

Jah'ze-rah  [may  he  lead  back]. 

A  priest  descended  from  Immer  (1  Chron. 
ix.  12). 

Jah'zi-el.     See  Jahzeel. 

Ja'ir,  I.  [he  enlighteneth]. 

1.  A  son  of  Segub  and  grandson  of  Hezron, 
of  the  tribe  of  Judah,  and  his  wife,  who  was 
of  the  family  of  Machir,  of  the  tribe  of  Ma- 
nasseh  (1  Chron.  ii.  21,  22).  He  was  reckoned 
with  the  tribe  of  Manasseh  (v.  23;  Num. 
xxxii.  41 ;  Deut.  iii.  14).  At  the  time  of  the 
conquest  by  the  Israelites  under  Moses  of  the 
country  east  of  the  Jordan,  he  took  villages 
in  the  Ai-gob,  on  the  border  of  Bashan  and 
Gilead,  and  called  them  Havvoth-jair  (q.  v.). 

2.  A  Gileadite  who  judged  Israel  twenty- 
two  years,  succeeding  or  surviving  Tola  in 
office.  Each  of  his  thirty  sons  had  an  ass  for 
riding  puri>oscs,  which  in  that  age  was  an 
indication  of  standing  in  the  community. 
They  al.so  had  thirty  cities,  called  Havvoth- 
jair.  He  may  have  belonged  to  the  family 
of  the  earlier  Jair  (cp.  jierhajis  Jairite),  and 
have  inherited  jirerogutives  connt'cted  with 
the  Havvoth-jair,  or  have  used  his  influence 
to  jjlace  his  sons  over .  these  encauqiments 
(Judg.  X.  3-.")). 

3.  A  Benjamite,  Mordccai's  father  (Esth. 
ii.  .-.). 

Ja'ir,  II.  [he  arouseth]. 

Father  of  Elhauan  (1  Chron.  xx.  5)  ;  called 
in  2  Sam.  xxi.  Ii),  Jaare-oregini,  where  oregim 
has  gotten  into  the  text  by  error  from  the 
line  below. 


Ja'ir-ite. 

A  descendant  of  some  Jair  or  other,  whose 
name  was  written  as  is  tliat  of  Jair,  I.  (2  Sam. 
XX.  2(i). 

Ja-i'rus  [Greek  form  of  Jair]. 

One  of  the  rulers  of  the  synagogue  at 
Capernaum,  who  besought  Jesus  to  come  to 
his  house  and  lu'al  his  little  daughter,  twelve 
years  of  age.  On  the  way  thither  they  were 
informed  that  the  child  was  dead.  Jesus, 
not  heeiliug  the  word  spoken,  said,  "Fear 
not,  only  believe."  Entering  the  house  and 
finding  it  lull  of  noisy  professional  mourners, 
he  rebuked  them,  saying:  "The  damsel  is 
not  dead,  but  sh'ei>elh."  He  used  the  word 
as  he  did  afterwards  in  the  case  of  Lazarus 
(John  xi.  11-14),  but  the  mourners  laughed 
him  to  scorn.  However,  taking  the  three 
disciples,  Peter,  James,  and  John,  and  the 
parents,  he  entered  the  chamber  where  the 
corpse  was  laid  out,  took  the  child  by  the 
hand,  and  said  in  the  language  of  the  people, 
T'liiha'  liuiiii ;  Maid,  arise.  And  the  maid 
arose.  He  commanded  that  something  should 
l)e  given  her  to  eat,  and  enjoined  the  parents 
not  to  tell  what  had  taken  place.  Such  a 
miracle  could  not,  however,  be  concealed, 
and  it  was  soon  overywliere  blazoned  abroad 
(Mat.  ix.  lS-26;  Mark  v.  22-43;  Luke  viii. 
41-.3(i). 

Ja'kan.     See  Jaakan. 

Ja'keh  [pious]. 

The  father  of  that  Agur  whose  words  are 
recorded  in  Prov.  xxx.  In  the  Hebrew  Bible 
his  name  is  followed  by  the  words  Ham- 
massd',  translated  in  the  A.  V.  the  prophecy, 
and  iu  the  R.  Y.  the  oracle.  The  margin 
of  the  R.  V.  translates  the  title  Jakeh  of 
Massa,  and  refers  to  Gen.  xxv.  14.  where 
Massa  figures  as  a  sou  of  Ishmacl. 

Ja'kim  [he  raises  up]. 

1.  A  descendant  of  Aaron.  His  family 
grew  to  a  father's  house  and  was  made  the 
twelfth  of  the  twenty-four  courses  into 
which  David  divided  the  priests  (1  Chrou. 
xxiv.   12). 

2.  A  Benjamite  (1  Chron.  viii.  19). 
Ja'lam,  in  A.  V.  Jaalam  [perhaps,  hidden 

or  pertaining  to  a  wild  goat]. 

A  son  of  Esau  by  his  wife  Oliolibamah. 
He  became  a  chieftain  of  Edom  (Gen.  xxxvi. 
5,  18;  1  Chrou.  i.  35). 

Ja'lon  [iierhaps,  obstinate]. 

A  son  of  Ezrah,  registered  with  the  tribe 
of  Judah  (1  Chron.  iv.  17). 

Jam'bres  [perhajis.  ojiposer]. 

One  of  two  Egyptian  magicians  who 
attempted  to  counterwork  Moses  (2  Tim.  iii. 
8).    See  Jannes. 

Jam'bri. 

Founder  of  a  familv  which  dwelt  at  Medeba 
(1  Mac.  ix.  .3(5,  37  ;  Antiq.  xiii.  1.  2).  The  or- 
thography is  uncertain.  It  may  rejireseut 
the  Hebrew  name  Omri  or  Imri ;  and  even 
Amorite  has  been  conjectured. 


James 


337 


James 


James  [a  form  of  the  name  Jacob]. 

1.  James  the  son  of  Zehedee  (Mat.  iv.  21  ; 
X.  2;  Mark  i.  1!>  ;  iii.  17).  and  hrotlier  of 
the  ajiostle  Jolm  (Mat.  xvii.  1  ;  Mark  iii.  17; 
V.  :57  :  Alts  xii.  2l.  one  of  tlie  earliest  dis- 
ciples (Mat.  iv.  •_'!  ;  .Mark  i.  1!»,  2'J  ;  cp.  John 
i.  40,  11)  and  most  trnsted  ajiostles  (Mat.  .wii. 
1  ;  Mark  v.  ;J7  ;  ix.  2  ;  xiii.  :! ;  xiv.  :jo  ;  Luke 
viii.  ol  ;  ix.  2^)  of  our  Lord.  Of  his  l)irth- 
jilace  or  early  home  we  are  told  notliiu';. 
His  occujiation  as  a  tishernian  on  the  sea  of 
(ialilee,  in  i>artnershii)  with  Peter  and 
Andrew  (Luke  v.  10),  mit;Iit  seem  to  sugfj;est 
a  eontijruous  localil.v.  15ut  the  lishery  of  the 
sea  of  (ialiUi-  was  exjiressly  ke]it  free  for 
every  Israelite, and  asocial  dilfereneel)etween 
the  sons  of  Zehedee  and  the  sons  of  Jonas 
may  he  implied  in  the  facts  that  the  former 
kept  liircd  servants  ( >hirk  i.  20).  and  that 
John  at  least  was  known  to  the  hi^'h  priest 
(John  xviii.  KJ)  and  may  have  had  a  liouse 
in  Jeriisiilem  (xix.  27).  His  fatlier,  Zehedee, 
appears  only  once  in  tlie  pajjes  of  thejfospels 
(.Mat.  iv.  21  :  ^hirk  i.  lU).  where  he  raises  no 
obstacle  to  his  sons'  folldwing  Jesus.  Fnmi 
Mat.  xxvii.  ."itj,  compared  with  Mark  xv.  40; 
xvi.  1  and  with  John  xix.  2."),  it  seems  rea- 
sonable to  infer  that  his  mother  was  named 
Salome  and  was  sister  to  the  mother  of  .lesus  : 
in  which  ca.se  James  would  he  a  ni^ar  kius- 
luan  of  Jesus,  and  like  him  of  Davidic  de- 
scent. His  name  occurs  only  in  the  synoptic 
gospels  and  the  hook  of  The  Acts,  although  he 
isallmled  to  twice  in  the  ({osjx'l  of  .lohn  (i.  40, 
41  ;  xxi.  2).  It  never  occursapart  from  that  of 
John,  wliich  it  oidinarilv  precedes  (Mat.  iv. 
21  ;  X.  2  ;  xvii.  1  :  Mark  'i.  lit,  29;  iii.  17  ;  v. 
37 ;  ix.  2  ;  x.  o."),  41  :  xiii.  :5  ;  xiv.  3.'{ ;  Luke 
V.  10;  vi.  14;  ix.  .">4),  while  John  is  desig- 
nated as  the  hrr)ther  of  .lames  (Mat.  iv.  21; 
X.  2  :  xvii.  1  ;  Mark  i.  19;  iii.  17  ;  v.  '.i~).  From 
tliis  it  has  been  inferred  that  he  was  the  older 
brother  ;  while  the  occasional  reverse  usage 
in  Luke  (viii.  51,  K.  V.  ;  ix.  28)  and  Acts 
(i.  i;i,  U.  V.  ;  xii.  2  only)  is  .sujipiKsed  to  arise 
from  .lulm's  greater  prominence  in  tlie  a])o.s- 
tolical  circle,  .\long  with  .lolm.  he  received 
from  Christ  the  suiuanie  Hoanerges  or  son 
of  thunder  (Mark  iii.  17),  and  along  with 
him  earned  his  Master's  rebuke  for  tin-  fierce- 
ness of  his  anger  against  the  Samaritan  vil- 
lage which  would  not  receive  , lesus  ( Luke  ix. 
Tm),  and  the  indignation  of  his  iV'llow  a]ios- 
tles  for  his  andtitious  .self-seeking  (Mark  x. 
41).  After  the  crucifixion  we  lind  him  witli 
the  other  apostles  in  Calilee  (John  xxi.  2), 
and  in  ,Iernsalem  (.\cts  i.  lIJi,  and  his  record 
closes  with  his  di'atli  by  the  sword  at  the 
hands  of  Herod  Agrippa  I..  ])robahly  a.  n. 
44  (xii.  2).  He  was  the  first  of  the  apostolic 
haiul  to  seal  his  testimony  with  his  blood. 

2.  .lames  the  son  of  .Mplisi-us  and  one  of 
the  apostles  of  our  L<u(l  (.Mat.  x.  ."! :  .Mark 
iii.  IH;  Luke  vi.  l."i ;  Acts  i.  13).  Nothing 
further  is  certainly  known  of  him.  It  is 
natural,  however,  as  it  h:is  been  usual,  to 
assume  that  the  James  of  Mat.  xxvii.  rj(J ; 


Mark  xv.  40 ;  xvi.  1  :  Luke  xxiv.  10  is  this 
James :  in  which  ca.se  we  may  learn  that  he 
bore  the  surname  of  "'  the  little  "  (E.  V.,  "  the 
less"),  possibly  with  reference  to  his  stature 
(.Mark  xv.  40)  ;  that  his  mother  was  called 
Mary,  and  was  one  of  the  women  who 
acc(unpanied  Christ ;  and  that  he  had  a 
brother  named  Joses.  Levi,  or  Matthew,  who, 
according  to  Mark  ii.  14.  was  son  of  .\li)ha'US, 
may  be  another  biolhtr  :  and  it  is  ]possible  to 
till  in  the  ellii>sis  of  Luke  vi.  KJ  ;  Acts  i.  13 
so  as  to  make  the  apostle  Judas  aniither 
brother.  It  is  i)ossible  further  to  identify 
the  Mary  of  t'lopas  of  John  xix.  2")  witli 
Mary  tlie  niolhcr  of  James:  and  it  is  then 
jio.ssible,  though  scarcely  natural,  to  read 
John  xix.  25  as  declaring  that  JIary  of  t'lopas 
was  Jesus'  mother's  sister.  Uy  this  combina- 
tion. .Tames,  the  son  of  Alphanis,  would  be 
made  out  to  be  the  cousin-german  of  our 
Lord.  It  is  common,  on  this  assumjjtion,  to 
take  still  another  stei),  and,  on  the  ground 
of  the  similarity  between  the  names  of  the 
Lord's  brethren  and  those  of  the  sons  of 
Alplueus,  .so  obtainetl,  to  supjiose  that  this 
near  relative  of  our  Lord's  is  intended  by 
"James  the  Lord's  brother."  The  whole  con- 
struction is.  however,  very  insecure,  and  does 
not  seem  to  satisfy  the  Vtiblical  facts. 

3.  James,  the  Lord's  brother  (Mat.  xiii.. 55; 
Mark  vi.  3;  (ial.  i.  19),  and  the  head  of  the 
church  at  Jerusalem  in  the  apostolic  age 
(Acts  xii.  17;  xv.  13;  xxi.  IS;  Gal.  i.  19;  11. 
9,  12).  This  James  is  mentioned  by  name 
only  twice  in  the  gosjiels  (Mat.  xiii.  .55  ;  Mark 
vi.  3),  but  the  outlines  of  his  life  may  be 
traced  by  means  of  tlie  notices  of  the  "breth- 
ren of  the  Lord,"  who  constituted  a  distinct 
class,  both  during  our  Lord's  life,  when  they 
did  not  believe  on  him  (Jidm  vii.  5i,  and  after 
his  resurrection,  when  they  are  found  among 
his  followers  (Acts  i.  14).  The  exact  relation- 
shij)  which  these  "  brethren  "  bore  to  our  Lord 
has  always  been  a  matter  of  disjmte.  Siimc, 
identifying  them  with  the  sons  of  .\l]iha'us, 
represent  them  as  his  cousins.  Others  think 
of  them  as  his  half-brothers,  children  of 
Josejih  by  a  former  marriage.  As  they 
always  ajipear  with  Mary,  living  and  jour- 
neying with  her  and  holding  just  such  rela- 
tions with  her  as  would  naturally  be  borne 
by  her  children  (Mat.  xii.  10.  47:  Luke  viii. 
19;  .John  ii.  12),  there  is  no  n-ason  to  (|Ues- 
tion  the  natural  imjilication  that  they  were 
.Tcsns'  own  brothers.  As  James'  name  stands 
first  in  the  lists  (  Mat.  xiii.  .55  :  Mark  vi.  3).  it 
is  ]irobalile  that  he  was  the  oldest  of  our 
Lord's  brothers.  He  doubt h'ss  shared  their 
unbelief  (,Iohn  vii.  5).  and  doubtle.ssalso  their 
natural  anxieties  in  his  behalf  (Mark  iii.  31. 
se(|.).  When  or  bow  the  change  was  wrought 
in  him  by  which  he  bi-i-ame  :i  servant  of 
Christ  I  Acts  i.  14  :  .las.  i.  li  we  are  not  told  : 
possibly,  as  in  the  case  of  I'aul.  his <-on version 
was  due  to  a  special  aiiiiearance  of  the  risen 
Lord  (1  Cor.  xv.  7).  From  the  very  fii>t  or- 
ganization   of    the    church     in    Jeru.s;ilent, 


James,  Epistle  of 


338 


James,  Epistle  of 


James  appears  as  its  head  (Acts  xii.  17 ;  xv. 
13  ;  xxi.  1!^  ;  (ial.  i.  It) ;  ii.  9,  121.  As  early 
as  A.  i>.  lit,  when  Paul  first  visited  Jeriisalein 
after  his  eon  version,  .lames'  position  was 
sueh  that  Paul  felt  it  necessary  to  name  him 
along  with  Peter  as  having  been  seen  by  him 
(Gal.  i.  19).  The  reference  of  Acts  xii.  17 
(a.  d.  4-i).  where  James  is  clearly  the  olhcial 
head  of  "the  brethren,"  as  well  as  that  of 
xxi.  18  (a.  d.  58),  where  he  seems  to  stand  at 
the  head  of  the  elders  of  the  church  (cp. 
XV.  ()).  enable  us  to  estimate  wherein  his 
preeminence  consisted.  As  he  was  not  an 
apostle  (the  E.  V.  margin  gives  the  correct 
translation  of  Gal.  i.  19),  we  cannot  be  far 
wrong  in  assuming  that  he  was  the  head  of 
the  board  of  elders  of  the  church  at  Jerusalem  ; 
that  is,  what  we  should  call  the  "pastor" 
of  that  church.  See  Elder.  As  such,  his 
name  stands  for  the  church  of  Jerusalem 
(Gal.  ii.  12),  of  which  he  was  the  natural 
representative  (Acts  xii.  17  ;  xv.  V.i  ;  xxi.  18) ; 
and  visitors  to  the  church  made  themselves 
known  in  the  first  instance  to  him  and  laid 
their  errand  before  him  (xii.  17;  xxi.  18; 
Gal.  i.  19  ;  ii.  9).  In  his  position,  .Tames'  life- 
work  was  naturally  to  smooth  the  passage  of 
Jews  over  to  Christianity.  That  he  stood  on  the 
same  platform  of  faith  with  Paul  is  apparent 
not  only  from  Paul's  assertion  in  Gal.  ii.  9, 
but  also  from  James'  remarks  recorded  in 
Acts  XV.  l'.i  :  xxi.  20.  But  on  both  occa- 
sions he  speaks  also  in  behalf  of  the  .Tewish- 
Christian  conscience,  and  it  is  equally  appar- 
ent that,  as  Paul  became  as  all  men  to  all 
men  because  he  was  sent  to  all,  James  be- 
came as  a  Jew  to  Jews  because  he  was  sent 
to  Jews.  The  use  of  his  name  by  intense 
Judaizers  (Gal.  ii.  12,  and  the  later  Clemen- 
tine literature)  is  thus  explicable,  as  also  the 
admiration  which  is  said  to  have  been  con- 
ceived for  him  by  the  Jews  themselves,  who 
are  rejjorted  to  have  given  him  the  surname 
of  "the  just"  (Eusebius,  H.  E.  ii.  23).  After 
Acts  xxi.  18  {\.  D.  58)  we  meet  no  further 
reference  to  .Tames  in  the  N.  T.  Secular  his- 
tory tells  us,  however,  that  he  was  martyred 
in  a  popular  outbreak  of  the  .Tews  in  the  in- 
terregnum between  the  death  of  the  procura- 
tor Festus  and  the  appointment  of  his  suc- 
cessor, i.  e.,  A.  D.  62  (Antiq.  xx.  9,  1 ;  Euse- 
bius, H.  E.  ii.  23). 

4.  James,  the  father  or  brother  of  the  apos- 
tle Judas  (Jjuke  vi.  16  ;  Acts  i.  13).  Nothing 
further  is  known  of  him.  b.  b.  w. 

James,  E-pis'tle  of. 

This  letter  docs  not  announce  itself  as  the 
pro<luction  of  an  aiiostle,  but  describes  its 
author  simjily  as  James,  a  ])ond-servant  of 
God  and  of  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ  (i.  1,  R. 
V.  margin).  It  is  most  natural  to  think  of 
James,  the  Lord's  brother,  as  meant,  and 
all  the  characteristics  of  the  letter  agree 
witli  this  attribution.  Tlie  letter  bears  a  dis- 
tinct flavor  of  i)rimitiveness  :  the  Christian 
place  of  worship  is  still  spoken  of  as  a  syna- 


gogue (ii.  2)  ;  Christians  are  not  sharply 
discriminated  from  .Tews  (i.  1)  ;  the  sins  re- 
buked and  eri'ors  corrected  are  such  as  would 
naturally  spring  up  in  a  Ji'wish  soil ;  while 
there  is  not  a  trace  of  the  controversies 
which  already  in  the  sixth  decade  of  the 
first  Christian  century  were  distracting  the 
whole  church.  It  is.  therefore,  usually  dated 
about  A.  u.  45,  and  considered  the  earliest  of 
the  N.  T.  writings.  It  is  addressed  to  the 
twelve  tribes  which  are  of  the  I)is])ersion  (i.  1, 
K.  v.),  that  is,  not  to  the  dispersed  Jews,  unr 
yet  to  the  whole  Christian  cliunh,  ((jusid- 
ered  as  the  spiritual  Israel,  but,  proba))ly,  to 
the  Christians  (ii.  1,5,  7;  v.  7)  among  the 
Jewish  Dispersion,  as  the  Jews  dwelling  out- 
side the  Holy  Land  were  technically  called 
(John  vii.  35  ;  cj).  2  Mac.  i.  27  i.  The  objict 
of  its  writing  was  to  reform  and  correct  those 
sins  and  errors  to  which  its  lately  Christian- 
ized Jewish  readers  continued  to  be  liable, 
and  to  encourage  them  in  the  sore  trials  to 
which  they  were  exposed. 

After  the  address  (i.  1),  James  first  consoles 
his  readers  in  their  trials  and  exhorts  them 
to  steadfastness,  pointing  out  at  the  same 
time  the  source  of  the  temptation  to  apos- 
tasy (i.  2-21).  He  proceeds  then  to  warn 
them  against  mere  word-service,  explaining 
what  is  meant  by  true  faith  (i.  22-27),  what 
will  be  the  effect  of  true  faith  on  the  preva- 
lent sin  of  res]>ect  of  persons  (ii.  1-13),  and 
how  a  true  faith  evinces  itself  (ii.  14-2(5). 
Exhortations  against  hasty  assumption  and 
misuse  of  the  functions  of  religious  teachers 
and  exposure  of  their  root  in  a  jealous  heart 
follow  (iii.  1-lS) ;  and  then  reproofs  of  con- 
tentiousness (iv.  1-12)  and  self-sufficiency 
(iv.  13-v.  6).  The  epistle  closes  with  exhor- 
tations to  j)atience  in  suffering  (v.  7-12)  and 
to  prayer  as  the  sufficient  resource  of  the 
Christian  in  every  need  (13-18  i,  along  with  a 
final  declaration  of  the  joy  of  Christian  prop- 
agandism  (19-20). 

The  linguistic  and  rhetorical  character  of 
the  epistle  is  very  high.  It  is  written  in 
Greek  which  is  surpassed  in  purity  by  that 
of  no  N.  T.  writings  except  those  of  Luke, 
and  in  a  strikingly  elevated  and  picturesque 
style  resembling  that  of  the  Hebrew  prophets. 
It  contains  more  imagery  drawn  from  na- 
ture than  all  the  epistles  of  Paul,  in  this  re- 
calling the  manner  of  our  Lord's  synoptic 
speeches,  to  which  it  presents  numerous 
parallels.  The  tone  and  matter  of  its  teach- 
ing are  appropriate  to  its  early  date  and  the 
recent  emergence  of  its  readei\s  from  Juda- 
ism. The  section  on  faith  and  works  (ii.  14- 
26)  h.as  often  been  misaiii'rehended  as  a 
polemic  against  Paul's  doctrine  of  justifica- 
tion by  faith,  or  at  least  as  a  corrective  of 
perversions  of  that  doctrine.  It  is  really  a 
rebuke  of  a  prevalent  Jewish  notion — that 
mere  intellectual  assent  to  divine  teaching  is 
all  that  is  necessary  for  salvation.  James  as 
p<iintedly  as  Paul  makes  faith  the  instru- 
ment of  salvation   (ii.  22,  23),  and  Paul  as 


Jamin 


339 


Jarib 


firmly  as  James  insists  that  tlie  only  saving 
faith  is  tlu'  faith  that  winks  Kial.  v.  G). 

Thert'  is  clear  fviiU-ncc  of  the  use  of  this 
epistle  hy  the  church  frotn  tlie  very  earliest 
times.  Origen,  however,  writing  early  in  the 
thiiil  century,  is  the  lirst  writer  to  ((Uote  it 
exiijicitly  hy  name:  and  there  was  a  iieiiod 
during;  whii'h  the  Latin  writers  seem  to  liave 
used  it  little.  Luther,  not  fully  .seeing  its 
harmony  with  I'aul,  i)erniitted  himself  to 
speak  unj;uariledly  ahont  it.  It  is  historically 
indicated  as  an  integral  jxjrtion  of  the  sacred 
canon.  H.  B.  W. 

Ja'mln  [the  rij;ht  hand,  i)ros])erity]. 

L  A  sun  of  Simeon  and  founder  of  a  trihal 
familv  ((ien.  xlvi.  10;  Ex.  vi.15;  Num.  xxvi. 
12). 

2.  A  man  of  Judah,  family  of  Jerahmeel 
(1  Chron.  ii.  27). 

3.  One  of  the  Levites  wlio.  under  tlie  di- 
rection of  Ezra,  read  the  law  of  (iod  to  the 
peojile  and  caused  them  to  understand  it 
(Nell.  viii.  7,  b). 

Jam'lech  [let  him  const  it  iite  a  king]. 

A  Siiiieonite  i)rince  (1  Chron.  iv.  ."54). 

Jam'ni-a.    See  J.vbnkkl. 

Ja'nai.     See  J.\.\x.\i. 

Ja'nim,  in  A.  V.  Janum  [.slee])]. 

A  village  in  the  hill  country  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  '>'.i)  :  douhtless  to  the  west  or 
southwest  of  liehron. 

Jan'na. 

The  father  of  Melchi  in  the  ancestrj'  of 
Christ  (Luke  iii.  24). 

Jan'nes. 

One  of  two  Egyptian  magicians  who  at- 
temjited  tiicuimterwork  Mosis.  .lamhresheing 
the  other  (2  Tim.  iii.  H).  The  reference  is  to 
the  occurrences  descrihed  in  Ex.  vii.  11,  12, 
22;  viii.  7,  1ft,  If);  and  ix.  11,  where,  how- 
ever, the  names  of  the  magicians  arc  not 
given  nor  their  numln-r.  They  were  known 
to  late  Jewish  tradition,  heing  found  in  the 
Targuni  of  the  iiseudo-Joiiathan.  The  Talmud 
mentions  Johana  and  Mamre.  .laiiihres  is 
helieved  to  he  the  Creek  form  of  .lainreh, 
op])oser.  Mamre.  fr<pm  the  same  root,  is  used 
in  the  Talmud  for  one  who  resists  the  de- 
cisions of  the  sanhedrin.  Jannes  is  perhaps 
a  corruption  of  .lohanan  (cj).  .lanna-ns),  hut 
in  sound  suggests  the  Ilehrew  'i'lnii'.  he  hin- 
ders or  dissuades. 

Ja-no'ab,  and  Ja-no'hali  in  A.  V.  of  Joshua 
[rest,  iiniet]. 

1.  A  town  of  NajihlMli,  cai.tnred  hy  Tig- 
lath-|.ilcser  (2  Kin.  xv.  2i»  .  Not  identified. 
Yrnu'ih.  (ii  miles  east  hy  south  of  Tyre,  is  not 
in  the  district  descrihed. 

2.  .\  town  on  the  houndary  line  of  Ephraim 
(.losh.  xvi.ti,  7).  It  has  heeii  fixed  at  Yannn, 
7  miles  .S.  E.  of  Shecheni. 

Ja'num.     See  J.vxim. 

Ja'pheth  [heauty,  or  let  him  enlarge]. 

A  .son  of  Noah,  and  douhtless  one  of  the 


two  elder  sons  (fJen.  x.  21  :  cp.  ix.  24),  horn 
ahout  Noah's  five  hiindr<tlili  year  (v.  32;  vi. 
lOJ  ;  see  No.mi.  At  the  time  of  the  deluge 
he  was  married,  but  had  no  children  with 
him  in  the  ark  (vii.  7;  1  Pet.  iii.  20).  On 
the  occasion  of  Noah's  drniikenne.ss,  .Ia)pheth 
acted  to  him  in  a  dutiful  manner,  and  in 
coiise(|Uence  received  a  l)lessing,  the  essential 
part  of  which  was  that  he  sh(juld  receive 
large  territory  and  enjoy  free  action  and  tliat 
he  should  occiiiiy  the  tents  of  Shem.  not  in 
the  sense  of  con(|ueriiig  the  Semites,  liut  of 
dwelling  with  them  in  peace  and  sharing 
their  jirivileges  ((ien.  ix.  20-27).  "The  lan- 
guage of  the  N.  T.  is  the  speech  of  Jajiheth 
entered  into  the  tents  of  Shem,  the  gosjiel  is 
the  iirociamatioii  of  salvation  translated  out 
of  Semitic  into  Jajihetic,  and  the  converted 
heathen  are  for  the  most  part  Jajihetic  jieojih! 
dwelling  in  the  tents  of  Shem"  ( Delitzsch  I. 
Jajiheth  was  the  jtrogeiiitor  of  the  iieojile 
who  inlialiited,  or  jierhaiis  in  some  cases  con- 
ciuered  and  annexed,  (iomer.  Magog,  .Madai, 
Javan,  Tuhal.  Meshech,  and  Tiras  (Gen.  x.  2). 
Ja-pM'a  [shining,  gleaming]. 

1.  A  king  of  Lachish,  defeated,  captured, 
and  executed  hy  Joshua  (Josh.  x.  3-27). 

2.  A  son  of  David,  born  at  Jerusalem 
(2  Sam.  v.  ir-,). 

3.  A  border  town  of  Zebulun  (Josh.  xix. 
12).  It  is  hy  many  identified  with  Yafa,  a 
little  less  than  2  miles  southwest  of  Nazareth. 

Japh'let  [may  he  deliver]. 

.\n  Asherite,  family  of  Heber  (1  Chron. 
vii.  .'i2). 

Japh'le-tite,  in  A.  V.  Japhleti. 

The  descendants  of  a  certain  Jajdilet,  ajjpar- 
ently  not  the  same  as  the  Aslieritc  of  that 
name.  Their  location  was  on  the  border  of 
E]iliraim,  near  Rcth-horon  (Josli.  xvi.  3). 

Ja'pho.     Sec  JoPPA. 

Ja'rah  [honey]. 

A  descendant  of  king  Saul  (1  Chron.  ix. 
42).     Called  Jehoaddah  in  viii.  3«. 

Ja'reb  [contentious  or  let  him  ccmtend]. 

A  king  of  Assyria  whose  name  has  not 
been  identified  (Hos.  v.  13;  x.  (5),  or  else 
.larch  is  not  a  jjrojjcr  name  at  all,  but  a  dc- 
.sci-i]itive  term,  and  the  Hebrew  is  to  he  ren- 
dered, as  on  the  margin  of  li.  Y.,  a  king  that 
should  cniitcnil. 

Ja'red,  in  A.  Y.  once  Jered  il  Chnm.  i.  2) 
[perhaps  descent]. 

Sou  of   JIahalaleel    and    father   of   Enoch 


Luke 


37). 


(Gen.  V.  1(5-20;  1  Chrou. 
See  CiiUONouxjv. 

Jar-e-si'ali.    Sec  Ja.\hksiii.\h. 

Jar 'ha. 

Au  Kgy|itian  servant  of  a  man  of  .ludah 
called  .Shesliaii.  The  master  gave  his  daugh- 
ter in  marriage  to  Jarha  (1  Cliron.  ii.  34.  Xi). 

Ja'rlb  [an  advei^sary,  or  lie  doth  contend]. 
1.  A  son  of  Simeon  (1  Chron.  iv.  24);  see 
Jacuin. 


Jarmuth 


340 


Javan 


2.  A  chief  man  who  was  with  Ezra  the 
priest  at  the  river  of  Aliava  (Ezra  viii.  KJ). 

0.  A  ])riest  wlio  was  induced  to  put  away 
his  foreign  wife  ( E/ra  x.  lb). 

Jar'muth  [a  height]. 

1.  A  town  in  the  h)whuul,  whose  king  was 
defeated,  cajjtured,  and  slain  ))y  Josliua  (Josh. 
X.  3-27  ;  xii.  11).  ll  was  assigned  to  Jiidah 
(xv.  3r>).and  was  inlialiiled  after  the  cai)tivity 
(Neh.  xi.  29).  Eusebius  identilied  it  with  a 
village  kiujwn  in  his  day  as  Jerniochos,  in 
Latin  .Teriiuicha,  10  Roman  miles  from  Eleii- 
theropolis  on  the  road  to  Jenisalem.  The 
site  is  marked  by  the  ruined  village  of 
Yarmuk. 

2.  A  town  of  Issachar,  assigned  to  the 
Ger.shonite  Levites  (Josh.  xxi.  28,  29).  It  is 
called  liamoth  (1  C'hron.  vi.  73)  and  Kemeth 
(Josh.  xix.  21),  synonyms  of  Jarmuth.  Not 
identified.  The  village  of  er-Kameh,  5i 
miles  north  by  west  of  the  city  of  Samaria, 
does  not  lie  within  the  bounds  of  Issachar. 
Nothing  but  altitude  recommends  el-Mezar 
or  Wezar.  on  one  of  the  highest  points  of 
mount  (4ill)oa. 

Ja-ro'ab. 

A  Gadite,  descended  through  Buz  (1  Chron. 
V.  14). 

Ja'shar,  in  A.  V.  Jasher  [righteous,  up- 
right]. 

The  Rook  of  Jasliar  is  qtujted  in  Josh.  x.  13  ; 
2  Sam.  i.  IS;  and  in  Septuagint  of  1  Kin. 
viii.  53.  From  the.se  citations,  the  book  was 
evidently  a  collection  of  poems  which  were 
apparently  accompanied  by  introductory,  and 
perhaps  also  concluding,  explanatory  remarks 
in  prose.  It  resembled  in  this  respect  the 
psalms  with  i)rose  introductions,  such  as  Ps. 
xviii.  and  li.,  or  the  book  of  Job  with  its 
prose  introduction  (i.-iii.  1)  and  conclusion 
(xlii.7-17).  In  1751  there  apjjcared  a  volume 
which  professed  to  be  an  English  translation 
of  the  Book  of  Jashar,  alleged  to  have  been 
found,  but  the  production  was  an  impudent 
forgery. 

Ja'shen  [sleeping]. 

A  name  in  the  catalogue  of  David's  mighty 
men  (2  .Sam.  xxiii.  32)  occupying  the  place 
of  Ilashem  in  1  ('hron.  xi.  34.  rerhai)s  the 
preceding  letters  Bni,  rendered  "sons  of"  in 
the  English  versions,  form  ])art  of  the  name; 
or  they  may  have  been  repeated  from  the 
preceding  word,  Shaalbonite,  which  termi- 
nates with  them. 

Ja'sher.     See  Jashar. 

Ja-sho'be-am  [let  the  ])eople  return  (to 
God)]. 

1.  A  man  of  the  family  of  Hachmoni  and 
chief  of  David's  mighty  men  (1  Chron.  xi. 
11).  He  is  reasonably  identified  with  the 
son  of  Zabdiel,  of  tiie  children  of  Perez,  and 
consequently  of  the  tribe  of  Judah,  who  was 
made  military  caiitain  over  tlie  course  for  the 
first  month  (1  t'hron.  xxvii.  2,  3).  Called  in 
2  Sam.  xxiii.  s  Josheb-basshebeth  (q.  v.). 


2.  A  Benjaniite  who  joined  David  at  Ziklag. 
He  belonged  to  the  family  of  the  Korahites. 
])robably  the  Levitical  family  t>t'  that  name 
who  kept  the  doors  of  the  tabernacle  (1  Chron. 
xii.  1,  2,  G). 

Ja'sbub  [he  returns]. 

1.  A  son  of  Issachar,  and  founder  of  a 
tribal  family  (Num.  xxvi.  24;  1  Chron.  vii. 
1).  Called  Job  in  (len.  xlvi.  13,  jirobably 
through  a  copyist's  omission  of  the  Hebrew 
letter  sh. 

2.  A  son  of  Bani  whom  Ezra  induced  to 
put  away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  29). 

Jash-u-bi-le'heiil  [perhajjs,  bread  returns]. 

Probably  a  man,  and  not  a  liicality ;  a 
member  of  the  family  of  Shelah,  tribe  of 
Judah  (1  Chron.  iv.  22). 

Ja'si-el.     See  Ja.^siel. 

Ja'son  [healing]. 

1.  One  of  the  two  envoys  sent  by  Judas 
MaeeabaMis  to  Rome  to  invoke  aid  against  the 
Syrians  (1  Jlac.  viii.  17).  It  was  i)erhaps  bis 
son  who  was  sent  to  renew  this  alliance 
(xii.  16). 

2.  A  high  priest,  son  of  Simon  II.,  who 
held  othce  from  about  174-171  B.  c,  and  used 
his  influence  to  hellenize  the  Jews  (2  Mac.iv. 
7-26) ;  see  High  Pkikst. 

3.  A  man  of  Cj'rene  and  autlior  of  a  history 
of  the  Jewish  war  for  freedom,  175-160  B.  c. 
(2  Mac.  ii.  23)  ;  see  Apocrypha  14. 

4.  A  Christian,  a  relative  of  Paul  (Eom. 
xvi.  21).  He  was  probably  the  Thessalonian 
Jason  in  whose  house  Paul  and  Silas  lodged 
while  they  were  in  Thessalonica,  and  who 
had  to  stand  trial  for  having  given  them 
countenance  and  support  (Acts  xvii.  5-9). 

Jas'per. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Yashpeh  (cp. 
Arabic  I'rt.si)and  the  Greek  laspis.a  precious 
stone  (Ex.  xxviii.  20;  Ezek.  xxviii.  13;  Rev. 
iv.  3).  Jasper  is  a  variety  of  quartz,  of  a 
red,  brown,  yellow,  green,  or  gray  color,  and 
opaque.  Among  the  ancients  the  term  was 
of  broader  meaning.  It  included,  according 
to  Pliny,  a  trans])arent  or  translucent  green 
variety  (cp.  Eev.  xxi.  11),  and  hence  denoted 
a  kind  of  chalcedony  or  agate.  The  Se])tua- 
gint  renders  the  Hebrew  word  by  onyx. 

Jath'ni-el  [(!od  bestoweth  gifts]. 

A  Korhite  doorkeeper,  son  of  Meshelcmiah 
(1   Chron.  xxvi.  2). 

Jat'tir  [excellence]. 

A  town  in  the  hill  country  of  Judah  as- 
signed to  the  priests  (Josh.  xv.  48;  xxi.  14; 
1  Sam.  XXX.  27;  1  Chron.  vi.  57 1.  Robinsoti 
identified  it  with  the  ruin  of  '  Attir,  on  a  hill 
about  13  miles  south-southwest  of  Hebron. 
The  two  names  are,  however,  radicallv  dif- 
ferent. 

Ja'van. 

1.  A  region  settled  by  descendants  of 
Japheth  (Gen.  x.  2).  The  name  corresponds 
etymologieally  with  Ionia,  and  denotes  the 
Greeks ;    see   Greeck.      Javan   was  svnou- 


Javelin 


341 


Jedaiah 


ymous  with  the  farthest  west,  where  Jeho- 
vah's faiiif  had  not  hcon  heard  (Is.  Ixvi.  19). 

2.  A  town  or  pi'opk'  of  Viiiicn  in  Arabia, 
w  ht-MH'c  cassia  and  cahiinus  were  exi>orte(i 
iK/.ik.  xxvii.  l!t^ 

Jave'lin. 

A  smaller  kind  of  spear,  which  was  in- 
((•nded  lo  he  thrown  (.lob  xli.  •J9l,  was  borne 
susjicnded  between  the  slionlders  (1  Sam. 
xvii.  (i),  and  could  lie  stretdied  out  in  the 
hand  (.losh.  viii.  isi.  The  Hebrew  name  for 
it  was  kidoii.  The  A.  V.  never  translates  this 
word  bv  javelin,  but  renders  it  by  spear  in 
.Josh.  viii.  l.s,  -if);  .lob  xli.  -Jf) ;  .ler.  vi.  23 ; 
by  lance  in  Jer.  1.  42  ;  and  by  shield  or  tar- 
;;et  in  1  Sam.  xvii.  (J,  4.^;  Job  xxxix.  23. 
Wherever  Javelin  occurs  in  A.  V.  the  Ke- 
visers  have  properly  substituted  spear. 

Ja'zer,  iu  A.  V.  twice  Jaazer  [betpt'ul]. 

A  city  east  of  the  .lordan  in  (iilead  (2 
Sum.  xxiv.  .") ;  1  Chron.  xxvi.  31).  The 
Jsnieiites  captured  it  and  drove  out  the 
Amoriti-  inhabitants  (Num.  xxi.  32).  It  stood 
in  a  region  well  litted  for  ])asturaf;e  (xxxii. 
1.  3).  It  was  assigned  to  the  tribe  of  (iad 
(losh.  xiii.  2.")),  who  rebuilt  the  city  (Num. 
xxxii.  34,  3.'} ;  2  Sam.  xxiv.  5):  and  it  was 
apiiointed  to  the  Merarite  I^'vites  for  resi- 
dence (.losh.  xxi.  31);  1  Chron.  vi.  81).  It 
]ia.ssed  into  Moabite  hands  (Is.  xvi.  8,  9  ;  Jer. 
xlviii.  32):  was  taken  by  Judas  Maccalneus 
from  the  Ammonites  (1  .Slac.  v.  ^).  Accord- 
ing to  Eusebius.  .hizer  was  situated  10  Roman 
miles  to  the  west  of  Kabbath  Amnion,  and 
l."»  from  Meshbon  ;  and  a  considerable  tribu- 
tary of  the  .Jordan  took  its  rise  near  the 
town.  .lerome  mentions  a  village  called 
.\zor.  H  Koman  miles  to  tlu'  west  of  Kabbath 
.\mmon.  These  various  i>laces  are  commonly 
identilied  with  wady  .'^^ir,  an  upper  branch 
of  wady  Kefren,  ancl  the  ruins  !^ir  and 
Sar.  on  ojijiosite  sides  of  the  valley.  The 
distance  from  Rabbath  Ammon  ai)iiroxi- 
mately  corresiionds,  but  tlie  names  are  radi- 
cally ditf'erent  from  Jazer  and  Azor.  Beit 
Zer'ah.  about  11  miles  south  by  west  of  Kab- 
bath .\mmon,  is  preferred  by  Conder,  but 
has  no  claims. 

Ja'ziz  [he  moves  about]. 

Tlie  overseer  of  David's  flocks  (1  Chron. 
xxvii.  :!1). 

Je'a-rim  [forests]. 

A  mountain  crossed  by  the  boundary  line 
of  .liuhib  i.Io>h.  XV.  KM.  and  which,  to, judge 
from  its  connection  with  Chesalon  ((|.  v.).  was 
at  that  jHiint  2  nules  south  of  Kiijatb- 
Jearim. 

Je-ath'e-ral,     in    A.    V.    Jeaterai.      See 

ICl  IIM. 

Je-ber'e-chi'ali  [Jehovah  doth  bless]. 

Father  of  Isaiah's  contemjiorarv  Zechariah 
(Is.  viii.  2). 

Je'bus  [a  jilace  trotlden  under  foot  (as  a 
thresbing-tloonl. 

The  name  borne  bv  Jernsaleni  while  the 


city  was  in  the  pos.session  of  the  Jebusites 
(Josh.  XV.  (i3  :  Judg.  xix.  10;  1  Chron.  xi.  4). 
The  area  included  within  .lebus  was.  of 
course,  small  comjiared  with  the  dimensions 
of  Jerusalem  in  the  time  of  Solomon.  Its 
citadel  was  the  stronghold  of  Zion  1 2  Sam.  v. 
7 ;   1  ( 'hron,  xi.  .">). 

Jeb'u-site,  in  A.  V.  twice  Jebusi  (Josh, 
xviii.  l(i,  2^J,  the  Hebrew  word  being  trans- 
literated instead  of  being  tran.-.lated. 

A  tribe  of  Canaan  before  the  conquest  of 
the  country  by  the  Hebrews  ((ien.  x.  Id;  xv. 
21 ;  Ex.  iii.  H).  At  the  date  of  the  exodus 
they  were  one  of  the  mountain  tribes  (Num. 
xiii.  29:  Jo.sh.  xi.  3).  They  are  known  only 
as  dwelling  at  Jehus,  i.  e.  Jerusalem.  Their 
king  was  slain  by  Josluia  (x.  23- 2G),  their 
territory  was  assigned  to  Benjamin  (xviii. 
28),  and  hiter  their  city  was  taken  by  tlie 
men  of  .ludah,  on  the  border  of  which  tribe 
it  stood,  and  set  on  tire  (Judg.  i.  8;  Josh.  xv. 
8)  ;  but  the  Jebusites  either  never  lost  the 
citadel  (Antiq.  v.  2.  2),  or  recovered  tlie  city 
in  whole  or  in  part.  They  dwelt  with  the 
children  of  Judahand  Benjamin  as  strangers 
(Josli.  XV.  G3;  Judg.  i.  21:  xix.  11).  They 
still  held  the  stronghold  of  Zion  at  the  begin- 
ning of  David's  reign  (2  Sam.  v.  (i,  7)  ;  and 
even  after  he  had  cajitured  it  the  old  in- 
habitants were  not  wholly  ex]ielled,  for 
Arannah,  who  had  a  threshing-tlo(n-  on  the 
site  afterwards  occu])ied  by  Solomon's  tem- 
j)le,  was  a  Jebusite  by  birth  (2  .'^am.  xxiv.  16, 
18;  2  Chron.  iii.  1).  Solomon  subjected  the 
remnant  of  the  Jebusites  to  bond  service  (1 
Kin.  ix.  20). 

Jec-a-mi'ah.     .*-iee  Jkk.vmiah. 

Jech-i-li'ah  and  Jech-o-li'ah.     See  Jkco- 

LI.\H. 

Jecb-o-ni'ah  and  Jech-o-ni'as.   See  Jeco- 

NIAIl. 

Jec-0-li'ah  and  Jechiliali,  in  A.  V.  once 
Jecboliab  (2  Kin.  xv.  2)  [Jehovah  has  pre- 
vailed]. 

The  mother  of  king  Uzziah  (2  Kin.  xv.  2; 
2  Chron.  xxvi.  3). 

Jec-o-ni'an,  in  K.  V.  of  N.  T.  Jechoniab, 
in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Jecbonias  [Jehovah  dolh  es- 
tablish]. 

An  unessential  variant  of  the  name  of 
Jehoia<liiii.  king  of  .ludah.  a  cognate  root  be- 
ing used  and  the  constituent  jiarts  transiiosed 
(1  Chron.  iii.  1(1.  etc.  I. 

Je-da'iah,  I.  [.lehovah  has  cast  or  shown]. 

1.  A  Simeoiiile  (1  Chron.  iv.  37). 

2.  A  son  of  IIarnma|>h,  who  rejtaired  part 
of  the  wall  of  Jerusiilem  ojiposite  to  his  house 
(Nell.  iii.  iHi. 

Je-da'iab,  II.  [.Jehovah  knoweth]. 

1.  A  descendant  of  Aaron.  His  family 
had  grown  to  a  father's  house  in  the  time 
of  David,  and  was  numbered  the  second 
conr.se  when  David  distributed  the  priests 
into  divisions  (1  Chron.  xxiv.  1.  (i.  7t.  Mem- 
bers of  the  familv  returned  from   Babylon 


Jediael 


342 


Jehoahaz 


(Ezra  ii.  3G ;  Neh.   vii.  39)  ;  cp.  the  two  fol- 
lowiuK- 

•J.  A  chief  uf  tlic  priests  wlio  returned  from 
Babylon  witli  Zenihhahel  (Neh.  xii.  H,  7).  In 
the  next  f;<-''itsi"'tion  a  lather's  house  bore  this 
name  (ver.  19). 

3.  Another  chief  priest  with  the  same  his- 
tory (Xeh.  xii.  7,  21). 

4.  One  of  those  who  came  from  the  cap- 
tivity bringing  gifts  for  the  temple  in  the 
days  of  the  high  priest  Joshua  (Zech.  vi. 
10'l4). 

Je-di'a-el  [known  of  God]. 

1.  A  son  of  Uenjamin,  and  founder  of  a 
family  (1  Chron.  vi'i.  6,  10,  11).  The  olderin- 
terpreters  regarded  Jediael  as  another  name 
of  Ashbel  (Num.  xxvi.  3^).  Perhaps  he  was 
a  later  chief. 

2.  A  Manassite  who  joined  David  at  Ziklag 
(1  Chron.  xii.  20). 

3.  One  of  David's  mighty  men,  a  son  of 
Shimri  (1  Chron.  xi.  45). 

4.  A  Korahite  doorkeeper  in  the  reign  of 
David  (1  Chron.  xxvi.  1,  2). 

Je-di'dah  [beloved]. 

Wife  of  Anion  and  mother  of  king  Josiah 
(2  Kin.  xxii.  1). 

Jed-i-di'ah  [beloved  of  Jehovah]. 

A  name  which  Nathan  the  prophet,  by  di- 
vine direction,  gave  to  Solomon  (2  Sam. 
xii.  25). 

Je-du'thun  [i)vaising,  praise]. 

1.  A  Levite,  one  of  the  three  chief  singers 
or  rather  musicians  appointed  in  the  time  of 
David,  and  founder  of  an  official  musical 
family  (1  Chron.  xvi.  41 ;  xxv.  1,  G  ;  2  Chron. 
V.  12  ;  XXXV.  15  ;  Neb.  xi.  17).  He  or  his 
family  is  mentioned  in  the  title  of  three 
psalms  (xxxix.,  Ixii.,  Ixxvii.).  He  was  evi- 
dently known  earlier  as  Ethan  ;  sec  Ethan  3. 

2.  Father  of  Obed-edom  the  doorkeeper 
and  apparently  of  the  family  of  Korah,  a 
division  of  the  Kohathites  (1  Chron.  xvi.  38; 
cp.  xxvi.  1,  4,  and  also  8,  12,  15).  Some  in- 
terpreters, however,  hold  him  to  be  Jeduthun, 
the  singer,  of  the  family  of  Merari. 

Je-e'zer.     See  Abiezkr. 
Je-e'zer-ite.     See  Abiezrite. 

Je-gar-sa-ha-du'tha  [Aramaic,  heap  of 
witness]. 

Laban's  designation  of  the  cairn  Galeed 
(Gen.  xxxi.  47) ;  see  G.\leed. 

Je-hal'le-lel,  in  A.  V.  Je-ha-le'le-el  and 
Jehalelel  jhe  praiseth  God]. 

1.  .\  man  registered  with  the  tribe  of  .ludah 
and  founder  of  a  family  (1  Chron.  iv.  16). 

2.  A  Merarite  Levite  (2  Cliron.  xxix.  12). 
Jeh-de'iah  [Jehovah  inspires  with  joy]. 

1.  A  Levite.  family  of  Kohatli,  house  of 
Amram  (1  Chron.  xxiv.  20). 

2.  A  Meronothite  who  had  charge  of  David's 
asses  il  Cliron.  xxvii.  30). 

Je-hez'kel,  in  A.  V.  Je-hez'e-kel  [God 
doth  strengthen]. 


A  descendant  of  Aaron  whose  family  was 
made  the  twentieth  course  of  the  priests 
(1  Chron.  xxiv.  10). 

Je-M'ah  [Jehovah  livetli]. 
A  doorkeeper  for  the  ark  in   David's  reign 
(1  Chron.  xv.24). 

Je-Wel  [God  liveth]. 

1.  A  Levite  of  the  second  degree,  who 
played  a  psaltery  at  the  removal  of  the  ark 
to  Jerusalem  and  afterwards  as  a  regular 
duty  in  its  tent  (1  Chron.  xv.  18,  20;  xvi.  5). 

2.  A  Levite,  family  of  Gershon  and  chief 
of  the  house  of  Laadaii  in  David's  reign 
(1  Chron.  xxiii.8).  He  gave  rise  to  the  father's 
house  named  trom  him  Jehieli  (xxvi.  21,  22). 

3.  A  son  of  Hachmoui  in  David's  reign 
(1  Chron.  xxvii.  32). 

4.  A  son  of  Jehoshaphat,  placed  by  his 
father  over  one  of  the  fenced  cities  of  Judah, 
but  slain  with  others  of  his  brothers  by 
Jehoram  (2  Chron.  xxi.  2-4). 

5.  A  Levite,  family  of  Kohath  and  house 
of  Heman  the  singer  (2  Chron.  xxix.  14,  in 
R.  V.  Jehuel).  He  aided  Hezekiali  in  his 
religious  reformation,  and  is  perhaps  the 
assistiint  overseer  of  the  temple  revenues 
who  served  during  the  same  reign  (2  Chron. 
xxxi.  13). 

6.  A  ruler  of  the  temple  at  the  time  of 
Josiah's  religious  reformation  (2  Chron.  xxxv. 
8). 

7.  Father  of  Ezra's  contemporary  Obadiah 
(Ezra  viii.  9). 

8.  A  son  of  Elam  and  father  of  Ezra's 
contemporary  Shechaniah  (Ezra  x.  2).  He 
may  be  the  person  of  this  name  whom  Ezra 
induced  to  put  away  his  foreign  wife  (x.  26). 

9.  A  priest,  of  the  course  of  Harim,  in- 
duced by  Ezra  to  put  away  his  foreign  wife 
(X.  21). 

For  others  whose  name  is  thus  spelled  in 
A.  V.  see  Jeiel. 

Je-hi'e-li.     See  Jehiel  2. 

Je-Mz-ki'ah  [Jehovah  doth  strengthen]. 

A  son  of  Shalluni.  and  one  of  the  heads  of 
the  Ephraimite  tribe  in  the  reign  of  Pekah. 
He  assisted  in  securing  the  release  of  the 
captives  from  Judab  (2  Chron.  xxviii.  12). 

Je-ho-ad'dah,  in  A.  V.  Je-ho'a-dah  [Jeho- 
vah hath  adorned]. 

A  son  of  Ahaz,  and  a  descendant  of  Jona- 
than, Saul's  son  (1  Chron.  viii.  36).  Called 
in  ix.  42  Jaraii. 

Je-ho-ad'dan,  in  R.  V.  of  Kings  Jehoaddin 
[perhaps.  Jehovah  hath  made  pleasant]. 

INIother  of  king  .\nia/.iah.  She  was  from 
Jerusalem  (2  Kin.  xiv.  2;  2  Chron.  xxv.  1). 

Je-ho'a-haz  '  Jehovah  hath  laid  hold  of]. 

1.  A  variant  form  of  the  name  of  Abaziah, 
youngest  son  of  Jehoram,  king  of  Judah 
(2  Chron.  xxi.  17  ;  cp.  xxii.  1),  the  constituent 
parts  of  the  name  being  transposed. 

2.  The  son  and  successor  of  Jehu  in  the 
kingdom  of  Israel.     He  began  to  reign    in 


Jehoash 


343 


Jehoiada 


821  B.  c,  apparently  as  associate  of  liis  father, 
aiifl  reigned  se%enteen  years  (2  Kin.  x.  '.io  ; 
xiii.  1 1.  He  continued  the  calf  worslii])  estab- 
lished hy  Jert)hoani.  As  a  penalty  fur  this 
apostasy,  the  Syrians,  first  under  Hazael  and 
then  under  Henhadad,  were  j>erniitted  to 
carry  on  successful  hostilities  af^ainst  him, 
capturinf:  city  after  city,  till  at  lenj;th  he  had 
no  force  left  but  ")()  horsemen,  10  chariots, 
and  10,00(1  footmen.  In  di.stre.ss  lie  called  on 
Jehovah,  who  pave  Israel  a  saviour.  This 
saviour  of  Israel  ai>iieared  after  the  death  of 
.lehoahaz,  in  tlie  in-r.^ousof  his  two  successors 
.Ii'hoash  and  Jeroboam.  The  former  recov- 
ered tlie  cities  which  the  Syrians  had  taken 
from  his  father,  and  the  latter  restored  the 
ancient  boundaries  of  Israel.  I'robably  Je- 
hoash  received  uninteuch'd  assistance  from 
the  kinp  of  Assyria,  who.  attacking  the  Syr- 
ians in  the  rear,  compelled  them  to  desist  from 
the  invasi()n  of  the  Israelite  kingdom,  and 
return  to  defend  their  own  country.  Jehoa- 
ha/.  was  succeeded  hy  his  son  Jehoash  (2  Kiu. 
xiii.  2-!),  22-2")). 

3.  A  younper  son  of  Josiab,  who,  on  tlie 
death  of  Josiah,  was  jilaccd  by  the  jieojile  of 
.ludah  on  his  father's  throne.  He  was  then 
twcnly-tlnee,  and  reiuned  only  three  months, 
duriuj:  which  time  his  tendencies  were  evil 
rather  than  pood.  He  was  dejtused  and  taken 
in  ciiains  to  Kiblah  by  I'haraoh-necho,  king 
<if  Epypt.  and  afterwards  carried  down  into 
ICpy]it.  Neclio.  as  victor  o\er  Josiali,  decided 
to  dispose  of  the  throne  of  Judah,  and  pave 
it  to  Jehoiakini,  Jehoahaz'  elder  brother 
(2  Kin.  xxiii.  :50-34  :  2  Chron.  xxxvi.  1-1). 
Jehoahaz  was  also  called  Shallum  (1  Chron. 
iii.  U'>:  Jer.  xxii.  10  12),  and  he  is  the  (irst 
of  the  lion"s  whelps  (Ezek.  xix.  1-9).  Al- 
thouph  the  third  of  Josiah's  sons  in  point  of 
ape  and  the  (irst  to  occnjiy  the  throne,  he  is 
enumerated  fourth  in  1  Chron.  iii.  15,  perhaps 
by  way  of  intentional  degradation. 

Je-ho'asli.     See  Jo.xsii  I. 

Je-ho-lia'nan  [Jehovah  ispracious]. 

1.  .\  Korahite  Levite,  who  had  tlic  sixth 
course  of  tht-  doorkeejiers  in  David's  reipn 
(1  Chron.  xxvi.  3). 

2.  The  second  in  honor  of  Jehoshajihat's 
<"aptains.  He  had  under  him  280,000  men 
(2  Chron.  xvii.  1.")). 

3.  Father  of  Jehoiada's  supporter,  Ishmael, 
in  tlie  revolt  apainst  Athaliah  (2  Chron. 
xxiii.  1). 

4.  A  priest,  head  of  the  father's  house  of 
Amariah.  He  lived  in  the  days  of  the  high 
priest  Joiakim  (Neh.  xii.  13). 

.").  A  son  of  Eliashib  (Ezra  x.  6,  R.  V.)    See 

JOHANAN  9. 

6.  A  son  of  Rebai,  induced  liy  Ezra  to  put 
away  his  forcipn  wife  (Ezra  x.  2>^). 

7.  A   son  of  Tobiah  the  Ammonite  (Neh. 

Vi.  IS,   H.   V.l.      ,I()|IANAN  10. 

5.  A  jiriest  who  olliciated  at  the  fledication 
of  the  wall  of  Jerusiilein  bv  Nehemiah  (Neh. 
xii.  12). 


Je-hoi'a-chin  [Jehovah  doth  establish]. 

The  son  and  succes-sor  of  Jehoiakim  in  the 
kinpdom  of  Judah.  He  came  to  the  throne 
in  the  year  r)9S  or  .")97  B.  c.  Accordinp  to  2 
Kin.  xxiv.  S,  he  was  then  eiphteen  years  old  ; 
accordinp  to  2  Chron.  xxxvi.  9,  his  ape  was 
eipht.  The  discrejiancy  exists  in  the  Septua- 
pint  Greek  as  well  as  in  the  Hebrew  text. 
One  or  other  of  the  numbers  is  corrupt, 
which  of  the  two  is  doubtful.  He  did  that 
which  was  evil  in  the  siplit  of  the  Lord, 
according  to  all  that  his  father  hail  d(me. 
Hut  his  reign  continued  only  three  months 
and  ten  days.  Durinp  this  short  jieriod  Ne- 
buchadnezzar, king  of  Habylon,  sent  his  gen- 
erals to  besiege  Jerusalem,  which  surrendered 
after  the  eiglith  year  of  Nebuchadnezzar  had 
begun  (cji.  2  Kin.  xxiv.  12  ;  cji.  .ler.  Iii.  2S) ;  see 
CuKoxoi.ociv.  Jehoiachin,  his  wives,  his 
mother,  the  palace  servants,  every  dignitary 
in  the  city  and  the  country,  with  all  the 
skillful  arti.sans,  were  carried  into  ca])tivity 
(2  Kill.  xxiv.  b-l(i;  2  Chron.  xxxvi.  9.  10). 
For  a  long  period  he  seems  to  have  been  in 
actual  confinement ;  but  in  the  thirty-seventh 
year  of  his  exile,  5(52  B.  C,  Evil-merodach 
ascendt'd  the  throiU'  of  Babylon,  released  him 
from  jirison,  and  assigned  him  a  daily  allow- 
ance of,  nr  for,  food  while  he  lived  (2  Kin. 
XXV.  27-30;  Jer.  Hi.  31-34).  Jeremiah,  who 
pro])hesied  during,  and  after,  the  brief  reign 
of  Jehoiachin,  frequently  mentions  him  un- 
der the  name  Jechoniab  or  Coniali. 

Je-hoi'a-da  [Jehovah  hath  known]. 

1.  The  father  of  that  Benaiah  who  held 
high  military  otlice  in  the  latter  part  of 
David's  and  in  Solomon's  reipn  (2  Sam.  xxiii. 
22;  1  Kin.  iv.  4).  Jehoiada  was  a  priest 
(1  Chron.  xxvii.  5;  not  as  in  A.  V.  chief 
priest),  and  seems  to  liave  been  the  leader  of 
the  Aaronites  who  brought  3700  men  to  David 
at  Ziklap  (xii.  27). 

2.  A  son  of  Benaiah,  second  to  Ahithophel 
in  David's  counsels  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  34). 
Most  commentators  believe  that  some  copyist 
accidentally  wrote  Jehoiada  .son  of  Benaiah 
foi-  Benaiah  son  of  Jehoiada.  There  is  no 
reason,  however,  why  a  prandson  of  Jehoiada, 
bearing  the  same  name,  should  not  be  occu- 
]>ying  a  jtosition  of  influence  at  this  time. 

3.  A  high  jiriest  during  the  usurjiation  of 
Athaliah.  His  wife  concealed  in  the  tem- 
ple the  young  prince  .loash,  the  only  surviv- 
ing direct  reiiresentative  of  the  royal  line  of 
David,  and  .Jehoiada  jilanned  and  siicces,s- 
fully  carried  out  the  revolt  which  led  to  the 
slaughter  of  Athaliali  and  the  jiroclamation 
of  Joash  as  king.  Jehoiada's  wife  was  the 
daughter  of  kinp  Joram  and  the  sister  of 
Ahaziah  ;  the  high  jiriest  was.  therefore,  the 
uncle  of  the  young  monarch  whom  he  be- 
friended and  jilaced  on  the  throne.  So  long 
as  he  lived  he  was  instrumental  in  keejiing 
the  kinp  true  to  the  worshi]i  of  Jehovali 
(2  Kin.  xi.  1-xii.  Hi;  2  Chron.  xxii.  10- xxiv. 
14).    He  died  at  the  ape  of  l.'jO.  and,  in  recog- 


Jehoiakim 


344 


Jehoshaphat 


uition  of  his  eminent  services  to  church  and 
state,  he  was  buried  in  the  city  of  David 
among  the  kiiifzs  (!■'),  V>).  After  liis  death 
Joash  turned  from  the  Lord  and  tnij;ratefully 
put  Jehoiada"s  son  to  death  for  rebuking  the 
sius  of  the  people  (17-22). 

4.  A  priest  who  was  succeeded  in  Jere- 
miah's time  by  Zephaniah  in  the  office  of 
second  priest  and  overseer  of  the  temple 
(Jer.  xxix.  26;  cp.  Hi.  24). 

5.  A  son  of  Paseah,  who  repaired  a  gate  of 
Jerusalem  (Neh.  iii.  6;  in  K.  V.  Joiada). 

Je-hoi'a-kim  [Jehovah  doth  establish]. 

A  sou  of  kiug  Josiah  by  his  wife  Zebidah 
12  Kin.  xxiii.  34,  3(3).  He  was  called  origi- 
nally Eliakini.  (}od  doth  establish.  On  the 
death  of  Josiah  the  ]K'opIe  placed  Jehoahaz, 
third  son  of  Josiah  in  age,  on  the  throne; 
but  three  months  afterwards  Pharaoh-necho 
put  him  in  (■hains  and  carried  him  to  Egypt, 
and  made  his  elder  brother  Eliakim  king  in 
his  stead,  changing  his  name  to  Jehoiakim. 
He  began  to  reign  about  608  B.  c,  at  the  age 
of  twenty-live  years.  He  was  obliged  to 
collect  heavy  tribute  from  the  people  for 
Pharaoh.  He  departed  from  Jehovah,  whom 
his  father  had  so  faithfully  served,  and  went 
back  to  idolatry.  Jeremiah  wrote  a  roll 
threatening  the  divine  judgment  unless  re- 
pentance took  place  ;  but  Jehoiakim  treated 
the  matter  with  contempt,  and  after  listening 
to  three  or  four  leaves  of  the  roll  cut  it  up 
and  committed  it  to  the  flames  (Jer.  xxxvi.). 
Babylon  was  now  the  dominant  Asiatic  power. 
In  the  fourth  year  of  Jehoiakim's  reign,  Neb- 
uchadnezzar, son  of  the  Babylonian  king, 
defeated  Pharaoh-necho  at  Carchemish  and 
advanced,  probably  afterwards,  against  Jeru- 
salem, and  Jehoiakim  became  his  servant 
(2  Kin.  xxiv.  1;  Jer.  xlvi.  2;  Dan.  i.  1,  2; 
see  Chronology).  Three  years  later  he 
rashly  rebelled  against  Nebuchadnezzar. 
There  were  other  troubles  afflicting  the  king- 
dom. .Syrians,  Moabites,  and  Ammonites 
made  predatory  incursions  into  its  territories, 
as  did  bands  of  Chaldeans,  whom  Nebuchad- 
nezzar probably  dispatched  on  learning  of 
the  revolt  (2  Kin.  xxiv.  2).  The  Babylonian 
king  himself,  or  his  army,  eventually  entered 
Jerusalem  and  bound  the  Jewish  rebel  with 
chains  to  carry  him  to  Babylon  (2  Chron. 
xxxvi.  6).  He  was  carried  in  a  cage  with 
hooks  into  the  presence  of  the  king  of  Baby- 
lon, who  was  in  the  camp  at  Jerusalem  or 
perhaps  at  Riblah  ( Ezek.  xix.  5-9).  The 
purpose  of  carrying  him  to  Babylon  was.  how- 
ever, abandoned.  He  died  or  was  murdered, 
and  his  body  had  the  burial  of  an  ass,  drawn 
and  cast  forth  l)eyond  the  gates  of  Jeru.salem 
(Jer.  xxii.  19;  xxxvi.  30;  Antiq.  x.  6,  3). 
He  reigned  eleven  years  and  was  succeeded 
by  his  son  Jehoiachin  (2  Kin.  xxiii.  36 ; 
xxiv.  6). 

Je-hoi'a-rib  and  Joiarib,  the  forms  being 
interchan^'eable  in  Hebrew  [Jehovah  doth 
contend]. 


1.  A  descendant  of  Aaron.  His  family  had 
grown  to  a  father's  house  in  the  time  of 
David  and  was  numbered  the  tirst  course 
when  David  <lislril)uted  the  priests  into  di- 
visions (1  Chron.  xxiv.  1,  6,  7). 

2.  A  chief  of  the  priests  who  returned 
from  Babylon  with  Zerubbabel  (Neh.  xii.  6, 
7).  In  the  next  generation  a  father's  house 
bore  this  name  (19)  :  .see  Joi.\kib. 

3.  A  man  of  understanding  sent  by  Ezra  to 
obtain  Levites  and  Nethiuim  for  the  service 
of  the  temple  (Ezra  viii.  16)  ;  see  Joi.\kib. 

Je-hon'a-dab.     See  Jon.\^u.vb. 

Je-hon'a-than,  variant  form  of  Jonathan, 
with  whi(;li  it  freely  interchanges  in  Hebrew 
[Jehovah  hath  given]. 

1.  An  official,  the  son  of  Uzziah,  who  was 
charged  with  the  oversight  of  the  treasures 
of  king  David  stored  in  various  places  out- 
side of  .Terusalem  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  25). 

2.  One  of  the  Levites  sent  by  .Jehoshaphat 
to  teach  in  the  cities  of  Judah  (2  Chron. 
xvii.  8). 

3.  A  priest,  head  of  the  father's  house  of 
Shemaiah  in  the  days  of  the  high  priest 
Joiakim  (Neh.  xii.  18). 

Je-ho'ram  [Jehovah  is  high]. 

1.  Son  of  Ahab  and  kiug  of  Israel  (2  Kin. 
iii.  1) ;  see  JoR.\M  3. 

2.  A  priest,  one  of  those  sent  by  Jehosh- 
aphat to  instruct  the  people  (2  Chron.  xvii.  8). 

3.  Son  of  Jehoshaphat  and  king  of  Judah 
(2  Kin.  viii.  16) ;  see  Joram  5. 

Je-ho-shab'e-ath.    See  Jehosheba. 

Je-hosh'a-phat,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Josa- 
pbat  [Jehovah  hath  judged]. 

1.  Son  of  Ahilud  and  recorder  under  David 
and  Solomon  (2  Sam.  viii.  16  ;  xx.  24  ;  1  Kin. 
iv.  3). 

2.  One  of  the  priests  appointed  to  blow  a 
trumpet  before  the  ark  when  it  was  being 
brought  up  from  the  house  of  Obed-edom  to 
the  city  of  David  (1  Chron.  xv.  24,  in  R.  V. 
Joshaphat). 

3.  Son  of  Paruah  and  Solomon's  purveyor 
in  the  territory  of  Issachar  (1  Kin.  iv.  17). 

4.  Son  and  successor  of  king  Asa  on  the 
throne  of  Judah.  He  appears  to  have  been 
associated  with  his  father  in  the  latter's  37th 
regnal  year,  the  11th  of  Omri  (1  Kin.  xvi. 
28,  29,  Septuagint),  and  to  have  become  sole 
king  on  the  death  of  his  father  five  years 
later,  about  871  B.  c.  (xxii.  41.  42).  He 
reigned  twenty-five  years,  including  the 
time  that  he  was  associated  with  .\sa.  He 
was  thirty-five  years  old  at  his  accession. 
His  mother  was  Azubah.  daughter  of  Shilhi 
(1  Kin.  xxii.  41.  42:  2  Chron.  xvii.  1).  He 
was  a  good  king.  He  worshiped  .Tehovah, 
and  sought  not  unto  the  Haalim  (1  Kin. 
xxii.  43 ;  2  Chron.  xvii.  3),  although  the 
people  still  sacrificed  on  high  places  (1  Kin. 
xxii.  43).  Therefore  the  Lord  greatly  jiro.s- 
pered  him.  In  the  third  year  of  his  reign, 
he  took  measures  for  instructing  his  people, 


Jehoshaphat 


345 


Jehovah 


sending  princes  and  Levites,  with  the  book 
of  the  law  in  their  liands,  to  teach  in  the 
cities  of  Judali  {2  Climn.  xvii.  7-9).  The 
fear  of  tlie  I.tird  fell  iiinni  the  nelKhboring 
kintjdonis.  I'liilistiiics  ami  Arabians  paid 
tribute  (10,  11).  He  jjanisoned  the  fenced 
cities  of  his  realm  (I'J-liM.  He  terminated 
the  desultory  warfare  which  had  {{one  on 
between  Israi-l  and  Judali  since  the  time  of 
Kehoboam.  He  made  peace  with  Israid  and 
took  Athaliali,  daiijrliler  of  .Miab,  as  a  wife 
for  his  son  (1  Kin.  xxii.  11  ;  2  Kin.  viii.  18, 
2f)).  When  he  found  that  Jehovah  was  thus 
blessing  him,  he  was  encoura<red  to  remove 
the  hi^h  i)laces  and  the  Asherim  out  of 
Jiidah  (2  t'hron.  xvii.  5,  (i).  He  put  away 
also  tlie  remnant  of  the  sodomites  out  of  the 
land  (1  Kin.  xxii.  4G). 

About  H.'):!  H.  c.  he  W(>nt  on  a  visit  to  king 
Aliab,  and  was  jiersuaded  to  join  him,  with 
the  armyof  Judah,  in  the  attempt  to  re-take 
Kanioth-triiead  from  the  Syrians.  Dressed  in 
the  royal  robes  of  Aha!),  he  went  into  battle. 
Ahab  was  mortally  wounded  ;  Jelioshai)liat, 
notwithstandint;  his  exposure,  survived  (1 
Kin.  xxii.  1  .'i"^  ;  2  Chmn.  xviii.  l-.'54).  On 
his  return  home  he  was  reproved  by  the 
prophet  .lohu.  son  of  Hanaiii,  for  having 
fraternized  with  such  a  king  as  Ahab  (2 
Chron.  xix.  1,  2).  He  resumed  his  work  of 
reformation  in  churcli  and  state,  ])ronioting 
the  worshi])  of  Jehovah,  and  ap])ointing 
judges  in  tlie  walled  towns  of  Judah,  witli  a 
sujireme  court,  con.sisting  of  Levites,  jirie.sts, 
and  laymen  of  high  i>osition,  in  Jerusalem 
(4-11).  After  this  reform  had  begun  a  great 
confederac.v  of  .\iiinioiiites.  Moabites,  and 
Edomites  invaded  Judali  from  tbe  southeast, 
making  their  lieaihpiarters  at  En-gedi  on  the 
western  side  of  the  Dead  Sea.  Jehoshaiihat 
claimed  the  ]promise  of  deliverance  which 
Solomon  bad  asked  cJ  Chroii.  vi.  "21-30  with 
XX.  !)).  Jaliaziel  propbesied  deliverance,  and 
Jehosliajihat  went  forth  with  thanksgiving 
and  jilaced  singers  before  tlie  army  to  jiraise 
the  Lord.  Success  was  achii'ved  witiiout 
fighting.  Hostilities  br(»ke  out  in  the  con- 
federate army,  the  Ammonites  and  Moabites 
attacked  ami  destroyed  the  Edomites,  and 
then  (luarreling  among  themselves,  turned 
their  weajxins  against  each  otber  (xx.  l-IiO). 
After  this  event,  ])erliaiis  in  late  autiinin  dur- 
ing tin'  time  of  jieace,  Jeboshai)liat,  wiio  had 
been  building  ships  at  Ezion-geber,  asked 
Ahaziah,  king  »)f  Isniel,  to  take  jiart  in  a 
mercantih'  voyage.  The  prophet  Eliezer  re- 
buked liim  for  .joining  himselfwitli  .\liaziab. 
and  the  ships  were  wrecked.  Ahaziab  di'- 
sired  to  share  in  a  new  venture,  but  Jehosh- 
aphat refused  (2  Chron.  xx.  IJ.V.'C ;  1  Kin. 
xxii.  4H,  lit).  In  h.")2  n.  c.  or  later,  .lehoram, 
king  of  Israel,  desired  to  render  Moal)  again 
tributary  to  Israel,  and  asked  aid  of  bis 
brother-in-law,  .leliosbaiiliat.  Jehoram  h:id 
exhibited  signs  of  godline.ss  by  a  ctmsidera- 
ble  reformation  (2  Kin.  iii.  2),  and  .lehosha- 
phat  consented  to  join  him.     The  expedition 


enjoyed  partial  success  (2  Kin.  iii.  4-27). 
Jehoshaphat  died  at  the  age  of  sixty,  about 
the  year  b.'iO  n.  i\,  and  was  buried  in  tlie  city 
of  David,  leaving  his  son  Jehoram  to  ascend 
the  throne  (1  Kin.  xxii.  .")ll). 

5.  Son  of  Ninisbi  and  father  of  Jehu,  king 
of  Israel  12  Kin.  ix.  2,  11. 

Je-hosh'a-phat,  Val'ley  of. 

A  valle.v  wliere  all  nations  sliall  be  gath- 
ered by  .lehovab  for  judgment  (Joel  iii.  2.  12). 
At  least  as  early  as  tlii'  time  of  Euseliiiis,  in  the 
fourth  century  .\.  i>.,  tbe  valley  of  .lelioshapliat 
was  ideiitilied  with  the  valle.v  of  tbe  Kiilron, 
so  that  now  Jews,  lionian  Catholics,  and  Mo- 
hammedans fix  the  scene  of  the  last  judg- 
ment here.  This  ideiitilication  is  only  a  con- 
jecture, based  on  the  cited  pass;iges  and 
Zech.  xiv.  So  far  as  evidence  goes,  no  valley 
actually  bore  this  name.  Joel  doubtless 
chose  this  designation,  which  means  "Jeho- 
vah hath  .judged,"  as  s.\nibolic  of  the  event. 

Je-hosh'e-ba  and  Jeboshabeath,  iiiter- 
changeal)le  forms  in  Hebrew  [Jehovah  is  an 
oath]. 

Dauglitcr  of  Jehoram,  king  of  Judah,  and 
sister  of  Ahaziah.  On  the  murder  of 
Ahaziah,  when  his  mother  destroyed  the 
seed  royal,  Jehosheba  rescued  his  infant  son 
Joash  and  concealed  him  in  the  temiile  until 
he  could  be  safely  proclaimed  king  (2  Kin. 
xi.  2  :  2  ( 'hron.  xxii.  1 1 !. 

Je-hosh'u-a  and  Jehoshuala.   See  Joshua. 

Je-ho'vali. 

The  common  Euro]U'an  pronunciation 
of  the  Hebrew  tetragram  Yhih,  one  of 
the  names  of  (iod  (Ex.  xvii.  1.")).  The 
original  name  was  occasionally  u.sed  even 
by  so  late  a  writer  as  Nehemiah  (i.  5; 
V.  13 ;  viii.  1),  in  fact  a  form  of  it  con- 
stitutes the  latter  part  of  his  name.  But  it 
was  not  the  favorite  name  of  (iod  with  him. 
It  had  ceased  to  be  proiKiunced  when  the 
Seiitnagint  was  translated,  for  the  translators 
substituted  Lord.  The  X.  T.  writers  also  use 
Lord  in  its  place.  The  custom  grew  u])  in 
reading  of  iironoiincing  tbe  Hebrew  word 
'"doiiai/.  Lord,  in  its  stead  or,  when  it  follows 
'"dona)/,  of  pronouncing ''7o/(/iii,  (iod((Ten.  xv. 
2),  as  the  Englishman  jironounces  namely  in- 
stead of  viz.  When  the  vowel  points  were 
added  to  the  Hebrew  consonantal  text,  the 
vowels  of  '"(loiKUj  and  ''luhim  were  given  to 
the  tetragram.  This  iiointinggave  rise  to  the 
Enrojiean  pronunciation,  Jehovah.  The  sub- 
stitution of  the  word  Lord  by  the  later 
Hebrews  and  by  the  translators  of  tbe  Sejitu- 
agint  leil  to  the  like  substitution  in  the  Eng- 
lish version  ((Jen.  ii.  4).  In  such  instances 
Lord  is  printed  in  small  capitals.  The  tetra- 
gram isgeiierall.v  believed  to  have  bein  ]>ro- 
nounced  Jabweli.  Yiihnrh,  because  the  divine 
name  Jab  (I's.  Ixxxix.  s,  K.  V.)  and  the 
forms  Y'ho.  Yo  and  Yah,  Y(thii.  which  occur 
constantly  in  projH'r  names,  as  in  the  Hebrew 
of  Jelmshaidiat,  .Io>liaiihat,  Sliephatiah.  can 
all  be  derived   from    Ynhueh   in    accordance 


Jehovah-jireh 


346 


Jehu 


with  the  laws  of  philology.  Yahireh  is  an 
archaic  form.  It  probably  represents  the 
Qal  imperfect  of  the  verb  hairah,  later  hayah, 
to  be  or  become.  If  this  is  so,  it  means  "  He 
who  in  the  absolute  sense  exists  and  who 
manifests  his  existence  and  his  cliaracter" 
(E.x.iii.  ]:>,  lo).  The  creator,  upholder,  and 
moral  governor  of  the  universe  is  ''lohim, 
God;  the  covenant  God  of  Abraliam,  Isaac, 
and  Jacob,  the  God  in  whom  lay  their 
l)resent  strength  and  their  lio])e  for  their  fu- 
ture existence,  is  'El  shdddai/,  God  almighty; 
but  the  (fod  of  revelation  and  grace,  dwell- 
ing with  his  pe()i)le,  guiding  and  delivering 
tlieni,  and  receiving  their  worship  is  .Jehovah. 

Wliellicr  the  name  was  known  to  other 
peoples  before  it  attained  to  celebrit  j'  through 
the  Ilebnnvs  is  still  a  question.  Men  began 
to  call  upon  the  name  of  Jehovah  in  the 
days  of  Enosh,  the  third  from  Adam  (Gen. 
iv.  26).  It  must  not  be  inferred,  however, 
that  they  necessarily  used  the  name  Jehovah. 
They  worshiped  the  God  of  revelation  and 
grace,  whatever  name  they  may  have  em- 
ployed to  denote  the  idea.  Its  first  occur- 
rence in  recorded  proper  names  is  in  Joche- 
bed,  an  ancestress  of  Moses  {see  also  1  Chron. 
ii.  8,  24).  It  can  scarcely  be  sought  in 
Moriah.  Evidence  of  its  use  in  proper  names 
is  thus  found  earlier  than  are  traces  of  the 
employment  of  Shadday  for  like  purpose 
(Num.  i.  6,  12).  In  the  generation  after  the 
exodus,  it  appears  in  Joshua  (Num.  xiii.  16). 
It  then  becomes  frequent  (1  Chron.  vi.  6,  7,  36). 

To  know  that  God  is  Jehovah  and  to  know 
the  name  of  Jehovah  do  not  denote  a  mere 
external  acquaintance  with  the  word  Jeho- 
vah, but  an  experience  of  God  manifesting 
himself  to  his  people  in  grace  and  love  (1 
Kin.  viii.  43 ;  Ps.  ix.  10  ;  xci.  14 ;  Is.  lii.  6 ; 
Jer.  xvi.  21).  In  Ex.  vi.  2-8  God  promises 
that  the  children  of  Israel  shall  be  delivered 
from  bondage  and  have  an  experience  of  his 
gracious  intervention  and  love  such  as  their 
forefathers  had  not  known.  See  Pent.^tkuch. 

Je-ho-vah-ji'reh  [Jehovah  will  see  or  pro- 
vide]. 

The  name  given  by  Abraham  to  the  place 
where  God  provided  a  ram  to  be  offered  in 
sacrifice,  instead  of  Isaac  (Gen.  xxii.  14).  Ex- 
act site  unknown. 

Je-ho-vah-nis'si  [Jehovah  is  my  banner]. 

The  name  given  by  Moses  to  an  altar  built 
hy  him  at  l{e])hidim  to  commemorate  the 
victory  over  Amalek  (Ex.  xvii.  15,  16). 

Je-ho-vah-sha'lom  [Jehovah  is  peace]. 

An  altar  tiuilt  l)y  (Gideon  in  Ophrali  to 
commemorate  tlie  visit  of  the  angel  of  the 
Lord,  who  called  him  to  deliver  Israel,  and, 
wlien  he  expected  to  die  becau.se  he  had  seen 
the  heavenly  one.  said  to  him:  "'Peace  be 
unto  thee ;  .  .  .  thou  .'^halt  not  die  "  (Judg.  vi. 
23,  24). 

Je-hoz'a-bad  [Jehovah  hath  endowed]. 

1.  A  Korahite  i)orter,  son  of  Obed-edom  (1 
Chron.  xxvi.  4). 


2.  Son  of  a  Moabitess,  and  a  servant  of 
Joash  and  one  of  his  assassins  (2  Kin.  xii.  21 ; 
2  Chron.  xxiv.  26). 

3.  A  Beujamite,  a  high  military  captain 
under  king  Jehoshaphat  (2  Chron.  xvii.  18). 

Je-hoz'a-dak.     See  Joz.\dak. 

Je'hu  [pro)jably,  Jehovah  is  He]. 

1.  A  Beujamite  of  Anathoth,  who  joined 
David  at  Ziklag  (1  Chron.  xii.  3). 

2.  A  prophet,  son  of  Jlanani.  He  denounced 
judgment  against  Baasha  and  his  house  for 
continuing  in  the  sin  of  Jeroboam  I.  (1  Kin. 
xvi.  1-4,  7).  He  re])roved  Jehoshaphat  for 
helping  ungodly  Alial)  (2  Chron.  six.  2),  and 
wrote  a  book  in  which  tlie  acts  of  Jehosha- 
phat were  narrated  (xx.  34). 

3.  The  founder  of  the  fourth  dynasty  of 
rulers  in  the  kingdom  of  Israel.  He  was  a 
son  of  Jehoshaphat  and  grandson  of  Nimshi. 
For  brevity's  sake  he  was  often  called  the 
son  of  Nimshi  (1  Kin.  xix.  16  ;  2  Kin.  ix.  2). 
Somewhat  earlier  than  854  B.  c  he  was  a 
soldier  in  the  service  of  Ahab  (2  Kin.  ix.  25). 
When  the  cup  of  .\hab's  iniijuity  had  been 
made  full  to  overfiowing  by  the  deliberate 
murder  of  Jehovah's  servants  and  projihets 
and  the  establishment  of  the  worship  of  Baal 
in  the  northern  kingdom,  Elijali  received  a 
command  from  God  to  anoint  Jehu  king  over 
Israel  (1  Kin.  xix.  16, 17).  There  is  no  record 
that  Elijah  executed  the  divine  commission. 
Whether  he  did  or  not.  his  successor  Elisha 
sent  one  of  the  adlierents  of  the  jirophets  to 
carry  it  out.  He  proceeded  to  Eamoth- 
gilead,  which  the  Israelites  were  besieging. 
He  found  Jehu  sitting  with  the  other  officers, 
apjiarently  in  the  mess  tent,  but,  as  instructed, 
tlie  young  man  took  him  into  an  inner  room, 
anointed  him  king  over  Israel,  commissioned 
him  to  destroy  the  house  of  Ahab,  and  then 
precipitately  quitted  the  camp.  Jehu  told 
his  military  companions  what  had  occurred, 
and  they  resolved  to  support  him  in  asserting 
his  claim  to  the  kingdom.  The  reigning 
sovereign  was  Jehoram.  Abab's  son,  who  had 
himself  been  a  little  before  in  the  camj).  but, 
having  been  wounded,  had  returned  to  Jez- 
reel  to  be  healed.  Tliither  accordingly  the 
conspirators  went,  Jehu  leading  the  way. 
The  watchman  on  the  tower  in  Jezreel  iden- 
tified him  when  yet  he  was  at  a  distance  by 
his  furious  driving.  Ahaziah,  king  of  Judah, 
was  visiting  Jehoram,  having  come  to  condole 
with  him  on  his  wound  ;  and  the  two  kings, 
each  in  his  chariot,  went  out  to  meet  the  ad- 
vancing coni]>any.  The  parley  was  short, 
and  .lehoram  was  killed  by  an  arrow  sent  with 
great  force  from  Jehu's  bow,  and  liis  l)ody 
was  cast  into  the  i)lot  of  ground  wliich  had 
once  been  Naboth's  vineyard.  .\haziah, 
against  wliom  there  was  no  quarrel,  except 
that  his  mother  was  Ahab's  daughter,  was 
similarly  dispatched  by  Jehu's  order.  By 
his  command  also.  Jezebel,  the  queen-mother, 
Ahab's  heathen  queen  and  evil  genius,  was 
flung  from  a  window  and  killed  (2  Kin.  ix. 


Jehubbah 


347 


Jephtbah 


1-37).  Then  the  guardians  of  Ahab's  seventy 
sons  were  iiulueeil  to  put  them  to  death  and 
pile  up  tlu'ir  heads  in  two  lieajjs.  one  on 
eaeli  side  of  the  chii'f  ;,'ate  of  Samaria.  Jt 
was  tiie  turn  next  of  .\hai)'s  great  nu-ii  and 
his  kinsfolk,  and  then  of  .Vliaziah's  forty-two 
brothers.  All  was  eoncluded  by  hirinu  Haal's 
I>riests  into  tlie  temple  of  that  heallitn  god 
whose  worshi]ier  .Jehu  pretended  to  \h-,  and 
massaeriu;;  tlicm.  'riioiiuh  .Icliii  executed 
tlie  judgment  ]pronouneed  ujion  the  iiouseof 
Ahab  and  slaughtered  the  ]>riests  of  Baal,  he 
liimself  took  no  heed  to  walk  in  the  law  of 
(Jod.  and  did  not  dejiart  from  the  scliismatie 
ealf  worship  Cj  Kin.  x.  2!»,  .'51).  Jleascemled 
the  throne  about  .'S1:J  is.  c.  In  tiiat  year,  ae- 
eording  to  .A.ssyrian  reeords,  he  paid  tribute 
to  Shalmaneser.  king  of  Assyria,  who  eame 
into  tlie  neighborhood  to  wage  war  against 
JIa/ael.  lie  reigned  twenty-iight  years  (3(>). 
About  >'il  15.  c,  on  account  of  advancing 
age  and  the  loss  of  his  energy  and  military 
skill,  his  son  Jehoahaz  was  j)r(»bably  associ- 
ated with  him.  But  tlie  change  did  not  pre- 
vent his  reign  from  elo.sing  in  di.saster. 
llazael  cut  Israel  short  (2  Kin.  x.  32) ;  .see 
t'HK<)N<)i,o(iY.  A  i)ronii.se  liad  been  given 
that  the  dynasty  of  .Teliu  slioidd  continue  for 
four  generations:  and  it  did  so,  the  line  of 
<lescent  being  .bhoaliaz,  .lehoash  or  Joasli, 
Jeroboam  II.,  and  Zechariah  (2  Kiu.  x.  30  ; 
XV.  8-12). 

4.  A  man  of  Judah,  family  of  Jerahmeel 
(1  Chron.  ii.  3f<) 

5.  A  Simeonite  (1  Chron.  iv.  3.")). 

Je-hub'bah  [liidcbn]. 

.\n  .\slierite,  family  of  Beriah  (1  Chron. 
vii.  :;ii. 

Je-hu'cal  and  Jucal,  inter(liangeal)le  He- 
brew forms  [lie  is  able]. 

A  son  of  Shelemiah  and  jirinee  of  Judah. 
King  Zedekiah  sent  him  and  others  to  ask 
the  [irayers  of  .lereniiah.  when  the  Baby- 
lonian siege  of  .brusalem  was  iiiiiiiinent  (.ler. 
XXX vii.  '.',).  .Vflerwardshe  wished  the  lu'ophet 
to  lie  jMit  to  death  on  the  ground  that  liis 
prediction  of  the  eajiture  of  Jerusalem  by 
the  Babylonians  discouraged  its  defenders 
(xxxviii.  ]-(!). 

Je'hud  [(iraise]. 

.\  town  in  the  original  territory  of  Dan 
(Josh.  xix.  l.")).  Robinson  identified  it  witli 
the  village  of  el-Yehudiyeh,  S  miles  east  by 
south  of  .lall'a.  His  view  has  been  generally 
acceliteil. 

Je-hu'di  'a  man  of  .ludali.  a  Jew]. 

.\  messenger  siMit  l)y  king  .lehoiakim  to 
a<k  Bariicb  for  the  roll  written  by  .lereniiah. 
He  was  afterwards  emidoyed  to  read  it, 
wliich  he  did,  till  the  king,  enraged  at  its 
contents,  cut  it  in  ]iieees  and  cast  it  into  the 
fire  (Jer.  xxxvi.  11,  21,  23i. 

Je-hu-di'Jah  [.rewe.s.s]. 
One  of  the  two  wives  of  Mered,  the  other 
being  Bithiah.  an  Egyptian  jirincess  ( 1  Chrou. 


iv.  18,  A.  v.).  Jehudijah  is,  however,  not  a 
jiroper  name,  but  an  adjective  meaning 
Jewess:  and  it  has  the  definite  article.  She 
was  called  the  Jewess  to  distinguish  her  from 
the  Egyptian. 

Je'liush.     See  Jeush. 
Je-i'el,  in  A.  V.  twice  Jehlel  (1  Chron.  ix. 
35;  xi.  14)  [perhajis,  treasure  of  God]. 

1.  Father  of  tlie  inhabitants  of  Gibeon  and 
an  ancestor  of  king  Saul  (1  Chron.  ix.  35,  36, 
39) :  see  Kisii  2. 

2.  A  son  of  Hotham,  an  Aroerite,  in  the 
reign  of  David  (1  Chron.  xi.  44).  Perhaps 
he  was  the  Keubenite  chief  (v.  7,  8). 

3.  A  Levite  musician  (1  Chron.  xvi.  5,  first 
half) ;  see  J.aazif.i,. 

4.  A  Levite  of  the  second  degree,  whowas 
a  doorkeeper  and  played  the  harp  at  the  re- 
moval of  the  ark  to  Jerusalem  and  after- 
wards as  a  regular  duty  in  the  tent  at  Jeru- 
salem (1  Clinm.  XV.  18,  21 ;  xvi.  5). 

5.  A  Levite  of  the  sons  of  Asaph  (2  Chron. 
XX.  14). 

6.  A  scribe  who  kept  a  record  of  the  num- 
ber of  S(jldiers  in  Uzziah's  army  (2  Chron. 
xxvi.  11). 

7.  A  Hebrew  who  was  induced  by  Ezra  to 
put  away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  43). 

For  others  whose  name  is  thus  spelled  in 
A.  v.,  see  Jeukl. 

Je-kab'ze-el.     See  K.\rzeei,. 

Jek-a-me'am  [he  doth  assemble  the  peo- 
pie]. 

A  Levite,  family  of  Kohath.  house  of 
Hebron   (1   Chron.  xxiii.  19;  xxiv.  23). 

Jek-a-mi'ah,  in  A.  V.  once  Jecamiah  U 

Chron.  iii.  l.-^i  [Jehovah  doth  gather]. 

1.  A  man  of  Judah,  descended  through 
Sheshan  from  Jerahmeel  (1  Chron.  li.  41). 

2.  A  son  or  descendant  of  Jeconiah  (1 
Chron.  iii.  18). 

Je-ku'thi-el  [reverence  for  God]. 
A  man  of  .liidali.  father  of  the  inhabitants 
of  Zanoah  (1  Chron.  iv.  is). 

Je-mi'mah,  in  A.  V.  Jemima  [a  jiigeon,  a 
dove]. 

The  first  of  the  three  daughters  born  to 
Job  after  his  great  trial  (Job  xlii.  14). 

Jem'u-el  [jierhaps.  warmth  or  desire  of 
God]. 

A  son  of  Simeon  ((ien.  xlvi.  10:  Ex.  vi. 
1.')).  In  Num.  xxvi.  12:  1  Chron.  iv.  24  he 
is  called  Nemiiel.   He  founded  a  tribal  family. 

Jeph'thah,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Jeph'tha-e 
[he  (loili  o])en  or  set  free]. 

A  (iileadite,  in  the  twofold  sense  of  having 
a  certain  man  called  (4ilead  for  his  father 
and  the  couiilry  of  Gilead  for  his  early  home. 
He  was  an  illegitimate  child,  and  bis  broth- 
ers born  in  wedlock  exjielled  him  from  the 
lialernal  abode.  He  .siw  injustice  in  the 
treatment  which  he  received,  and  years  later 
he  charged  the  elders  of  Gilead,  among  whom 
were  jirobably  his  brothers,  with  being  party 


Jephunneh 


348 


Jeremiah 


to  the  iniquity  and  animated  by  hatred.  He 
fled  to  the  land  of  Tob,  in-obal^ly  in  the 
Hauran,  where  life  was  fri'o  and  where  witii 
trusty  weaixni  ahumhuit  food  was  to  t)e  had. 
There  he  made  a  name  for  himself  by  his 
prowess,  and  attracted  a  band  of  the  unem- 
ployed around  him  as  their  chief.  He  must 
not  be  tlioujj;ht  of  as  a  lawless  freebooter,  liow- 
ever,  for  lie  was  a  man  with  a  con.science.  He 
soufiht  sutiicient  jnstilication  before  under- 
taking an  enterprise,  he  feared  God  and 
taught  his  daughter  the  fear  of  God,  and  he 
won  her  entire  confuk'nce  and  religious  re- 
spect. About  the  time  of  ,Ie]>hthah's  ex- 
pulsion, the  Ammonites  invaded  tlie  Israel- 
itisli  territory  east  of  the  Jordan  and  held  it 
in  sutijection  eighteen  years.  In  this  ex- 
tremity the  elders  of  Gilead,  who  had  driven 
Jephthah  away,  were  compelled  as  a  last 
resort  to  urge  the  fugitive  to  return  and  be- 
come their  chief  and  deliverer.  On  assuming 
headshi])  over  the  Gileadites,  .Tephtliah  in- 
formed the  neighboring  tril)e  of  Ephraim  of 
the  distress  of  Gilead,  l)ut  he  exhorted  them 
in  vain  to  come  to  tlie  help  of  their  brethren. 
He  also  demanded  of  the  king  of  the  Am- 
monites the  ground  of  his  Inistility,  and  in 
reply  justified  Israel  for  taking  up  arms. 
While  yet  the  issue  of  the  war  was  doubtful, 
Jephthah  had  vowed  that  if  he  were  per- 
mitted to  achieve  victory,  he  would  olfer  to 
God  as  a  burnt  offering  whatever  first  came 
to  him  out  of  his  house.  On  his  return  from 
the  defeat  of  the  Ammonites  what  first  came 
was  his  only  daughter,  and  who,  moreover, 
was  his  only  child.  He  was  greatly  troubled 
when  he  Siiw  her,  l)ut  felt  himself  compelled, 
though  with  infinite  regret,  to  do  with  her 
according  to  his  vow.  The  probability  is 
that  he  sacrificed  her,  though  many  have 
thought  that  he  may  have  redeemed  her 
with  money  {Lev.  xxvii.  1-8)  and  doomed 
her  to  perpetual  celibacy.  The  Israelite 
women  were  accustomed  four  times  a  year  to 
mourn  her  sad  fate.  Hostilities  breaking 
out  between  him  and  the  Ephraimites,  who 
complained  that  he  had  slighted  them  in 
making  arrangements  for  his  Ammonite  cam- 
paign, he  answered  their  false  accusation  and 
defeated  them  in  battle.  He  was  apparently 
in  no  way  restrained  from  severity  against 
them  by  the  fact  that  they  were  his  brethren. 
Jephthah  Judged  Israel  .six  years  (.Tudg.  x.  6- 
xii.  7).  Jephthah  was  cited  by  Samuel  as 
one  proof  among  many  of  .lehovali's  faith- 
fulness to  his  ])romise  to  raise  uj)  a  deliverer 
for  Israel  in  time  of  need  (1  Sam.  xii.  11), 
and  he  is  cited  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews 
as  a  man  of  faith  (Heb.  xi.  :W). 

Je-phun'neh  [it  will  ]»>  \^vL'\y.\vvd]. 

1.  Father  of  Caleb,  the  representative  spy 
from  the  tribe  of  Judah  (Num.  xiii.  6). 

2.  An  Asherite  (1  I'hron.  vii.  :ii<). 

Je'rah  [moon,  montli]. 
An  Arabian  tribe  descended  from  Joktan 
(Gen.  X.  2G;  1  Chron.  i.  20). 


Je-rah'me-el  [God  hath  comi)assion]. 

1.  A  descendant  of  Judah  through  Perez 
and  Hezron  (1  t'hron.  ii.  !» :  ep.  1.  .'>).  Two 
wivesare  mentioned  and  a  numerous  jirogeuy 
is  registered  (25-41). 

2.  S(m  of  a  Levite  called  Kish,  not  Saul's 
father  (1  Clij-on.  xxiv.  2i»). 

0.  One  (jf  the  ollicers  sent  by  king  Jehoia- 
kim  to  arrest  Haruch  (Jer.  xxxvi.  26).  He 
was  i)robably  of  royal  blood  (K.  V.).  See 
Hammklkch. 

Je'red  [descent]. 

1.  Son  of  Mahalalcel  (1  Chron.  i.  2,  A.  V.) ; 
see  Jaked. 

2.  A  man  of  Judah  and  father  of  the  in- 
habitants of  Gedor  (1  Chron.  iv.  18). 

Jer'e-mai  [high]. 

A  Hebrew  who  was  induced  by  Ezra  to 
put  away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  'A'.i). 

Jer-e-mi'ali,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Jeremy  and 
Jeremias  (Mat.  ii.  17;  xvi.  14)  [Jehovah  doth 
establish]. 

1.  A  Eenjamite  who  joined  David  at  Ziklag 
(1  Chron.  xii.  4). 

2  and  3.  Two  Gadites  who  joined  David  at 
Ziklag  (1  Chron.  xii.  10,  13). 

4.  One  of  the  heads  of  the  half  tribe  of 
Manasseh  east  of  the  Jordan  (1  Chron.  v. 
24). 

5.  A  native  of  Libnah.  whose  daughter 
Hamutal  became  the  wife  of  king  Josiah  and 
the  mother  of  Jehoahaz  (2  Kin.  xxiii.  30, 
31). 

6.  Son  of  Habaziniah  and  father  of  Jaaz- 
aniah,  a  Rechabite  (Jer.  xxxv.  3). 

7.  The  great  prophet,  a  son  of  Hilkiah,  a 
priest  of  Anathoth,  in  the  territory  of  Ben- 
jamin (Jer.  i.  1).  He  was  young  when  he 
received  the  divine  call  to  the  prophetic  office. 
He  was  sent  to  deliver  his  message  in  the  face 
of  all  those  who  might  be  opposed  to  its  re- 
ception, whether  jtrinces,  priests,  or  people. 
He  was  to  be  like  a  defensed  city,  an  iron 
pillar,  and  walls  of  bra.ss,  against  which  foes 
might  fight,  but  would  not  prevail.  As  a 
symbolic  ordination  ceremony,  the  Lord 
touched  his  mouth,  putting  within  it  words, 
and  setting  him  over  nations  and  kingdoms, 
on  the  one  hand,  to  root  out.  overthrow,  and 
destroy,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  to  jilant 
and  to  build  (i.  4-10).  He  began  to  prophesy 
in  the  thirteenth  year  of  the  reign  of  Josiah, 
and  continued  to  do  so  till  the  cajiture  of 
Jerusalem,  in  the  fifth  month  (tf  the  eleventh 
year  of  ZedekinlTs  reign.  Thus  his  ])ublic 
life  extended  through  the  last  eighteen  years 
of  Josiah's  reign,  the  three  months  during 
which  .Tehoahaz  ruled,  the  eleven  years  of 
Jehoiakini,  the  tlirec  months  of  Jehoiaidiin, 
and  the  eleven  years  and  five  months  of  Zede- 
kiah,  in  all  al)out  forty-one  years.*  Nor  did 
he,  even  then,  cease  from  his  projihetic  func- 
tions (xliii.,  xliv.).  "A  i)roi)luf  is  not  with- 
out honor,  save  in  his  own  country  and  in  his 
own  house."  The  men  of  Anathoth.  his  ])a- 
ternal  home,  threatened  to  kill  him  if  he  did 


Jeremiah 


34'j 


Jeremiah 


not  desist  from  pro])hesyiug.  He  jjcrsevered 
ill  Ills  niissidii  (U-spitc  tlu'  in'i"si'cutioii,  Jmt  he 
keenly  felt  this  iipiiosition  Id  the  work  of 
(i(»(l  from  his  eoimtryiiieii,  the  chosen  people 
of  (lod,  and  lie  eried  to  (iod  for  Jiid;;nient 
(Jer.  xi.  l.s-~'l  ;  xii.  ."ii.  The  hostility  to  the 
l)rophet,  which  hijjan  at  Anatholh,  after  a 
time  tiecame  K<^'neral,  and  ayain  evoked  a 
cry  for  jud^jnient  iiiioii  his  oiijioneiits  (xviii. 
ltS--j:5 :  cp.  also  XX.  VI).  Once,  like  Joh,  he 
cni-sed  the  day  of  his  i>irth  Ixx.  14-18).  On 
another  occasion  he  exclaimed,  "Woe  is  me, 
my  mother,  that  tlioii  hast  home  me  a  man 
of  strife  and  a  man  of  contention  to  the  whole 
earth  I  I  have  not  lent  on  usury,  neither 
liave  men  lent  to  me  on  usury  ;  yet  every 
one  of  them  doth  curse  me"  (xv.  10).  But 
<livine  };race  enahled  him  to  remain  faithful 
to  his  duty  in  sjiite  ot'  ohlcKHiy  and  jjersecu- 
tion.  In  the  fourth  year  of  the  reij;n  of 
Jihoiakim,  .Jeremiah  iniiiloyed  Harueh  to 
take  a  jn'oidietie  roll,  which  he,  ai)parently 
suflerinjc  his  first  imi)risonment.  could  not 
l)ersonally  use,  and  read  it  in  the  ears  of  the 
l)eople  who  came  to  tlie  temjile  on  occasion 
of  a  fast.  The  roll  ultimately  reached  the 
kin^j  him.self,  who,  after  reading  a  few  leaves 
or  columns,  cut  it  in  i)ieces  and  thing  it  into 
the  tire  (xxxvi.  l-"J(i).  By  divine  direction 
till'  projdiet  at  once  pre]>ared  a  second  roll 
like  the  lii-st,  hut  witli  additions  (27-3^;).  A 
foe  of  his,  the  jjriest  Paslihur,  son  of  Inimer, 
chief  tfovernor  of  tlie  temple,  put  him  in  the 
stocks,  from  which,  liowever,  lie  was  rele.ased 
next  day  (xx.  l-.'i).  During  the  siege  of 
Jerusalem  tlie  Jewish  authorities  looked  at 
Jeremiah's  iir<:]>liecies  of  tlie  success  of  Ne- 
huchaduezzar  and  the  Chaldeans  and  the 
suhseqiient  caiitivity  of  Judah  from  the  po- 
litical or  military,  instead  of  from  the  re- 
ligious, jioint  of  view.  They  considered  that 
his  uufavorahle  predictions  discouraged  the 
defenders  of  Jerusalem.  And  when  the 
Chaldean  army  temjiorarily  raised  tlii'  siege 
to  meet  the  Egyjjtians.  and  Jeremiah  desired 
to  withdraw  from  the  ])lace  hefore  their  re- 
turn, the  uufouiided  charge  was  made  that 
lie  was  going  over  to  the  Chaldeans,  and  he 
was  committed  to  |)rison  (xxxvii.  1-15).  King 
Zedekiah  released  liini,  hut  the  jirinces  soon 
afterwards  removed  him  to  a  dungeon,  and 
wished  that  he  should  he  i)ut  to  death.  Zeile- 
kiah,  however,  who  secretly  favored  him, 
ha<l  him  removed  to  the  court  of  the  jirison. 
The  iirojihet  was  tliere  when  Jerusalem  was 
taken  (xxxviii.).  The  Chaldeans  looked  iijion 
him  as  tlu'ir  friend,  and  Neliuzaradan.  I'a])- 
tain  of  their  guard,  hy  ex]iress  orders  from 
Nehncliadnezzjir,  released  Jeremiah,  spoke 
kindly  to  him,  and  allowed  him  to  make  his 
residence  wherever  he  ]ileased.  He  elected 
to  live  under  the  rule  of  (iedaliah,  whom 
Nehuchadiiez/jir  had  made  governor  of  Judah 
(xxxix.  11x1.  li).  On  the  murder  of  Geda- 
liali,  he  strongly  dissuaded  the  Jews  who  had 
heen  under  the  late  governor's  |)rotecti(m 
from  tleeing  to  Kgypt.     It  was  in  vain  ;  they 


not  merely  went  thither  themselves,  but  they 
compelled  tlie  prophet  to  accompany  them 
on  their  journey  (xli.  1-xliii.  7).  He  deliv- 
ered his  last  jiredictions  at  Tahpanlies,  in 
Egyi(t  (xliii.  h-xliv.  30).  The  time  and 
manner  of  his  death  are  unknown.  Besides 
the  iiroi)liecies  to  which  his  name  is  attached, 
and  his  Lamentations,  he  may  have  written 
some  of  the  i)silms,  whidi  resemble  his  com- 
positions in  style. 

Jeremiah  committed  some  of  his  projilie- 
eies  to  writing  in  the  reign  of  Jehoiakim, 
but  the  roll  which  contained  them  was  de- 
stroyed hy  the  king  (xxxvi.  1,  '2'.i).  When  re- 
written, large  additions  were  made  to  them 
(;52).  The  present  hook  is  evidently  a  con- 
tinuous composition,  prejiared  at  the  close  of 
his  ministry ;  for  projihccies  of  ditferent 
jieriods  are  placed  together  and  those  of  the 
same  period  are  often  disjii'ised.  The  hook 
consists  of  an  introduction  narrating  the 
l)rophet's  call  (i.),  three  .sections  of  projihecy 
(ii.-li.),  and  a  historical  ajipendix,  added 
jirohably  hy  a  later  writer  Uii.  ;  cji.  li.  64). 
The  three  ])roi)hetic  sections  are  :  I.  Predic- 
tion of  the  apiiroachiug  judgment  of  Judah 
and  the  promise  of  restoration  from  exile 
(ii.-xxxiii.).  It  includes  a  general  denunci- 
ati<m  of  Judah  (ii.-xx.),  denunciation  of  the 
civil  and  religious  rulers  (xxi.-xxiii. ),  an  un- 
folding of  the  design  and  duration  of  the 
judgment  (xxiv.-xxix.),  and  itro]>hecy  of  tlie 
blessings  which  will  follow  the  judgment 
(xxx.-xxxiii.).  II.  History  of  the  infliction 
of  the  judgment  (xxxiv.-xliv.),  including 
denunciations  of  the  corruiition  which  pre- 
vailed immediately  hefore  the  destruction  of 
the  city  (xxxiv. -xxxviii.).  an  account  of  the 
destruction  of  the  citj*  (xxxix.),  and  of  the 
wretched  condition  of  the  remnant  (xl.-xiiv.). 
III.  Tredictions  iesi)eeting  foreign  nations 
(xliv.-li.),  introduced  by  an  address  to 
Barucli  (xlv.). 

The  Messiah  is  spoken  of  in  xxiii.  5-8  ; 
XXX.  4-11;  xxxiii.  14-2fi ;  and  Jehovah's 
sure  covenant  with  Israel  is  dwelt  upon  in 
xxxi.  :{l-40;  xxxii.  lil)-44  :  xxxiii. 

The  text  of  the  .^ei>tuagint  dilfers  consid- 
erably from  the  Hebrew:  chaiiters  xlvi.-li. 
are  not  only  arranged  in  a  different  order 
among  them.selves,  but  the  entire  section  lias 
been  inserted  after  xxv.  I.',:  clia)!.  xxxiii. 
14-2(>  has  been  droi>]>ed  :  and  in  many  other 
places  tlic  Greek  version  presents  a  shorter 
text  than  the  Hebrew.  Disposed  chronolog- 
ically, so  far  as  they  bear  ex]>liiit  dates,  tlie 
]>ro])hecies  stand  thus : 

In    Josiahs    reign,  belp^^^^,,,,.  p^aps.  i.-vi. 

tveen   the    l.^th    and  ^     (cp.  i.  2;  ill.  6). 

31st  year )         '^ 

In  .Ieh"oiihiiz"   reign   of  1  vr»r.o 

:Unonflis    ......   (• -^""C- 

In  .lelioiakiin's  reignof  "I 

11  years,  in  the  begin-  -Chnp.  xxvi. 

ning ) 

T„  .!,„  1.1,  ..  .„,  )  C;haps.   XXV.:    xxxvi.; 

In  the  4th  >  ear   .       .  |,^,,.'.  ^ivi.  1.12. 

In  an  unnoted  year  .   .  Chap.  xxxv. 


Jeremoth 


350 


Jericho 


Id  Jehoiachin's  reign 
of  3  mouths     .... 

In  Zedekiah's  rt-ign  of 
11  years,  in  the  be- 
ginning   

In  his  4th  year    .   .   . 

In  his  10th  year  .   .    . 

In  unnoted  years  .   . 

After  the  fall  of  Jerusa- 
lem        

Without  explicit  date, 
but  not  always  with- 
out indications  of 
time 


1  Probably    chap.    xxii. 

I     20-30. 

I  Chaiis.  xxiv. ;  xlix.  34- 
j     3"J. 

Chaps,  xxvii.  (cp.  3,  12 
and  xxvii  i.  1)  ; 
xxviii.;  li.  59-C4. 

Chaps,  xxxii. ;  xxxiii. 
^  Chaps,  xxi. ;  xxix.  ; 
1  xxxiv.  ;  xxxvii.  ; 
(  xxxviii. ;  xxxix.  15- 
J      18. 

(Chaps,     xxxix. 
/     xl.-xliv. ;  lii. 
I  Chaps,  vii.-xx. 
i      XXX.  ;    xxxi. 
I     xlvi.  13-xlviii.;  xlix.- 
J      li.  58  ;  lii. 


1-14; 


;  xxiii, 
xlv. 


8.  A  chief  of  the  priests,  who  returned 
with  Zerubbahel  from  Babylon  (Xeh.  xii.  1, 
7).  A  fatlier's  house  bore  his  name  in  the 
next  generation  112). 

9.  A  priest,  doubtless  head  of  a  father's 
house,  who,  with  Nelieniiah  and  others, 
sealed  the  covenant  to  keep  separate  from 
foreigners  and  observe  the  law  of  God  (Xeh. 
X.  2). 

Jer'e-moth  and  Jerimoth  [probably 
heights]. 

1.  A  Beujamite,  family  of  Becher  (1  Chron. 
vii.  8). 

2.  A  Benjamite  (1  Chron.  viii.  14),  perhaps 
the  person  called  Jeroham  (27). 

3.  A  Levite,  family  of  Merari,  house  of 
Mushi  (1  Chron.  xxiii.  23:  xxiv.  30). 

4.  A  descendant  of  Heman  and  head  of 
the  fifteenth  course  among  the  musicians  in 
David's  reign  (1  Chron.  xxv.  4,  22). 

5.  A  son  of  Azriel  and  prince  of  the  tribe 
of  Naphtali  in  David's  reign  (1  Chron.  xxvii. 
19). 

6  and  7.  Two  descendants  of  Elam  who 
were  persuaded  by  Ezra  to  put  away  their 
foreign  wives  (Ezra  x.  26,  27). 

8.  A  son  of  Bani,  who  was  similarly  per- 
suaded (Ezra  X.  29,  in  A.  V.,  according  to  an- 
other reading,  Ramothl. 

For  persons  who  bear  the  name  Jerimoth 
only,  see  .Jerimoth. 

Jer'e-my.     See  .Tkremi.vh. 

Je-ri'ah,  once  Jerijah  [probably,  founded 
by  .Jehovah]. 

A  Levite,  family  of  Kohath,  house  of  He- 
bron (1  Chron.  xxiii.  19  ;  xxiv.  23;  xxvi.  31). 

Jer'i-bai  [contentious]. 

A  son  of  Elnaam,  and  one  of  David's 
mighty  men  (1  Chron.  xi.  46). 

Jer'i-cho  [jjlace  of  fragrance]. 

An  inijiortant  city  situated  in  the  valley 
of  the  J<irdan  (Dent,  xxxiv.  1,3),  westof  tlie 
river,  at  tlie  foot  of  the  ascent  to  the  moun- 
tainous table-land  of  Judah.  It  was  known 
as  the  city  of  ])alm  trees  (il)id. ;  .Judg.  iii.  13). 
Perbaiis  it  did  not  exist  in  ]>atriarcbal  times; 
for  it  is  iu)t  mentioned,  altli«iugb  other  cities 
of  the  plain  are  (Gen.  xiii.  1(1-12  ;  xiv.  2).  It 
is  first  alluded  to  when  the  Israelites  en- 


camped at  Shittim  on  the  other  side  of  the 
Jordan  (Num.  xxii.  1  ;  xxvi.  3).  When  the 
Israelites  were  ai)out  to  cross  the  Jordan, 
Joshua  foresaw  that  Jericho,  being  a  strongly 
fortified  city,  would  couimand  any  camp 
which  tliey  might  pitch  in  the  neighborhood 
and  would  bar  their  further  progress.  Jle 
accordingly  made  it  tlic  lirst  object  of  his 
attention,  and  sent  s]iies  to  examine  it  (Josh. 
ii.  1-24).  Having  led  the  Israelites  across 
the  river  and  formed  his  camp  near  the  city, 
by  divine  direction  he  ordered  the  men  of 
war  tt)  go  round  the  city  once  a  day  for  six 
days,  and  on  the  seventh  day,  headed  by  the 
priests  with  trumpets,  to  compass  the  city 
seven  times,  and  then  to  raise  a  shout.  They 
did  so.  At  the  shout,  the  walls  of  the  city 
fell  down,  allowing  the  assailants  to  enter. 
The  place  was  devoted  to  utter  destruction. 
Kahab.  who  had  protected  the  spies,  and  her 
father's  household  alone  were  spared.  Every 
other  human  being  was  slain  ;  so  also  were 
the  animals.  The  silver  and  the  gold,  with 
other  valuables,  were  put  into  the  treasury 
of  the  house  of  the  Lord.  It  was  for  secret- 
ing a  part  of  the  sjioil  which  had  been  de- 
voted to  Jehovah  that  Achan  brought  on 
himself  his  dreadful  doom.  Finally.  Joshua 
pronounced  a  curse  upon  the  demolisiied  city, 
prophesying  that  if  anyone  ever  fortified  it 
he  should  lose  his  elder  son  when  the  foun- 
dations were  being  laid,  and  the  younger  one 
when  the  gates  were  being  set  up  (Josh.  v. 
13-vii.  2,  16-26).  The  place  was  assigned  to 
Benjamin,  and  stood  on  the  boundary  between 
the  tribes  of  Ephraim  and  Benjamin  (xvi.  1, 
7;  xviii.  12,  21).  It  was  soon  rebuilt,  and  it 
was  occupied  as  a  royal  residence  by  Eglon, 
king  of  Moab,  when  he  opjiressed  the  Israel- 
ites (Judg.  iii.  13).  David's  ambassadors  re- 
turning home  after  tbej-  had  been  insulted 
by  Hanun.  remained  in  Jericho  until  their 
beards  grew  (2  Sam.  x.  5  ;  1  Chron.  xix. 
5).  In  Ahab's  reign  Hiel  the  Bethelite 
undertook  to  fortify  the  city,  but  lost  his 
two  sons  in  the  manner  predicted  by 
Joshua  (1  Kin.  xvi.  34).  During  Eli- 
jah's lifetime  there  was  a  school  of  the 
prophets  at  the  jilace  (2  Kin.  ii.  5).  Elijah, 
when  about  to  be  translated  to  heaven, 
passed  through  it  with  Elisha,  and  Elisha  re- 
turned to  it  after  finally  parting  with  Elijah 
(4, 15,  18).  The  captives  of  Judah.  taken"  by 
the  Israelite  army  under  I'ekah.  were  set 
free  in  the  city  of  .Jericho  (2  Chron.  xxviii. 
15).  In  its  vicinity  Zedekiah  was  captured 
by  his  Babylonian  jiursuers  (2  Kin.  xxv.  5; 
Jer.  xxxix.  5  ;  lii.  8).  Three  hundred  and 
forty-five  of  its  former  inhabitants  and  their 
descendants  returned  from  ca])tivity  with 
Zerubbahel  (Ezra  ii.  ;54  ;  Nih.  vii.  3()).  Some 
of  its  new  pojiulace  heljied  to  rebuild  the  wall 
of  Jerusalem  (iii.  2).  Baccliides,  the  Syrian 
general.  rei>aire(l  the  fortifications  of  Jericho 
during  tlie  Maccaba-an  period  (1  Mac.  ix.  50). 
In  the  early  years  of  Herod  the  Great  the 
Romans  plundered  Jericho  (Antiq.  xiv.  15,  3). 


Jeriel 


351 


Jeroboam 


Subsequently  Herod  restored  and  beautified 
it,  i-rc'itiiiy  a  royal  i)alacc  aii<l,  on  the  bill 
behind  the  town,  a  i-itailel  wliich  he  named 
C}'i)nis  (xvi.  5,  2;  xvii.  13,  1;  War  i.  21.  4 
and  11).  Tliere  was  also  a  eircus  tlii-re  at  tlie 
time  of  Herod's  deatii  (Anticj.  xvii.  (i,  5; 
War  i.  xxxiii.  (J-y).  It  was  on  the  way  down 
from  Jerusalem  to  Jericho  that  the  incident 
of  the  jiooil  Samaritan  oiciirri-d  (  Luke  x.  :J0), 
and  it  was  at  .Icriclui  itself  that  Jesus  re- 
stored sifrlit  to  blind  15artiniieus  and  his  com- 
panion (Mat.  XX.  29;  Luke  xviii.  ^S).  It  was 
there  also  that  he  broufiht  salvation  to  Zac- 
cha'Us,  whose  home  was  in  .lericho  (xix.  1.  2). 
Jerichd,  lyint^  nidre  than  a  tiiousand  feet 
below  the  level  of  the  Mediterranean,  had  a 
trniiical  climate.  Palms,  balsams,  syconiores, 
ami  henna  flourished  (Soiij;  i.  14  ;  Luke  xix.  2, 
4;  War  iv.  .■^.  .'{).  The  ro.se  plant  of  Jericho 
was  proverbially  tine  (  Lcclus.  xxiv.  14).  The 
original  Jericho  probai)ly  stood  near  the  spot 
where  the  copious  'Ain  es-Sultan.  ajiparently 
the  fountain  healed  by  Elisiia,  bursts  from  a 
mound.  The  modern  villaf,'e  of  'Eriha  (the 
Hebrew  Y'riho  a  little  altered),  is  4?  miles 
west  of  the  Jordan,  and  li  southeast  of  the 
fountain.  It  is  a  small  and  miserable  place. 
Only  a  solitary  date  jialm  remains,  but  i\}i  trees 
abound,  and  wherever  there  is  water  there  is 
abundant,  and  mo.stly  tropical,  vegetation. 

Je'ri-el  [i>robably.  founded  by  God]. 
A  disccndant  of  Tola,  of  the  tribe  of  Issa- 
char  (1  I'hron.  vii.  2). 

Je-ri'jah.    See  Jeri.mi. 

Jer'i-moth  [i)robably.  heights]. 

1.  -V  IJenjamite,  family  of  Bela  (1  C'hron. 
vii.  7). 

2.  A  Benjamitc  who  joined  David  at  Zik- 
lap  (1  Chron.  xii.  r>). 

3.  A  son  of  David.  His  daughter,  Alaha- 
lath,  became  a  wife  of  Kehoboam  (2  Chron. 
xi.  18). 

4.  A  Levite,  an  overseer  in  connection  with 
the  temple  in  Hezekiah's  reign  (2  Chron. 
xxxi.  i:5). 

For  others  whose  name  sometimes  appears 
as  Jennioth,  see  Jerkmotii. 

Jeri-oth  [curtains]. 

One  of  Caleb's  wives  (1  Chron.  ii.  18). 

Jer-0-bo'am  [the  people  become  numer- 
ous]. 

1.  The  distinguished  Epbraimite  who 
founded  the  kingdom  of  the  ten  tribes.  His 
father's  name  was  Ncbat.  belonging  to  the 
vill:igc  of  Zeredah  in  the  .Ionian  valley;  his 
niotln-r's  name  was  Zeruali.  who  was  a 
widow  at  the  time  of  his  birth  (1  Kin.  xi. 
2(i).  .\s  he  grew  u]i  be  showed  himself  to  be 
a  man  of  energy  and  valor;  and  when  king 
Solomon  repaired  Millo  and  the  city  of 
David,  he  appointed  the  _\dung  Epbraimite 
over  all  the  hou.se  of  Joseiiii  127,  2S).  One 
day  as  Jeroboam  was  walking  out  of  Jeru- 
salem he  met  a  proi)het,  .Vbijah  of  Shihdi, 
clad  in  a  new  gannent,   which  he  rent  in 


twelve  pieces,  giving  ten  to  Jeroboam  as  an 
indication  that  Jehovah  destined  him  to  be 
king  over  ten  out  of  the  twelve  tribes.  News 
of  the  transaction  somehow  n  ached  the  ears 
of  Solomon,  who  sought  to  kill  .ler<iboam, 
but  he  escaped  to  Egypt,  and  was  kindly  re- 
ceived by  Shishak,  its  king  (29-40).  When 
the  refugee  heard  that  Solomon  was  dead, 
and  that  an  asseml)ly  of  the  tribes  was  to 
take  j)lace  at  Sliecheni  to  make  his  son  Ke- 
hoboam king,  he  returned  to  attend  the 
meeting,  and  did  .so,  doubtless  with  the  sym- 
bolical action  and  prophecy  of  Ahi.jah  the 
Shilonite  vividly  recalled  to  bis  memory.  He 
put  himself  forward  as  spokesman  of  the 
peo]ile,  and  urged  the  alleviation  of  their 
burdens.  Kehoboam  denied  the  jietition.  re- 
turning a  foolish  and  exasjterating  answer. 
Ten  tribes  thereupon  revolted  from  the 
bouse  of  David,  and,  feeling  themselves  in 
want  of  a  ruler,  elected  Jeroboam  king. 
Tlie  prophecy  of  Ahijah  had  come  true  to 
the  letter;  yet  Jerolioam  resolved  to  dejiart 
from  the  counsel  by  which  it  had  been 
accomi)anied.  The  jirophet  had  exhorted 
him  to  remain  true  to  Ji-bovab.  in  which 
case  the  crown  should  descend  pennancjitly 
in  his  family  (37,  3b).  But  worldly  jtolicy 
tempted  him  in  another  direction.  He  was 
afraid  that  if  the  people  went  uj)  statedly  to 
Jerusalem  to  worship  they  would  be  won 
over  to  Ivelioboani,  in  which  case  be,  the 
rebel  leader,  would  be  put  tf)  death.  He 
therefore  established  a  center  of  worship  at 
each  of  the  two  extremities  of  his  kingdom, 
Dan  in  the  north  and  Bethel  in  the  south. 
In  defiance  of  the  commandment  which  for- 
bids the  adoration  of  God  by  means  of 
images,  he  .set  up  a  golden  calf  in  each  of 
the  two  places  (xii.  26-30 ;  2  Chron.  xiii. 
8),  and  recommended  the  worshi])  as  not 
altogether  new  by  using  the  familiar  words 
of  Aaron  (Ex.  xxxii.  4).  It  would  seem  that 
he  still  desired  to  worshi])  Jehovah  under 
the  image  of  the  calf.  He  not  only  thus 
established  houses  of  high  ])laces  which 
lacked  the  ark  and  the  shekinab.  but  he 
made  Israelites  who  were  not  of  the  tribe  of 
Levi  i>riests,  doubtless  because  the  lawful 
priests  and  other  Levites  refused  to  serve  in 
the  idolatrous  and  schismatic  worship  (1 
Kin.  xii.  'A]  ;  2  Chron.  xi.  13-1.")!.  He  further 
decree<l  that  llu-  harvest  festival,  which  was 
celebrated  in  .ludah  on  the  fifteenth  day  of 
the  si'venth  month,  should  be  observed  in 
the  northern  kingdom  on  the  fifteenth  day 
of  the  eighth  month  (1  Kin.  xii.  :{2.  '■'•'■'>). 
The  ma.ss  of  the  peojile  conformed,  and 
the  successive  kings,  actuated  by  worldly 
policy,  so  uniformly  sui>]iorled  the  calf 
W(U-slii|>,  unless  they  exchanged  it  for  the 
more  heinous  service  of  Baal,  that  as  ojie, 
and  another,  and  another  of  these  rulers 
reigned,  the  stereotyped  language  was  re- 
jieated  that  be  walked  in  the  way  of  Jero- 
boam, the  son  of  Nebat,  who  made  Israel  to 
sin  (1   Kin.  xv.  26,  34  ;  xvi.  19,  31  ;  2  Kin. 


Jeroham 


352 


Jerusalem 


iii.  3 ;  x.  29  ;  xiii.  2,  11  ;  xiv.  24  ;  xv.  9,  18, 
24,  28).  The  idolatry  established  by  Jero- 
boam was  one  cause  wliicli  led  to  the  carrying 
of  the  toil  tril)cs  into  captivity  to  Assyria  (2 
Kin.  xvii.  l(i) ;  for  it  kc]>t  the  Ilchrcw  nation 
divided  in  twain  and  made  two  inferior  king- 
doms where  tliere  had  l)een  ont»  strong  united 
people ;  and,  as  it  was  a  degradation  of  the 
lofty  si)iritual  worsliip  of  Jehovali,  it  resulted 
in  lowering  the  spiritual  tone  of  the  northern 
Israelites.  Jeroboam  was  rel)uked  for  his 
apostasy,  fir.st  by  an  unnamed  i)ro]ili('t  from 
Judah.  and  then  by  Aiiijah,  the  Shilonite, 
who  had  pronii.sed  him  the  kingdom  ;  l)ut  he 
continued  to  the  end  unrei)entant  (1  Kin. 
xiii.  1-xiv.  IX).  He  fortified  Shechem  and 
Penuel,  both  sacred  places.  Tin;  former  he 
made  his  eaiiital,  but  after  a  time  seems  to 
have  preferred  residing  at  the  beautiful  Tir- 
zah  (1  Kin.  xii.  25;  xiv.  17;  Song  vi.  4). 
There  was  a  desultory  warfare  l)etween  Jero- 
boam and  Rehoboam  (1  Kin.  xv.  6),  and  a 
great  battle  was  fought  betwt?eu  the  former 
king  and  Rehoboam's  son  and  successor, 
Abijani,  in  wliich  the  army  of  Israel  was  de- 
feated with  enormous  slaughter,  and  Bethel, 
which  was  only  10  miles  from  Jerusalem, 
temporarily  lost  to  Israel  (7 ;  2  Chron.  xiii. 
1-20).  Jeroboam  was  made  king  about  931 
B.  c,  and  reigned  twenty-two  years  (1  Kin. 
xiv.  20).  One  son  of  his  had  died  in  infancy 
(1-17)  ;  another,  Nadab^  ascended  the  throne 
(20). 

2.  The  son  of  Joash,  king  of  Israel,  and 
his  successor  on  the  throne  of  the  ten  tribes. 
He  was  of  the  dynasty  of  Jehu,  and  the 
third  in  descent  from  that  ruler.  He  became 
king  in  Samaria  about  the  year  790  b.  c,  and 
reigned  forty-one  years.  He  found  the  king- 
dom in  a  very  depressed  state,  but  raised  it 
again  to  ])ros]ierity,  capturing  Damascus,  the 
capital  of  the  Sj'rian  empire,  and  Haniath, 
one  of  the  Hittite  towns,  and  restoring  to 
Israel  the  country  from  Hamath  to  the 
Dead  Sea.  These  successes  had  been  jiredicted 
by  Jonah  (2  Kin.  xiv.  2.3-28:  cp.  Deut.  iii. 
17).  Amos  also  prophesied  in  Jeroboam  II. 's 
reign  (Amos  i.  1).  He  draws  a  melancholy 
picture  of  the  moral  and  religious  state  of 
Israel  at  the  time  (ii.  *J-v.  27 ;  viii.  4-6, 
etc.),  for  which  he  i>redicts  judgment  from 
God  (vii.  1-i) ;  viii.  7-10).  For  these  jirophe- 
cies  a  comi)laint  was  made  against  him  to 
Jeroboam  by  Aniaziah  the  priest  at  Bethel, 
but  it  does  not  seem  to  have  brought  any 
penalty  on  the  prophet  (vii.  10-17).  Hosca 
also  began  his  pro])hetic  wt)rk  in  the  northern 
kingdom  during  the  lifetime  of  Jeroboam. 
The  first  three  chai)ters]H'rtaiii  to  that  period. 
On  the  deatJi  of  Jeroboam,  his  son  Zechariah 
ascended  the  throne  (2  Kin.  xiv.  29). 

Je-ro'ham  [he  findeth  mercy]. 

1.  A  Levite,  an  ancestor  of  the  prophet 
Samuel  (I  Sam.  i.  1  ;  1  Cliron.  vi.  27,  34). 

2.  A  Benjamite,  whose  .sons  were  chief  men 
and  dwelt  at  Jerusalem  (1  Chron.  viii.  27). 


See  Jkeemotii  2.     He  may  be  identical  with 
the  following. 

3.  A  Benjamite.  father  of  Ibneiah  who 
dwelt  at  Jerusalem  (1  Chron.  ix.  S). 

4.  A  priest  of  the  house  of  Malchijah  (1 
Chron.  ix.  12;  Neh.  xi.  12). 

5.  A  Benjamite  of  (iedor.  whose  sons  joined 
David  at  Ziklag  (1  Cliron.  xii.  7). 

6.  Father  of  the  chief  of  the  tribe  of  Dan 
in  the  reign  of  David  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  22). 

7.  Father  of  one  of  the  captains  who  aided 
Jehoiada  in  jintting  Joash  vn  the  throne  of 
Judah  (2  Chron.  xxiii.  1). 

Je-rub'ba-al  and  Je-rub'be-slieth.     See 

GlIJEOX. 

Jer'u-el  [probably,  founded  by  God]. 

A  wilderness  in  .ludah,  adjacent  to  the 
clitf  of  Ziz,  and  therefore  in  the  vicinity  of 
En-gedi  (2  Chron.  xx.  16).  Exact  situation 
unknown. 

Je-ru'sa-lem  [to  the  Hebrews  it  meant 
foundation  of  jieace,  secure  habitation]. 

The  sacred  city  and  well-known  capital  of 
Judah,  of  Judfea,  of  Palestine,  and  of  the 
Jews  throughout  the  world.  For  the  sake 
of  convenient  reference  and  clearness,  the 
subject  is  presented  under  certain  heads: 
I.  Name.  II.  The  city  in  itself:  1.  Site;  2. 
Water  supply  ;  3.  Artificial  defenses;  4.  Not- 
able buildings  in  the  time  of  Christ.  III. 
The  history  of  the  city :  1.  The  Cauaanite 
city ;  2.  The  city  of  the  Hebrews ;  3.  The 
city  since  Titus.     IV.  Modern  excavation. 

I.  The  name.  The  earliest  known  name  is 
Urusalim,  i.  e.  Jerusalem.  It  was  in  use  as 
early  as  the  sixteenth  century  before  Christ, 
long  before  the  conquest  of  Canaan  by  the 
Hebrews  under  Joshua,  being  found  in  letters 
from  its  subject  prince  to  Amenophis  IV., 
king  of  Egy])t,  his  lord.  Salem,  of  wliich 
Melchizedek  was  king,  is  a  natural  abbrevia- 
tion of  Jerusalem  and  not  unlikely  denoted 
this  city.  The  place  is  mentioned  as  Jerusa- 
lem in  the  account  of  the  conquest  of  Canaan, 
but  in  that  narrative  it  is  also  referred  to  as 
Jebus ;  in  fact,  this  latter  name  is  frequent 
after  the  conquest  during  the  occupation  of 
the  city  by  the  Jebiisites ;  but  when  David 
ca])tured  the  city  and  made  it  his  capital,  the 
old  name  of  Jerusalem,  or  ablireviated  Salem 
(Ps.  Ixxvi.  2),  became  once  more  the  sole 
designation.  The  pronunciation  of  the  final 
syllable  has  been  modified  by  the  later  Jews, 
so  that  it  resembles  a  dual  and  quite  appro- 
priately suggests  a  double  city. 

II.  1.  The  site.  Jerusalem  is  situated  on  a 
table-land  on  the  crest  of  the  central  ridge  of 
Palestine  and  at  one  of  its  highest  jioints. 
It  has  the  same  latitude  as  the  northern  end 
of  the  Dead  Sea.  The  portion  of  the  table- 
land occupied  by  the  city  is  isolated  from  the 
rest  of  the  plateau,  excejit  on  the  north.  On 
the  other  sides  it  is  encompassed  by  deep 
ravines.  This  jutting  jiromontory  is  itself 
cut  by  another  valley  which,  followed  up- 
ward   from    its   mouth    at   the   southeastern 


Jerusalem 


354 


Jerusalem 


itcd  (the  roferciKt  is  to  tlu    , 
jicnt  topography)  fioiii  tlu    [    "^"*' 
ilo-land,    of  whii  h    it    is    i   '^ 


corner  of  the  in-oinontory  at  the  junction  of 
the  southern  and  eastern  ravines,  trends  like 
tlie  are  of  a  circle  for  nearly  a  inile  north- 
ward, midway  sending  a  braiicli  from  its 
concave  side  duo  west.  Such  at  least  was 
the  original  configuration  of  the  city's  site  ; 
but  in  the  course  of  centuries,  through  mu- 
nicipal improvenients  and  the  devastation  of 
war,  heights  have  been  lowered  and  valleys 
filled.  As  a  result  of  these  ramitications, 
there  are  three  princ  iji  il  hills 
an  eastern,  a  southwtsUrn 
and  a  northwestern  1  lu  (  isi 
ern  hill  is  a  ridge  c\t(iidnu 
for  somewhat  uu)re  th  in  h  ilt 
a  mile  from  north  to  soutli 
which  rises  to  a  height  ot 
from  200  to  300  feel  .ibo\(.  its 
enconii)assing  valU  \  s  t  ijk  is 
to  a  blunt  point  at  lis  south 
ern  extremity,  and  it  it- 
northern  end  is  almost  st  p 
arated  (the  refereiKt  is  to  tlu 
anc 
table 

part,  by  a  branch  of  the  i  ist 
ern  ravine.  This  ridgt  ittiiti- 
a  general  altitude  of  2 100  ft  ( t 
above  sea  level.  Tht  1 1  is  sonu 
evidence  that  a  sliglit  dcpits 
sion  or  valley,  about  100  feet 
wide  and  in  places  10  fut 
deep,  lay  athwart  it  to^^ald 
the  southern  end  from  tlic  so 
called  fountain  of  the  \iigiii 
northwesterly  to  the  T\  ro 
pceon  valley.  ThesoutluMst 
ern  hill  is  much  the  laigest  of 
the  three.  In  form  it  is  oh 
long,  with  a  spur  thu)\Mi  out 
on  the  northeastern  (oinir 
toward  the  eastern  iidgc  It 
rises  abruptly  from  the  iiuir 
cling  valleys.  Its  biv.ad  sum- 
mit begins  at  an  altitude  of 
about  24(10  feet  i'bove  the  level  of  the  sea  and 
swells  l.")()  feet  higher,  with  its  greatest  ele- 
vation on  the  west.  The  third  hill  is  rather 
a  projection  of  the  plateau  than  an  isolated 
mound.  It  lies  north  of  the  one  .just  de- 
scribed. The  i>reseiit  elevation  of  that  part 
included  in  the  ante-Christian  city  is  about 
2450  feet.  This  triad  of  hills,  "with  the 
protecting  ravines,  aflorded  a  strong  posi- 
tion for  a  city,  although  it  is  encircled  be- 
yond the  ravines  by  hills  which  tower  above 
it.  The  mountains  are  round  about  Jeru- 
salem. 

The  eastern  ravine  is  the  valley  of  the 
Kidron,  The  hill  to  the  east,  which  faces 
and  overlooks  the  hills  of  the  city,  is  the 
mount  of  Olives.  The  long  ridge  which  runs 
north  and  south  is  the  temple  hill,  called  at 
least  in  that  ])ortion  of  its  extent  where  the 
sanctuary  st<i<)d,  mount  Moriah.  Its  southern 
tapering  extremity  was  known  as  Ophel. 
The  pool  in  the  valley  at  its  extreme  southern 


point  is  Siloani.  and  a  pool  just  north  of  the 
temple  area  is  Rethesda. 

Which  height  was  mount  Zion  ?  Thisfjues- 
tion  has  received  three  priiui]>al  answers:  1. 
Mount  Zion  was  the  southwestern  hill.  This 
view  has  prevailed  .since  the  fourth  century. 
(1)  Zion  was  the  city  of  David  (2  Sam.  v. 
7-9),  and  .T(»sephus  .says  that  the  uj)per  city, 
unquestionably  the  southwestern  hill,  was 
called   the  citadel   by    David    (War  v.   4.   1). 


Strangely  enough,  however,  Jo.sephns  does 
not  explicitly  call  it  Zion.  (2)  Micah  distin- 
guishes Zion  from  the  temple  hill  (iv.  2).  (3) 
Too  much  building  is  si)oken  of  in  Neh. 
iii.  for  Zion  to  be  part  of  the  temple  hill. 
(4)  The  sanctity  of  Zion  is  accounted  for  by 
the  fact  that  it  was  for  many  years  the  abid- 
ing place  of  the  ark,  and  was  celebrated  as 
such  by  David  (2  Sam.  vi.  12-lS ;  1  Kin.  viii. 
1-4 ;  Ps.  ii.  6).  The  name  Zion  thus  became 
the  title  for  .Jerusalem  as  a  whole  in  its 
quality  as  a  holy  city  (Ps.  xlviii.  ;  Ixxxvii. ; 
cxxxiii.3).  2.  Mount  Zion  was  the  northwest- 
ern hill  (Warren).  This  hill  is  identified  with 
that  quarter  of  the  city  called  by  .Toseidius 
the  Acra,  which  in  Greek  means  hilltoii  or 
citadel.  It  is,  indeed,  styled  by  him  the 
lower  city,  for  so  it  was  in  his  day:  but 
originally  it  was  much  higher,  and  was  cut 
down  by  Simon  Maccaba-us  because  it  com- 
manded the  temple  (Aiiti(i.  xiii.  (!.  7).  It 
was  originally  a  suitable  site  for  the  Jebusite 


Jerusalem 


355 


Jerusalem 


fortress.  3.  Mount  Zion  was  a  portion  of  the 
tenii)le  hill.  The  main  arKiniionts  for  this 
view  are  (1)  The  teiniili'  liill  is  best  adapted 
by  nature  for  a  stronj^lmhl.  (•_')  Tlic  tcniple 
could  be  reached  by  u"iii>i  from  the  t'oiiiitain 
gate,  U[)  the  stairs  of  tlie  city  of  David,  and 
past  the  water  j,':ite  (Neli. 
xii.  ;{7).  steps  wliicli  may  l)c 
those  that  have  been  dis- 
covered ascendinf;  t  lie  rid^e 
from  the  pool  at  the  sotith- 
ernend.  (3)  Zion  issjiokcn 
of  as  holy  in  terms  such  as 
are  never  applied  to  ,Fcru- 
.salem,  but  are  iMtellij,'ib!c 
if  Zion  was  the  hill  on 
which  the  temple  stood. 
Zion  is  called  the  hill  of 
the  Lord,  tiie  holy  liill.  the 
dwellinj;  place  of  .Iciiovah 
(I's.  ii.  6;  i.x.  11  ;  xxiv.  :{ ; 
cx.wii.  13).  (4)  In  the  First 
Book  of  the  Maccabees  Zion 
is  the  temple  hill  (i.  .'J.'J-aS). 
The  invariable  distinction 
of  the  city  of  David  from 
mount  Zion  and  the  sanc- 
tuary shows  that  the  terms 
liad  undergone  a  change 
of  meaninu  since  "J  .Sam. 
V.  7.  The  simi)lest  exiila- 
nation  is  that  mount  Zion 
was  part  of  tiie  temi>le  liill, 
and  by  synecdoche  oftt'U 
used  for  tiie  whole  of  it,  whereas  the  desig- 
nation city  of  David,  which  denoted  the  mu- 
nieii)ality  of  Jerusalem  (2  Sam.  v.  7;  Antiq. 
vii.  3,  2).  was  extended,  with  the  growth  of 
po[)ulation,  l)eyond  the  bounds  of  mount 
Zion  and  emliraced   the  new  suburbs  on  the 


city  of  David  might  then  on  occasion  in- 
clude the  siinctuary  or  exclude  it.  The 
.Syrians  erected  a  fortress  in  the  city  of  David, 
but  Judas  Maccaba-us  came  and  took  pos.ses- 
sion  of  the  sanctuary  on  mount  Zion  (1  .Mac. 
i.  33seq.  ;  iv.  3(j  seq.).    Acconling  to  this  view, 


Kountiiiu  of  the  \  irt,'in. 

neighboring'  hills,  around  which  tlie  protect- 
ing walls  of  the  city  were  cast.     The  term 


(  \>\v\  iiv  I  >[  .irrusalem. 

the  stronghold  captured  by  David  occupied 
the  northern  part  of  the  ridge  on  which  the 
temple  was  afterwards  built  (Ferguson)  or, 
as  the  advocates  of  the  theory  are  coming  in 
increasing  numbers  to  believe,  the  southern 
jiart,  south  of  the  temitle,  south  also  of  the 
transver.se  ravine  (Klaiber,  t4uthe,  Sayce). 

II.  2.  Water  suj)pli/.  Although  Jerusalem 
was  often  long  and  closely  l)esicged  and  suf- 
fered grievous  famine  from  having  its  sup- 
plies of  food  cut  ofi',  there  is  no  record  of  tlie 
inhabitants  having  ever  lacked  water.  In 
fact,  it  was  the  besiegers  who  were  a]it  to 
want  wati'r,  not  the  besiegi'd.  There  is  no 
spring  north  of  the  city,  and  noni'  is  known 
at  jiresent  east,  west,  or  south  whiidi  was  not 
conniianded  l)y  the  walls,  exceiit  Kn-rogel. 
A  living  fountain  to  sujiply  the  Slamilla  ]iool 
and  the  i>ool  of  the  Sultan  on  the  west  has 
not  lieen  discovered.  The  southwestern  hill 
is  likewise  without  springs,  so  far  as  kTiown, 
although  the  dragon's  well  may  have  l>een 
sucli  (Nell.  ii.  i:>).  I'.ut  the  te"m]de  hill  is 
well  .supiilied  (Tacitus.  Hist.  v.  12).  The 
known  living  sources  and  their  reservoirs 
are  the  fountain  of  tlie  \'irgin  on  the  eastern 
side,  with  abundant  water  which  was  con- 
ducti'd  liy  a  siibtirrancan  cliannel  to  the  pool 
of  Siloam  (see  (iiiioN);  the  fountain  of 
Siloam  at  the  southern  end  of  the  Iiill.  where 
also  are  to  be  sought,  though  their  idcntitiai- 
tiim  is  diflicult,  the  king's  jiool,  the  pool  that 
was  made,  and  Solomon's  jiool   (Nch.  ii.  14; 


Jerusalem 


356 


Jerusalem 


iii.  Ifi  ;  War  v.  4,  1) ;  on  the  western  side  of 
the  ridge,  directly  west  of  the  temple,  the 
so-called  healing  baths,  Ilaniniani  esh-Shifa  ; 
and  jnst  north  of  the  ridge.  Bt-thesda. 

The  sjiritigs  were  supj)U  iiiented  by  cisterns. 
The  ("wers,  whicli  were  upon  the  city  walls, 
contained  immense  rcservoii's  for  rain  water 
(War  V.  4,  3) ;  and  numerons  cistern.s,  of 
which  not  a  few  still  exist,  were  foiuid  in  all 
parts  of  the  city  (Tacitus,  Hist.  v.  12). 

Hesides  the  sup]ily  alibrded  by  the  springs 
and  cisterns  of  the  city,  water  was  also 
brought  from  a  distance.  The  JIamilla  pool 
west  of  the  city  is  i)robably  the  np])er  pool 
in  the  fuller's  field  and,  as  the  name  denotes, 
the  serpent's  i)ool  (Is.  vii.  :5;  xxxvi.  2;  War 
V.  ?),  2).  An  aqueduct  brought  the  water 
fnmi  it  to  the  pool  of  the  patriarch  ea.st  of 
the  Jaftii  gate.  This  is  known  to  tradition 
as  the  ]iool  of  Hezekiah,  and  is  ju'obably  the 
pool  Aniygdalon — i.  e.  iiool  of  the  almond  or 
tower,  mentioned  by  .Tosephus  (War  v.  11,  4). 
From  it  a  subterranean  conduit  ])a.s.ses  east- 
ward. A  reservoir  was  also  constructed  at  a 
late  iieriod  n(jrth  of  the  temjile  area,  in 
ground  made  where  the  small  valley  diverged 
westward  from  the  Kidron.  It  was  fed  from 
the  west.  It  is  now  known  as  the  pool  of 
Israel,  and  is  probably  identical  with  the 
pool  Strouthios  (pool  of  the  .sparrow  or  of 
soapwort,  which  was  used  for  cleansing  wool), 
which  existed  when  Jerusalem  was  besieged 
by  Titus,  and  lay  in  front  of  the  tower  of 
Antonia  (War  v.  11,  4).  But  the  most  ex- 
tensive aqueduct  was  that  which  brought 
water  to  .Terusalem  from  beyond  Bethlehem  ; 
see  Etam.  It  is  })elieved  to  considerably 
antedate  the  Christian  era. 

II.  :{.  Aitificial  defenses.  Immediately  after 
capturing  .Terusalem,  David  took  measures  to 
enclose  the  city  with  a  wall.  The  old  Jebu- 
site  stronghold,  henceforth  called  the  city  of 
David,  already  existed.  David,  in  addition, 
fortified  the  city  round  about,  from  Millo 
even  round  about  (2  Sam.  v.  9  ;  1  Chron.  xi. 
8).  Solomon  built  Millo  and  the  wall  of  Je- 
rusalem, clo.sing  u])  the  gap  in  the  city  of 
David  (1  Kin.  ix.  l."),  24;  xi.  27).  Succeed- 
ing kings  made  re]>airs  and  additions,  until 
eventually  at  least  the  wall  passed  near  the 
present  Jaffa  gate  on  the  west  (2  Chron. 
xxvi.  9).  aiii>roached  the  valley  of  Hinnom 
on  the  south  (Jer.  xix.  2),  ran  near  the  pool 
of  Siloam  (2  Kin.  xxv.  4),  included  Ophel 
(2  Chron.  xxvii.  3;  xxxiii.  14),  and  on  the 
north  enclosed  the  suburb  which  grew  up  on 
the  northwestern  hill  (2  Kin.  xiv.  1.3 ;  2 
Chron.  xxxiii.  14;  Jer.  xxxi.  .38).  This  wall 
was  razed  to  the  ground  by  Nebuchadnezzar 
(2  Kin.  xxv.  10). 

Xehemiah  rebuilt  the  wall  out  of  the  old 
material  (Neh.  ii.  13-1.",:  iv.  2.  7;  vi.  15).  It 
began,  so  to  speak,  at  the  .sheep  gate  (iii.  1), 
which  was  near  the  pool  of  Bethesda  (John 
V.  2).  This  pool  has  b(>en  discovered  near  to 
the  church  of  St.  Anne,  about  100  yards  from 
the  gate  now  called  St.   Stephen's,   and  on 


what  was  originally  the  northern  side  of  that 
branch  of  the  Kidron  valley  which  was  in- 
terposed between  the  temple  hill  and  the 
main  plateau.  The  sheep  gate  stood,  there- 
fore, in  this  branch  valley  or  on  the  slo])e  of 
the  plateau  to  the  north  or  northwest.  Near 
the  sheej)  gate,  in  the  direction  away  from  the 
temple,  were  the  towers  of  Meah  and  Han- 
aneel  (Neh.  iii.  1 ;  xii.  39).  Then  came  the 
fish  gate,  in  the  new  or  second  (juarter  of  the 
city  (iii.  3  ;  Zejjh.  i.  10),  and  next  the  old  gate 
(Neh.  iii.  (! ;  xii.  39).  Some  distance  on  from 
the  latter  i)oint  was  the  broad  wall  (iii.  8  ;  xii. 
38),  and  farther  on  the  tower  of  the  furnaces 
(iii.  11 ;  xii.  38).  To  this  there  succeeded  the 
valley  gate,  the  technical  designation  of  the 
valley  on  the  west  of  the  city  being  used  (iii. 
13;  cp.  ii.  13-15),  then  the  dung  gate  (iii.  14), 
then  the  gate  of  the  fountain,  the  wall  of 
the  pool  of  Siloam  by  the  king's  garden,  at 
the  southeastern  corner  of  the  city,  and  the 
stairs  that  go  down  from  the  city  of  David 
(15)  ;  to  the  east  of  this  ])oint  was  the  water 
gate  [of  the  temple?],  with  a  large  open 
place  before  it  (viii.  1-3;  xii.  37).  The  wall 
next  Ment  past  the  sepulchers  of  David,  the 
jiool  that  was  made,  and  the  house  of  the 
mighty  (iii.  Hi) ;  tlie  going  up  to  the  armory, 
at  the  turning  of  the  wall  (19) ;  the  house  of 
the  high  priest,  Eliasbib  (20)  ;  then  various 
points  indicated  by  other  houses  unto  the 
turning  of  the  wall,  the  corner  (24) ;  the 
turning  of  the  wall  and  the  tower  which 
standeth  out  from  the  king's  upper  house, 
that  was  by  the  court  of  the  guard  (25). 
Now  the  Nethinim  dwelt  here  in  Ophel  from 
over  against  the  water  gate  [of  the  temple?] 
toward  the  east  and  this  tower  that  standeth 
out  (26;  cp.  xi.  21).  Then  a  piece  of  wall 
from  this  tower  to  the  wall  of  Ophel  (iii.  27). 
The  horse  gate  came  next,  above  which  the 
priests  resided  (28).  It  was  on  the  eastern 
side  of  the  city,  overlooking  the  Kidron 
valley  (Jer.  xxxi.  40).  Then  a  portion  of  the 
wall  over  against  the  house  of  [the  jtriest] 
Zadok,  then  a  section  repaired  by  the  keeper 
of  tbeeastgate  [of  the  temple,  probably]  (Neh. 
iii.  29).  Presently  the  house  of  the  Nethinim  ; 
then  a  section  from  over  against  the  gate  of 
the  Miphkad  [which  was  ]n-obably  a  gate  of 
the  temple  at  the  place  where  tlie  sin  offer- 
ing was  burned,  called  the  ISIipbkad.  cp. 
Ezek.  xliii.  21]  to  the  upjier  chamber  of  the 
tower  (Neh.  iii.  31)  ;  and,  finally,  the  sheep 
gate,  which  was  the  starting  point  of  the  de- 
scrijition  (.32). 

Two  important  gates  of  the  former  wall 
are  not  mentioned,  though  one  at  least  ex- 
isted at  this  time,  the  corner  gate  (2  Kin 
xiv.  13;  2  Chron.  xxvi.  9;  cp.  Zech.  xiv.  10) 
and  the  gate  of  Ephraim  (Neh.  viii.  Ifi  ;  xii. 
39).  The  corner  gate  a))])ears  to  have  been 
the  extreme  nortluvestern  iioint  of  the  city 
(Jer.  xxxi.  38),  and  it  was  distant  400  cubits 
from  the  gate  of  Eiihraim  (2  Kin.  xiv.  13). 
Through  this  latter  gate  the  road  to  Ephraim 
passed  ;  presumably,  therefore,  it  was  in  the 


Jerusalem 


357 


Jerusalem 


northern  wall  of  the  city,  iuid  if  so,  then 
east  of  the  corner  gate.  It  was  certainly 
west  of  the  old  gate  (Noli.  xii.  '.V.i).  Hi-gin- 
niiig  with  thi-  shi'i-p  gate  and  following  the 
nortlu'iu  wall  wcslwaril.  tlic  unlor  of  gates 
and  l(»wers  is  sheep  gate,  towers  of  .Meali  and 
Hananeel,  fish  gale,  old  gate,  gate  of  Eidiraiin, 
corner  gate.  Whether  the  i)road  wall  and 
tower  of  furnaces  were  heyond  the  corner 
gate  is  dillicult  to  delerniine.  It  is  to  be  ob- 
served that  the  gates  of  the  corner  and  Ejih- 
rdim  occur  in  tliat  part  of  the  wall  where  it 
is  rectirded  that  "they  left  Jerusalem  '"  (iii.  H, 
U.  V.  margin),  as  though  the  wall  rec|uircd  no 
repairs  at  this  |>oiiit. 

There  was  also  a  gate  of  Renjaiiiin,  through 
which  the  road  to  Benjamin  ])assed  (.Jer. 
xxxviii.  7;  Zt-ch.  xiv.  lO).  This  may  have 
been  but  another  name  for  the  gate  of  Eph- 
raini.  .\fter  the  fall  of  Samaria  and  the 
virtual  disapjiearance  of  Ephraim  from  geo- 
graiibical  i)arlance,  the  gate  of  Ephraim 
would  naturally  come  to'  be  known  as  the 
gate  of  Hen.janiin.  and  when  the  walls  of  the 
city  were  rebuilt,  after  the  exile,  to  be  called 
indilferently  the  gate  of  Hcnjaniin  or  of 
Ephraim  or,  eventually,  of  Damascus. 


they  niig!it  be  able  to  stand  a  siege  (Ek;clus. 
1.  1-4;  for  need,  cp.  Aiiliq.  xii.  1.  1).  In  1(>8 
B.  c.  Antiochus  Epiphanes  had  the  walls  of 
.Jerusalem  thrown  down  and  a  fortress  with 
a  great  and  strong  wiill  and  niighly  towers 
erected  in  the  city  of  l>avid.  jierhajis  a  broad 
designation  meaning  the  citv  as  distinct  from 
the  temple  (I  Mac.  i.  :U.  33.  3!)  ;  2  .Mac.  v. 
•24-"J()).  This  fortress  became  celebrated  as 
the  .Vera.  It  overlooked  the  temiile  lAiitiq. 
xiii.  (i,  T),  and  for  twi'iity-live  years  was  a 
menace  to  the  .Jews.  About  two  years  after  the 
demolition  fif  the  city  walls.  Jiulas  .Maccabieus 
]iartly  restored  them,  strengthening  the  outer 
wall  of  the  temple;  hut  only  to  have  his 
work  undone  (1  .Mac.  iv.  (it);"  vi.  1-  'i?,  ()2). 
His  brother  and  successor,  Jonathan,  how- 
ever, ri^newed  the  work,  ])roposing additional 
fortifications  and  rebuilding  antl  repairing 
the  walls,  particularly  around  the  temple 
hill  (1  Mac.  X.  1(» ;  xii.":i(>.  .37;  Antiq.  xiii.  .">, 
11).  His  brother  Simon  carried  the  work  to 
eom])letion  (1  Mac.  xiii.  10;  xiv.  37  ;  Anticj. 
xiii.  (i.  4).  I'lider  this  great  ]iriest-kiiig.  not 
only  were  the  walls  of  tin-  city  l)iiilt.  but  the 
foreign  garrison  was  forced  in  the  year  142 
B.  c.  to  evacuate  the  Aera  (1  Mac.  xiii.  49-51). 


Kxterior  of  the  Damascus  fJate. 


During  the  interval  between  Nehemiah 
and  Christ  the  fortifications  <)f  .Fenisalem 
sulfered  many  vicissitudes,  .\bout  !.")()  years 
after  the  building  of  Nehemiah's  wall,  the 
high  priest,  Sinuin  the  Just,  found  it  neces- 
.«ary  to  fortify  the  teinjile  and  the  city  so  that 


.After  a  time  the  fortress  was  demolished  and 
the  hill  on  which  it  bad  stoo<l  was  gnided 
down  .so  as  to  be  lowi'r  than  the  level  of  the 
temjile  (1  .Mac.  xiv.  3(; ;  xv. 'iS;  .\nti(|.  xiii. 
fi,  7).  Simon  apjiears  also  to  have  taken  up 
his   residence   in    the    fortress    liari.s,   which 


Jerusalem 


358 


Jerusalem 


protected  the  temple  on  the  north  (1  Mac. 
xiii.  52;  v\).  Neh.  ii.  S).  In  the  ieij;n  <il' John 
Hyrcauus  a  jxjrtion  of  the  fortiiications  of  the 
city  was  dismantled  by  Autiocliiis  Sidetes. 
but  the  ruin  seems  to  have  been  repaired  ))y 
John  (Antic],  xiii.  !^,  3  :  1  Mae.  xvi.'JU).  Jolin 
also  remodeled  and  strengthened  the  fortress 
Baris  t  Antici.  xviii.  4.  3  ;  cp.  xv.  11,  4).  Poni- 
pey  found  the  defenses  of  Jerusalem  strong. 
On  finally  eajjturing  the  eity  in  (i3  B.  c,  he 
demolished  the  walls  (Tacitus,  Hist.  v.  9; 
and  next  two  references).  Ca>sar  allowed 
them  to  l)e  rebuilt  (Antiti.  xiv.  8,  o ;  War  i. 
10,  3  and  4).  On  the  nortli  they  consisted  of 
two  walls  which  Herod  and  his  lioman  allies 
took  in  the  year  :;7  n.  c,  but  did  not  destroy 
(Antiq.  xiv.  l(i.  2  and  1  ;  cp.  xv.  1.  2). 

At  the  time  of  Christ,  Jerusalem  had  the 
two  walls  aforementioned  on  the  north,  and 
shortly  afterwards  three.  Josephus  identi- 
fies the  first  and  innermost  wall  as  the  work 
of  David,  Solomon,  and  succeeding  kings. 
He  describes  it  by  reference  to  landmarks  of 
his  day  as  extending  from  the  tower  of  Hip- 


the  tower  of  Antonia,  formerly  called  Baris, 
north  of  the  temple  (War  v.' 4,  2).  Herod 
Agrijjpa  I.,  who  reigned  over  Juda'a  from  A. 
D.  41  to  41,  undi^rtook  a  third  wall  in  order 
to  include  within  the  city  limits  the  unpro- 
tected sul)url)  of  Hczetha,  which  had  grown 
up  outside  of  the  fortifications.  After  laying 
the  foundations,  however,  he  relinciuished 
the  work  at  the  command  of  the  emjieror  Clau- 
dius. It  was  finally  comjileted  by  the  Jews 
themselves.  It  began  at  the  tower  of  Hip- 
picus.  extended  northward  to  the  t()wer  of 
Psephinus,  at  the  northwest  corner  of  the  city 
(War  V.  3,  5 ;  4,  3);  turned  eastward  and 
passed  on  to  the  women's  towers,  which 
stood  west  of  the  northern  highway  and  near 
the  monuments  of  Helena,  (juecn  of  Adiabene 
(v.  4,  "2;  Antiq.  xx.  4,  3) :  included  the  tradi- 
tional site  of  the  camp  of  the  Assyrians  (War 
V.  7,  3)  ;  passed  the  caves  of  the  kings  ;  bent 
southward  at  the  corner  tower,  near  the  monu- 
ment of  the  fuller  :  and  joined  the  old  wall  at 
the  valley  of  the  Kidnjn  (v.  4.  2).  The  cir- 
cumference of  the  walls  was  33  stadia,  a  little 


f  David,  with  Substructions  of  the  Tower  of  Hippicus. 


picus,  which  stood  immediately  south  of  the 
modern  Jafl'a  gate  at  the  northwest  corner  of 
the  old  city  wall,  eastward  to  the  west  clois- 
ter of  the  temple  ;  and  from  the  tower  of 
Hii)j)icus  so)ith  and  east  by  the  pool  of  Siloam 
and  0)ihel  to  the  eastern  cloisti'r  of  the  tem- 
ple (War  v.  4,  2).  It  enclosed  the  south- 
western and  eastern  hills.  The  second  wall 
cncom]>assed  the  northern  and  jirincipal  busi- 
ness quarter  of  the  city  (War  v.  4,  2  :  for 
bazaars  in  this  section,  S,  1  ;  i.  13,  2  ;  Anticj. 
xiv.  1.3,  3).  It  began  at  the  gate  Oennath, 
that  is,  by  interpretation,  the  garden  gate, 
which  belonged  to  the  first  wall  and  stood 
not  far  east  of  the  tower  of  Hii)i)icus  (War 
V.  4,  2  ;  3,  2  for  gardens) ;  and  terminated  at 


less  than  4  miles  (v.  4,  3).  The  defenses  of 
the  city  were  augmented  by  the  fortress 
of  Antonia  at  the  temple,  and  by  the  palace 
of  Herod  with  its  adjacent  towers  on  the 
western  wall.  All  these  fortifications  Titus 
razed  to  the  ground  on  his  caiitiire  of  the  city 
in  A.  D.  70.  He  left  only  the  grou])  of  three 
towers,  Hiii])icus,  I'hasaelus,  and  ^larianine, 
and  so  mtudi  of  the  wall  as  enclosed  the  city 
on  the  west  side.  He  sjiared  this  portion  of 
the  wall  in  order  that  it  might  allnnl  iirotec- 
tiou  to  his  garrison,  and  the  towers  that  jios- 
terity  might  see  what  kind  of  a  city  it  was 
which  Roman  valor  had  taken  (Warvii.  1,  1). 
II.  4.  ^otnbJe  hinldiufii^  in  the  time  of  (Viri.it. 
Besides  the  walls  which  have  been  alreadv 


Jerusalem 


359 


Jerusalem 


described,  there  were  many  structures  to 
awaken  ciinllictiuf;  emotions  in  tiie  piousand 
patriotic  Isnulite.  Foremost  was  the  tem- 
ple. A<l.joininj;  it  on  llie  north,  within  its 
area  and  conlrollinji  it,  was  the  fortress  of 
Autonia  occupied  l)v  a  Uomaii  garrison: 
west  of  it  stood  the  council  house,  prol)ably 
the  phice  where  the  council  of  the  nation  or 
sanhedrin  met ;  a  little  more  to  the  westward, 
at  the  farther  end  of  the  bridge  whicli  sprang 


l),and  in  the  hippodrome  men  were  confined 
(xvii.  9,  5  ;  War  i.  33,  (i).  Other  l)uildings 
were  the  house  of  the  high  priest  (Mat.  xxvi. 
3  ;  Luke  xxii.  .jl  ;  War  ii.  17,  ti)  :  the  liouse 
of  records,  near  the  temple  (War  ii.  17,  6; 
vi.  0,  3)  ;  the  jialace  of  the  proselyte  (jueen 
of  Adiabene.  Helena  (ibid.). 

III.  1.  The  city  of  the  Canaaiiifes.  If  the 
Salem  of  Melchizedek  be  Jerusalem,  as  is 
probable,   the  city  first  emerges  iu  history 


Remains  of  an  .\ncient  Bridge  in  the  Western  Wall  of  the  Temple. 

It  is  near  the  soulliwestei  ii  comer,  meiisures  ."id  fei't  in  width,  contiiiiis  stones  19  ami  2fi  feet  in  length,  and  once 

spanned  tlie  Tyropoeon  valley.     It  is  known  as  tiobinsou's  .\roh. 


from  the  western  cloister  of  the  temple  and 
spanned  the  Tyroiiiron  valley,  lay  the  gym- 
nasium or  xystos,  an  object  df  abhorrence  on 
account  of  its  demoralizing  and  lieatlienizing 
influence:  above  it.  looking  down  into  it  and 
peering  across  the  valley  intu  the  sanctuary, 
rose  the  palace  of  the  Asmona'ans,  recalling 
the  heroic  achievements  of  the  Maccabees. 
Or  taking  a  wider  circuit,  to  the  north  of  the 
temple  Ix-youd  the  fortress  of  .\ntonia  was 
tlie  i>ool  ot^  P-ethesda  with  its  healing  waters; 
away  to  the  west,  at  the  oiijiosite  side  of  tlie 
city  from  the  temple,  stood  the  magnificent 
palace  of  Merod  with  its  inijiregiiable  towers, 
the  residence  of  the  procurators  when  in 
.Jerusalem  ;  around  toward  tin'  south  was  the 
pool  of  Siloain,  and  not  too  far  from  it  were 
the  sepulchers  of  the  kings  (.see  the  several 
articles).  In  tliis  neighborhood  may  best  be 
sought  the  very  large  amphitheater  erected 
by  Herod  the  (Jreat  in  the  plain  (.\nti(i.  xv. 
S,  1).  It  was,  jierhaps,  the  same  as  the  hip- 
jiodrome,  which  lay  south  from  the  temple 
(War  ii.  3,  1),  for  cliariot  rices  as  well  as 
wild  beast  fights  and  gladiatorial  condmts 
seem  to  have  taken  place  in  it  (Antiq.  xv.  8. 


in  the  days  of  Abraham,  when  it  already  had 
a  king  of  the  Semitic  race,  who  was  at  the 
same  time  priest  of  the  Most  High  God  (Gen. 
xiv.  18).  Manetho,  an  Egyi)tian  jiriest  and 
historian  of  the  third  century  before  Christ, 
transmits  a  tradition,  whicli  may  contain 
considerable  truth  and  which  chronologically 
belongs  here,  to  the  effect  that  the  nation  of 
the  sheidierd  kings  to  the  nund)er  of  240,000 
were  driven  out  of  Kgypt  by  Tlioummosis 
[or  .\mosis,  i.  c.  Aahmes  (Kusebius,  Chron. 
l.")-17)],  and  fled  toward  Syria  ;  but  fearing 
the  Assyrians,  who  had  dominion  over  Asia, 
they  built  a  city  in  the  country  now  called 
Ju(hva  of  suflicient  size  to  contain  the  multi- 
tude and  named  it  , Jerusalem  (con,  .\]iion. 
i.  I  1,  1.")).  This  expulsion  t)f  the  sheiiberds 
took  place,  according  to  Manetho,  .several  cen- 
turies before  the  exodus  of  the  children  of 
Israel,  and  must  not  be  confounded  with 
the  later  event  (i.  'Jii  see).).  It  occurred  some- 
where about  IfiOd  H.  c.  The  earliest  mention 
of  .lerusiilem  in  a  document  of  which  the 
original  is  extant  is  about  1500  B.  c.  when 
it  still  has  a  .Semite  as  its  governor,  but 
is  subject  to  Ameuophis  IV.,  king  of  Egypt. 


Jerusalem 


360 


Jerusalem 


This  was  before  the  exodus.  When  the 
Israelites  entered  Canaan,  Jerusalem  was 
ruled  by  a  king,  still  a  Semite,  and  oecu])ied 
by  Amorites.  or  mure  definitely  by  .Tebusites. 
Josliiia  (kfeated  its  kiiiji  and  his  allies  at 
Ciibeun,  drove  them  down  the  pass  of  Bi'th- 
horou,  and  slew  them  in  the  lowland  (Josh. 
X.).  But  no  attempt  was  made  to  enter  the 
city.  The  Jebusites  still  dwelt  in  it.  It  was 
allotted  to  the  tribe  of  lUiiJaniin  ;  but  as  it 
stood  on  the  border  of  Jiulah,  its  castle  eiun- 
manded  a  portion  of  the  territory  of  two  tribes 
(Josh.  XV.  8  ;  xviii.  2H).  In  the  war  which 
was  wased  by  the  several  tribes  against  the 
C'anaanites  within  their  own  bounds  after 
the  death  of  Joshua,  Judah  fought  against 
Jerusalem,  took  it,  and  set  it  on  hre  (Judg. 
i.  8).  But  ai>i)arently  Judah  did  not  capture 
the  citadel.  Neither  did  Benjamin  {21). 
Hence,  when  the  city  was  rebuilt,  it  was  still 
under  the  shadow  of  the  Jebusite  stronghold 
and  its  inhabitants  were  Jebusites.  It  was  a 
city  of  foreigners  and  a  reproach  in  the 
midst  of  the  land  (Josh.  xv.  63  ;  Judg.  i.  21 ; 
xix.  11,  12).  Such  was  the  state  of  affairs 
when  David  began  his  career.  When  he  had 
slain  tioliath,  he  returned  from  the  field  of 
battle  by  way  of  Jerusalem  and  brought  the 
head  of  the  Philistine  thither.  Possibly  he 
erected  it  on  a  spear  in  view  of  the  city,  at 
any  rate  he  displayed  it  before  the  eyes  of 
the  Jebusites  (1  Sam.  xvii.  54).  It  was  a 
prophecy  to  this  stronghold  of  mocking  for- 
eigners of  what  awaited  them.  And  when 
he  became  king  of  all  Israel,  and  found  a 
united  and  enthusiastic  nation  obedient  to 
him.  and  the  jealousy  between  Judah  and 
Benjamin  allayed,  he  at  once  led  his  troops 
against  the  border  town,  and  in  face  of  the 
derision  of  the  inhabitants,  who  believed 
their  walls  to  be  impregnable,  gained  posses- 
sion (2  Sam.  V.6  seq.).  Henceforth  for  many 
centuries  Jerusalem  was  a  city  of  the  He- 
brews. 

III.  2.  The  cHi/ of  the  Hehreirs.  David  made 
Jerusalem  the  capital  of  his  kingdom,  and 
took  measures  to  make  it  the  religious  center 
also.  The  ark,  which  had  had  no  dwelling 
place  of  its  own  since  Jehovah  forsook  Shiloh, 
he  brought  to  Jerusalem  and  pitched  a  suit- 
able tent  for  it,  and  he  began  the  collection 
of  materials  for  a  tt'mi>le.  The  city  shared 
in  the  i)rosi)erity  of  SolomoiT.s  reign.  The 
walls  were  enlarged,  the  temple  was  erected 
on  a  scale  of  great  magnificence,  and  sur- 
rouiuled  by  a  wall  which  gave  it  the  ajipear- 
ance  of  a  fortress,  and  a  royal  ])nlace  was 
built  not  inferior  to  the  temi)le  in  sjilendor. 
In  the  next  reign,  however,  the  army  of 
Shishak,  king  of  Kgy])t,  entered  the  city  and 
robbed  the  tem])le  and  the  palace  of  their 
treasures  (1  Kin.  xiv.  2.")  see).),  and  about 
eighty  years  later  bands  of  I'hilistines  and 
Arabs  gained  brief  admission  to  the  city  and 
carried  ofl"  plunder  (2  Chron.  xxi.  17).  The 
population  was  in  the  meanwhile  increasing, 
quarters  of  the  city  began  to  be  distinguished 


(2  Kin.  XX.  4  ;  xxii.  14),  and  before  the  be- 
ginning of  the  eighth  century  a  suburb  on 
the  northwestern  hill  was  enclosed  by  an 
addition  to  the  city  wall.  This  i)art  of  the 
city  was  the  mercantile  district,  and  con- 
tinued to  be  such  after  the  exile  an<l  until 
the  destruction  of  the  city  by  Titus  (War  v. 
8, 1).  Here  were  the  sheep  and  the  fish  gates, 
and  the  (juarti'r  was  skirted  by  the  valley  of 
the  cheesemongers.  In  the  reign  of  Aniaziah 
a  ])ortion  of  the  city  wall  was  broken  down, 
and  temple  and  ])alace  were  desjjoiled  of 
treasure  by  the  northern  Israelites  (2  Kin. 
xiv.  13,  14).  Uzziah  and  Jotham  rejiaired 
the  ruin,  strengthened  the  walls,  and  erected 
new  towers  for  defense  (2  Chron.  xx\  i.  !' ; 
xxvii.  3).  But  they  had  iierbajis  other  ruins 
to  care  for  than  those  wrought  by  war,  for  in 
Uzziah's  reign  the  city  was  visited  by  a 
memorable  earthquake  (Amos  i.  1  ;  Zech. 
xiv.  5;  Antiq.  ix.  10,  4).  Under  Ahaz  the 
city  was  besiegetl,  but  not  taken,  by  the 
northern  Israelites  in  alliance  with  the  Syri- 
ans (2  Kin.  xvi.  5),  and  shortly  afterwards, 
by  reason  of  the  king's  inclination  to  heathen- 
ism, the  lamps  of  the  tenqile  were  allowed  to 
go  out,  the  offering  in  the  holy  place  ceased, 
and  the  temple  was  closed  (2  Kin.  xvi.  14 
seq.  ;  2  Chron.  xxviii.  24  ;  xsix.  7).  Heze- 
kiah  reopened  the  temple  and  restored  the 
service,  but  he  was  obliged  to  empty  the 
royal  and  the  sacred  treasuries  and  to  strip 
the  plates  of  gold  from  the  temple  doors  in 
order  to  raise  a  sum  sufficient  to  purchase 
exemption  from  a  threatened  raid  by  the 
Assyrians ;  and  even  this  relief  was  but  tem- 
porary, for  eventually  A.ssyrian  troops  stood 
before  the  walls  (2  Chron.  xxix.  3  ;  2  Kin. 
xviii.  15  seq.).  The  city  was,  however,  de- 
livered by  the  providential  outbreak  of  ]:es- 
tilence  in  the  camp  of  the  enemy  (2  Kin. 
xix.  35).  When  Manasseh  returned  from 
captivity  he  built  walls  for  the  city  and 
strengthened  the  fortifications  (2  C'hron. 
xxxiii.  14).  During  the  reigns  of  the  sons 
and  grandson  of  Josiah  the  city  ex]ierienced 
its  overwhclining  calamities.  Nebuchadnez- 
zar besieged  it  in  the  days  of  .lelioiakim.  en- 
tered it,  bound  but  eventually  released  the 
king,  and  carried  off  costly  vessels  from  the 
temide  and  a  number  of  noble  youth  (2  Kin. 
xxiv.  1 ;  2  Chron.  xxxvi.  (i :  Dan.  i.  1).  Again 
he  came,  emj)tied  the  royal  and  the  sacred 
treasuries,  seized  the  remaining  vessels  of 
gold  and  silver  belonging  to  the  temple,  car- 
ried king  Jehoiachin  a  ]irisoner  to  Babylon, 
aiul  deported  the  best  and  most  useful  citizens 
(2  Kin.  xxiv.  10  secj.).  Nine  years  later,  in 
the  reign  of  Zedekiah,  he  laid  siege  to  the 
city  for  the  third  time.  The  investment 
lasted  two  years.  The  mi.sery  within  the 
walls  was  extreme.  Finally  a  breach  was 
made,  the  city  was  taken,  the  temple  and  the 
palaces  were  burnt,  the  wall  was  broken 
down,  and  flic  remnant  of  the  jiopulation, 
save  the  poorest,  was  deported  (2  Kin.  xxv.  I. 
The  city  lay  waste  for  fifty  years.     Zerub- 


Jerusalem 


3G1 


Jerusalem 


babel  and  50,000  followers  returned  to  Jeru- 
salem in  538  B.  c,  and  at  the  l)0};inning  of 
the  next  year  laid  tlie  toundatioii  of  the 
tenijile  (Ezra  ii.  (il,  (15;  iii.  h).  The  walls 
of  the  eity  were  rebuilt  under  Nelieuiiah 
about  145  n.  c.  The  siiiu-enie  power  was  then 
in  the  iiatids  of  the  I'ersians,  from  whom  it 
jiassed.  under  Alexander  tlie  Great,  to  the 
Maeedonian  (iri'cks.  Tlie  city  was  taken  by 
Antiochus  the  (ircat  'M'.i  a.  c,  retaken  by 
the  lOj^yi'tians  in  lli!(,  and  ojiened  its  gates 
again  to  Antiochus  coining  as  a  friend  in  19b. 
In  170  H.  I'.  Antiochus  Kpiphanes  took  Jeru- 
salem, subseciucnlly  desecrating  the  temple; 
see  HlsniKY.  l>ut  the  Mai-caliees  arose  ;  and 
in  1(;5  1$.  c.  Judas  retook  the  city  and  imrilied 
the  tein])le.  The  kings  of  the  Asmomean 
race  built  near  the  temple  a  citadel  called 
Barisor  (he  tower  :  see  Antonia,  ToWKii  of. 
Pomjx'V  caiitured  .lerusalem  (ili  h.  c,  breaking 
down  jiart  of  thi'  wall;  C'rassus  des])oiled 
the  temide  in  54  B.  c.  and  the  I'arthians 
plundered  tlio  city  in  40  B.  c.  Jerusalem  was 
taken  again  in  ;;7  n.  v.  by  Ilerotl  the  (irejit, 
who  ri'iiaired  the  walls,  adorned  the  city 
with  various  edifices,  and  rebuilt  the  temi)le 
on  a  scab;  of  magnilicence  which  markedly 
contrasted  with  the  conijiaratively  lunnble 
character  of  ZerubbabeTs  tem])le.  The  work 
began  'JO-lil  H.  c.  and  was  not  (|uitec(>nii>leted 
when  our  Lord  was  on  earth.  Herod  also 
strengthened  the  citadel  and  called  it  Antonia 
(q.  v.).  When  he  jia.ssed  away  there  were 
two  walls,  in  whole  or  in  part  encomiiassing 
Jerusalem,  against  one  in  Solomon's  time.  A 
third  wall  was  begun  by  Herod  Agrijijia  (about 
A.  I).  1-2  or  4:5)  a  dozen  years  after  the  cru- 
cifixion. In  A.  I).  70  the  Romans,  under 'I'itus, 
took   Jerusiiem,   tiie   temjile   and    lUMily  all 


III.  3.  The  city  since  Titiis.  Under  the  em- 
l)eror  Hadrian  the  Komans commenced  to  re- 
fortify  .lerusjilem  as  a  gentile  city,  and  hold 
it  against  its  former  inhabitants.  This  seems 
to  have  been  one  main  cause  of  the  Jewish 
revolt  under  Har-cocbeba  taljo'.it  A.  li.  13',^  to 
135).  On  its  sui)pre.ssion,  the  rebuilding  of 
the  city  was  resumed  and  computed.  The 
old  name  Jerusalem  was  discarded.  It  was 
called  Colonia  A'Ain  Capiiolina:  (Olonia  to 
denote  that  it  was  a  Roman  colony,  A'Ain  in 
honor  of  Hadrian,  whose  prienomen  was 
/Elius,  and  C'apitolina  because  it  was  dedi- 
cated to  Jupiter  Capitolinus.  To  this  heathen 
deity  a  temple  was  dedicated  on  the  sjiot 
where  those  of  Solomon,  Zeiubbabel.  and 
Herod  had  stood.  The  Jews  were  forbidden, 
on  i)ain  of  death,  to  enter  within  its  walls. 
The  (.'hristians  were,  perlia|is,  by  thir,  time 
suHiciently  di.itingiiislied  IVom  the  .lews  not 
to  come  under  the  prohibition.  The  name 
yElia  continued  for  many  centuries.  The 
em])eror  Constantine  first  partially,  and  then 
completely,  removed  thi'  prohibition  against 
the  Jews  entering  the  Holy  City.  In  32G 
Helena,  his  mother,  caused  live  churches  to 
be  built  at  Hethleliem  and  on  the  mount  of 
Olives,  and  in  335  the  emperor  liiinself 
erected  the  first  church  of  the  Holy  Sepul- 
cher;  .see  8kpllciii:k.  In  .lune,  (il3.  , leru- 
salem was  taken  by  st(jrm  by  the  Persians 
umler  Chosroes  II.,  a  great  massacre  of  the 
Christian  inhabitants  following,  and  the 
church  of  tlie  Holy  Seimlcher  being  burnt 
down.  In  (>2»,  on  the  death  of  Chosroes,  Je- 
rusalem was  retaken  by  the  Roman  emi>eror, 
Heraclius.  In  ()37  it  was  surriMnU'red  on 
conditions  to  the  Saracens,  who  soon  after- 
wards reared  what  was  till   recentlv   called 


Kornan  Medal  coninieniorating  the  Tapturo  of  .lerusnleni. 


the  city  having  been  burnt  or  otherwise  de- 
stroyed during  the  si<ge.  He  br(d<e  down 
all  the  walls,  with  the  exceiiliou  of  ]>nvt  of 
the  western  one  and  three  towers,  Hippiciis, 
rhasaelus,  and  Mariamne,  which  he  left  to 
show  posterity  the  nature  of  the  defenses  lie 
had  succeeded  in  capturing  (War  vii.  1,  1). 


tlie  mosciue  of  Omar,  but  now  more  accu- 
rately the  Dome  of  the  b'ock,  ujion.  or  very 
near,  the  sile  of  the  .lewi.-h  temi)le.  Huriiig 
the  period  that  .lerusalem  was  ruled  liv  the 
.'-'aracens.  the  treatment  of  the  Christian  ]iil- 
grims  who  visited  the  sacred  shrines  varied. 
Once  the  church  of  the  Holy  Seiuilcher  was 


Jerusalem 


362 


Jeshimou 


set  ou  fire  under  a  Fatiiuite  ruler,  l)ut  on  tlie 
whole  there  was  toleration.  It  was  ditlerent 
when  the  Saracens  were  disi)laee(l  by  the 
Turks  in  a.  D.  1077.  The  insults  and  ojijjres- 
siou  iinutiied  hy  the  seini-savaj,'vs  wlio  jiad 
now  gained  jtower,  threw  all  middle  and 
central  Kuroi>e  into  a  ferment,  and  hroujiht 
on  the  crusades.  In  the  tirst  of  these  reli- 
gious expeditions  .lorusalem  was  taken  by 
storm  on  July  15.  lOilil,  and  a  Christian  king- 
dom established,  which  continued  eighty- 
eight  years.  During  the  Christian  occui)a- 
tion  many  fresh  sites  were  considered  to  have 
been  discovered,  the  buildings  connected  with 
the  Holy  Sepulcher  were  enlarged  and  nuide 
more  splendid,  and  other  edilices  erected  in 
the  city.  In  1187  it  had  to  be  surrendered 
to  Saladin,  sultan  of  Kgypt  and  Syria,  and 
with  the  exception  of  two  short  ])eriods,  when 
the  Christians  again  possessed  it,  has  remained 
in  Mohammedan  hands.  Of  late  its  popula- 
tion has  largely  increased.  In  18(53  it  was 
estimated  at  5000  Mohammedans.  3G06  Chris- 
tians, and  7100  Jews,  total  15,700  (Keith 
Johnston).  In  1892  Br.  Selah  Merrill,  United 
States  consul  at  Jerusalem,  reported  to  his 
government  that  the  Jews  alone  amounted  to 
25,322.  In  this  year  also  a  railway  was  com- 
pleted from  Jafla  to  Jerusalem. 

IV.  Modern  excavation.  "  An  iuscrijjtion  in 
Arabic  over  the  Yafa  [i.  e.  the  Jaffa]  gate," 
says  Prof.  Eobiuson,  "as  well  as  others  in 
various  places,  records  that  the  present  walls 
of  Jeru.salem  were  rebuilt  by  order  of  sultan 
Suleiman  in  A.  H.  [the  year  of  the  Hegira] 
948,  corresponding  to  A.  D.  1542.  Thcj'  aj)pear 
to  occui)y  verj-  nearly  the  site  of  the  former 
walls  of  the  middle  ages,  which  were  several 
times  thrown  down  and  rebuilt  during  the 
crusades,  a  slight  deviation  only  being  visi- 
ble around  the  northwest  corner,  on  both  the 
northern  and  western  sides.  The  materials 
were  probably  those  of  the  former  walls  ;  and 
are  in  great  part  apiuirently  ancient"  (Bih. 
Res.  i.  384).  The  foundations  are  in  some  places 
built  of  very  large  stones,  which  may  have 
formed  part  of  the  ancient  walls.  It  may  be 
asked  also.  May  not  fragments  of  tlie  old  first, 
second,  and  third  walls  have  escajjcd  destruc- 
tion, even  in  i)laces  where  they  did  not  coin- 
cide in  direction  with  the  ]U'esent  city  walls? 
The  answer  nnist  be  in  the  alKrmative.  Prof. 
Eobiuson,  in  1838,  found  near  the  Damascus 
gate  large  ancient  beveled  stones,  which  had 
apiKirently  never  been  disturbed  since  they 
were  first  put  in  i)osition.  He  regarded  them 
as  ])robably  belonging  to  the  guardhouse  de- 
fending a  gate  which  existed  ])rior  to  the 
days  of  Herod  (Bih.  lies.  i.  4()3).  Robinson 
also  believed  that  he  and  Mr.  Wliiting  found 
traces  of  the  northwestern  part  of  the  foun- 
dations of  Agri])i)a's  wall  ( l()5),  the  observa- 
tion having  been  confirmed  by  llauauer  be- 
fore the  remains  were  covered  with  buildings 
iPiile.itine  Kiplor.  Fund  Qtiarterh/  Statement, 
Oct.,  1892,  p.  295).  Sir  Charles  Warren,  under 
the  auspices  of   the   Palestine   Exploration 


Fund,  made  extensive  excavations  in  Jeru- 
salem from  Feb.,  18(i7,  till  April,  1870,  sink- 
ing shafts  through  the  ileliri.s,  which  at  one 
jiluce  was  125  feet  dee]),  covering  the  ancient 
city.  He  found  and  traced  for  a  considerable 
distance  the  wall  of  Ophel  (Wilsonand  Warren, 
liecoreiji  of  .JentHalem,  286-289).  Since  then 
Mr.  Henry  Mandsley,  C.  E.,  traced  the  course 
of  the  first  wall  by  relics  of  it  still  remaining 
on  moinit  YAitniTu-entii-oue  IVvn-.s.  .59).  When, 
in  1885,  an  excavation  was  nuide  lor  the  foun- 
dation of  the  (irand  New  Hotel,  a  little  north 
of  Hippicus,  a  jiortion  of  the  second  wall  was 
traced  for  aliout  120  feet.  The  work  of  ex- 
cavation is  still  continued  by  the  ]-x])loration 
Fund,  with  Dr.  F.  J.  Bliss  as  director  of  the 
operations. 

Je-ru'sha  and  Jerusliali  [possession]. 

Wife  of  Uzziah,  kingof  Judah,  and  mother 
of  his  successor,  Jotham  (2  Kin.  xv.  33;  2 
Cbron.  xxvii.  1). 

Je-sha'iah,  in  A.  V.  twice  Jesaiah  (1 
Cbron.  iii.  21  ;  Neh.  xi.  7)  [Jehovah  is  opu- 
lent, or  Jehovah  bath  saved]. 

1.  A  son  of  Jeduthun,  and  a  musician  in 
the  reign  of  David  (1  Cbron.  xxv.  3). 

2.  A  Levite,  son  of  Eehabiah  ;  he  also  was 
in  David's  reign  (1  Cbron.  xxvi.  25). 

3.  A  son  of  Hananiah,  and  a  descendant 
of  Zerubbabel  (1  Cbron    iii.  21). 

4.  A  son  of  Athaliah  and  bead  of  the 
father's  bouse  of  Elani,  who,  with  seventy 
males,  returned  from  Babylon  with  Ezra 
(Ezra  viii.  7). 

5.  A  Merai'ite  Levite  who  returned  in  the 
same  company  (Ezra  viii.  19). 

6.  A  Benjamite,  the  father  of  Itbiel  (Neh. 
xi.  7). 

Jesh'a-nah  [old]. 

A  city  in  the  bill  country  of  Ephraim, 
wrested  by  Abijah  from  the  northern  king- 
dom (2  Cbron.  xiii.  19  ;  cp.  xv.  8).  It  is  be- 
lieved to  be  the  village  called  Isanas,  where 
Herod  the  Great  defeated  the  general  of  An- 
tigonus  (Antiq.  xiv.  15,  12).  Clermont- 
Ganneau  identified  it  with  the  modern  vil- 
lage of  'Ain  Sinia,  about  3  miles  N.  by  W.  of 
Bethel. 

Jesh-a-re'lah.     See  Ashaef.lah. 

Je-sheb'e-ab  [father's  dwelling]. 

A  descendant  of  Aaron.  His  family  be- 
came the  fourteenth  course  of  the  priesthood 
(1  Cbron.  xxiv.  13). 

Je'sher  [probity,  uprightness]. 
A  son  of  Caleb  (1  Cbron.  ii.  181. 

Jesh'i-moii  [a  waste,  a  desert] . 

1.  A  wilderness  at  the  northeastern  end  of 
the  Dead  Sea,  not  far  from  Pisgali  and  Peor 
(Num.  xxi.  20;  xxiii.  28).  Bethjesliimoth 
was  situated  in  it :  see  Bkth-.tksiiimoth. 

2.  A  wilderness  to  the  north  of  the  hill 
Hachilah  and  of  Maon  (1  Sam.  xxiii.  19,  24; 
xxvi.  1,  3). 

It  is  probable  that  Jeshimon  in  these  pas- 


Jeshishai 


3G3 


Jesus 


sages  is  uot  a  i)ropcr  name,  but  should  be 
rencUriMl  desert,  :is  in  K.   V. 

Je-shi'shai  [iK-rtainin;;  to  an  old  man]. 

A  Gadilu,  descendid  from  Ruz  (1  Cliron. 
V.  14). 

Jesh-o-ha'iah  [iierhaps,  Jehovah  doth 
liunililc]. 

.\  Siiiiconite  prince  (1  Chron.  iv.  36). 

Jesh'u-a,  in  A.  V.  once  Jeshuah  (1  Chron. 
xxiv.  11),  an  inconsistency  not  found  in  the 
original  edition  of  A.  V.  [a  late  form  of 
Joshua,  Jehovah  is  salvation]. 

1.  Joshua,  the  military  leader  in  the  wars 
of  Canaan  (Neh.  viii.  17). 

2.  A  descendant  of  Aaron.  His  family  had 
grown  to  a  father's  house  in  the  time  of 
David  and  was  made  the  ninth  of  the  twenty- 
four  courses  into  whi<ii  David  divided  the 
priests  (1  Chron.  xxiv.  1.  <i,  111. 

3.  One  of  the  i)riesls  in  llezekiah's  reign 
•who  had  to  do  with  the  receipt  and  distribu- 
tion of  the  freewill  ollerin-js  in  the  temple 
{2  Chron.  xxxi.  !.'>). 

4.  A  liij;h  jiricst  who  returned  with  Zerub- 
bahel  from  Babylon  (Kzra  ii.  2;  Neh.  vii.  7). 
He  was  the  son  of  Jozadak.  He  built  the 
altar  of  burnt  offering,  and  encouraged  the 
Workmen  and  the  jx-oiile  generally  to  rebuild 
the  temi)le  (Ezra  iii.  -'-!)).  In  /echariah's 
])roi)hecies  he  is  called  Joshua,  and  stands  as 
the  priestly  representative  of  the  returned  ex- 
iles to  whom  divine  support  is  given  (Zech. 
iii.  1-10;  vi.  11-13). 

5.  A  man  of  the  ho\ise  of  Pahath-moab, 
some  of  whose  children  returned  with 
Zerubbabel  and  others  from  cajjtivity  (Ezra 
ii.  (i  ;  Neh.  vii.  11). 

(i.  A  Levite,  head  of  a  Levitical  familj-, 
who,  with  members  of  the  family,  returned 
from  cai)tivity  with  Zerubbabel  (ICzra  ii.  40; 
Neh.  vii.  43;  xii.  8).  He  actively  assisted 
Jeshua,  the  high  priest,  in  slinnilatiug  the 
workmen  and  i>eo])le  to  rebuild  the  tcm])le 
(Ezra  iii.  9).  The  representative  of  the 
liouse  bearing  his  name  allixed  his  seal  to  the 
eovenant  (Neh.  x.  !l).  From  the  last  passage, 
it  api)ears  that  ,leshua  was  the  son  of  Azaniah 
(9).  In  Nell.  xii.  24  the  word  hm.  the  son  of, 
after  Jeshua  is  jirobably  a  corrui)tion  ;  per- 
haps a  corruiition  of  Bani  (cj).  ix.  4,.")).  Not 
unlikely  it  was  tiiis  Levite  .Jeshua  who  was 
the  fatiier  of  the  ruler  of  Mizpah.  IC/.er,  who 
rejiaired  a  portion  of  the  wall  I  iii.  lit). 

7.  .\  Levite,  probably  of  the  aforemen- 
tioned family,  who  aided  Ezra  in  explaining 
tlie  law  to  the  |)eo|ilc  ( Neh.  viii.  7 1,  and  in 
preparing  them  for  a  more  heartfelt  worship 
of  Jehovah  (ix.  4,  '». 

8.  A  village  of  southern  .IiidalU  Neh.  xi.  20). 
Jesh'u-run,    in    A.  V.   once   Jesurun  (Is. 

xliv.   2)    [rigiiteous  one]. 

A  name  of  eudearnu^nt  used  in  ]ioetry 
for  the  nation  of  Israel  with  ri-ference  to  the 
moral  character  which  they  were  create<l  to 
exhibit  (Deut.  xxxii.  l."> ;  xxxiii.  .">,  2(J ;  Is. 
xliv.  2). 


Je-si'ah.     See  Ig.sHiAH. 

Je-sim'i-el  [God  setteth  up]. 

A  juince  of  the  trilie  of  Simeon  (1  Chron. 
iv.  3(j). 

Jes'se. 

Son  of  Obed,  family  of  Perez.  He  was 
descended  from  Nahshon,  chief  of  the  tribe 
of  Judah  in  the  days  of  Mo.ses,  and  from 
liuth  the  .Moabitess"lliuth  iv.  l«-22j.  He 
was  father  of  eight  sons,  the  youngest  of 
whom  was  David  1 1  Sam.  xvii.  12-14).  To 
judge  from  1  Ciiroii.  ii.  1.'),  one  of  them  died 
without  leaving  i)oslerity  :  unless,  as  is  less 
probable,  Elihu  (xxvii.  18)  has  been  lost  from 
the  register.  Jesse  had  two  daughters,  but 
by  a  different  wife  from  David's  mother  (ii. 
l('i ;  cj).  2  Sam.  xvii.  2.")).  .Jesse  lived  at  I'.eth- 
lehem,  to  which  Samuel  was  sent  to  anoint  a 
king  from  among  his  sons.  After  seven  of 
them  had  been  i)assed  before  him  in  the 
order  of  their  birth,  David  was  called  from 
the  flock  which  he  was  tending,  and  on  his 
arrival  was  anointed  kingd  Sam.  xvi.  1-13). 
When  Saul  lost  all  atfeclion  for  David,  he 
almost  uniformly  called  him  the  son  ofJes.se 
(xx.  31  ;  xxii.  7  ;  xxv.  10),  to  remind  every 
one  of  his  rival's  hund)le  origin,  all  the 
while  ignoring  the  fact  that  his  own  father, 
Kish.  was  no  more  a  king  than  Jesse  was. 
When  David  was  in  the  cave  of  Adnllam,  he 
was  joined  by  his  father,  his  mother,  and  his 
brothers.  He  allowed  his  broth(>rs  to  share 
the  danger  of  liis  wanderings,  but  i>laced  his 
parents  under  the  ])rote(tion  of  the  king  of 
Moab,  the  native  land  of  his  ancestress  Kuth, 
till  he  knew  what  God  had  in  store  for  him 
in  the  future  (xxii.  1-4).  It  is  uncertain 
when  Jesse  died.  When  the  ten  tribes  re- 
volted against  Kehoboam,  tlu're  was  a  certain 
contemptuous  reference  after  the  manner  of 
Saul  to  the  son  of  Jesse  (2  i^am.  xx.  1  ;  1 
Kin.  xii.  16  ;  2  Chron.  x.  Vi).  The  relation- 
shij)  l)etween  Jesse  nnd  David  made  the  for- 
mer obtain  mention  in  pro])hecy  (Is.  xi.  1,  10  ; 
c]).  Rom.  XV.  12). 

Jes'u-i.    See  Isnvi. 

Jes'u-run.    See  JicsurRrx. 

Je'sus,  an  imitation  of  the  Greek  form  of 
Jeshua,  which  in  turn  is  a  late  form  of 
Jehoshiia  or  Joshua  [Jehovah  is  salvation]. 

1.  Joshua,  the  military  leader  in  the  wars 
of  Canaan  (A.  V.  of  Acts'  vii.  4,"j  ;  Ileb.  iv.  8); 
see  Joshua. 

2.  An  ancestor  of  Christ,  who  lived  about 
four  hundred  vears  after  David  (Luke  iii. 
2!)).  The  A.  V.".  following  a  dilVerent  Greek 
text,  calls  him  .Jose. 

3.  In  the  Seiituagint  the  name  occurs  sev- 
eral times  in  the  .\pocrypha.  It  was  l)orne  by 
the  author  of  Ecclesiasticus,  and  twelve  jier- 
sons  with  this  name  iire  mentioned  l>y  Jo- 
se()hus  outside  of  his  references  to  Joshua 
and  toCbrisl.  It  was  a  comnum  nameamiing 
the  Jews  of  tin-  (ireek-speaking  period. 

4.  A  Jewish  Christian,  also  called  Justus, 
associated  with  Paul  (Col.  iv.  11). 


Jesus  Christ 


364 


Jesus  Christ 


5.  The  name  of  our  Lord.  See  Jesus 
CHKi.<r. 

Je'sus  Christ. 

(_)iir  Lord  was  named  Jesus  in  accord- 
ance willi  tlie  directions  of  the  angel  to 
Joseph  (Mat.  i.  21  i  and  Mary  (Jjuke  i.  31). 
Whi'U  given  to  ordinary  children  it  nierelj* 
expressed,  if  anything,  the  i)arent's  faith  in 
God  as  the  saviour  of  hispcojile,  or  their  faith 
in  the  coming  salvation  of  Israel.  When 
given  to  Mary's  child  it  was  designed  to  ex- 
press the  special  odice  he  would  fuUill: 
'"Thou  shall  call  his  name  Jesus,  for  he  shall 
save  his  peo])le  from  their  sins"  iMat.  i.  21). 
Christ  is  from  the  (Jreek  Christos,  anointed, 
corresponding  to  the  Hebrew  Maslii<tli,  anoint- 
ed, Messiah.  Jesus  therefore  was  our  Lord's 
personal  name  and  Christ  was  his  title  (the 
Christ)  ;  though  the  latter  was  early  used  also 
as  a  proper  name,  as  it  is  by  us,  either  alone 
or  with  Jesus. 

It  is  the  ol)ject  of  the  following  article  to 
sketch  the  progress  of  our  Lord's  life  on 
earth,  so  as  to  place  its  principal  events  in 
their  probable  order  and  relation. 

Chronology.  The  exact  dates  of  the  birth, 
baptism,  and  death  of  Jesus  cannot  be  abso- 
lutely demonstiated ;  but  most  scholars  now 
agree  within  narrow  limits.  Our  ordinary 
Christian  calendar  originated  with  Dionysius 
Exiguus,  a  Roman  abbot  who  died  A.  D.  556. 
He  first  .selected  the  year  of  the  incarnation 
as  that  before  and  after  -which  dates  should 
be  reckoned.  He  fixed,  however,  on  the  year 
of  Rome,  754.  as  that  in  which  Christ  was  born, 
and  that  year  conso(|uently  ecjuals  A.  D.  1. 
But  the  statements  of  Josejihus  make  it  clear 
that  Herod  the  Great,  who  died  shortly  after 
Jesus  was  born  (Mat.  ii.  19-22),  died  several 
years  before  the  year  of  Rome,  754.  His 
death  occurred  thirty-seven  years  after  he 
had  been  declared  king  by  the  Romans, 
which  was  in  A.  U.  C.  714.  This  might  be 
751  or  750.  according  to  whether  Josephus 
counted  fractions  of  a  year  as  whole  years  or 
not.  The  year  7.50  is,  however,  made  the 
more  ])robable  from  the  further  statement  of 
Ji'Sephus  that  shortly  before  Herodis  death 
he  ]iut  to  death  two  Jewish  rabbis,  and  that 
on  the  night  of  their  execution  there  occurred 
an  ecli])se  of  the  moon,  .\stronomical  cal- 
culations show  that  in  7.50  there  was  a  partial 
lunar  eclipse  on  the  night  of  ^March  12  or  13  ; 
but  in  751  there  was  no  eclipse.  Josephus 
also  narrates  that  Ilerod  died  shortly  Ix^fore 
the  pass(jver.  which  began  in  7.50  on  April  12. 
We  may,  therefore,  with  considerable  confi- 
dence date  Herod's  death  about  April  1,  in 
the  year  of  Rome  7.50,  which  was  4  B.  C. 
Before  that  date,  therefore,  we  must  i>lace 
the  events  given  in  the  gos])els  which  oc- 
curred between  the  birth  of  Jesus  and  tlie 
death  of  Herod,  for  whi(di  a  jieriod  of  two 
or  three  months  is  ])robably  rei|uired. 
Christ's  birth,  therefore,  is  to  b('  jilaced  at  the 
close  of  5  B.  c.  or  beginning  of  4  B.  c.  The 
observance  of  December  25th  did  not  arise 


until  the  fourth  century,  .so  that  it  has  no 
authority.  It  may,  however,  be  accei)ted  as 
an  approximation  to  the  truth,  and  then 
Chri.st's  birth  would  be  assigned  to  Decem- 
ber 2.5,  5  B.  c.  This  puts  it  five  years  earlier 
than  in  the  calendar  of  Dioiiysius,  who 
assigned  it  to  December  2.5,  a.  "d.  1.  The 
date  of  the  opening  of  our  Lord's  imblic 
ministry  is  to  be  obtained  i)rinci])ally  from 
Luke  iii.  23,  where  it  is  said  that  at  his  bap- 
tism he  was  about  thirty  years  of  age.  The 
exi)ression  is  obviously  iiidetinite;  but,  as- 
suming that  he  was  born  December  2.5.  5  B.  C, 
he  would  be  thirty  on  DecendjtT  25,  a.  D.  26. 
The  traditional  date  of  the  baptism  is  Janu- 
ary 6,  and  if  we  suii))o.se  at  any  rate  that  it 
occurred  early  in  a.  d.  27,  Luke's  expression, 
"about  thirty  years  of  age,"  would  be  cor- 
rect. This  date  also  is  somewhat  confirmed 
by  the  statement  of  the  Jews  (John  ii.  20), 
made  shortly  after  his  baptism,  "forty  and 
six  years  was  this  temple  in  building."  The 
rebuilding  of  the  temple  by  Herod  was  be- 
gun, as  might  be  shown,  in  20-19  b.  c.  ;  so  that 
the  forty-six  years,  suppcsing  them  to  have 
elapsed  when  the  remark  was  made,  would 
bring  us  again  to  A.  D.  27.  If,  finally,  "the  fif- 
teenth year  of  the  reign  of  Tiberius"  (Luke 
iii.  1),  when  John  the  Baptist  began  his  min- 
istry, be  reckoned,  as  it  properly  may  be,  from 
the  time  when  Tiberius  was  associated  with 
Augustus  in  the  empire  (a.  d.  11  to  12),  it 
coincides  with  A.  D.  26  and  further  agrees 
with  our  other  calculations.  It  is  true  that 
all  these  items  of  evidence  contain  in  them 
points  on  which  opinions  may  not  unreason- 
ably diller  :  yet  the  dates  we  have  given  ap- 
pear to  be  the  most  probable  and  to  su])])ort 
one  another.  The  length  of  Christ's  minis- 
try and  consequently  the  year  of  his  death 
are  to  be  fixed  by  the  number  of  passovers 
which  John  notes  in  his  Gospel.  If  we  liad 
only  the  synoptic  gospels  (see  Gospp:i,).  we 
might  infer  that  his  ministry  was  only  a  year 
in  length,  and  this  was  in  ancient  timesa  not 
uncommon  opinion.  But  .John's  Gospel  speaks 
of  at  least  three  passovers  (ii.  13  ;  vi.  4  ;  xiii. 
1),  and  it  is  highly  jirobable  that  the  feast 
referred  to  in  John  v.  1  was  also  a  jmssover. 
If  so,  Christ's  ministry  included  four  pass- 
overs,  at  the  last  of  which  he  died  ;  and,  if 
he  was  baptized  early  in  A.  D.  27,  liis  first 
passover  was  in  Ajiril  of  that  year,  and  he 
died  in  A.  D.  30,  when  the  passover  festival 
began  on  April  7.  Those  who  think  that 
John  v.  1  does  not  refer  to  a  passover  date 
Christ's  death  in  A.  D.  29.  W^e  thus  obtain 
as  the  probable  leading  dates  in  Christ's  life  : 
birth,  December  25  (?),  5  B.  v.  :  bajitism  and 
beginning  of  his  ministry,  January  ('!),  A.  D. 
27 ;  death,  April  7,  A.  T>.  30. 

Polificnl  CiwdUUm  of  the  Jeirs.  When  Jesus 
was  born  Herod  the  (Jreat,  an  able  but  cruel 
man,  was  king  of  the  Jews.  His  kingdom 
included  Samaria  and  (ialilee  as  well  as 
Judiea.  He  was  an  Idnmsean  by  descent, 
though  professing  the  Jewish  i-eligion.     His 


Jesus  Christ 


3G5 


Jesus  Christ 


father,  Antipatcr,  had  heen  made  governor 
of  JiKhi-a  liy  Julius  Ca-siir,  and,  after  several 
eliaiiKos  of  furtiiiie,  llerod  had  heen  declared 
kin-;  of  the  .lews  liy  the  Humans  in  10  It.  c. 
Kilt,  wliile  an  independent  kinji  in  many 
ways,  llenid  ruled  liy  the  favor  of  and  in  de- 
pendi'Uire  on  the  liomaus,  who  had  hecome 
the  praetieal  rulers  of  the  world.  On  his 
(h-ath,  I  I!,  v.,  his  kiufidoni  was  divided  amoufc 
his  sous.  Arclielaus  receivi'il  .Indian  ;nid  Sa- 
maria. Ilerod  .Vntiiias  received  (ialilie  and 
IVriea.  Herod  riiilip  received  the  territory 
northeast ofthe sea of(ialilee(  Luke iii.l).  But 
in  the  Iciilli  yearof  liisrcif;n  Arclielaus  wasdc- 
posed  liy  -Vufrustus.  and  frniii  that  dale.Iudiea 
ami  Samaria  were  ruled  by  Koman  ;,'overiiors, 
styled  ]iroc»rators.  until  the  destruction  of 
,Terus;ileni,  with  the  exception  of  the  years 
.v.  D.  U-ll,  when  Ilerod  A-^riiipa  I.  was 
invested  with  the  royal  power  (Acts  xii.  1). 
During  the  ministry  of  Christ,  therefore, 
Galilee  and  Perasa,  where  he  spent  most  of 
his  time,  w'ere  under  the  rule  of  Herod 
.\ntipas  (Mat.  xiv.  ."5:  >[ark  vi.  14;  Luke  iii. 
1,  1!»:  ix.  7:  xiii.  :U  ;  xxiii.  8-1-2),  while 
Samaria  and  .Fuda'a  were  ruled  directly  by 
the  Komans  through  their  governor,  who  at 
that  time  was  Pontius  I'ilate.  The  rule  of 
the  Romans,  whether  direct  or  indirect,  irri- 
tated the  Jews  exceedingly,  and,  during 
Christ's  life,  the  land  was  in  an  almost  con- 
stiint  state  of  political  ferment.  While  the 
Romans  sought  to  give  the  nation  as  much 
self-government  as  possible,  so  that  their 
sanhedrin.  or  chief  court,  exercised  juris- 
<iicticin  in  a  very  large  number  of  cases;  and 
while  the  conquerors  granted  many  privileges 
to  the  .lews,  esiu'cially  in  resjiect  to  their  re- 
ligious observances,  yet  the  nation  fretted 
under  a  foreign  domination,  which  was  very 
positive,  when  it  wished  to  be  so,  and  which 
did  not  intend  ever  to  grant  them  their  old 
liberty.  The  .Jewish  aristocnicy,  however, 
including  most  of  the  Sadducees,  were  not 
unfriendly  to  the  Romans.  The  Pharisees, 
who  comprised  the  strictest  religionists,  were 
disposed  to  devote  themselves  t<i  the  conser- 
vation of  .Iiidaism,  while  generally  avoiding 
political  coni]ilications.  We  read  al.so  of 
Heiodians,  who  doubtless  favored  the  claims 
ofthe  Ilenidiiin  family  to  the  .Jewish  tlirone, 
while  fiom  .Iose|ihus  we  learn  of  jiolitical 
patriots  who  successively  arose  in  the  vain 
endeavor  to  throw  off  the  Roman  yoke.  In 
such  a  condition  of  things,  one  who  claimed 
to  be  Messiah  would  easily  be  involved  in 
jiolilieal  dilliculties.  We  shall  see  that  Jesus 
carefully  and  successfully  avoided  these  in 
order  that  he  might  proclaim  the  true,  sjiir- 
itual  kingdom  of  (Jod. 

IIiHiiIdiis  riiiidilioii  of  Ihe  .Tries.  .\s  already 
implied.  Ibis  was  larj;i'ly  atl'ected  by  the  state 
of  politii'al  all'airs.  .So  far  as  the  otlicial 
clas.ses  were  concerned,  the  iiiirely  religious 
hopes  of  tile  Old  Testament  had  heen  almost 
forgotten,  and  even  amonu  the  people  the 
idea  of  an  earthly  kingdom  had   nearly  dis- 


placed that  of  a  spiritual  one.  We  meet  iu 
the  gosjiels  with  two  leading  sects,  the  Phar- 
isees and  the  Sadducees.  The  former  were 
religious  and  had  the  greater  intliience 
among  the  iii'o]ile  ;  but  they  ha<l  substituted 
tlieological  and  ceremonial  tradition,  as  well 
as  casuistic  subtleties,  for  the  word  of  (iod, 
and  in  their  hands  the  religion  of  Moses  ami 
the  projihets  had  become  a  narrow,  barren, 
and  unsjiiritual  form.  The  Phari.sees  natur- 
ally opiiosed  the  spiritual  and  unconventional 
religion  which  Jesus  taught,  and  especially 
his  appeal  from  tradition  to  Scripture.  The 
Sadducees,  on  the  other  hand,  were  the  aris- 
tocrats. They  ineliuleil  tlu^  high-[)riestly 
families.  They  were  infected  by  gentile 
culture,  rejected  the  Pharisaic  traditions, 
and  were  more  interested  in  politics  than  iu 
religion.  They  were  led  finally  to  ojipo.se 
Jesus,  because  they  thought  that  his  success 
would  disturb  the  existing  political  relations 
(John  xi.  48).  Meanwhile  the  ceremonies  of 
God's  worship  were  carried  on  with  much 
magnificence  in  the  temjile  at  Jerusalem,  the 
people  attended  with  fidelity  and  in  great 
numbers  the  religious  festivals,  and  the  zeal 
of  the  nation  for  their  religious  privileges 
and  traditions  was  nevergreater,  while  every 
now  and  then  some  outbreak  of  mingled 
l)atriotism  and  fanaticism  fanned  the  embers 
of  poi)ular  hope  into  a  flame.  Yet  there 
were  some  who  still  preserved  the  spirit  and 
faith  of  a  pure  religion.  They  were  found 
mainly,  though  not  wholly,  among  the  hum- 
ble classes.  In  them  the  expi'ctation  of  a 
saviour  from  sin  had  not  dii'd  out,  and  from 
the  bosom  of  one  of  these  pious  circles  did 
Jesus  himself  come.  The  Jewish  people, 
therefore,  in  Christ's  lifetime  were  still  a  re- 
ligious peojile.  They  knew  the  (^Id  Testa- 
ment, which  was  read  in  tlieir  synagogues 
and  taught  to  tlu'ir  children.  Tin-  nation  was 
in  a  state  of  religious  interest  as  well  as  of 
political  unrest.  These  facts  exjilain  to  us 
the  popular  excitement  caused  by  the  preach- 
ing of  John  the  Baiitist  and  of  Jesus,  the 
o]ii)osition  of  the  ruling  classes  to  them  both, 
and  the  success  of  the  method  which  Jesus 
pursued  in  preaching  his  gospel,  as  well  as 
the  fate  which  he  himself  saw  from  the  he- 
ginning  to  be,  even  humanly  speaking,  in- 
evitable. 

Life  of  Jefii!!.  The  circumstances  of  the 
birth  of  Jesus,  as  recorded  in  the  gospels, 
were  in  accord  with  his  <lignity  and  the  pre- 
dictions of  Messiah,  yet  such  als<i  as  to  har- 
monize with  the  lowly  appearance  which  the 
.Saviour  was  to  make  on  earth.  .\s  Malachi 
(iii.  1:  also  iv.  r>,  (i)  had  ])ro|ihesied  that  a 
herald,  in  the  sjiirit  and  power  of  Elijah, 
should  precede  the  Lord  wlien  he  shoidd 
come  (o  his  temi>le.  so  Luke  tells  us  first 
of  the  birth  of  John  the  Haptist,  the  herald 
of  the  Christ.  A  certain  jiious  jiriest,  named 
Zaidiarias.  who  had  no  chihl  and  was  far  ad- 
vanced in  years,  was  discharging  his  duties 
at  the  temple.     He  was  chosen  by  lot.  as  the 


Jesus  Christ 


366 


Jesus  Christ 


custom  was,  to  offer  the  incense,  representing 
the  prayers  of  Israel,  on  the  altar  in  the  holy 
place.  To  him  the  angel  (Tabriel  appeared 
and  announei<l  that  he  was  to  he  the  I'atlu'r 
of  the  ]iroiMised  forrnniuer  of  Messiah.  'J'his 
was  prohahly  in  October,  6  15.  c.  After  his 
term  of  service  in  the  temple  was  over,  ho 
and  his  wife,  Elisabeth,  returned  to  their 
home  in  a  city  in  the  hill  country  of  Judah 
(Luke  i.  39),  "and  awaited  the  niliillnicnt  of 
the  promise.  Si.x  months  later  the  angel  aji- 
peared  to  Mary,  a  maiden  jirobably  of  Davidic 
descent,  who  lived  in  Nazareth  and  was  be- 
trothed to  .Joseph,  who  was  certainly  de- 
scended from  the  great  king  of  Israel  (Mat.  i. 
1-16;  Luke  i.  27)  ;  see  (iEXEALouY.  .Joseph 
was  a  carpenter  by  trade,  a  man  of  humble 
station  though  of  high  descent,  and  a  devout 
Israelite.  To  Mary  the  angel  announced  that 
she  was  to  become  the  mother  of  Jlessiah 
(Luke  i.  28-38)  by  the  power  of  the  Holy  Spirit 
working  in  her,  and  that  the  child,  who  was  to 
be  called  Jesus,  should  have  the  throne  of  his 
father  David.  For  her  comfort  also  she  was 
told  of  the  pregnancy  of  Elisabeth,  who  was 
her  kinswoman.  When  the  angel  left  her, 
Mary  ha-stened  for  protection  and  sympathy  to 
the  house  of  Zacharias.  At  their  meeting,  the 
si>irit  of  prophecy  came  on  these  two  women. 
While  Elisabeth  greeted  Mary  as  the  mother 
of  her  Lord,  Mary,  like  Hannah  of  old  (1 
Sam.  ii.  1-10),  broke  forth  in  a  song  of  praise 
for  the  salvation  of  Israel  that  was  coming 
and  for  the  honor  which  had  been  conferred 
on  her.  It  is  evident  that  these  strange 
events  were  regarded  by  them  both  in  the 
spirit  of  strong  faith  and  holy  exaltation, 
the  jierfect  expression  of  the  historic  hope  of 
Isi'ael.  When  the  time  drew  near  for  Elisa- 
beth to  be  delivered  of  the  child  which  she 
had  conceived,  Mary  returned  to  Nazareth. 
Her  further  protection  against  reproach  was, 
however,  secured  by  God  himself.  .Joseph, 
seeing  her  condition,  was  disposed  quietly  to 
put  her  away  without  public  accusation,  but 
even  this  gentle  treatment  was  forestalled. 
An  angel  revealed  to  him  in  a  dream  the 
cause  of  Mary's  condition ;  told  him  that  he 
was  to  have  Messiah  for  his  child  ;  and  that, 
as  Isaiah  had  foretold,  the  latter  was  to  be 
born  of  a  virgin.  With  faith,  equal  to 
Mary's,  Joseph  believed  the  message  and 
made  Mary  his  legal  wife.  It  was  thus  se- 
cured that  Mary's  child  was  born  of  a  virgin, 
and  at  the  same  time  that  he  had  a  legal 
human  father  and  his  mother  was  ]>r()tected 
by  the  love  and  res])e('tability  of  a  husliand. 
There  can  be  little  doubt  that  these  facts 
were  made  known  by  Mary  herself  at  a  later 
time.  The  fact  that  neither  Christ  nor  his 
apostles  aiii)eal  to  his  miraculous  concciition 
in  proof  of  his  Messiahsliip  uccasidns  no 
reason  for  doul)ting  the  narrative.  The  event 
was  not  one  which  could  be  used  as  public 
proof.  But  the  narrative  of  Christ's  birth 
beautifully  harmonizes  with  what  we  now 
know  of   his  dignity  and   his  mission   upon 


earth.  The  Messiah  was  to  be  the  perfect 
flower  of  Israel's  sjiiritual  life  ;  and  so  Jesus 
was  born  in  the  bosom  of  this  pious  family 
circle  where  the  jiure  religion  of  the  <).  T. 
was  believed  and  cherished.  Tlie  Messiah 
was  to  appear  in  lowliness ;  and  so  Jesus 
came  from  the  home  of  the  Nazarene  car- 
penter. The  Messiah  was  to  be  the  son  of 
David,  and  so  Josei)h,  his  legal  father,  and 
jirobably  Mary,  his  actual  mother,  were  de- 
scended from  David.  The  Messiah  was  to  be 
the  incarnation  of  God,  a  divine  person 
uniting  to  himself  a  human  nature,  and  so 
Jesus  was  l)orn  of  a  woman  but  miraculously 
conceived  by  the  i)uwer  of  the  Holy  (ihost. 
After  relating  the  birth  of  John  and  the 
prophetic  song  which  burst  from  the  long- 
sealed  lips  of  his  father  Zacharias  (Luke  i. 
57-79),  over  the  advent  of  Messiah's  lore- 
runner,  the  evangelist  Luke  explains  how 
Jesus  came  to  be  born  in  Bethlehem.  The 
emperor  Augustus  had  ordered  an  enroll- 
ment of  all  the  subjects  of  the  empire,  and 
although  I'alestine  was  under  Herod,  its  in- 
habitants also  were  included  in  the  decree. 
The  enrollment  of  the  Jews,  however,  evi- 
dently took  place  after  the  Jewish  method, 
by  which  each  father  of  a  household  was 
registered,  not  at  his  dwelling  place,  but  at 
the  place  where  his  family  belonged  in  view 
of  its  ancestry.  Hence  Joseph  had  to  go  to 
Bethlehem,  the  original  home  of  David. 
Mary  accompanied  him.  The  lodging  place, 
or  khan,  where  strangers  were  permitted 
to  sojourn,  was  already  fully  occujiied  when 
they  arrived,  and  they  only  found  shelter  in  a 
stable,  which  may  have  been,  as  early  tradi- 
tion affirms,  in  a  cave  near  the  town.  Such 
caves  were  often  used  about  Bethlehem  for 
stables.  We  are  not  told  that  any  cattle 
were  occupying  the  stable.  It  may  have 
been  unused  at  the  time.  Nor  would  a 
stable  in  that  country  and  among  that  people 
have  seemed  as  oflensive  a  lodging  place  as 
it  might  with  us;  but  it  was  a  lowly  abode 
for  the  birthplace  of  Messiah.  Yet  such  it 
was  destined  to  be,  for  there  Mary's  child 
was  born,  and  she  laid  him  in  a  manger 
(Luke  ii.  7).  But  though  born  so  humbly, 
he  was  not  to  be  without  attestation.  That 
night  shejdierds  in  a  field  near  Bethlehem 
were  visited  by  angels,  who  told  them  of 
Mes.siah's  birth  and  where  he  lay,  and  sang 
in  the  hearing  of  the  shepherds:  "Glory  to 
God  in  the  highest,  and  on  earth  jieace  among 
men  in  whom  he  is  well  jileased"  (Luke  ii. 
14.  R.  v.).  The  sheiilierds  hastened  to  Beth- 
lehem and  saw  the  child.  They  related  what 
they  had  .seen  and  heard,  and  then  returned 
again  to  their  flocks.  All  this  was  again  in 
striking  harmony  with  the  mission  of  Messiah. 
Yet  we  should  rememlur  that  the  event  oc- 
curred in  a  circle  of  hund)le  jieasants,  and  that 
it  made  no  noise  in  the  busy  world.  For  a 
while  Joseph  and  Mary  lingered  in  Bethle- 
hem. On  the  eighth  day  the  child  was  cir- 
cumcised   (Luke  ii.  21)  and  the  appointed 


Jesus  Christ 


367 


Jesus  Christ 


name,  Jesus,  was  given  to  him.  Forty  days 
after  his  hirth  (Lev.  xii.)  his  i)aRMits  took 
him,  as  the  law  directed,  to  tlie  leiiii)le  and 
Mary  ottered  her  ^;ifts  of  iiurilieatioii  and 
jiresented  her  eliild  nnto  tlie  Lord.  Tlie 
fir.stliorn  male  child  of  the  Hebrew  mother 
was  to  he  redeemed  by  the  jiayment  of  live 
shekels  (Num.  xviii.  l(j),  and  this  is  meant 
when  it  iss;iid  that  they  hroiifjht  iiim  "  to  pre- 
sent him  to  the  Lord."  The  mother  was  also 
to  olfer  her  thanks;;! vinfi,  and  it  is  siiecially 
noted  by  Luke  that  .Mary  gave  the  oll'ering  of 
the  iioor,  "  a  pair  of  turtle  doves,  or  two  young 
l>igeons."'  The  modest  circumstances  of  the 
family  are  thus  further  attested.  Yet  the 
lowly  Messiaii  was  not  to  leave  his  Father's 
hou.se  without  recognition.  An  aged  saint, 
Simeon  by  name,  came  into  the  temple  and 
the  spirit  of  inspiration  fell  upon  him  at 
sight  of  the  child.  He  hud  licen  jironnsed 
by  (Jod  that  he  should  not  die  till  he  had 
seen  Messiah.  Taking  the  infant  in  his  arms, 
Simeon  gave  thanks  and  predicted  the  glory 
and  sorrow  of  Ills  life  (Luke  ii.  ^i.")-:}.")). 
Anna  also,  a  jiroiihetess  of  great  age,  who 
continually  dwelt  in  the  tem])li',  bore  witiu'ss 
to  the  advent  of  the  Christ  (Luke  ii.  36-38). 
But  a  more  remarkable  attestation  was  soon 
to  follow.  Shortly  after  Josejih  and  Mary 
had  returne(l  to  Hethichem,  certain  magi 
from  the  east  appeared  in  Jerusalem  and  de- 
clared that  they  had  seen  Messiah's  star  in 
the  heavens  and  were  come  to  worship  him. 
They  had  doubtless  learned  from  the  .Tews 
scattered  throughout  the  east  of  the  ex]iec- 
tation  of  a  coming  king  in  .Juda-a  who  would 
be  man's  great  deliverer.  They  were  doubt- 
less also  students  of  the  stars,  and  (iod  used 
their  superstitious  notions  to  make  them 
witnesses  of  the  gentile  world,  waiting  in 
the  half-light  of  natural  religion  for  thecom- 
ing  of  the  .'saviour,  of  whom  they  felt  the 
neeiL  hut  whose  real  character  they  did  not 
understan(L  In  tlie  east  they  had  seen  a 
star  whidi  for  some  reason  they  considered 
to  iMirteud  the  birth  of  the  Jewish  king, 
t'oming  to  .Ferusalem.  they  in(|uired  forliim. 
Their  mess;ige  troubled  the  ecjually  su]ier- 
stitious  Ilerod,  and  sunwuoning  the  scril)es, 
he  demanded  where  Messiah  was  to  be  born. 
When  told  that  he  was  to  be  liorn  in  Bethle- 
hem, IIer(»d  sent  the  magi  there,  but  bade 
them  promise  to  inform  him  if  they  found 
the  child.  ( >n  the  way  the  magi  saw  the  star 
again  over  Hethlidiem,  and,  having  found 
Ji'sus,  otfered  him  rare  gifts  of  f ran kiti cense, 
gold,  and  myrrh.  We  can  imagine  with  what 
renewed  awe  .Fosejih  and  Mary  unist  have 
received  these  unexpected  and  strange  visi- 
tors. They  Were  another  sign  of  the  liigli 
destiny  of  tlie  child.  Thi'  magi,  however, 
were  warned  of  (iod  not  to  nliirii  to  Ilerod, 
for  that  wicked  man  only  intended  to  use 
them  to  destroy  the  newly  born  king.  They 
departed  home,  therefore,  by  another  way. 
Jo.seph  al.so  was  warned  by  an  angel  of  the 
impending   danger  and    in.structed   to  take 


Mary  and  the  babe  to  Egypt,  well  out  of 
Herod's  reach.  It  was  none  too  soon,  for 
presently  the  cruel  king,  whose  readiness  to 
murder  even  his  own  .sons  is  related  by  Jo- 
.sephus,  sent  .soldiers  to  slay  all  the  male 
children  in  Bethlehem  who  were  less  than 
three  years  old.  He  ho]ied  thus  to  accom- 
plish the  object  in  which  he  had  been  foiled 
by  the  departure  of  the  magi  without  in- 
forming him  concerning  the  child  they  liad 
sought.  Bethlehem  was  a  small  jilace  and 
the  number  of  children  slain  may  not  liave 
been  large  ;  but  the  act  was  cruel  enough  at 
the  best.  Jesus,  however,  had  escaped.  How 
long  he  was  kept  in  Egyi>t  we  do  not  know. 
Probably  it  was  a  couple  of  months.  There 
were  many  Jews  there,  so  that  Josejdi  could 
easily  find  a  refuge.  But  in  due  time  the 
angel  informed  him  of  Herod's  death  and 
directed  him  to  return.  It  was  ajiparently 
his  tirst  iiurjiosc;  to  rear  the  child  in  Bethle- 
hem, David's  city.  But  his  fear  of  Archelaus, 
Herod's  son,  made  him  hesitate.  Again  (Jod 
gave  him  instriu'tions,  and  in  accordance 
with  them  .Joseph  and  Mary  sought  once 
more  their  old  home  in  Nazareth.  In  conse- 
quence of  this,  Jesus  appeared  among  the 
people,  when  his  public  life  began,  as  the 
projiiiet  of  Xa/areth,  the  Na/arene.  Such 
are  the  few  incidents  ])reserved  in  the  gos- 
])els  of  the  birth  and  infancy  of  Jesus.  Won- 
derful as  they  apjiear  to  us,  they  attracted 
no  attention  at  the  time  on  the  jiart  of  the 
world.  The  few  jiersons  concerned  in  them 
either  forgot  tlu-m  or  kejit  them  to  them- 
selves. But  when  the  church  was  founded 
we  may  supjtose  that  Mary  told  them  to  the 
disciples.  Matthew  and  Luke  have  related 
them  to  us  (juite  indeiiendi'iilly  of  each  other, 
the  former  to  illustrate  the  royal  Messiahship 
of  Jesus  and  his  fiillillment  of  jirophecy  ;  the 
latter  to  exiilain  the  origin  of  Jesus  and  the 
hist(U'ical  beginnings  of  his  life. 

.\fter  tlie  return  to  Nazareth,  nothing  is 
told  us  of  Jesus'  life,  except  the  one  incident 
of  his  visit  with  his  parents  to  the  temple 
when  he  had  become  twelve  years  of  age 
(Luke  ii.  41-51).  That  incident,  however,  is 
instructive.  It  shows  the  continued  i)iety  of 
Joseiih  and  Mary  and  the  devout  training 
which  they  sought  to  give  the  child.  It 
shows  also  the  early,  spiritual  develo])ment 
of  Ji'sns,  for  he  was  already  mainly  inter- 
ested in  those  religious  questions  on  which 
the  .Jewish  nibbis  gave  instruction  to  their 
pupils.  We  are  not  to  imagine  the  boy  of 
twelve  as  instructing  the  docioi-s.  but  as  a 
pujiil  in  one  of  their  tem]>le  schools,  and  yet 
as  showing  by  his  questions  a  spiritual  in- 
sight wliicli  amazed  them.  The  incident  also 
illustrates  the  natural,  human  life  which 
Jesus  led.  He  grew,  we  are  told.  "  in  wisdom 
and  stature  [or  age],  and  in  favor  with  (Jod 
and  men"  (Luke  ii.  .')"2).  The  wonders  of 
his  infancy  were  doubtless  kejit  a  secret  by 
Joseidi  ami  Mary,  and  Jesus  appeared  to  his 
companions  and   the   family  iu   uo  wise  a 


Jesus  Christ 


368 


Jesus  Christ 


supernatural  being,  but  only  remarkable  for 
his  iiKiilal  force  and  mural  purity.  Putting 
together,  however,  other  facts  incidentally 
mentioned  in  the  gospels,  we  can  form  some 
idea  of  the  circumstances  in  which  the  child- 
hood and  you  ng  man  hood  of.Jesus  were  passed. 
He  was  a  nienil)er  of  a  family.  He  had  four 
brothers  and  .some  sisters  (Mark  vi.  3,  etc.). 
Home  have  suppo.sed  that  the.se  were  the 
children  of  Josejih  by  a  former  marriage ; 
others  that  they  were  Christ's  cousins.  It 
seems  to  us  most  natural  and  scriptural  to 
believe  that  they  were  the  children  of  Josejih 
and  iMary,  born  after  Jesus.  Jiut  at  any 
rate,  Jesus  grew  up  in  a  family,  experiencing 
the  pleasures  and  the  discipline  of  family 
life.  He  became,  like  Jose])h,  a  carpenter 
(3),  so  that  he  was  accustomed  to  manual 
labor.  But  mental  discipline  also  was  not 
wanting.  Jewish  children  were  well  in- 
structed in  the  Scriptures,  and  our  Lord's 
familiarity  with  them  is  evident  from  his 
teaching.  His  parables  also  reveal  a  mind 
sensitive  to  the  teaching  of  nature,  and 
which  must  have  delighted  always  to  ponder 
the  evidence  of  God's  mind  in  the  works  of 
his  hand.  Nazareth,  though  somewhat  se- 
cluded, was  on  the  edge  of  the  busiest  part 
of  the  Jewish  world  and  not  far  from  some 
of  the  most  famous  scenes  of  Israel's  history. 
From  the  cliff  back  of  the  town  the  eye 
could  contemjilate  many  places  associated 
with  great  events.  Not  far  olf  was  the  sea 
of  Galilee,  around  which  was  gathered  the 
varied  life  of  the  world  in  miniature.  It 
was  a  period  also,  as  has  been  said,  of  much 
political  excitement,  and  Jewish  homes  were 
often  agitated  with  the  report  of  stirring 
events.  There  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that 
Jesus  grew  up  in  isolation.  We  should  rather 
imagine  him  keenly  alive  to  the  progress  of 
events  in  Palestine.  While  the  language 
commonly  sjjoken  by  him  seems  to  have  been 
the  Aramaic,  which  had  displaced  the  older 
Hebrew  among  the  later  Jews,  he  must  often 
have  heard  Greek  used  and  may  have  been 
familiar  with  it.  All  this  period  of  his  life, 
however,  the  evangelists  i>ass  over.  Their 
books  w'ere  written  not  to  give  biographies 
of  Jesus,  but  to  report  his  public  ministry. 
We  can  see  enough,  however,  to  pi'ove  the 
naturalness  of  our  Saviour's  human  life,  the 
fitness  of  his  surroundings  to  prejiare  him  for 
his  future  work,  the  beauty  of  his  character, 
and  thus  the  gradual  unfolding  of  his  hu- 
manity iji  expectation  of  the  hour  when  he 
was  to  offer  himself  as  God's  Messiah  to  his 
people.  That  hour  drew  nigh  when,  perhaps 
in  the  summer  of  A.  D.  2ii,  John,  the  son  of 
Zacharias,  who  had  hitherto  led  a  life  of 
ascetic  devotion  in  the  desert  (Luke  i.  80), 
received  from  God  his  commission  to  summon 
the  nation  to  rei)entance  for  their  sins  in 
preparation  for  Messiali's  coming.  John 
moved  from  ])lace  to  place  along  the  Jordan 
valley,  and  administered  the  rite  of  baptism 
to  those  who  believed  his  message.   He  called 


both  the  nation  and  individuals  to  repent- 
ance for  sin,  spoke  in  the  t<jrie  of  the  older 
prophets,  especially  of  Elijah,  and  announced 
that  Messiah  was  at  hand,  that  he  would 
purify  Israel  with  judgments,  and  make  ex- 
])iation  for  the  world's  sin  (Mat.  iii. ;  Mark  i. 
1-8;  Luke  iii.  l-lh;  John  i.  19-3G).  The 
ell'ect  of  his  ministry  was  widespread  and 
profound.  Even  frtmi  Galilee  the  i)eople 
docked  to  his  preaching.  The  sanhedrin 
sent  a  deputation  to  incjuire  his  authority 
(John  i.  iy--2H).  While  the  ruling  classes 
were  unmoved  by  his  apjieal  (Mat.  xxi.  25), 
popular  wonder  and  excitement  were  aroused, 
and  the  i>urely  religious  character  (if  his  mes- 
sage led  the  truly  jiious  to  believe  that  the 
long-deferred  hojic  of  Israel  was  at  last  to  be 
fulfilled.  After  John's  ministry  had  con- 
tinued for  some  time,  ]ierhaiis  I'or  six  months 
or  more,  Jesus  ajjpeared  amid  the  multitude 
and  asked  the  prophet  to  ba]>tize  him.  The 
insjtired  insight  of  the  Bajitist  recognized  in 
him  one  who  had  no  need  of  repentance; saw 
in  him,  in  fact,  no  less  than  the  Messiah 
himself.  "'I  have  need,"  he  said,  "to  be 
baptized  of  thee,  and  comest  thou  to  meV" 
(Mat.  iii.  14).  We  are  not  to  supjiose  that 
Jesus  did  not  already  know  himself  jierfectly 
well  to  be  the  Christ.  His  reply  rather 
shows  the  contrary  :  "  Suffer  it  now  :  for  thus 
it  becometh  us  to  fulfill  all  righteousue.ss." 
The  baptism  meant  for  him,  jiartly,  self- 
dedication  to  the  work  which  John  had  an- 
nounced, and  also  the  conscious  taking  upon 
himself  of  the  sin  of  the  peoi)le  whom  he  had 
come  to  save.  As  he  came  from  the  baptism 
(Mark  i.  10),  John  (John  i.  33,  34)  saw  the 
heavens  opened  and  the  Spirit  of  God,  in  the 
form  of  a  dove,  descending  and  remaining  on 
him,  and  a  voice  came  from  above  :  "  This  is 
my  beloved  Sou.  in  whom  I  am  well  pleased  " 
(Alat.  iii.  17).  This  was  the  full  endowment 
of  our  Lord's  human  nature  with  sjiiritual 
power  for  his  ministry.  How  truly  human, 
as  well  as  divine,  he  was  through  it  all  is 
shown  by  the  temptation  which  immediately 
followed.  He  was  not  to  enter  ou  his  work 
without  adequate  mental  i)reiiaration.  Ee- 
alizing  his  vocation,  he  was  led  by  the 
Sjiirit  into  the  wilderness,  doubtless  for  medi- 
tation. There  the  great  tempter  met  him, 
and  sought  to  pervert  his  purpose  to  selfish 
and  worldly  ends.  Jesus  must  have  himself 
related  this  experience  to  his  disciples.  While 
we  are  not  to  doubt  the  outward  reality  of 
the  tempter  and  the  physical  features  of  the 
scene  as  described  to  us  (Mat.  iv.  1-11  ;  Luke 
iv.  1-13),  we  should  not  forget  that  the  power 
of  the  temjitation  lay  in  the  subtlety  with 
which  the  world  was  jiresented  to  Jesus  as 
more  attractive  than  the  life  of  stern  obedi- 
ence to  God,  with  its  probably  fatal  close. 
For  forty  days  the  tenii)tation  lasted,  and 
Jesus  returned  from  it  to  the  Jordan  fully 
dedicated  to  the  lowly,  suffering  lot  which 
lie  knew  to  be  God's  will  for  his  Messiah. 
Forthwith  he  began  to  call  disciples.     Yet 


Jesus  Christ 


369 


Jesus  Christ 


with  no  loud  iiidcliiiiiatiiiii  of  his  advent  did 
ht>  iuiuif^urato  his  work.    The  IJaiitist  pointed 
him    out   to   some    of   liis    own    disciples   as 
the    Lamb   of   (}o<l    (John    i.   •_'!»,   :i(i).     Two, 
John  ami  Andrew,  I'olhiwed  tlie  new  teacher. 
Simon   was  soon  added  to  tlie   numher  (3.")- 
4'2).      Tlie  next  day    I'liilip  anil   Natiiaiiael 
were  invited  (43-51).     With  his  little  hand 
.Tesus    ((uic-tly   returni'd    to    (ialilee,    and    at 
('ana   performed   Ills   first    miracle,  in   wiiich 
the  disciples  saw  the  first  signs  of  his  com- 
ing glory  (ii.  1-11).     Wo  must  he  impressed 
with  the  absence  of  any  attempt  to  make  a 
jmhlic  display.     The  new   movi-meiit  began 
with   the   faith  of  a   few  ol)scure  (ialiliuans. 
Hut  St.  .John's  account  makes  il  clear  that 
Jesus  was  fully  sensible  of  who  he  was  and 
what  he  had  come  to  do.     He  was  only  wait- 
ing for  the  favorable  moment   lo  oil'er  him- 
self to  Israel  as  her  Messiah.     Tiiut   moment 
was  naturallj'  found  in  the  approaching  pass- 
over  (April,  A.  I).  "27).      From   Capernaum, 
whitlicr    he   and    his   family   and    disciples 
liad    gone    I  12),   he    ascended    to   .Jerusalem, 
and  there  proceeiled  to  cleanse  the  temple  of 
the  traders  who  profaned  it.     It  was  an  act 
Worthy  of  a  ])roi)het  to  reform  the  flagrant 
abuses  ()f  God's  service:  but  Christ's  words, 
''  Make  not   my   Kalher's   house  a   house   of 
merchandise,''  indicate    that    ho   claimed  to 
1)0    more    than    a    i)rophet    (l(i).     IC  was,   in 
fact,  a   public  summons  of   Israel   to  follow 
him  in  the  work  of   religious    reformation, 
for  only  when   tin;  Jews  hail    rejected   him 
would  he  jiroceed  to  organize  tlu' new  church 
of  the  future  ;  but  he  liimself  did  not  exi>ect 
them  to  follow  him.     This  is  i)roved  by  his 
veiled  i)rediction  of  his  death  at  their  hands 
(19),   while  in  the  conversation   with    Nico- 
demus   he   clearly    brought    out    the   neces- 
sity of  a  lU'W  birth  and  of  his  own  suffer- 
ing   (iii.    1-21),    in    order    that    any    might 
enter  the   kingdom   which    (Jod's   love    had 
sent   him  to  establish.     For  our  knowledge 
of  this  early  .Judioan   ministry  of  .Jesus  wo 
are   indebted   to  St.   John    (ii.   i:}-iv.  3).     It 
lasted  apparently  about  nine  months.     After 
tlie  pas.sover  Jesus  retired   from  the  city  to 
the  .Jud.ean  country,  and  having  found  the 
nation  unwilling  to  follow  him,  he  began  to 
preach,   as  the    Haptist  was  still  doing,   the 
necessity  of    repentance.     For   a    while    the 
two  worked   side   by   side.     Not    till   .John's 
providiMitial  mission  was  plainly  over  would 
Jesus  begin  an  indopendent  one;  of  his  own. 
Hoth  lab.ireil  together  for  the  spiritii;il  (piick- 
enitig  of  the   nation.     .Jesus  began  finaliv  to 
attract  more  disci|)les  than  .loliii  ilid.     This 
led  him   to  terminatt^  his  Judican  ministry, 
for  neither  wouhl  he  a])pi'ar  as  a  rival  of  his 
coworker   (.John    iv.   1   3).     He   turned    once 
more   Inward   (Jalilee.     On    the   way  through 
Samaria  occurred    his  memorable    interview 
with     the    woman    at    Jacob's    well    (1-12). 
Mut    he   hastened    northward.      Arriving    in 
'ialilee.   lie    found    that    his  fame    had    |)re- 
ceded    him    (13   1,")).     A   nobleman    from   Ca- 
21 


pernaum  sought  him  out,  even  in  Cana, 
where  he  was  stopping,  and  secured  from 
him  the  cure  of  his  sou  (1tj-.")4).  It  was 
clear  that  (ialilee  was  the  place  where 
lie  should  labor  and  that  the  lields  were 
white  to  harvest  (3,'>).  Then,  it  would 
.seem,  an  event  occurred  which  indicated 
that  the  hour  for  him  to  begin  his  projier 
work  had  indeed  providentially  arriveil. 
The  news  came  that  John  the  Iiai)tist  had 
been  cast  into  jirison  by  Herod  Antipas. 
The  work  of  the  herald  was  over.  The  old 
Jewish  church  hail  been  sulliciently  called  to 
repentance  and  ri'formation,  and  she  had  re- 
fused to  listen.  Jesus  began  forthwith  in 
(ialilee  to  preach  the  kingdom  of  (Jud,  to 
announce  the  germinal  princijiles  of  the  new 
dispensation,  and  to  gather  the  nucleus  of 
the  future  church. 

The  great  <  ralihean  miiustry  of  Jesus  lasted 
about  sixteen  mouths.  He  took  for  his  center 
the  busy  mart  of  trade,  Capernaum.  In  (iali- 
lee he  was  in  the  midst  of  a  jjopiilation  ]>revail- 
ingly  Jewish,  yet  in  a  region  removed  from  in- 
terference by  the  religious  authorities  of  the 
nation.  His  evident  iiurjiose  was  to  set  forth 
the  true,  spiritual  kingdom  of  God,  and  by 
mighty  works  to  convince  men  of  his  own 
authority  and  of  the  character  of  the  king- 
dom. He  asked  for  faith  in  himself,  lie 
unveiled  the  real  character  of  (ioil  and  his 
requirements  of  men.  He  did  not  ai)i>ly  to 
himself  the  name  Messiah,  for  it  would  have 
been  too  easily  misunderstood  by  carnal 
minds.  He  generally  called  himself  the  Son 
of  man.  He  did  not  at  first  s]ieak  of  his 
death.  They  were  not  ready  to  hear  of  that. 
He  taught  the  priiicii)les  of  true  religion, 
with  himself  as  its  authoritative  expounder. 
His  mighty  works  roused  the  greatest  enthu- 
siasm. He  was  thus  enabled  to  attract  wide 
attention,  till  the  whole  land  was  eager  to 
see  and  hear  him.  Rut.  as  he  foresaw,  the 
final  result  was  the  ilisa))i>ointment  of  the 
people  with  his  unworldlv  ideas.  Ou]y  a 
little  band  faithfully  idave"  to  him.  Yet'  by 
his  teai'hing  he  laid  down  truths  which  that 
hand  of  disciples  were  to  carry,  after  his 
death,  throughout  the  world.  For  the  order 
of  events  in  the  lower  or  early  (ialihean 
ministry  we  refer  to  the  harmony  in  the 
•■irticle  (iosi'iM..  We  can  here  only  note  the 
leading  ])hases  of  the  history.  The  tirst 
was  that  of  the  opening  of  the  work.  This 
was  marked  by  startling  minicles,  by  the 
summons  to  believe  the  gos|)el,  and  by  the 
awakening  of  enthusiastic  interest  in  .Jesus 
on  the  i)art  of  the  Galiheans.  It  included 
the  events  in  the  harmony,  beginning  with 
the  first  rejection  at  Nazareth  ami  ending 
with  r,evi's  feast.  The  close  of  this  jihase 
of  his  work,  which  lasted  perhai>s  four 
months,  found  .Jesus  the  I'cnter  of  universal 
interest  in  (ialilee.  and  gathered  about  him 
a  little  company  of  devoted  followers.  We 
are  not  told  much  about  his  teaching  as 
yet ;  but  from  what  we  are  told  and  from  the 


Jesus  Christ 


370 


Jesus  Christ 


Bignificant  miracles  he  performed — such  as 
the  cure  i)f  the  (leniouiac  (Mark  i.  2'.i-2~), 
tlie  healing  of  the  leper  (40-45),  the  cure 
of  the  i)aralytic  (ii.  1-12),  tlie  miraculous 
draught  of  lisii  (Luke  v.  1-12) — it  is  clear 
that  the  hurdeu  of  his  message  was  suh- 
sttiutially  that  which  he  aunouuced  in  Naz- 
areth (iv.  1«-21),  "The  Spirit  of  the  Lord 
is  upon  me,  because  he  hath  anointed  ine 
to  preach  the  gosjiel  to  the  pdor;  he  hath 
sent  me  to  heal  the  brokenhearted,  to  preach 
deliverance  to  the  captives,  and  recover- 
ing of  sight  to  the  blind,  to  set  at  liberty 
them  that  are  bruisi'd,  to  preach  the  accep- 
table year  of  the  J^ord."  The  aspect  of 
affairs,  however,  soon  began  to  change,  for 
opposition  arose  on  the  part  of  the  Pharisees. 
This  is  the  second  phase  of  the  Galilsean 
ministry.  Jesus  visited  Jerusalem  (John  v.  1) 
and  there  healed  the  ini])oteut  man  on  the 
Sabbath.  At  once  coutlict  with  the  rulers 
and  rabbis  broke  out.  Yet  the  conflict  seems 
to  have  Ijcen  purposely  provoked  by  Jesus,  in 
order  that  through  it  the  difference  between 
the  sjiirit  of  bis  teaching  and  that  of  current 
Judaism  might  appear.  We  see  in  him  now 
thesjjiritual  interpreter  of  the  Old  Testament, 
bringing  out  its  real  meaning,  and  doing  so 
(v.)  with  express  appeal  to  his  own  au- 
thority as  the  Son  of  God  and  the  divinelj- 
appointed  teacher  of  men.  This  phase  in- 
cluded, besides  Johu  v.,  the  incidents  of 
plucking  the  ears  of  corn  and  the  healing  of 
the  man  with  the  withered  hand ;  see  Gos- 
pel. The  conflict  with  the  Phai-isees  and 
the  continued  advance  of  poj)ular  interest 
led  next  to  the  organization  of  his  disciples, 
which  constituted  the  third  phase  of  this 
part  of  his  ministry.  He  now  appointed  his 
twelve  apostles,  and,  on  one  famous  day,  gave 
in  the  sermon  on  the  mount  a  description 
of  the  character  and  life  of  the  true  members 
of  God's  kingdom.  It  is  a  sublime  exhibition 
of  a  genuinely  religious  life,  in  joyful  unison 
with  its  heaveidy  Father,  and  consecrated  to 
his  service  in  the  salvation  of  the  world,  the 
real  fulfillment  of  the  old  law,  though  utterly 
opposed  to  the  formality  and  superficiality  of 
Pharisaism,  the  ideal  of  trust  and  communion 
of  man  in  relation  to  God.  The  sermon  on 
the  mount  was  not  meant  by  Jesus  to  teach 
the  way  of  salvation,  nor  did  it  constitute  by 
any  means  his  whole  gospel.  He,  like  the 
apostles,  taught  salvation  through  faith  in 
him.self.  But  in  this  sermon,  over  against 
Pharisaism  and  poitular  ignorance,  he  set 
forth  that  si)iriliial  life  which  is  the  manifes- 
tation of  the  divine  kingdom  and  toi'utrance 
into  which  faith  in  .Jesus  leads.  The  outlines 
of  the  new  organization  having  thus  been 
enunciated,  we  read,  as  the  fourth  i)hase,  of 
a  succrssion  of  miracles  and  tours  tlimngh 
lower  Galilee — Jesus  l)eing  accompanied  by 
his  apostles — for  the  purixise  of  extending 
his  influence.  This  ])hase  extends  in  the 
harmony  from  the  close  of  the  sermon  on 
the  mount  to  the  time  when  Herod  in([uired 


concerning  the  new  teacher.  During  these 
months  tlu'  jiopular  iut<'rest  in  Jesus  steadily 
iucri'asi'd,  but  tlie  opitositiuu  of  the  Pharisres 
incri'asi'd  etpially.  The  most  notablo  point 
in  tlu^  history  just  here  is  the  great  day  of 
l)arabk's.  The  parable  was  a  form  of  in- 
struction in  which  Jesus  was  unrivaled.  It 
was  intended  to  convey  truth  to  rece]itive 
minds,  and  yet  to  avoid  such  o))en  expression 
of  it  as  would  give  his  enemies  a  ]>lea  foi-  in- 
terfering with  him.  The  appearaiu-e  of  i)aia- 
bles  in  his  teaching  just  at  this  jieriod  shows 
the  increasing  gravity  of  the  situation,  ne- 
cessitating a  certain  reserve  on  Christ's  i)art. 
We  must,  at  the  .same  time,  admire  the  in- 
comparable skill  with  which  he  embodied 
in  these  simple  stories  the  profoundest  truths 
concerning  the  origin  and  ])rogress  and  perils 
and  destiny  of  the  siiiritual  kingdom  which 
he  was  establisliing  in  the  wmld.  At  length, 
however,  the  work  in  (ialilee  came  to  a  crisis. 
Herod  Antipas  began  to  inquire  concerning 
Jesus,  and  the  fact  was  a  warning  that  com- 
jilications,  such  as  had  already  led  to  John's 
imiirisonment,  and  still  more  recently  to  his 
murder,  might  ensue.  A  sufficient  opjtor- 
tunity  had,  moreover,  been  given  to  the 
people  to  test  their  relation  to  the  truth. 
Just  then  an  event  occurred  which  decided 
the  matter.  Jesus  bad  sought  tt'Uiporary  re- 
tirement with  the  twelve  ;  but  the  multitudes 
had  followed  him  to  a  desert  place  on  the 
northeastern  shore  of  the  sea  of  Galilee,  and, 
in  compassion  for  their  needs,  he  had  miracu- 
lously fed  them,  five  thousand  in  number, 
from  five  loaves  and  two  fishes.  The  enthu- 
siastic Galilieans  wished  to  take  him  by  force 
and  make  him  a  king  (John  vi.  I'n  ;  but  that 
very  fact  proved  that  they  had  wholly  mis- 
understood his  mission.  It  was  time  to  bring 
his  work  to  a  close.  From  the  beginning  he 
had  intimated  that  he  had  come  to  die,  and 
that  only  by  dying  could  he  be  their  Sav- 
iour (iii.  14,  1.5).  It  was  now  time  to  pre- 
pare for  the  .sacrifice.  On  the  next  day  after 
the  feeding  of  the  five  thousand  Jesus  deliv- 
ei'ed  in  Capernaum  the  discourse,  recorded 
in  vi.  22-71,  upon  himself  as  the  bread 
of  life  and  on  the  necessity  of  eating  his 
flesh  and  drinking  his  blood.  Then,  after 
some  parting  denunciation  of  the  Pharisaic 
misrepresentations  of  religion  (Mark  vii.  1- 
23),  he  brought  his  jmblic  mini.str^•  in  Galilee 
to  a  close  by  retiring  with  his  discijjles  from 
the  region  in  which  he  had  hitherto  been 
working. 

The  next  great  period  in  Christ's  life  is 
called  the  later  Galila'an  ministry  ;  see  har- 
mony, in  article  Gospkl.  It  lasted  about  six 
months.  In  it  Jesus  went,  for  the  only  time 
in  his  life,  into  gentile  territory,  viz.,  the 
regions  of  Tyre  and  Sidon.  Then,  having 
apparently  passed  southwar(l  along  the  east- 
ern side  of  the  upper  Jordan  and  the  sea  of 
Galilee,  we  find  him  in  the  region  of  I)e- 
cai>olis.  .\gain  he  went  far  into  the  northern 
jiart  of  ({alilee,  and  finally  returned  again  to 


Jesus  Christ 


371 


Jesus  Christ 


Capcrnauin.  The  period  was  mainly  devoted 
to  the  i>re]>anitiiiii  of  his  disciplt's  for  liis 
death  and  ibr  the  extension  of  his  {{osiu-l  to 
all  iKM)pli's.  Me  pnachrd  little,  and  tlu-n 
mainly  tn  lii-ntilo  or  t(i  the  hall'-licatlifn 
IK'oplc  iin  tlu-  siiiitli  and  east  of  the  si-a  of 
(Jalilee.  Finally,  near  t'sesarea  l*hilip])i,  at 
the  hasf  of  mount  Hermon,  he  elieited  from 
I'cter  and  the  rest  the  full  confession  of  his 
Messiahship,  and,  in  connection  therewith, 
lie  plainly  told  them  of  his  coniin;^  death 
and  resurrection,  and  of  tiie  necessity  that 
every  follower  of  his  should  he  willing  also 
to  hi'ar  the  cross.  Shortly  after  occurred  the 
transl'iKuration,  in  which  three  of  his  ajios- 
tles  heheld  his  Kh"'.v,  and  in  wliicli,  it  would 
seem,  lie  devoted  himself  finally,  with  suh- 
lime  e.\altation  of  spirit,  to  the  sacrifice  to 
which  law  and  prophecy,  as  he  was  ri'minded 
hy  .Moses  and  Elias,  iiad  looked  forward. 
Afterwards  he  repeated  the  prediction  of  his 
death,  and,  havinf^  returned  to  Capernaum, 
further  instructed  his  disciples  (Mat.  xviii.) 
in  that  concei>tion  of  (Jod's  service  as  one  of 
humility,  .self-.sacrifice,  and  love,  of  which 
his  own  ;;reat  act  of  self-devotion  was  to  he 
the  permanent  example. 

It  was  now  prohahly  the  early  autumn  of 
A.  D.  29,  and  leaving  t'apernaum  for  the  last 
time  Jesus  "steadfastly  .set  his  face  to  go  to 
Jerusalem"  (Luke  ix.  .">1).  The  next  period 
of  his  ministry  is  called  the  last  jouriu'ys  to 
Jerusiilem.  It  is  impossible  to  follow  in  exact 
order  our  Lord's  movements,  for  .St.  Luke,  on 
whom  we  are  mainly  di'pendent  for  the  rec- 
ord of  this  jieriod.  does  not  follow  a  ])recise 
chronological  method  of  narration.  But  the 
main  featuri's  of  tlieju'riod  are  clear  enough. 
Jesus  now  sought  to  attract  the  public  atten- 
tion of  the  whole  land,  including  Ju(hea. 
He  sent  out  the  seventy  to  announce  his 
coming.  He  visited  .lerusahin  at  the  feast 
of  tabernacles  (.John  vii.),  and  again  at  the 
feast  of  dedication  (x.  2"J).  and  on  both  occa- 
sions offered  himself  rejieatedlv  to  the  peo- 
l)le.       He    called    himself    the  "light    of    the 

world  and  the  g 1  slieiiherd  of  (Jod's   flock. 

and  boldly  conti'nded  with  the  rulers  who 
opj>osed  his  ])retensions.  He  also  moved 
back  and  forth  through  Jiuhea  and  I'enea, 
and  explained  in  ]to|inlar  discourse  and  with 
more  beauty  of  illustration  than  ever  l)efore 
the  true  religious  life  and  the  true  idea  of 
(lod  and  of  his  service.  Here  belong  the 
parahlesof  the  good  Samaritan,  the  we<lding- 
feast,  the  lost  sheep,  the  lost  coin,  the  |)rodi- 
Kalson,the  unjust  steward,  the  ricli  man  and 
Lazarus,  the  importunate  widow,  the  I'hari- 
.sec  and  the  publican.  Thus  the  announce- 
ment of  the  gospel  became  more  conijilete, 
while  the  fierceness  of  the  oi)|)ositioii  of  the 
rulers  became  more  intense,  until  an  event 
occurred  which  brought  matters  to  a  climax. 
Word  was  brought  lo.Iesus  of  the  sickness  of 
his  friend  Lazarus  in  IJethany.  (ioing  to 
him,  he  founil  him  aln-ady  four  <lays  dead, 
and    forthwith   he  eclipsed   all    his  jirevions 


miracles  by  raising  the  dead  man  to  life 
(xi.  l-Jfi).  The  miracle  was  so  stujiendous 
and  jierformed  so  near  Jeru.siilem  that  it  had 
a  jirofound  effect  on  the  people  of  the  capital  ; 
and  the  sanhedrin.  under  the  lead  of 
('aia|dias,  the  high  [)riest,  decided  that  the 
influence  of  Jesus  could  be  destroyed  only 
by  his  death  (47-5:5).  Forthwith  Jesus  re- 
tired from  the  vicinity  (."iD,  evidently  de- 
termined that  he  should  not  die  until  the 
passover.  As  that  drew  near  he  began  to 
approach  the  city  through  iVra-a  (Mat.  xix. ; 
XX.;  Mark  x. ;  Luke  xviii.  l.">-xix.  2b), 
teaching  as  he  went,  hut  again  ])redicting 
his  <leath  and  ri-surrection,  until  he  reachecl 
Bethany  once  more,  six  days  before  the  feast 
(John  xii.  1).  At  Bethany,  Mary,  the  sister 
(tf  Lazarus,  anointed  his  head  and  feet  while 
he  was  at  sujjpi^r.  an  event  in  which  .lesus 
saw  a  sih'nt  prophecy  of  his  coming  l)urial. 
But  the  next  day  he  made  the  triumjihal 
entry  on  an  ass's  colt  into  Jerusalem.  By 
that  he  invited  the  anger  of  the  rulers, 
ottered  himself  ])ul)licly  as  Messiah,  and 
illustrated  the  i)eaceful  character  of  the 
kingdom  he  had  come  to  found.  The  next 
day  he  returned  again  to  the  capital,  on  his 
way  cursing  the  barren,  though  blooming, 
fig  tree,  which  was  so  ajit  an  emblem  of  the 
barren,  though  ])retentious,  Jewish  chuicli. 
Then,  as  three  years  before,  he  cleansed  the 
temple  of  the  traiU-rs  who  jirofaned  its  courts, 
thus  once  more  calling  the  nati<in  to  follow 
him  in  a  i)urification  of  Israel.  But  though 
the  i>ilgrims  to  the  festival  crowded  about 
him  and  had  hailed  him  at  the  triumiihal 
entry  as  the  Messiah,  the  rulers  maintained 
their  resolute  enmity.  On  the  next  day 
(Tuesday)  he  again  visited  the  city.  Arrived 
at  the  temple,  he  wasmet  by  a  deputation  from 
the  saiihe(lrin,  which  demanded  his  authority 
for  his  acts.  This  he  -efused  to  give,  know- 
ing tluit  they  were  already  resolved  to  de- 
stn)y  him.  while,  by  the  jianibh;?  of  the  two 
sons,  the  w'cked  husbandmen.  av.-.(  the  mar- 
riage of  the  king's  son,  he  described  their 
disoliedience  to  (lod,  the  infidelity  of  Israel 
to  her  high  trust,  and  the  certain  desiilation 
of  the  faithless  church  an!  city.  Forthwith 
he  was  (pu'stioned  by  a  succession  of  parties 
who  sought  to  find  accusation  against  him  or 
to  weaken  his  rejiutation.  The  Pharisees 
and  Herodians  asked  about  the  lawfulness 
of  giving  tribute  to  C'a'sar;  the  Sjidducees 
about  the  resurrection  ;  a  lawyer  about  the 
great  commandment  ;  and  he.  having  silenced 
each  in  turn.  dis<-omtite(l  them  by  his  (pies- 
tion  concerning  David's  address  to  .Messiah 
as  Lord,  for  the  ]>salmist's  language  clearly 
im|ilie(l  that  his  own  claim  to  be  the  Son  of 
(tod  and  equal  with  (Jod  was  not  blasphe- 
mous. It  was  a  day  of  l)ilter  conflict.  .Jesus 
vehemently  denounced  the  unworthy  leaders 
of  the  iK'ople  (Mat.  xxiii.  l-'.l"^).  When  cer- 
tain (Jreeks  desiri'd  to  s(>e  him  he  sjiw  in 
their  conung  a  j)resige  of  the  .Tews'  rejection 
of  him.  and  that  the  gentiles  were  to  be  his 


Jesus  Christ 


372 


Jesus  Christ 


followers,  and  realized  that  the  end  was  at 
hand  (Jolm  xii.  -^O-oO).  As  he  left  tlie  tem- 
ple he  sadly  remarked  to  his  diseiples  tliat 
soon  the  splendid  buildinj^  would  be  in  ruins, 
and  later  on  the  same  cvenini;  he  gave  to 
four  of  them  his  ]in(lictinii  of  the  destruc- 
tion of  Jerusalem,  the  sjiread  of  the  gospel, 
the  sutl'erings  of  his  followers,  and  his  own 
second  advent,  a  prediction  which  shows  to 
US  that  amid  the  lowei'ing  storm  of  Jewish 
hostility  the  vision  of  Jesus  was  clear,  and 
that  he  moved  on  to  his  fate  knowing  it  to 
be  the  a])pointed  path  to  ultimate  success.  It 
is  probable  that  on  that  very  night  the  plot 
was  formed  to  destroy  him.  Judas,  one  of 
the  twelve,  had,  we  may  believe,  long  been 
alienated  from  the  spiritual  ideas  of  the 
Master.  He  was  grieved  also  at  Christ's  re- 
fu.sjil  to  seek  a  worldlj'  kingdom  ;  for  Judas 
was,  John  tells  us,  an  avaricious  man.  At 
the  supper  at  Bethany  he  had  become  finally 
and  fully  conscious  of  his  entire  want  of 
sympathy  with  Jesus,  and  as  the  disappoint- 
ment which  he  felt  over  the  failure  of  his 
hopes  grew  keener  he  resolved  to  wreak  his 
anger  on  the  Lord  by  betraying  him  to  the 
rulers.  His  oiler  changed  their  jjlans.  They 
had  purposed  to  wait  until  the  festival  was 
over  and  the  crowds  had  departed.  But  in 
the  absence  of  any  real  charge  against  Jesus 
they  were  only  too  glad  to  avail  themselves 
of  "the  traitor's  proposal.  The  next  day 
(Wednesday)  seems  to  have  been  spent  by 
Jesus  in  retirement.  He  probably  remained 
in  Bethany.  On  Thursday  afternoon  the 
paschal  lambs  were  to  be  slain,  and  after  sun- 
set the  paschal  supper,  with  which  the  seven- 
day  feast  of  unleavened  bread  began,  was  to 
be'  eaten  by  all  pious  Israelites.  On  that 
day  Jesus  sent  Peter  and  John  into  the  city 
to  prepare  the  passover  for  him  and  the 
twelve.  He  sent  them,  no  doubt,  to  the 
house  of  a  disciyde  or  friend  (Mat.  xxvi.  18)  ; 
but  by  the  device  of  telling  them  to  follow 
when  they  entered  the  city  a  man  whom  they 
would  meet  bearing  a  pitcher  of  water,  he 
kept  the  ]ilace  of  assembly  secret  from  the 
restof  the  disciples,  for  the  pnrpose  no  doubt 
of  preventing  Judas  from  betraying  it  to  the 
rulers,  and  thus  jiossibly  interfering  with 
the  last  precious  interview  with  the  apostles. 
When  evening  came  he  observed  with  them 
the  passover  sui)per.  For  the  order  of  events 
during  the  evening,  see  again  the  liarmony. 
The  view  of  some  tliat  according  to  John's 
Gospel  (xiii.  1,  29;  xviii.  28;  xix.  31)  Jesus 
was  crucified  on  Nisan  14th,  the  day  on  which 
the  pasclml  liimb  was  slain,  and  therefore 
that  he  did  not  eat  the  i)assover  sujiper  at  the 
regular  time,  but  anticii)ated  it  by  a  day, 
ajipears  to  be  quite  incoiisistent  with  the 
language  reported  by  Matthew  (xxvi.  17-19), 
Mark  (xiv.  Ir.'-U)),  and  Luke  (xxii.  7-i:?,  15), 
and  the  expressions  api)e;iled  to  in  John  may 
be  explained  on  the  hypothesis  wbieh  we  are 
following.*  It  should  be  noted  that  in  all 
*  John  xiii.  1  does  not  mean  that  all  that  is 


probability  Judas  withdrew  before  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  eucharist,  and  that  Ji'sus 
twiee  predicted  the  fall  of  Peter,  once  in 
the  upper  room  and  again  while  on  the 
way  to  Geth.semane.  John's  Gospel  does 
not  relate  thi'  establishment  of  the  eucha- 
rist, but  it  gives  the  Lonfs  last  discourses 
witli  the  apostles,  in  which  he  comforted 
them  in  view  of  his  departure  from  tiiem  by 
revealing  the  unchangeable  si)iritual  union 
between  himself  and  them,  and  the  mis- 
sion of  the  Siiiiit  which  would  bring  to  frui- 
tion their  relation  to  him.  It  records  also 
his  sublime  high-]iriestly  jirayer  (xvii.).  On 
the  way  to  Gethsemane  Jesus  further  warned 
the  discii)les  that  they  would  soon  be  scat- 
tered, and  ajipointed  a  iiieeliug  with  him, 
after  his  resurrection,  in  (ialilee.  The  agony 
in  the  garden  was  his  final  and  complete  sur- 
render of  himself  to  the  last  great  act  of  sac- 
rifice. It  was  interrupted  l)y  the  coming  of 
Judas  with  a  company  of  soldiers,  obtained 
doubtless  from  the  garrison  near  the  temple 
on  the  ground  that  a  seditious  person  was  to 
be  arrested  (John  xviii.  'i,  12),  together  with 
some  of  the  Levitical  guard  and  servants  of 
the  chief  priests.  Judiis  knew  that  Jesus 
was  wont  to  resort  to  Gethsemane.  Some 
suppose,  however,  that  he  had  first  gone 
to  the  upper  room  and,  finding  that  Jesus 
had  departed,  followed  to  Olivet,  at  the  base 
of  which  the  garden  lay.  Jesus,  after  a  brief 
expo.stulation,  sninnitted  to  arrest ;  where- 
n])on  his  discijiles  fled.  The  captors  took 
him  first  to  Annas  (13),  the  father-in-law 
of  Gaiaphas.  where  he  had  a  preliminary 
examination  while  the  sanhedrin  was  being 
convened  (13,  14,  19-24).  It  is  not  im]irob- 
able  that  Annas  and  Gaiaphas  lived  in  the 
same  palace,  for  Peter's  denials  are  said  to 
have  occurred  in  the  court  of  the  palace, 
both  while  this  examination  before  Annas 
and  the  later  one  before  the  sanhedrin 
were  taking  place.  At  the  first  examination 
Jesus  refu.sed  to  answer  the  inquiries,  and  de- 
manded that  evidence  against  him  be  jiro- 
duced.  He  was  sent  bound,  however,  to  the 
apartments  of  Gaiaphas,  where  the  ssmhedrin 
had  hastily  assembled.  No  harmonious  evi- 
dence of  blasphemy,  which  was  the  crime 
they  sought  to  i>rove  against  him,  could  be 
found  ;  so  that  the  high  priest  was  forced  to 
solemnly  adjure  him  to  say  if  be  were  Messi;ih. 
Thereupon  .lesus  made  the  claim  in  the  most 
exiilicit  manner,  and  the  angry  court  c<in- 
demned  him  as  worthy  of  death  for  bias- 
recorded  in  eh.  xiii.  was  "before  the  feast  of  the 
passover,"  liut  is  an  introductory  remark  tie- 
scril)iuir  the  loving  spirit  ii\wbicli  the  fatal  ])iiss- 
over  wtis  entered  upon  l)y. lesus:  xiii.  2;i.  "  buy 
tliose  tilings  that  we  hiive  need  of  against  the 
feast,"  iiiav  refer  to  tlnuiis  necessary  for  the  next 
(lav,  cm  whieli  tlie  freewill  oU'eriUL's  of  tlie  peojile 
were  presented:  xviii. 'JS,  "  tlint  tliey  niiglit  eat 
the  passover,"  niavmeau  siuii'ly  "  Ivcep  tlie  pas- 
cbid  festival;"  xix.  :?1,  "the  preparation,"  was 
not  tlie  preparation  for  the  jiassover,  but  for  the 
Sabbath. 


Jesus  Christ 


373 


Jesus  Christ 


l>lieniy.  The  unjust  spirit  of  his  judges  ap- 
pi-arcil  in  the  ribiUd  mockery  to  which  he 
was  sul)jcitc(l.  It  was,  liowcvcr,  tlic  law 
that  the  decisions  of  tlie  sinhedriii  must  1)0 
made  in  the  daytime.  Hence  very  early  in 
the  morninjj  the  court  convened  a{<ain  and 
the  same  lurmalities  were  >;<>ne  throii;,'h 
(Liikf  xxii.  (ili-71),  and  then,  since  lu-r- 
mission  of  the  governor  was  re(iuired  Cor  the 
execution  of  a  criminal,  they  hastened  with 
Jesus  to  Pilate.  The  indecent  haste  of  the 
whole  proceeding  shows  their  fear  that  the 
l>eoi)le  might  |ircvenl  Ins  destruction.  I'ilate 
l)rol)al)ly  resi<led  in  Herod's  jialace  on  the 
liill  of  Zion.  l?iit  the  distance  from  the  high 
jiriest's  house  was  not  great,  and  it  was  still 
Very  early  when  the  governor  was  summoned 
forth  to  hear  their  reiiuest.  They  wislud 
hiinat  first  to  grant  permission  for  the  execu- 
tion without  in<iniriug  into  the  charges,  but 
this  he  refused  to  do  (John  xviii.  2y-:W). 
Then  they  accused  Jesus  of  "  perverting  the 
nation,  and  forbidding  to  give  tribute  to 
Ca'sar,  siiying  that  he  himself  is  Christ  a 
king"  (Luke  xxiii.  2).  After  Jesus  had 
acknowledged  to  the  governor  that  he  was  a 
king  (3),  Pilate  examined  him  privately 
(John  xviii.  33-38),  and  discovered  the 
wholly  non-i)(ditical  and  harmless  charac- 
ter of  his  claims.  He  forthwith  declared 
that  he  found  no  fault  in  him  and  that  he 
would  let  him  go.  Hut  the  governor  was  in 
reality  afraid  to  thwart  the  will  of  his  dan- 
gerous subjects,  and  when  tln'y  fiercely  de- 
manded the  crucitixion  of  .Fesiis  he  fell  back 
on  various  wtsik  expedients  to  shift  the  re- 
sponsibility. Having  learneil  that  Jesus  was 
from  (Talilee,  Pilate  sent  him  to  Herod  .\uti- 
pas  d^uki'  xxiii.  7-111,  who  also  was  then  in 
.lerusilem  ;  lint  Herod  refused  to  exercise 
jurisdiction.  .Meanwhile  the  crowd  had  in- 
creased, and  the  governor  a))pealed  to  theiii 
to  say  what  prisoner  he  should  release,  as  his 
custom  was,  at  the  passover.  He  evidently 
hoped  that  the  i>opiilarity  of  Jesus  would 
rescue  him  from  the  chief  priests.  But  the 
latter  |)ersuaded  the  rabble  to  ask  for  liarab- 
bas.  The  messiige  of  his  wife  further  in- 
creased Pilate's  anxiety  to  relea.sc  Jesus  ;  but 
though  he  several  tiuu'S  ai>pealed  to  the  mul- 
titude in  his  behalf,  they  were  implacable 
and  bloodthirsty.  The  governor  was  afraid 
to  act  on  his  own  convictions  and  weakly 
gave  permission  for  the  execution.  Yet 
while  the  scourging  which  always  ju-eceded 
crucifixion  was  in  jirogress  in  the  hall  of  his 
palace  he  could  not  rest,  .\gain  he  sought 
to  satisfy  the  .lews  by  the  spectacle  of  Jesus 
bleeding  and  tliorn-crowued.  luit  they,  made 
bold  with  success,  cried  oul  that  he  ought  to 
die  because  he  made  himself  the  >^im  of  (tod 
(.John  xix.  1-7).  This,  however,  increased  Pi- 
late's superstitions,  so  that  again  he  examined 
Jesus  i)rivately  and  again  sought  to  release 
him  (S  1-,')  :  but  the  .lews  finally  apiu'aled  to 
his  politi<-al  ambition  and  practically  accu.sed 
him  of  dislo.valty  to  ("lesiir  in  abetting  a  rival 


king.  This  decided  the  matter.  Pilate  had 
the  grim  sjitisfaction  of  hearing  the  Jews 
]>roclaiin  their  supreme  allegiance  to  the 
emiteror  (13-1.")),  and  therewith  he  handed 
Jesus  r)ver  for  execution.  Jesus  thus  died 
for  no  crime  and  without  any  real  legal  proc- 
ess. His  death  was  literally  a  judicial  mur- 
der. The  ext'ciition  was  carried  out  by  four 
soldi<'rs  (John  xix.  23)  under  charge  of  a  cen- 
turion. With  him  also  two  common  rohbers 
were  led  to  death.  The  victims  usually  car- 
ried their  crosses,  either  the  whole  of  them 
or  tin;  transverse  portion.  Jesus  seems  to 
have  carried  the  whole,  since  he  fainted  un- 
der it.  The  place  of  crucitixion  was  a  short 
distance  outside  the  city  ;  see  (ioLGoTHA.  The 
victim  was  usually  nailed  to  the  cross  on  the 
ground  and  then  tlie  cross  was  jilaced  up- 
right in  the  hole  i)repared  for  it.  The  crime 
of  the  offender  was  written  on  a  tablet  and 
placed  over  his  head.  In  Jesus'  case  the 
accu.sation  was  writtt;n  in  Hel)rew,  tireck, 
and  Latin.  Hs  longest  form  is  given  by  .John 
(xix.  19),  "Jesus  of  Na/areth,  the  king  of  the 
Jews.''  Mark  tells  us  that  it  was  "about  the 
third  hour"  (/.  e.  i)  .\.  M.)  when  the  crucifixion 
was  completed.  If  we  remembi'r  that  the  ])ro- 
eeedings  began  "assoonasit  was  day  "'  (Luke 
xxii.  ()()),  their  completion  about  nine  o'clock 
will  not  seem  incredible.  It  is  moreover  in 
accord  with  tlie  haste  which  had  characterized 
the  action  of  the  Jews  from  the  beginning. 

Into  the  incidents  which  the  gos])els  have 
preserved  as  occurring  durijig  tlie  crucifixion 
we  cannot  go  here.  Such  sufferers  often  re- 
mained alive  for  several  days;  but  the  al- 
ready exhausted  frame  of  Jesus  did  not  en- 
dure the  agony  so  long.  At  the  ninth  hour 
lie  exjjired  with  a  great  cry.  The  woi-ds 
s]ioken  from  the  cross,  however,  indicati'  that 
he  retained  his  consciousness  to  the  end,  and 
that  he  fully  realizi'd  the  significance  of  all 
that  hap])eiuMl.  When  he  died  there  seem  to 
have  been  but  few  jiresent.  The  crowd  which 
followed  him  at  first  had  refurne<l  to  the  city. 
The  mocking  i)riests  also  had  left  him.  A 
few  disciples  and  the  soldiei-s  are  all  that  we 
know  to  have  been  present  at  the  end.  The 
rulers  were,  therefore,  not  aware  that  he  had 
died.  Unwilling  to  have  the  l)oilies  hanging 
on  the  cross  over  the  .Sabbath,  they  went  to 
Pilate  and  asked  that  their  legs  might  be 
broken  ;  but,  when  the  .soldii-rs  came  to  Jesus 
for  tliis])Ur])ose.  tlii'y  found  him  already  dead, 
fhie.  however,  pierced  his  side  to  make  sure, 
and  .lolin,  who  was  ni'ar,  .sa^v  blood  and 
water  issue  from  the  wound  (xix.  31).  .lesus 
seems  to  have  died  literally  of  a  lirokeii 
lii'art.  Meanwhile  .Tose])h  of  Arimatha-a.  a 
secri't  discii)le  of  .lesus.  though  a  rich  man 
and  a  member  of  the  sanhediin  -who.  how- 
vvvv.  Iiad  not  con.sented  to  his  Master's  con- 
demnation (I^uke  xxiii.  .")1  — knowing  that 
death  had  come,  had  begged  for  the  body  of 
.lesiis.  I?y  him  an<l  a  few  others  it  was  laid 
in  a  garden  of  .Joseph's,  in  a  new  tomb  hewu 
out  of  a  rock. 


Jesus  Christ 


374 


Jesus  Christ 


Now  it  is  clear  that  the  disciples  were 
whollj- disconcerted  and  overwlu'lincd  l>y  the 
sudden  arrest  and  death  of  tlieir  Lord. 
Thoii^'li  lie  lirul  on  fhrcc  nioidcd  occasions 
forewai'ncd  llicni  of  liis  dfutli  and  of  liis 
resnrrcction  on  tht'  thinl  day,  they  were  too 
distressed  to  have  any  hope.  Though  he 
had  told  them  to  go  to  (Jalilec  to  meet  hin), 
they  lingered  in  Jerusalem.  Tlu'ir  conduct 
will  not  seem  incrcdihle  nor  the  narrative 
doubtful  to  those  who  know  the  i)rostratiou 
wliich  often  accompanies  bitter  disappoint- 
ment and  ^sorrow.  Hence  Jesus  api)eared  to 
them  in  Jerusalem  and  its  vicinity.  The 
resurrection  narratives  in  the  gosi)cls  are  not 
intended,  however,  to  be  complete  accounts 
of  the  events.  They  do  not  pretend  to  mar- 
shal the  evidence  for  the  reality  of  the  res- 
urrection. That  consisted  in  the  testimony 
of  ajjostles  to  whom  he  repeatedly  appeared 
(1  Cor.  XV.  3-8).  In  the  gospels  we  have  a 
number  of  incidents  jireserved  either  because 
of  their  intrinsic  interest  or  for  the  sake  of 
the  spiritual  instruction  which  they  provided 
to  believers.  The  order  of  events  seems  to 
have  beeu  nearly  the  following :  Early  in 
the  morning  of  the  first  day  of  the  week  two 
companies  of  pious  Galilsean  women  pro- 
ceeded to  the  sepulcher  to  anoint  the  body 
of  Jesus  for  permanent  burial.  The  one 
company  consisted  of  Mary  Magdalene,  Mary 
the  mother  of  James,  and  Salome  (Mark  xvi. 
1).  Joanna  and  other  unnamed  women  were 
probably  in  the  second  party  (Luke  xxiv.  10, 
which  is  a  general  statement,  including  the 
report  of  all  the  women).  The  first  party 
saw  the  stone  rolled  away  from  the  tomb, 
and  Mary  Magdalene,  supposing  that  the 
body  had  been  stolen,  returned  to  Peter  and 
John  with  the  news  (John  xx.  1,  2).  Her 
companions  went  on,  and  entering  the  tomb 
heard  from  tlu'  angid  the  news  of  the  resur- 
rection and  till'  message  to  the  disciples  (Mat. 
xxviii.  1-7 ;  Mark  xvi.  1-7).  As  they  has- 
tened away,  we  may  suppose  tliat  they  met 
the  other  company  of  women,  and  that  all 
returned  again  to  the  toml),  but  only  to  re- 
ceive from  two  angels  a  more  emphatic  assur- 
ance and  direction  (Luke  xxiv.  1-8).  The 
women  then  hastened  toward  the  city  with 
the  news  and  on  the  way  Jesus  met  them 
(Mat.  xxviii.  9,  10).  Meanwhile  Mary  Mag- 
dalene had  reported  to  Peter  and  John  that 
the  tomb  Avas  empty,  and  they  had  run 
thither  and  found  it  even  so  (John  xx.3-10). 
She  had  followed  them  and,  when  they  de- 
parted from  the  garden,  she  remained,  and 
to  her  also  did  Jesus  appear  (11-18).  All 
the  women  finally  returned  to  the  disci- 
l)les  and  re]iorted  the  wonderful  news.  It 
was  not,  however,  on  the  testimony  of  these 
women  that  faith  in  tlie  resurrection  of  Jesus 
was  to  rest.  During  the  day  he  aiii)earcd 
to  Peter  (Luke  xxiv.  34;  1  t'or.  xv.  5),  later 
to  two  disciples  journeying  to  Emmaiis 
(Luke  xxiv.  13-35),  and  in  the  evening  to 
all  the  eleven  except  Thomas  (36-43 ;  John 


XX.  19-23).  At  that  time  he  ate  before 
them,  proving  the  reality  of  his  physical 
resurrection.  Since,  however,  Thomas  even 
yet  would  not  believe,  the  discijiles  still  lin- 
gered in  JerusaU'in,  and  on  tlie  following 
Sunday  .Jesus  again  ajiiicared  to  them,  and 
proved  to  the  doubting  apostle  that  he  had 
indeed  risen  (John  xx.  24-29).  Then,  it 
would  ajpiiear,  the  ai>o>tles  returiud  to  (lali- 
lee.  We  next  read  of  si'ven  of  tluin  fishing 
in  the  sea  of  Galilee  and  of  the  Lord's  a])- 
pearance  to  them  (John  xxi.).  By  ajipoint- 
meut  also  he  met  them  on  a  mountain  of 
(ialilee  and  gave  to  them  "  the  great  commis- 
sion," with  the  assurance  of  his  jiowcr  and 
presence  (Mat.  xxviii.  l()-20).  This  may  very 
l)robably  have  been  the  occasion  when  five 
hundred  disciides  were  present  (1  Cor.  xv.  6). 
Soon  after  he  ajppeared  also  to  James  (7), 
but  where  we  know  not.  Finally  he  brought 
the  apostles  again  to  Jcru.salem,  and  lead- 
ing them  out  to  the  mount  of  Olives  to  a 
place  where  Bethany  was  in  sight  (Luke 
xxiv.  50,  51)  he  was  taken  uj)  into  heaven 
and  a  cloud  received  him  out  of  their  sight 
(Acts  i.  9-12).  We  have  thus  ten  aj)iiear- 
ances  of  the  risen  Saviour  recorded  in  the 
Kew  Testament,  while  Paul  properly  adds 
the  appearance  to  him  on  the  way  to  Damas- 
cus (1  Cor.  XV.  8).  There  were  doubtless, 
however,  other  appearances  not  recorded. 
Luke  says  (Acts  i.  3)  that  "  he  showed  him- 
self alive  after  his  passion  by  many  proofs, 
appearing  unto  them  by  the  space  of  forty 
days"  (E.  V.).  Yet  he  did  not  continue 
with  them  in  constant  intercourse  as  he  had 
done  before.  He  rather  manifested  himself 
to  them  (John  xxi.  1,  R.  V.).  The  forty  days 
between  his  resurrection  and  ascension 
formed  evidently  a  transitional  period,  in- 
tended to  train  the  disciples  for  their  future 
work.  It  was  necessary  to  give  ample,  re- 
jieated,  and  varied  jjroof  of  the  resurrection, 
and  this  was  done  as  we  have  seen.  It  was  nec- 
essary to  give  them  instruction  concerningtlie 
necessity  of  his  death  and  the  character  of  the 
kingdom  which  through  their  labors  lie  was 
to  establish.  It  was  requisite  to  jioint  out  to 
them  the  fulfillment  of  Scrijiture  by  his  death 
and  resurrection,  for  thus  alone  would  they 
see  the  continuity  of  the  new  disjH'nsation 
with  the  old.  For  this  instruction  tliey  had 
not  been  ready  before  his  death,  Imt  it  is  re- 
])eatedly  referred  to  as  having  been  given 
during  these  forty  days  (Luke  xxiv.  44-48; 
John  XX.  21-23;  "xxi.  15-22;  Acts  i.  3-f<). 
And  finally  the  I'xiicrienccs  of  the  forty  days 
trained  tlu'  disciples  to  think  of  their  Master 
as  absent  and  yet  living;  as  invisible  and 
yet  near  them  :  as  risen  to  a  new  life  and 
yet  retaining  tlie  old  nuture  and  even  the  old, 
tliough  now  glorilicd,  IxkIv.  which  tlicv  had 
loved  ;  as  exalted  but  still  the  same,  so  that 
they  were  jireiiared  to  go  forth  and  i>roclaim 
him  as  the  glorified  Son  of  (4od  and  crowned 
king  of  Israel,  yet  also  the  Man  of  Nazareth 
and  the  Lamb  of  God  who  takes  away  the 


Jesus  Christ 


375 


Jeuel 


sin  of  the  world.  Meanwhile  the  Jews 
atlirincd  that  his  (li.scii)li's  had  stulcii  his 
hixly.  ]-V;iriii^  this,  tlicy  had  on  tile  day  uf 
his  death  ri'((iK'stt'd  I'ldiii  I'ilate  a  military 
watoh  to  jjiiard  tlie  toiiil).  Wlieii  the  resur- 
roction  occurred,  accomjianied,  as  wc  are 
told,  hy  the  desci'iil  of  an  aiif<td  who  rolled 
the  stone  from  the  tomb,  the  soldiei-s  were 
(tvercoine  with  fri;;ht  and  afterwards  tied. 
."Superstitious  jja^ans  as  they  were,  they 
d.mhtless  were  little  more  att'ected  hy  what 
they  had  seen  than  ij^norant  men  tisnally 
are  hy  what  they  consider  jjhoslly  aiijiear- 
ances.  Hnt  the  rulers,  who  may  possihly 
have  accounted  for  the  soldii'rs'  report  hy 
suj)j>osinK  a  trick  on  the  part  of  the  disciples, 
gave  the  men  nuiney  to  keeji  the  matter 
quiet,  and  thus  the  report  was  t;iven  out 
that  the  l)ody  hail  heen  stolen  while  the  sol- 
diers slept  (.Mat.  xxviii.  11-151.  Wlien,  how- 
ever, the  apostles  hejjan,  on  the  day  of  I'en- 
teco.st,  to  f;ive  their  testimony  to  the  resur- 
rection, and  the  number  of  believers  in  it 
grew  rai)idly  (.\cts  ii.,  etc.),  it  was  by  at- 
tem|)ts  at  force,  not  by  proofs,  that  the  chief 
j)riests  trit'd  to  silence  their  witness  and  sub- 
due the  growing  sect  (Acts  iv.). 

We  have  not  sought  in  this  articde  to  ex- 
hibit the  teaching  of  Jesus,  but  the  outward 
framework  and  historic  movement  of  his  life. 
In  the  latter  there  ajipears,  as  we  gather  it 
from  the  gospels,  a  gradual,  progressive 
revelation  of  himself  and  of  his  mes.sage, 
which  constitutes  one  of  thi'  strongest  evi- 
dences of  the  truthfulness  of  the  account.s 
on  which  our  knowledge  is  based.  The  real- 
ity of  the  humanity  of  Christ  made  it  possi- 
ble for  him  thus  to  appear  as  a  real  charac- 
ter of  human  history,  related  to  a  particular 
environment,  and  to  ])reseiil  in  his  life  a 
♦•ureer  which  moved  naturally,  yet  steailily, 
forward  to  a  delinite  goal.  His  was  a  gen- 
uinely human  life  and,  therefore,  eai)able  of 
historical  treatment.  At  the  same  time  Jesus 
knew  and  <leclared  himself  to  l)e  more  than 
man  (e.  g.  .Mat.  xi.  27  ;  .John  v.  IT-^J-^  :  x.  ;50; 
xvii.  .">,  etc.).  .\s  his  .self-revelation  advanced 
his  discijjles  realized  his  divine  dignity  (Mat. 
xvi.  Ki;  .lohn  xx. 'JS).  Then  later  reileclion 
and  experience,  under  the  illumination  of 
the  Spirit,  made  his  divinity  still  more 
evident  to  them,  until  the  last  surviving 
a])ostle  was  led  to  become  the  fourth  evan- 
gelist and  to  ])resent  in  his  Lord's  earthly 
i-areer  the  iiK'arnation  of  the  personal  divine 
Word.  Yet  .St.  John  never  forgot  norohscured 
the  real  humanity  of  .lesus.  He  gives  us  the 
full  truth  concerning  the  person  of  the  great 
Ma.ster.  "  In  the  beginning  was  the  Word, 
and  the  Word  was  with  (iod,  and  the  Wonl 
was  ({od"  (John  i.  1|,  and  "the  Wonl  was 
made  llesh,  and  dwelt  among  us,  (and  we 
beheld  his  glorv,  the  glorv  as  of  the  onlv 
begotten  of  tin"  Father,)  full  of  grace  and 
truth"  (in.  "These  [things]  are  written," 
he  concludes,  "that  ye  might  believe  that 
Jesus  is  the  Christ,  the  Son  of  tiod  ;  and  that 


believing  ye  might   have  life  through   his 
name  "  (xx.  31).  G.  T.  p. 

Je'ther  [abundance,  eminence,  excellence]. 

1.  A  descendant  of  Judah  through  Jerah- 
meel.  He  died  childless  (1  Chrou.  ii.  3'^  ;  cp. 
2(j,  2S). 

2.  A  man  registered  among  the  di'scendants 
of  Judah,  but  the  lineage  is  not  traced  be- 
y(jnd  his  father.  E/.ra  (1  Cliron.  iv.  17). 

Ii.  .\n  .\slierile,  ai)iiarently  the  siime  as 
Ithran,  son  of  Zoidiah  (1  Chron.  vii.  37  with 
38). 

4.  A  form  of  .Jethro,  Moses'  father-in-law 
(Ex.  iv.  IS,  R.  V.  margin). 

").  The  lirstborn  son  of  Gideon.  His  father 
bade  him  fall  upon  the  cajitives,  Zehah  and 
Zalmunna,  and  slay  them;  hut  the  youth 
shrank  from  the  deed,  and  they  escaped  the 
disgrace  of  dying  at  the  hands  of  a  boy 
(Judg.  viii.  -20,  21). 

(J.  The  father  of  .\masa,  Absalom's  com- 
mand.r-in-chief  il  Kin.  ii.  ')}.     See  lTHU.\. 

Je'theth. 

A  chieftain  of  Hdom  (Gen.  xxxvi.  40  ;  1 
Chron.   i.  51). 

Jeth'lah.     See  Ithl.\h. 

Je'thro  [his  iireeminence.  his  excellence]. 

.\  jiriest  of  I\Iidian  and  .Moses'  father-in- 
law  (Ex.  iii.  1).  He  is  called  Keuel  (ii.  IS  ; 
Antii].  ii.  12,  1).  Keuel,  which  means  friend 
of  (iod,  seems  to  have  been  his  personal 
name,  and  Jethro,  his  excellence,  to  have 
bc-eu  his  honorary  title.  His  .seven  daugh- 
ters tended  his  flocks  ;  and  .Moses,  who  had 
fled  from  Egyj)!,  rendered  them  a  service 
whi(di  led  to  his  introduction  to  Jethro's 
family  and  marriage  with  Zipporah,  one  of 
the  daughters.  Moses  kept  his  father-in- 
law's  flocks  for  about  forty  years  (Ex.  iii.  1, 
2;  Acts  vii.  30).  When  called  by  (Jod  to  re- 
turn to  I''gypt  and  achieve  the  emancijiation 
of  the  Hebrews,  Moses  obtained  .Jethro's  ])er- 
nussion  to  depart,  and  took  with  him  his 
wife  Zipjjorah  and  his  two  sons  (Ex.  iv.  IS- 
20)  ;  but  he  afterwards  sent  her  and  her 
t\vosonstemj»orarily  back  to  her  father's  house 
(24-2()  ;  xviii.  2):  see  Zli'i'oKAll.  After  the 
I)assage  of  the  lied  Sea,  which  conilucti'd  the 
Israelites  into  the  vicinity  of  .Jethro's  coun- 
try, the  Midianite  iiriest  brought  his  daiisib- 
ter  and  her  two  sons  back  to  .Moses  (xviii. 
1-7).  He  rejoiced  over  the  deliverance  of  the 
emancipatecl  i)eoi)le,  and  suggested  the  aj)- 
pointment  of  judges  when  he  siiw  that  the 
Helirew  leailer  was  wearing  him.self  out  hy 
deciding  even  the  most  trivial  cases  jier- 
sonally    (S-27).     See  IIoisah. 

Je'tur  [])ossibly,  non\ail  or  nomadic  cam])]. 

.\   i>eo|)le  descended    from    Ishmael   ((ten. 

XXV.  15  :  1  Chron.  i.  31 ;  v.  1!)).    See  Ituk.£A. 

Je'u-el  [perhaps,  treasure  of  God]. 

1.  \  man  of  Jndah,  family  of  Zenih.  .\t 
one  i)eriod  he,  with  t)!»0  of  his  clan,  lived  at 
Jerusiilem  (1  Chron.  ix.  (>). 

2.  A    Levite,  a  descendant   of   Elizajdian. 


Jeusli 


370 


Jezreel 


He  took  i)art  in  the  reformation  under  Heze- 
kiah  (2  Cliruii.  xxix.  13,  in  A.  V.  .Toiol). 

3.  A  coiitciiii>t)iary  of  E/ra  wliowitli  iiicm- 
bcrs  of  liis  family  rctunu'd  fmin  Hahyluiiia 
Willi  the  scribe  (Ezra  viii.  i:5.  in  A.  V.  Jeiel). 

Je'ush,  in  A.  V.  onio  Jehusli  (1  Cliron. 
viii.  31))  [porliaps,  liasteninf;]. 

1.  A  sou  of  Esjiu  by  liis  wife  Oliolibamah 
(Geu.  xxxvi.  5).  He  becauie  a  cliieftain  in 
Edom  (18). 

2.  A  Beujamite,  sou  of  Billiau  (1  Cliron. 
vii.  10). 

3.  A  Levite,  family  of  Gcrshon  aud  a  son 
of  Sbimei  (1  Chrou.  xxiii.  10,  11). 

4.  A  desceudaut  of  Jouathau  (1  ('lirou. 
viii.  39). 

5.  A  sou  of  Ivfhoboam  (2  Chrou.  xi.  19). 

Je'uz  [counsoliug]. 

A  Beujamite,  son  of  Shaharaim  by  his  wife 
Hodesh  (1  Chron.  viii.  10). 

Jew  [from  Latin  ludseus,  Greek  loudaios, 
Hebrew  Y'hitdi]. 

One  beloniiinji  to  the  trihe  or  to  the  king- 
dom of  Judah  (2  Kin.  xvi.  (i ;  xxv.  25).  Then 
the  meaning  was  extended,  aud  the  word  was 
applied  to  any  one  of  the  Hebrew  race  who 
returned  froiu  the  captivity  ;  aud  iiually  it 
com])rehended  any  one  of  that  race  through- 
out the  world  (Esther  ii.  5  ;  Mat.  ii.  2). 
For  their  history  while  they  were  in  Pales- 
tine, see  History.  Their  present  state  is  a 
fulfillment  of  prophecy  (Lev.  xxvi.  33,  39  ; 
Deut.  iv.  27  :  xxviii.  25,  3G,  37,  64-68) ;  they 
are  scattered  over  all  gentile  lauds,  but  no- 
where in  the  world,  not  even  in  Palestine,  have 
they  a  land  where  they  can  live  under  a  gov- 
ernment of  their  own.  The  Jews'  language 
(2  Kin.  xviii.  26  ;  Neh.  xiii.  24)  was  Hebrew. 

Jew'ess. 

A  woman  belonging  to  the  Hebrew  race 
(Acts  xvi.  1  ;  xxiv.  24). 

Jew'ry.    See  Judje.x.. 

Jez-a-ni'ah ;  in  full  Jaazaniah  (2  Kin. 
xxv.  23)  [.lehovah  doth  hearken]. 

A  captain  of  the  forces,  son  of  Hoshaiah,  a 
Maacathite  (2  Kin.  xxv.  23;  Jer.  xl.  7,  8  ; 
xlii.  1).  He  came  with  his  men  to  jiay  his 
resi)ects  to  Gedaliah,  whom  Nebuchadnezzar 
had  ap]>ointed  governor  of  Judah  after  the 
capture  of  Jerusalem.  Jezauiah  had  no  com- 
lilicity  in  the  subsequent  murder  of  Gedaliah, 
and  seems  to  bav<>  taken  a  prominent  part  in 
attempting  tobriug  the  iierpetratorstojustice. 
He  joined  in  aiipealing  to  Jeremiah,  the 
prophet,  to  ask  advice  of  (iod  conceruing  the 
purpose  of  the  remnant  of  the  Israelites  to 
migrate  to  Egypt  (xlii.).  He  was  a  brother 
of  Azariah,  or  more  imtbably  Azariah  is  a 
corruption  of  Jezauiah  (xliii.  2). 

Jez'e-bel  [unmarried,  chaste]. 

1.  Daughter  of  Ethbaal,  king  of  the  Zi- 
donians  aud  former  ]iriest  of  Astarte  (1  Kin. 
xvi.  31  ;  eon.  A]iion.  i.  18).  She  becanu'  the  wife 
of  Ahab,  king  of  Israel.  Being  of  more  mascu- 
line temperament  than  her  somewhat  effemi- 


nate  husband,   she   ruled    over   him,    gave 

him  evil  counsel,  and  at  last  caused  his 
ruin.  She  was  a  devoted  worshiper  of  Baal, 
and  intolerant  of  all  other  faiths.  To  ]ilease 
her,  Ahab  reared  a  temi)le  aud  an  altar  to 
Baal  in  Samaria,  and  set  up  an  Asherah  (1 
Kin.  xvi.  32,  33).  Though  leL'ally  only  the 
king's  consort,  aud  not  the  ruler  of  the  coun- 
try, yet  she  slew  all  the  ]irophets  of  Jehovah  on 
wiiom  she  could  lay  hands,  arid  did  this  ap- 
parently on  her  own  responsii)ility  i xviii.  4- 
13).  When  she  planned  the  death  of  Elijah 
(xix.  1,  2),  aud  afterwards  cH'ccted  the  judicial 
murder  of  Nabolh,  she  similarly  ignored  the 
king'sauthority,  though  he  condoned  the  deed 
(xxi.  16-22).  On  account  of  these  murders 
and  other  violations  of  the  moral  law,  the 
divine  sentence  was  pronounciil  against  her 
that  the  dogs  should  eat  Jezebel  by  the  wall 
of  Jezreel  (23).  The  prophecy  was  fulfilled. 
When,  eleven  years  after  Ahab's  death,  Jehu 
executed  pitiless  vengeance  on  the  royal 
household,  Jezebel  painted  her  face,  tii'ed 
her  head,  and,  looking  out  at  a  window, 
called  to  him  as  he  approached  :  "Had  Zimri 
peace,  wlio  slew  his  master?"  Jehu  looked 
up  at  the  window  and  said  :  "  Who  is  on  my 
side?  who?"  Two  or  three  eunuchs  looked 
out.  "Throw  her  down,"  he  cried,  and  they 
unhesitatingly  obeyed.  .She  fell  in  front  of 
his  cliariot,  whicli  lie  intentionally  drove 
over  her,  and  her  blood  bespattered  the 
horses  and  the  wall.  About  an  hour  later, 
recalling  that  the  dead  woman  was  a  king's 
daughter,  he  gave  directions  to  bury  her; 
but  it  was  found  that  the  dogs,  whicli  with 
other  animals  constitute  the  scavengers  of 
oriental  cities,  liad  been  beforehand  with 
them.  They  liad  left  no  more  of  her  than 
the  skull,  and  the  feet,  and  the  palms  of  her 
hands  (2  Kin.  ix.  7,  30-37). 

2.  A  woman  at  Thyatira  who  called  her- 
self a  prophetess,  and  seduced  some  members 
of  the  Christian  church  there  to  commit 
fornication  and  eat  things  sacrificed  to  idols. 
It  is  probable  that  Jezebel  is  a  syndiolic 
name.  If  so,  it  was  given  because  of  a  resem- 
blance between  her  aud  Ahab's  idolatrous 
and  wicked  queen  (Kev.  ii.  20,  23). 

Je'zer  [formation]. 

A  son  of  Naphtali.  aud  founder  of  a  tribal 
family  (Gen.  xlvi.  24;  Num.  xxvi.  49;  1 
Chron.  vii.   13). 

Je-zi'ah.     See  Izziah. 

Je'zi-el  [assembly  of  (lod]. 

A  Beujamite,  -son  of  Azmaveth,  who  joined 
David  at  Ziklag  (1  Chron.  xii.  3). 

Jez-li'ah.    See  Izli.\ii. 

Je-zo'ar.     See  Izh.\u. 

Jez-ra-hi'ah  [Jehovah  shineth  forth]. 

An  overseer  of  singers  in  Nehemiah's  time 
(Neh.  xii.  42). 

Jez're-el  [God  soweth]. 

1.  A  city  near  the  boundary  line  of  Issachar 
(Josh.  xix.  17,  18).     The  Israelites  encamped 


Jezreel 


377 


Jezreel 


at  a  fountain  in  its  vicinity 
just  before  the  battle  of  (ill- 
boa  (1  Sam.  xxix.  1  ;  ep.  2Sani. 
iv.  4),  the  I'hilistiiies  foUow- 
ma  them  to  the  saiiii'  locality 
(ISam.  xxIx.  11).  Ish-liosheth 
ruled  over  Jezreel  among 
other  places  (2  Sam.  ii.  9) ; 
and  It  was  one  of  the  capitiils 
of  Ahal)  ( 1  Kin.  xvlii.  4rji,  and 
also  of  his  son  i-J  Kin.  viil.  29). 
Naboth  was  a  Jezreelite,  his 
vineyard  was  In  close  prox- 
imity to  Allah's  jialace,  and 
he  was  stoned  outside  the  elty 
(1  Kin.  xxl.  1,  i;5).  Jezebel 
met  her  violent  death  In  Jez- 
reel (23;  2  Kin.  ix.  l(t,  30-35). 
Ahab"s  seventy  sons  wire  mas- 
sacred there  by  order  of  .Iclin 
(X.  1-11).  Tlie  bloodshed  in 
these  sanguinary  tran.sactions 
is  called  by  Hosea  "  the  blood 
of  Jezreel,"  and  he  jjropheslcd 
that  It  should  be  avenged  (Hos. 
i.4).  Tiie  crusaders  correctly 
identified  Jezreel  with  Par- 
vum  (fcrinum.  now  the  vil- 
lafje  Zer'in.  The  discovery 
lapsed  Into  ol)llvion,  and  was  not  revived  till 
lal4.  The  identification  is  now  universally 
accepted.    Though  in  a  plain,  the  site  was  an 


admirable  one  for  a  fortified  city,  standing  as 
It  does  upon  the  brow  of  a  very  stee]),  rocky  de- 
scent, of  100  feet  or  more,  toward  the  north- 


Plain  of  Esdrnclnn. 


Jibsam 


378 


Joab 


east,  with  a  splendid  view  all  the  way  to  the 
Jordan.  Tin-  fountain  of  .le/.reol,  which 
is  below  the  villafje,  is  eopious  and  good.  It 
is  called  "Ain  el-Meiyiteh.  Another  and  j'et 
more  copious  one,  'Ain  Jalud.  i.s  at  no  jjreat 
distance.  The  ancient  vineyards  seem  to 
have  been  to  the  east  of  the  city,  where 
rock-cut  wine  presses  now  exist. 

The  valley  of  .lezreel  is  either  the  great 
plain  intersecting  Palestine  immediately 
north  of  Carmel,  or,  i)etter,  that  i)art  of  it 
which,  adjacent  to  Jezreel,  descends  from 
Jezreel  eastward  to  the  Jordan  (Josh.  xvii. 
IG  ;  Hosea  i.  5).  In  Gideon's  days  the  Midi- 
auites  and  Amalekites  pitched  within  its 
limits  (Judg.  vi.  33).  The  whole  central 
plain  is  now  called  the  plain  of  Esdra- 
elon,  a  slight  modification  of  Jezreel  (cp. 
Judith  i.  8;  iv.  6 ;  vii.  3).  Through  all  by- 
gone time  it  has  been  a  battlefield  of  nations. 

2.  A  town  in  the  hill  country  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  56).  It  seems  to  have  been  from 
this  place  that  David  obtained  his  wife 
Ahinoam  the  Jezreelitess  (I  Sam.  xxv.  43; 
xxvii.  3).     Exact  situation  unknown. 

3.  A  man  of  Judah,  descended  from  Hur 
(1  Chron.  iv.  3). 

4.  A  son  of  the  pro])het  Hosea.  So  named 
because  Jehovah  had  declared  that  he  would 
avenge  the  blood  of  Jezreel  on  the  house  of 
Jehu  (Hos.  i.  4,  5). 

Jib'sam.     See  Ibsam. 
Jid'laph  [he  weepeth]. 
A  son   of   Nahor  and   Milcah   (Gen.   xxii. 
22).     It  is  not  known  where  he  settled. 
Jim'na  and  Jimnali.    See  Imnah. 
Jiph'tah.     See  Iphtah. 
Jiph'thah-el.    See  Iphtah-el. 

Jo'ab  [Jehovah  is  father]. 

1.  Sou  of  Seraiah  and  descendant  of  Kenaz, 
who  was  reckoned  with  the  tribe  of  Judah. 
He  was  the  father  of  the  inhabitants  of  the 
valley  of  craftsmen  (1  Chron.  iv.  13,  14). 

2.  The  son  of  Zeruiah  (2  Sam.  viii.  16), 
David's  half  sister  (1  Chron.  ii.  16 ;  cp.  2 
Sam.  xvii.  2."j).  Joab  was,  therefore,  that 
king's  nephew.  He  was  the  .second  of  three 
brothers,  Abishai,  Joab,  and  Asahel,  all  of 
an  heroic  type.  He  does  not  seem  to  have 
accompanied  David  when  a  fugitive  during 
the  latter  i)art  of  Saul's  reign  :  ])erhaps  he 
was  then  too  young,  though  his  elder  brother, 
Abishai,  was  of  age  to  go,  and  went  (1  Sam. 
xxvi.  6-2.5).  Joab's  first  personal  appear- 
ance on  the  scene  of  public  life  is  when  he 
is  at  the  liead  of  David's  soldiers  in  the  war 
with  Ish-bosheth.  He  commanded  at,  and  was 
victor  in,  the  battle  whicli  grew  out  of  the 
tournament  at  Gibeon  (2  Sam.  ii.  12-32).  He 
either  believed,  or  at  least  pretended  to  be 
convinced,  that  when  Abner,  Ish-boshcth's 
commander-in-chief,  after  his  quarrel  with 
his  royal  master,  sought  an  interview  with 
David,  he  came  simply  as  a  spy.  Having 
reproved   the   king   for  allowing  Abner    to 


depart  in  peace,  Joab  recalled  him  and, 
with  the  connivance  of  Abishai,  assassinated 
him  at  a  nominally  friendly  interview.  He 
assigned  as  the  reason  for  the  murder  the 
fact  that  his  younger  brother  Asahel  had 
been  killed  by  Abner  in  the  battle  at  (iibeon. 
He  omitted,  however,  to  mention  that  it  was 
in  a  fair  fight,  and  strictly  in  self-defense. 
Probably,  also,  an  unavowed  second  reason 
was  the  apprehension  of  Joab  and  Abishai 
that  Abner  might  be  given  the  command  of 
the  army.  David  felt  himself  politically  too 
weak  to  bring  them  to  justice,  yet  he  never 
condoned  the  crime  (2  Sam.  iii.  1-39).  When 
David  had  become  king  of  all  Israel  and  led 
his  army  against  the  .lebusite  fort  on  mount 
Zion.  he  promised  that  the  first  one  whoshould 
climb  up  the  gutter  leading  from  the  Jebusite 
city  to  the  stronghold  and  capture  the  hold 
should  be  chief  and  captain  of  the  army.  The 
first  to  climb  was  Joab,  who  in  consequence 
became  head  of  the  forces  (2  Sam.  iv.  8,  with 
1  Chron.  xi.  6).  He  soon  afterwards  repaired 
a  portion  of  the  city  (8).  After  David's  con- 
quest of  the  Edomites  (2  Sam.  viii.  13,  14;  1 
Chron.  xviii.  12),  Joab  remained  in  Edom 
with  the  army  for  six  months,  cutting  off 
every  male  (1  Kin.  xi.  14-17).  He  com- 
manded in  the  war  with  the  confederate 
Syrians  and  Ammonites  (2  Sam.  x.  1-14  ;  1 
Chron.  xix.  1-19),  and  he  so  pressed  the  siege 
of  Eabbah  that  he  could  at  any  time  have 
assaulted  it  successfully ;  but  instead  of 
doing  so  he  sent  for  David  that  he  might 
have  the  credit  of  the  victorv  (2  Sam.  xi.  1 ; 
xii.  26-29  ;  cp.  1  Chron.  xx.'  1-3).  He  was 
the  king's  obsequious  servant,  and  carried 
out  the  directions  about  i)utting  Uriah  in  the 
forefront  of  the  battle  that  he  might  be  slain 
(2  Sam.  xi.  6-27).  It  was  Joab  who  sent  to 
David  the  wise  woman  of  Tekoa  to  induce 
him  to  forgive  Ab.salom  (xiv.  1-27)  ;  but  he 
was  so  reluctant  to  interfere  further  in  the 
case  that  it  was  not  until  his  barley  field  had 
been  set  on  fire  by  the  unworthy  prince  that 
he  consented  to  act  again  (28-33).  When 
Absalom  rebelled  Joab  remained  loyal  to 
David,  and  led  one  of  the  three  divisions  of 
the  royal  forces  which  defeated  the  rebels 
(xviii.  1,  2).  Then,  in  defiance  of  the  king's 
command,  he  thrust  three  darts  through  the 
heart  of  the  revolted  jirince,  terminating  his 
life  (9-17),  and  afterwards  he  spoke  some 
plain  though  not  unwise  words  to  the  king 
on  his  extravagant  grief  at  the  death  of 
a  rebellious  son  (xix.  1-8).  David  shortly 
after  appointed  Amasa  to  be  captain  of  the 
host  in  the  room  of  Joab  (13),  and  when 
Sheba  rebelled  Amasa  was  emjjloyed  to  lead 
the  forces  sent  to  crush  the  revolt.  This 
gave  mortal  offense  to  Joab,  who,  at  an 
avowedly  friendly  interview,  stabbed  him 
dead  just  as  he  had  killed  Abner  in  sim- 
ilar circumstances,  only  that  this  time  there 
was  no  pretense  of  a  blood  feud  between 
the  parties.  Jealousy  was  the  motive  for  the 
crime.     Then  Joab  and  Abishai   put   down 


Joah 


379 


Joash 


the  rebellion  (xx.  1-22).  Joab  thus  again 
became  coniniander-in-chief  {'S.i ;  cp.  also  1 
Kin.  ii.  34,  ',i'->).  Ho  was  opposed  to  David's 
nuiiilx'rint;  the  |)coph;,  and  iiitfiitioiially  did 
the  work  iiiiiicrfcctly  (:2  Sam.  .\xiv.  l-lt;  1 
C'liroii.  x.\i.  Iti).  Wlieii  Adoiiijali  set  hiinself 
up  for  kiiiji  .loalj  went  with  him  (1  Kin.  i.  7), 
but,  witli  hisotliersupi)ort<'rs.<leserted  Iiinion 
hearinj;  tliat  SoUjiuoii  liad  l>ccii  pmelaimi'd 
kinjr  lv;t<-l!l).  David  on  liis  (hathhed  indi- 
cated his  wish  that  Joab  should  be  brought 
to  justice  for  the  murders  of  Abner  and  of 
Aniasii.  Solomon  carried  out  the  sentence. 
Joab,  clinging  to  tlie  horns  of  the  altar  in 
the  court  of  ttie  tabernacle,  fell  l>y  the  hand 
of  Henaiah,  cliief  of  the  bodyguard,  and  was 
buried   in   liis  own  house  in   the  wilderness 

(ii.  r..  (),  ■>H-:u). 

3.  Founder  of  a  family,  members  of  which 
returned  from  cajitivity  (Ezra  ii.  (i ;  viii.  9 ; 
Neh.  vii.  11). 

Jo'ah  [Jehovah  is  brother]. 

1.  A  son  of  Obed-edom  (1  Chron.  xxvi.  4). 

2.  A  Levite.  son  of  Zimmah  and  a  descend- 
ant of  Gerslumi  (1  Chron.  vi.  21).  Perhaps 
he  was  the  Levite,  son  of  Zimmali  and  de- 
scendant of  (Jershon  wiio  assisted  at  the  re- 
ligious reformation  under  king  Ilezekiah  (2 
Chron.  xxix.  12). 

'.i.  A  son  of  .\saph.  He  was  the  recorder 
under  king  Ilezekiah  (2  Kin.  xviii.  18,  26; 
Is.  xxxvi.  15,  11,  22). 

4.  A  son  of  Joahaz.  He  was  recorder 
under  king  Josiah  (2  Chron.  xxxiv.  8). 

Jo'a-haz  r.Iehovah  hath  laid  hold  of]. 
Father  of  king  Josiah's  recorder  .loah  (2 
Chron.  xxxiv.  8). 

Jo-a'nan,  in  A.  V.  Joanna  [Greek  form  of 
yoliiiniui.  .Ichovah  hath  l)een  gracious]. 

An  ancestor  of  Christ,  who  lived  about 
500  B.  c.  (Luke  ill.  27). 

Jo-an'na  [a  Greek  form  of  Yuhanan,  Je- 
liovali  hatli  been  gracious]. 

Tile  wife  of  Chuza,  steward  of  Herod  the 
tetrarch.  She  was  one  of  tho.se  women  who 
ministered  to  .lesus  of  their  substance  (Luke 
viii.  3),  and  one  of  the  party  who  accompa- 
nied Mary  Magdalene  to  the  sepulcher  of 
our  Lord  (xxiv.  10i. 

For  the  man  called  Joanna  in   A.  V.,  see 

JOAXAX. 

Jo-an'nan.    See  John  2. 

Jo'a-rib.     See  Joiakib  2. 

Jo'asli,  I.,  and  Jehoash  [Jehovah  is  strong]. 
The  longer  I'orni  is  used  in  2  Kin.  only,  but 
the  shorter  form  also  occurs  there  fre(iuently. 

1.  .\  man  of  Judah,  family  of  Shelah  (1 
Chron.  iv.  22). 

2.  .\  man  of  Manasseh,  family  of  Abiezcr 
and  father  of  (;idcf)n  (Judg.  vi.  11.  1.^).  He 
liv(>d  at  <)i)hrah,  an<l  was  apparently  a  man 
of  substance.  He  had  reared  an  altar  to 
Baal  and  an  .\sher!ih.  These  (iidcon  was 
directed  to  throw  down,  and  he  did  so.     The 


idolaters  demanded  that  Joash  should  sur- 
render his  son  to  be  put  to  death  for  the  sac- 
rilege, but  Joash  shrewdly  siiid  :  "  If  Haal  is 
a  god,  let  him  i)lead  for  hini.self "'  (Judg.  vi. 
ll-;52). 

3.  .\  Renjamite  of  Gil)eah  who  came  to 
David  at  Ziklag  (1  Chron.  xii.  3). 

4.  A  son  of  Ahab  (1  Kin.  xxii.  26;  2 
Chron.  xviii.  'Sy). 

.").  Son  of  .\liaziah,  king  of  Judah.  When 
Atlialiah,  tlic  mother  of  Ahaziah,  heard  that 
her  son  luid  been  slain  by  Jehu,  she  massa- 
cred all  his  children  exce])t  Joash,  then  only 
an  infant,  who  esea)ied  by  tile  artifice  of  tiie 
late  kind's  sister  .leboslieha,  wife  of  tlie  iiigh 
priest.  He  was  liidden  with  his  nurse  for  six 
years  in  the  temple,  Atlialiah  meanwhile 
ruling  over  the  land.  In  the  seventii  year, 
Jeiioiada.  the  high  jiriest.  siiowed  Joasli  to 
tlie  palace  guards,  and,  i)lacing  tiiem  at  posts 
where  tiiey  could  l)e  of  most  .service  in  de- 
fending him,  publicly  anointed  iiim  king. 
Tile  measure  was  a  i)opiilar  one,  and  as  the 
boy  stood  t)y  a  ])illar.  with  tlie  royal  crown  on 
his  iiead,  tlie  military  men  and  otiierswho 
.saw  him  shouted  "(tod  s;ive  the  king  I" 
Atlialiah,  hearing  the  noise,  rushed  to  the 
s]iot  and  entei'ed  tiie  temple;  but,  by  the 
high  priest's  orders,  she  was  at  once  ejected 
and  slain,  leaving  .loash  now  without  a  rival. 
Tiien  Jeiioiada  framed  two  covenants:  the 
one  that  the  youthful  ruler  and  liis  peojiie 
siiould  serve  .lehovah,  and  the  other  tiiat 
they  sliould  discliarge  their  mutual  duties  as 
king  and  subjects.  Then  they  iiroceeded  to 
tiie  house  of  IJaal.  and  broke  it  down,  destroy- 
ing the  images  wliicli  it  contained,  and  kill- 
ing Mattan,  its  otliciating  priest,  on  the  altar 
(2  Kin.  xi.  1-20;  2  Chron.  xxiii.  10-21). 
Joash  ascended  the  throne  83.^  B.  c,  but  was 
the  only  legitimate  king  since  812.  and  liis 
reign  was  apjiarently  dated  from  this  y»'ar 
with  M41  as  liis  tii'st  regnal  year.  So  in  Eng- 
land, the  Commonwealth  was  ignored  and 
the  first  year  of  Charles  II. 's  actual  reign 
was  called  tlie  twelfth  :  king  dr  jure  on  the 
deatli  of  Cliarles  I..  January  3<l'th.  KilS  4!1. 
king  ilr  fiirto  at  tiie  Ivcstoration,  May  2!tth, 
l()()(i.  Joasii  was  seven  yeai"s  old  at  his  coro- 
nation and  lie  reigned  forty  years.  Of  course, 
at  tlie  age  of  seven  the  charactt'r  of  his 
nominal  rule  de])ended  wholly  on  the  char- 
acter of  liis  advisers.  Ha])pily.  lie  was  un- 
der the  direction  of  tiie  iiigii  priest.  .Telioi- 
ada,  and  as  long  as  tiiat  wise  counselor  lived, 
Joasli  did  well,  one  notable  measure  of  bis 
lieing  tlie  re])air  of  tiie  temple.  tlic>ut,'ii  tiie 
jieopie  still  coiitiiiiied  generally  to  worsiiip 
at  the  iiii,'ii  jilaces  (2  Kin.  xii.  1-16).  Hut  on 
tlie  death  of  .lehoiada,  at  an  advanced  age, 
both  the  kin;;  and  liis  ])eo]ih'  a]ioslatized  from 
Jehovah,  and  began  to  set  up  .Vsiierim  ami 
otlier  idols.  Zeciiariali,  the  son  of  Jeiioiada. 
denounced  judgment  ujiou  tlie  evil  doei-s,  on 
which  Joasli  gave  orders  for  liis  murder ;  and 
tli(>  multitude,  breaking  out  into  riot,  grati- 
fied their  sovereign  liy  stoning  to  deatii  the 


Joash 


380 


Job 


too  faithful  prophet  (2  Cliron.  xxiv.  15-22; 
Milt,  xxiii.  35).  Soon  afttTwards  Ilazacl, 
kiii<5  of  Syria,  having  capturod  tlie  rhilistine 
city  of  (Jath,  throatcneil  Jerusalem,  and  liad 
to  l)c  hoUi^lit  od' with  thf  riiutcnts  of  the  tcni- 
]ile  treasury.  Wlien  tlie  invaders  departed, 
Joasli  was  suflering  from  sore  diseases.  Ania- 
ziali,  his  son,  conducted  the  government; 
and  in  the  course  of  tliree  years,  as  it  wouhl 
a])iiear,  the  servants  of  .hiash  slew  liiin  in 
his  hed  in  revenge  for  the  murder  of  Zech- 
ariah  (2  Kin.  xii.  20 ;  2  Chron.  xxiv.  25) ;  see 
Chronology.  He  was  l)nried  in  the  city 
of  l~)avid,  hut  not  in  one  of  the  proper  sepul- 
ehers  of  tlie  kings.  Joasli  was  an  infant  in 
842  B.  c.  and  was  seven  years  old  in  835  (2 
Kin.  xi.  21).  and  his  son  Amaziah  was  twenty- 
live  years  old  in  804  (xiv.  2).  The  son  was 
accordingly  born  in  828,  in  .loash's  four- 
teenth or  tifteciitli  year.  In  oriental  life  this 
is  jthysically  jiossible  and  is  readily  paralleled. 
The  early  marriage  of  Joash  was  desirable 
and  was  doubtless  urged  by  the  high  i)rie.st 
Jehoiada,  since  Joash  was  the  sole  survivor 
of  his  family  and  in  his  offspring  lay  the 
only  hope  that  .so  great  a  calamity  would  be 
averted  as  the  extinction  of  the  direct  line 
of  D<ivid. 

6.  Son  of  Jehoahaz,  king  of  Israel.  He 
began  to  reign  about  805  B.  c,  and  reigned 
sixteen  years.  In  religious  matters  he  fol- 
lowed in  the  footsteps  of  Jeroboam  I.,  con- 
tinuing the  worship  of  the  two  calves  at 
Bethel  and  Dan.  Nevei'theless  he  felt  intense 
veneration  for  Eli.slia,  weeping  and  express- 
ing sorrow  when  the  great  prophet  was  dying. 
Elisha,  before  lie  jiassed  away,  enjoined  the 
king  to  ojien  the  window  eastward  and  shoot 
out  an  arrow.  He  did  so.  The  projihet  then 
bade  him  take  arrows  and  smite  upon  the 
ground.  He  did  so,  smiting  the  ground  thrice. 
The  arrows  symbolized  victories  which  he  was 
to  gain  over  the  Syrians  ;  and  had  he  struck 
six  times  instead  of  three,  the  number  of  vic- 
tories would  have  been  doubled  (2  Kin.  xiii. 
14-25).  Afterwards  he  lent  100,000  merce- 
naries to  ,\ina/.iali,  1  hi'  new  king  of  .Tudah,  for 
an  Edomite  exjiedition.  A  iirojihet  directed 
them  to  be  .sent  home,  which  was  accordingly 
done.  Though  the.v  had  been  paid  in  full 
for  the  services  which  they  had  been  torbid- 
den  to  render,  yet  they  de]iarted  in  a  great 
rage,  iihindering  the  territor.v  of  Judah  as 
they  went  along  (2  Chron.  xxv.  6-10,  13). 
Perhaps  on  this  account,  Amaziah  sent  Joasli 
a  challenge  to  fight.  Joash  remonstrated  in 
severe  language,  but  Amaziah  would  not  for- 
bear. A  battle  took  jilacc  at  15eth-shemesli, 
in  which  Joasli  was  victorious  ;  and  he  fol- 
loweil  u])  his  success  by  breaking  down  a 
part  of  the  wall  surrounding  Jerusalem,  and 
carrying  olf  the  treasures  of  the  temi>le  and 
the  palace,  with  hostages  as  guarantees 
against  further  disturbance  of  the  jieace. 
On  the  death  of  Joasli,  his  son,  Jeroboam  II.. 
ascended  the  throne  (2  Kin.  xiv.  8-lG ;  2 
Chron.  xxv.  17-24). 


Jo'ash,  II.  [perhaps,  Jehovah  hath  hastened 

(to  help)]. 

1.  A  Beujamite,  family  of  Becher  (1  Chron. 

vii.8). 

2.  An  officer  who  had  charge  of  David's  oil 
cellars  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  28). 

Jo'a-tham.     See  Jotham  2. 

Job,  I.  (Gen.  xlvi.  13,  A.  V.).     See  Iob. 

Job,  II.  [one  ever  returning  to  (iod  (Ewald). 
If  derived  from  'uyeb,  it  denotes  not  one  jier- 
secuted  ((Jesenius),  but  rather  one  character- 
ized by  hostilit,v]. 

An  O.  T.  saint  who  dwelt  in  the  land  of 
Uz  (Job  i.  1).  He  is  mentioned  for  the  first 
time  elsewhere  by  Ezekiel  (xiv.  14,  l(i,  20). 
It  appears  that  he  lived  under  jiatriarchal 
conditions,  in  some  district  eastward  from 
Palestine  and  contiguous  to  the  desert,  at  a 
time  when  the  Chaldeans  made  raids  in  the 
west  (i.  17).  There  is  no  reason  to  doubt 
that  he  is  an  historical  personage  and  that  he 
passed  through  the  remarkable  experiences 
described  in  the  book  which  bears  his  name. 
These  exiierienccs  brought  the  question.  Why 
does  God  permit  the  righteous  to  sutler?,  to 
the  forefront;  and  afforded  the  material  for 
a  magnificent  pliilosophical  poem. 

The  Book  of  Job  is  a  poetic  book  of  the  O. 
T.  which  gives  an  account  of  the  sufferings 
of  Job,  of  the  argument  carried  on  between 
himself  and  his  friends  concerning  the  rea- 
sons for  his  sufferings,  and  of  the  solution  of 
the  problem.  It  is  not  known  whether  the 
poem  was  written  during  the  lifetime  of  .Job 
or  later.  The  prologue  (i.-iii.  2),  the  intro- 
ductions to  the  various  speeches  and  es- 
]iecially  to  Elihu's  speech  (xxxii.  1-5),  and 
the  epilogue  narrating  the  jirosperity  of 
Job  in  his  latter  days  under  Jehovah's 
blessing  (xlii.  7-17),  are  in  prose. 

In  the  opening  of  the  book.  Job  is  repre- 
sented as  being  very  prosperous,  possessing 
many  flocks  and  herds,  a  large  number  of 
servants,  and  a  numerous  famil.v.  Satan  is 
permitted  to  try  Job's  faith  in  God,  first  by 
causing  him  to  be  desiioilid  of  hisiiossessions, 
and  to  be  bereaved  of  his  family  :  when  this 
means  fails,  Satan  is  further  iiermitted  to 
cause  Job  much  suffering  in  body.  Job's  faith 
triunii>hs  over  all  difliculties,  and  he  is  finally 
restored  to  more  than  his  former  ]irosii(rity. 

The  book  betwi'en  the  introduction  and 
conclusion  may  be  divided  into  three  main 
parts,  each  of  which  ina.v  be  again  divided 
into  three  minor  jiarts.  The  introduction 
describes  Job's  iu-os]ierity  and  ha])i)y  con- 
dition. In  part  first,  first  subhead,  we 
find  .Job's  first  affliction  described,  the  lo.ss 
of  his  jiropert.v  and  family;  nnder  the  sec- 
ond head  comes  the  second  stage  of  flic 
affliction,  the  attack  on  Job's  ]ierson.  and  un- 
der the  third  head,  the  coming  of  his  three 
friends  to  condole  with  him.  Part  second 
contains  the  argument  between  Job  and  his 
three  friends,  this  being  threefold,  each 
friend  speaking  three  times  (except  the  third, 


Jobab 


381 


Joel 


■who  speaks  twice),  and  Job  replying  to  each. 
'I'his  ioriiis  tlie  priiiciiuil  part  of  tht-  l)ouk. 
'J'lit^  tlircc  friends  iirjjiii'  on  the  Imsis  lliut 
alllictioii  is  always  and  nrcussarily  a  result 
of  sin,  and  as  .lol)  acc-e|)ts  tiiis  tjencral  ]H'in- 
•cipie,  lint  denies  its  application  to  himself, 
niisiiiiderstandinfis  result,  and  the  speakers 
are  as  far  frnni  a  solution  of  the  situation  in 
the  end  as  in  the  hefjinnin;;.  Firstly,  i;ii- 
jihaz  hejjins  the  arjjnnient  by  exjiressinj;  in 
general  the  sinfulness  of  man  and  liintiug 
at,  rather  than  holdly  asserting,  .Job's  special 
sinfulness.  ,Ioh  answers,  declaring  his  inno- 
•cence.  Secondly,  liildad  continues  in  the 
same  strain,  insisting  that  the  Lord  cannot 
be  unjust,  therefore  man  must  he  ;it  fault. 
Jol)  answers  as  before  that  he  is  inuiicent.  ap- 
jiealingto  (Sod  to  lighten  his  burden  of  atllic- 
tion.  Thirdly,  Zophar  follows  with  the  same 
argument,  imiilying  more  directly  that  .lob 
must  be  a  sinner.  The  second  series  of 
speeches  now  begins.  The  same  arguments 
are  gone  over  by  the  speakers  in  the  same 
order,  the  friends  becoming  more  vehement 
and  imjiatient  of  what  they  consider  .lob's 
obstinacy.  In  the  third  series  Klipha/,  openly 
accuses  ,Iol)  of  secret  sin.  After  Job's  earnest 
denial.  Hildad  falls  back  on  the  first  position, 
and  Zi>i)har  remains  silent.  Ihit  during  these 
arguments  .lob  is  prol'oundly  conscious  of  his 
own  uprightness,  yet  cannot  understand 
tiod's  apjiarent  harshness  to  him.  His  in- 
ward struggle  becomes  more  intense  as  his 
outward  situation  ap]iears  more  hoiieless,  l)ut 
he  remains  tirm  in  bis  determination  that 
whatever  befall  him  still  will  hi'  trust  in 
God.  Then  the  thought  hursts  upon  him 
that  sonnitime,  in  (Jod's  own  jileasnre,  he 
will  be  justilied.  It  may  not  be  in  this  lif<', 
but  it  will  certainly  come.  That  carries  with 
it  a  conviction  of  immortality,  and  with  the 
statement.  "  I  know  that  my  redeemer  liveth, 
and  that  he  shall  stand  U])  at  the  last  upon 
the  earth  :  and  after  my  skin  hath  been  thus 
destroyed,  yet  from  my  flesh  shall  I  see 
God,"  .fob  rea<-hes  a  foundation  from  which 
nothing  call  move  him. 

In  the  third  jtart  of  the  book  Kliliii.  who 
until  this  time  has  been  a  sil(>nt  listener,  i)ro- 
poses  to  argue  out  the  matter  tijion  a  did'erent 
basis.  Instejid  of  regarding  the  afllii-tions  of 
men  as  a  ])unishment  for  sin,  he  (h'darcs  t  hat 
they  are  often  sent  as  a  means  c)f  strength- 
ening and  jMirifying  the  children  of  (Jod. 
They  are  not,  then,  the  expression  of  an 
angry  and  imiilac.'ible  (Jod.  tint  the  chasten- 
ing of  a  loving  father.  In  this  l^lihu  appears 
as  th(!  niessen^'cr  of  (he  Lord,  preparing  the 
way  for  his  coming,  and  offering  an  argument 
which  .lob  couhl  dispute  or  accept,  .fob  ac- 
i-epts  this  view.  Next,  the  divine  decision  is 
given  and  ,lob  humbles  himself  before  the 
Lord,  Finally,  .lob  is  restored  to  double  his 
former  ]irosperity,  and  his  family  is  restored 
to  the  same  number  as  before. 

Jo'bab  [shouting,  trumpet  call,  howling,  a 
desert]. 


1.  An  Arabian  tribe  descended  from  Joktan 
((ien.  X.  -Jit;  1  Chron.  i.  2:{|.  It  is  not  known 
what  district  they  occupied. 

2.  A  king  of  Edoui.  He  was  the  son  of 
Zerah  of  liozrah  (Gen.  xxxvi.  'S.i ;  1  Chron. 
i.  41,  4.">). 

■i.  A  king  of  Madon,  who  entered  into  the 
northern  confederacy  against  Joshua,  but, 
with  his  allies,  was  totally  defeated  at  the 
waters  of  Merom  (.(osh.  xi.  1  ;  xii.  1!)|. 

4.  A  Henjamite,  son  of  Sliaharaim  bj-  his 
wife  llodesh  (1  (.'hron.  viii.  !)). 

Joch'e-bed  (Jehovah  is  glorious,  or  Jeho- 
vah is  the  great  one]. 

A  daunhter  of  Levi,  who  married  her 
nephew  Amram  and  became  the  ancestress 
of  Miriam,  Aaron,  and  Moses  (Ex.  vi.  20; 
Num.  xxvi.  .')}•)  ;  see  Egypt  iii.  3. 

Jod. 

The  tenth  letter  of  the  Hebrew  alphabet. 
English  1  and  its  modification  .1  come  from 
the  same  source,  and  both  are  used  to  rejire- 
sent  it  in  anglicizing  Hebrew  names,  as  in 
Jechoniah.  It  stands  at  the  head  of  the 
tenth  section  of  I's.  cxix.  in  several  versions, 
in  which  section  each  verse  begins  with  this 
letter.  It  was  often  confused  by  readers  with 
van  (q.  v.). 

Jo'da. 

An  ancestor  of  Chri.st.  who  lived  near  the 
time  of  the  exile  (Luke  iii.  2()).  A.  V.,  fol- 
lowing a  diflerent  reading,  has  Juda — i.  e., 
Jndah. 

Jo'ed  [Jeliovah  is  witness]. 
.\    Henjamite,    descended    from    Jeshaiah 
(Neh.  xi.  7). 
Jo'el  [.Jehovah  is  God]. 

1.  A  Levite,  family  of  Kohath.  and  an  an- 
cestor of  Samuel  the  ]irophet  (1  Chron.  vi.  .'ilj, 
with  ;M,  :\H).  I'robablv  lie  is  not  hleiitical 
with  Shaul  (r.'4).  but  beiongs  to  the  coilater.il 
line  descended  through  Zei)hauiali  fritni  Ta- 
hath. 

2.  The  elder  son  of  Samuel  the  jirophet 
and  father  of  Heman  tlu'  sing(;r  (1  .Sam.  viii. 
2;  1  Chron.  vi.  :i.'{:  xv.  17).  Called  once  in 
the  Hebrew  text  and  A.  V.  Vashni  (vi.  28). 
This  name  the  R.  V.  relegates  to  the  margin, 
placing  .loel  in  italics  in  the  text 

:{.  A  (Jershonile  Levite.  who  with  i:?0  of 
ills  brethren,  of  whom  he  was  the  head, 
aided  in  bringing  u])  the  ark  from  the  hou.se 
of  Obed-edoni  to  the  city  of  David  (1  Chron. 
XV.  7.  II.  12).  He  seems  to  have  bi'cn  the  son 
of  Ladan  (1  Chron.  xxiii.  S),  who  was  aji- 
jiointed  to  take  charge  of  the  dedicat(>d  treas- 
ures of  the  house  of  (Jod  (xxvi.  21.  22). 

4.  A  man  of  Iss;icliar.  and  a  chief  of  that 
tribe.  He  was  descended  through  I'zzi  (1 
Chron.  vii.  :\). 

.').  One  of  David's  valiant  men,  a  brother 
of  Nathan  (1  Chron.  xi.  3S)  ;  see  I(i.\i.. 

0.  Son  of  IVdaiah  and  ruler  in  David's 
reign  of  the  half  tribe  of  Manasseh  west  of 
the  .lord an  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  20). 

7.  \  chief  of  the  (Jadite  tribe  prior  to  the 


Joel 


382 


Jogbehah 


reigns  of  Jothaiu  king  of  Jiulah  and  Jero- 
boam II.  king  (if  Israel  (1  t'liruu.  v.  1"J ;  cp. 
17). 

8.  A  KciU)onito,  whose  family  oecnpied  tlie 
district  about  Aroer  (1  C'hron.  v.  -1,  and  prob- 
ably 8). 

9.  A  Kohatliite  Levite,  son  of  Azariali,  who 
aided  in  cleansing  the  tenijile  during  Heze- 
kiah's  reigu  (2  Cliron.  xxix.  12). 

10.  A  Sinieonite  ]irinte,  wiio  took  part  in  a 
war  with  the  Amalekites  during  the  reign  of 
Hezekiah  (1  Chron.  iv.  35-43). 

11.  A  son  of  Nebo,  induced  by  Ezra  to  put 
away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  43). 

12.  A  lienjaniite,  son  of  Zichri,  overseer  at 
Jerusalem  during  the  government  of  Kehe- 
miah  (Neh.  xi.  9). 

13.  Sou  of  Pethuel.  and  the  author  of  the 
second  among  the  minor  iprdjihetic  books. 
Nothing  is  known  of  his  history  (Joel  i.  1). 

The  book  consists  of  two  parts,  of  thirty- 
six  venses  each.  I.  Prediction  of  judgment 
and  an  exhortation  to  repentance  (i.2-ii.  17). 
A  period  of  unexampled  distress  has  occurred 
or  is  impending,  prodviced  by  a  scourge  of 
locusts,  and  calling  for  repentance  and  sup- 
plication (i.  2-20).  The  same  theme  under 
the  figure  of  an  army  with  horses  and  chari- 
ots is  repeated,  and  the  call  for  repentance 
and  prayer  is  renewed  (ii.  1-17).  A  devasta- 
tion by  literal  locusts  may  be  intended  in 
chap,  i.,  and  possibly  even  in  chap.  ii..  as 
many  believe.  If  so,  it  served  the  pro])het 
as  an  occasion  and  a  type  for  his  message  (ii. 
1-27).  Whether  there  was  an  actual  plague 
of  locusts  at  the  time  or  not,  locusts  are  a 
natural  figure,  employed  in  Scripture,  for  an 
invading  army  (Kev.  ix.  3-11),  and  the 
prophet  adopts  the  figure  of  such  a  devasta- 
tion to  symbolize  the  great  day  of  Jehovah's 
power  and  judgment.  The  judgment  is  nigh 
at  hand  (ii.  1),  is  to  be  the  last  before  the 
Messianic  blessing  (28),  and  is  to  be  executed 
by  a  people  great  and  strong  (2),  which  come 
from  the  north  (20),  before  whom  a  fire  de- 
voureth  and  behind  whom  a  flame  burnetii 
(3),  whose  camp  is  very  great  (11),  and  on 
account  of  whom  the  inhabitants  of  Zion 
cry  out  to  the  Lord  for  deliverance,  that  the 
nations  should  not  rule  over  them  (17).  The 
allegorical  view  is  the  oldest,  and  has  been 
the  most  prevalent.  II.  The  blessing  which 
shall  follow  the  judgment  ( ii.  18-iii.  21 ).  The 
destroyer  shall  be  himself  destroyed,  the 
wasted  years  restored,  and  bountiful  harvests 
again  bless  the  land  (ii.  18-27)  :  (iod's  Spirit 
siiall  be  jxiured  out  on  all  flesh  (28-32;  cp. 
Acts  ii.  1(!-21  ;  Rom.  x.  13),  and  all  enemies 
of  the  kingdom  shall  be  brought  to  judg- 
ment, there  being  comprehended  in  one  pic- 
ture God's  successive  judgments  nf  the  na- 
tions and  the  final,  universal  judgment, 
culminating  in  the  establishment  of  Zion 
forever. 

The  book  is  not  dated,  and  its  contents 
afford  but  scanty  indications  of  the  time  of 
its  composition.     It  mentions  the  scattering 


of  Israel  among  the  nations  (iii.  2),  but  the 
reference  is  not  to  the  ten  tril)es  specifically, 
but  to  the  children  of  Abraham,  Isaac,  and 
Jacob,  (iod's  people  and  lieritage.  and  is 
moreover  a  iirojiiu  cv.  So,  too,  the  cajitivity 
of  .Judah  and  .Jerusalem  is  mentioned  (iii.  1), 
but  likewise  proi)hetically  in  the  sjiirit  of 
Deuteronomy  (xxviii.)  or  of  Micah  (iii.  10; 
iv.  12 1.  For  the  prophet  and  jieojile  are  in 
Judah,  Zion  exists  (Joel  ii.  1,  15).  the  tcmjile 
is  standing  (i.  14  ;  ii.  17),  and  the  .service  is 
regularly  conducted,  although  the  meal  and 
drink  offerings  are  sjioken  of  as  cut  oft"  by 
reason  of  the  destruction  of  vegetaticjn  (i.  9- 
13  ;  cp.  ii.  14  ).  The  projihecy  does  not  belong 
to  the  period  after  the  exile,  nor  to  the  time 
between  the  first  deportation  of  the  Jews 
and  the  fall  of  the  city,  nor  to  the  earlier 
period  when  the  Assyrians  were  invading 
the  land,  for  judgment  is  not  pronounced 
against  Assyria  or  Babylon  or  later  enemies, 
but  only  against  Judah's  foes.  Tyre  and  Sidon, 
Philistia,  Edom,  and  Egypt  (iii.  4,  19).  Tyre 
and  Sidon  had  forgotten  the  brotherly  cove- 
nant (Amos  i.  9),  and  had  purchased  Jewish 
captives  from  the  Philistines  and  sold  them 
to  the  remote  Greeks.  There  is  no  reference 
to  Syria,  from  which  Judah  scarcely  suffered 
before  the  reign  of  Ahaz  (2  Kin.  xii.  17). 
During  and  after  the  reign  of  Ahaz,  the 
prophets  of  Judah  frequently  refer  to  Syria 
as  a  hostile  power  (Is.  vii.  8 ;  viii.  4 ;  xvii. ; 
Jer.  xlix.  23-27;  Zech.  ix.  1).  Nor  is  there 
any  mention  of  the  Assyrians,  who  did  not 
come  into  conflict  with  Judah  until  after  the 
time  of  Ahaz,  and  who  for  a  half  century 
preceding  Ahaz'  reign  had  not  been  active 
in  western  Asia.  There  is  reference  to  the 
Greeks,  not  as  present  in  Palestine  or  as  hos- 
tile to  Judah,  but  simply  as  a  nation  afar  off 
to  whom  the  Phienicians  and  Philistines  had 
sold  captive  children  of  Judah,  and  as  con- 
trasted with  the  men  of  Sheba,  a  nation  at 
another  extremity  of  the  earth,  to  whom 
Judah  shall  sell  cajitives  taken  from  Philistia 
and  Phoenicia  (Joel  iii.  1-8).  The  majority  of 
commentators  accordingly  believe  that  the 
prophecy  was  uttered  before  the  time  of  Ahaz. 
The  position  of  the  book  as  second  among 
the  minor  prophets  indicates  that  the  belief 
was  current  at  the  time  of  forming  the  canon 
that  Joel  began  to  prophesy  after  Hosea  had 
commenced  his  prophetic  la) tors  and  l>efore 
Amos  had  entered  upon  his.  that  is,  during 
the  reign  of  Uzziah,  king  of  Judah.  and  while 
Jeroboam  was  on  the  throne  of  Israel  (Hos. 
i.  1  ;  Amos  i.  1  ;  vii.  10). 

Jo-e'lah  [possibly,  let  him  help]. 

A  son  of  .h'roham  of  Gedor.  He  joined 
David  at  Ziklag  (1   Chron.  xii.  7). 

Jo-e'zer  [Jehovah  is  help]. 
A  Korahite  who  joined  David  at  Ziklag  (1 
Chron.  xii.  (i). 

Jog'be-liali  [lofty]. 

A  town  of  Gad  (Xum.  xxxii.  35  ;  Judg. 
viii.  11).     Its  name  still  lives  in  Jubcihah,  a 


Jogli 


383 


John 


village  6  miles  northwest  of  Rabbath  Am- 
iiiKii  oil  till-  road  from  es-Saltaud  the  Jordan. 

Jog'li  [It-d  iiitu  exile]. 

Father  of  IJiikki,  of  tiie  Jrihe  of  Dan 
(Num.   xxxiv.  "JJ). 

Jo'ba. 

1.  A  Ik-njauiite,  son  of  Ik-riab  (1  Chrou. 
viii.  It!). 

•J.  A  Tizite.  son  of  Sliimri  and  one  of  David's 
mij,'bt,v  men  (1  Ciiroii.  xi.  45). 

Jo-ha'nan  [.Idiovah  is  fji-aeioiis]. 

I.  .\  I'.cn.jaiiiite  who  joined  David  at  Zik- 
lag  (1  Cliroii.  xii.  1). 

i.  The  ei;;htli  of  the  (iadites  who  did  so. 
He  was  made  a  eaptain  in  David's  army  (1 
(.'iiron.  xii.  I".'.  11). 

:;.  A  iiiemtierof  the  high-priestly  line,  who 
lived  about  SOd  h.  c.  (1  Chron.  vi.  10). 

4.  An  Eiihiaiiiiite  (J  Chron.  xxviii.  12). 

5.  The  eldest  son  of  king  Josiali  ( 1  Chron. 
iii.  ir>).     He  seems  to  have  dii'd  young. 

f>.  Son  of  Kareah  and  a  caiitaiii  of  the 
army,  who  on  lu-aring  that  Nebuehadnezzar 
had  a])i>oiiited  tiedaliah  governor  of  Judah. 
eaine  witii  iiis  men  to  submit  to  the  new 
ruh-r  ci  Kin.  xxv.  ■2-2.  2:i:  Jer.  xl.  S,  9).  He 
warned  (iedaliah  that  Baalis,  king  of  the 
.\miiioiiites.  had  sent  a  eertain  Islimael  to 
iiiurdirliiin  (i:j.  14)  :  and  when  the  governor, 
nculectiiig  the  warning,  was  assassinated,  he 
led  the  foree  whieh  went  to  avenge  his  death 
(xii.  11-1.">).  He  afterwards  counseled  and 
carried  out  a  removal  of  the  .Jewish  remnant 
to  Kgvpt,  against  the  advice  of  Jeremiah  (16- 
xliii.  i:}). 

7.  A  son  of  Klioenai  (1  Chron.  iii.  24). 

8.  A  son  of  Hakkatan,  of  the  clan  of  Az- 
gad.  M'ith  IKt  males,  he  accompanied  Ezra 
from  Babylon  (K/ra  viii.  1-J). 

!».  .Son  of  Eliashib,  but  scarcely  of  the  high 
priest  Eliashii).  Ezra  went  to  .lohanan's 
chamber,  and,  refusing  to  eat  or  drink, 
iiHiiiriied  over  the  sin  of  those  who  had  eon- 
ti-.ictcd  foreign  marriages  (Ezra  x.  (J,  in  R. 
V.  .leiiolianan). 

10.  S(jn  of  Tobiah,  the  Ammonite,  who 
married  a  Jewess  in  the  days  of  Xeliemiah 
(Neb.  vi.  IS,  ill  \i.  V.  .Tehoftanan). 

II.  .V  liii;b  ])ricst  ( Neb.  xii.  22),  grandson 
of  Eliashii)  (2;> :  cp.  11).  In  ver.  11,  the  name 
ajipears  as  .Jonathan,  doubtless  through  cor- 
ruption of  the  text.  Jose)>bus,  who  calls 
him  John,  siiys  that  he  killed  bis  l)rotber 
Jesus  in  the  tein)ile.  believing  that  he  was 
about  to  supersecle  liiin  in  tlu'  higb-j>riest- 
hood.  This  was  in  the  reign  of  Artaxerxes 
Mnemon,  10."»-.'M)2  B.  c.  (Antiq.  xi.  7,  1  ;  cji. 
.">.  1). 

John  [Creek  ' liiiiuurs.  from  Hebrew  Vo- 
hiiimii.  .Fcbovab  bath  been  gracious]. 

1.  Eatb.r  of  Matlatbias,  the  instigator  of 
the  Marcabn-an  revolt  (1  Mac.  ii.  1). 

2.  Eldest  son  of  Mattatbias  (1  Mac.  ii.  2.  in 
A.  V.  .ToMiinan).  He  was  siirnained  (iaildis 
(in  \.  V.  <'addis),  a  word  of  unknown  mean- 
ing.    Ik'  was  slain   by  the  children  of  .lani- 


bri,  about  160  B.  c.  (ix.  36,  38,  42;  and  2  Mac. 
viii.  22,  where  he  is  erroneously  called 
Josejih). 

;{.  A  man  who  obtiiined  special  privileges 
for  the  Jews  from  Antiochus  the  (ireat  (2 
Mac.  iv.  11).  He  was  son  of  Accos  and  father 
of  Eiipolemus  (1  .Mac.  viii.  17l. 

4.  Son  of  Simon,  the  -Maccabee  (1  Mac. 
xiii.  5:};  xvi.  1).  He  became  known  as  .John 
llyrcanus.  About  142  B.  c.  he  wasajiijointed 
iiy  his  father  commander-in-chief  of  the  army 
(xiii.  .■).'!).  He  met  and  defeated  Ceii(lel)aMis 
ill  i)attle  near  .lamiiia  (xvi.  1-10).  When  his 
father  and  two  brothers  were  miinlered  in 
l."55  H.  c,  and  he  himself  was  marked  for 
destruction,  he  took  the  otl'ensive  against  his 
adversary  and  drove  him  from  .Jiida-a  ( Aiiti<i. 
xiii.  S,  1).  He  exercised  the  ollice  of  higli 
])riest  and  civil  governor  from  l.'j.')  to  10.")  b. 
f.  .\ntiocluis  .Sidetes.  king  of  Syria,  invaded 
Juda-a,  and  in  the  fall  of  134  B.  c.  laid  siege 
to  Jerusjilem.  After  a  year,  the  Syrians  took 
the  city  and  dismantled  its  fortilieations 
(xiii.  s",  2  and  3).  The  death  of  Antiochus 
all'orded  .John  an  opportunity  to  enlarge  his 
domains,  and  he  com|iiereil  .Samaria  and 
Idiinuea.  He  also  renewed  the  alliance  with 
the  Romans  and  thereb.v  secured  the  resto- 
ration of  .Io|)])ii  and  other  towns  to  .Jewish 
authority.  He  also  rei>aired  the  walls  of 
Jerusalem  (1  Mac.  xvi.  23).  The  civil  war 
which  broke  out  in  Syria  in  125  B.  c.  and  a 
succession  of  Syrian  kings  from  whom,  for 
one  reason  or  another,  he  had  nothing  to 
fear,  enabled  .John  to  maintain  iiis  imlepeiid- 
ence  without  ililliciilty.  He  favored  the 
Pharisees  at  the  first,  but  when  they  unrea- 
sonably clamored  for  his  resignation  of  the 
higii-|)riesthoo(l,  he  went  over  to  the  Sad- 
diicees.  With  his  death  in  10.">  n.  t'.  the  jiower 
of  the  Maccabees  and,  with  it,  of  Israel  rap- 
idly waned.     See  Maccwbkes. 

5.  John  the  Baptist.  The  immediate  fore- 
runner of  .Jesus,  whose  way  he  was  sent  to 
jirepare.  .John  was  born  of  godly  parents, 
and  wa.s  of  full  priestly  descent,  both  his 
father  Zacharias  and  his  mother  Elisiibeth 
being  descendants  of  .Varon  (Luke  i.  5).  At 
the  s;ime  time  Elisalx'th.  the  I.,i'vite.  was 
cousin  to  the  X'irgin  Mary,  who  belonged  to 
the  tribe  of  Judah  (.'ilii.  The  residence  of 
John's  i)arents  was  at  a  town  in  the  hill 
country  of  Judtea  (3!t).  Perhaps  the  town 
was  Juttab,  but  it  is  generally  believed  to 
have  been  Hebron.  When  Zacharias.  in  the 
performance  of  his  jH'iestly  duties,  was  burn- 
ing incense  in  the  temple  at  Jerusalem,  the 
angel  (Jabriel  ap]ieareil  to  him.  jiroinised  that 
he  should  become  the  father  of  a  son,  directed 
that  the  child  should  be  named  .John,  and  be 
brouLrht  U]>  as  a  Xazirile,  like  Samson  and 
S;imuel.and  foretold  that  be  should  be  tilled 
with  the  Holy  Spirit  from  birth  and  iirejiare 
the  ]ieoi)le  for  the  Lord  (Luke  i.H-17).  John 
was  born  in  the  year  5  b.  c.  He  spent  his 
early  years  in  seclusion  in  the  wilderness  near 
his   home,    west  of  the  Dead  Sea  (80).     In 


John 


384 


John 


A.  D.  26  he  appeared  as  a  preacher  iu  the 
wilderness  adJDiuinj;  the  Jordan.  His  minis- 
try is  believed  to  have  l)eeii  exercised  dur- 
ing a  Sabbatic  year  liii.  1,  2),  in  which  the 
peo])le  were  relieved  of  hibor  iu  the  fields 
and  had  leisure  to  attend  John's  preacliing. 
He  came  to  announce  a  new  disjjensation, 
proclainiinj;  the  advent  of  the  kingdom  of 
God  and  tiie  baptism  of  the  Holy  Spirit 
(Mat.  iii.  2.  11),  to  prejiare  tlie  ])eoj)le  in  in- 
tellect and  heart  for  the  recei)tion  of  Christ 
(3,  8),  to  i)oint  out  the  Christ  in  the  person 
of  Jesus  (John  i.  1")),  and  to  show  the  union 
of  the  two  dispensations  in  the  Christ,  as  the 
Lamb  of  (iod  (-^y,  3tj).  He  addressed  him- 
self with  great  earnestness  and  jilainness  of 
speech  to  the  immense  multitudes  who  re- 
paired to  him  from  all  quarters.  He  urged 
the  necessity  of  immediate  and  sincere  re- 
pentance, the  special  reason  assigned  being 
that  the  kingdom  of  heaven  was  at  hand. 
The  penitents,  after  confessing  their  sins, 
were  baptized  by  John  in  the  Jordan  ;  and 
he  became  distinguished  from  others  of  the 
name  Ijv  biiug  calleil  the  Baptist.  The  bap- 
ti.sm  by  water  which  he  administered  typi- 
fied cleansing  from  sin.  He  did  not  regard 
it  as  enough,  but  directed  his  hearers  to  One 
who  should  come  after  him,  whose  shoe- 
latchet  he  was  not  worthy  to  unloose,  and 
who  would  baptize  them  with  the  Holy 
Ghost  and  fire  (Mat.  iii.  5-1-2).  Notwith- 
standing this  confes.sion  of  inferiority  to 
Jesus,  our  Lord  sought  ba]itism  at  his  hands. 
John  remonstrated,  which  shows  that  he 
knew  Jesus  to  be  the  Messiah  ;  but  he  obeyed, 
for  he  recognized  his  own  subordinate  posi- 
tion (13-17).  He  knew  Jesus  from  the  teach- 
ing of  his  parents,  and  the  correctness  of 
this  information  was  confirmed  to  him  by  the 
visible  descent  of  the  Holy  Spirit  upon  Jesus 
at  his  baptism.  By  this  sign  he  was  author- 
ized to  declare  Jesus  to  be  the  Christ  (John 
i.  32,  33).  Malachi  had  foretold  the  appear- 
ance of  Elijah,  the  prophet,  before  the  great 
and  terrible  day  of  the  Lord,  to  turn  the 
heart  of  the  fathers  to  the  children  and  the 
heart  of  the  children  to  their  fathers.  John 
denied  that  he  was  Elijah  in  person  (John  i. 
21) ;  he  defined  his  own  mission  and  charac- 
teristics by  simply  quoting  Is.  xl.  3.  But 
John  came  in  the  sjiirit  and  power  of  Elijah 
(Mai.  iv.  '},  6,  with  Luke  i.  17),  he  was  the 
messenger  sent  to  i)rei)are  the  way  before 
Christ  (Mai.  iii.  1,  with  Mark  i.  2),  and  Jesus 
applied  these  predictions  to  John  (Mat.  xi. 
10,  14;  xvii.  12,  13).  There  was  a  resem- 
blance between  the  two  men  also  in  their 
cheap  and  coai'se  attire,  which  they  wore  to 
symbolize  the  renouncement  of  ease  and  lux- 
ury, and  in  their  l)lunt  manners,  which  ren- 
dered them  fitter  for  the  wilderness  than  for 
kings'  courts  (2  Kin.  i.  8,  and  Mat.  iii.  4;  xi. 
8  ;  Mark  i.  (J).  John  had  said  of  Jesus.  "  He 
must  increase,  but  I  must  decrease;"  and 
without  jealousy  he  saw  the  fulfillment  of 
his  prediction  (John  iii.  25-30).     His  public 


ministry  was  short,  but  his  popular  success 
was  immense.  At  length,  toward  the  close  of 
A.  D.  27  or  in  the  early  jmrt  of  28.  having  with 
his  usual  fidelity  reproved  Herod  the  tetrarch 
for  living  in  sin  with  his  i)rother  Philip's 
wife,  he  was  committed  to  i)risou  (Luke  iii. 
19.  20).  While  there,  ])erplexed  and  impa- 
tient at  Christ's  method  of  developing  his 
work,  and  perhajjs  feeling  that  he  was  for- 
gotten while  others  were  helped,  he  sent  two 
of  his  disciples  to  ask  if  Jesus  were  the  prom- 
ised Messiah.  In  reply  Jesus  pointed  to  his 
works.  When  the  two  disciples  departed, 
Jesus  took  the  oi)]iortunity  of  pas.sing  a  high 
panegyric  on  John  (Mat.  xi.  2-15).  John  was 
the  greatest  of  the  projihets  in  that  he  was 
privileged  to  prepare  the  people  for  the 
Christ's  appearance  and  to  point  out  the 
Christ  to  them.  The  vindictiveness  of  the 
adulteress  Herodias  caused  John's  death. 
She  persuaded  her  daughter,  who  had  pleased 
Herod  by  her  dancing,  to  ask  the  head  of  the 
Baptist.  It  was  given  her,  and  the  headless 
body  was  soon  afterwards  removed  by  John's 
discijiles  and  buried.  Finding  their  master 
gone,  they  remembered  his  testimony  to  the 
Lamb  of  God,  and  became  disciples  of  Jesus 
(Mat.  xiv.  3-12  :  Mark  vi.  16-29 ;  Luke  iii. 
19,  20).  Josephus  attributes  the  death  of 
John  the  Bai)tist  to  Herod's  jealousy  of  his 
great  infiuence  with  the  people.  He  says 
also  that  the  destruction  of  Herod's  army  in 
the  war  with  Aretas,  which  soon  after  oc- 
curred, was  generally  considered  a  divine 
judgment  on  the  tetrarch  for  the  murder  of 
John.  The  historian  makes  the  place  of  the 
Bajrtist's  imprisonment  and  death  the  fort  of 
Machperus  (Antiq.  xviii.  5,  2).  Machierns, 
now  called  Mekaur,  is  situated  in  the  moun- 
tains on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Dead  Sea, 
about  5  miles  north  of  the  Anion,  and  on  the 
top  of  a  conical  hill  3800  feet  above  the  Dead 
Sea.  The  wall  of  circumvallation  of  the  old 
stronghold  still  remains  clearly  traceable, 
while  inside  are  a  deep  well  and  two  dun- 
geons. One  of  the  latter  may  have  been  the 
prison  in  which  John  was  confined. 

6.  Father  of  the  apostle  Peter  (John  i.  42; 
xxi.  1.5-17,  both  E.  V.).  He  is  called  Jonah 
iu  Mat.  xvi.  17.     See  Jonah. 

7.  John  the  apostle.  A  son  of  Zebedee, 
and  brother  of  that  James  who  sufl'ered  mar- 
tyrdom under  Herod  Agrippa  I.  (JIat.  iv.  21  ; 
Acts  xii.  1,  2).  It  is  reasonably  inferred  that 
he  was  younger  than  James,  and  that  his 
mother  was  named  Salome  and  was  sister  to 
the  mother  of  Jesus  ;  see  James.  His  father 
was  ii  master  fisherman  on  the  sea  of  Galilee, 
and  his  two  sons  aided  him  in  his  occujiation 
(Mark  i.  19,  20).  J<din  had  attended  the 
])reaching  of  the  Bajitist  at  the  .Jordan,  ami 
was  evidently  the  unnamed  discijile  to  whom 
and  Andrew  .Tohn  the  l?apti>t  ])()inted  out 
Jesus  as  the  Lamb  of  (iod  (John  i.  35-401.  He 
doubtless  accompanied  Jesus  back  to  Galilee, 
and  attended  the  wedding  at  Cana  (ii.  1-11). 
But  he  had  not  been  summoned  yet  to  per- 


John 


385 


John,  Epistles  of 


manent  fellowship  with  Jesus,  and    he    re- 
sumed his  work  on  the  lake.     While  he  was 
80  en>;a>if(l  with  James,  Jesus  eailcil  ihrm  to 
follow  him  i.Mat.  iv.  -21,  -22  ;   Mark  i.  1!>,  -JO), 
Later  tliey  were  aiipointed  ajiostles  (Mat.  x. 
2),    Our  Lord  called  James  and  .lohn  Hoaner- 
ges,  sons  of  thunder  (Mark  iii.  17),  evidently 
from  acertiiin  velienu'nci-  of  disjiosition  wiiicli 
they    posse.ssed.      The    inii)ctnosity   of   tlu'ir 
natural  temperament,  not  yet  fully  chastened 
i)y  ^race,  was  shown  when  .John  rehnked  one 
who  cast  out  demons  ill  Ciirist's  name,  but  who 
was  not  one  of  the  discii)lcs  (Lukr  ix.   lil), 
and  when,  finding  their  Master  rejected  in 
a  Samaritan  village,  they  wished  to  call  down 
fire  from  heaven  on  the  unhclii'ving  inhabi- 
tants (.52-.")*)).     A  c«Ttain  la])sc  into  scUishness 
■was  also  to  be  laid  to  their  cliai';L;e  wlien  they 
joined  with  their  mother  in  petitioning  for 
the   places    of   honor,   the  one  on   the    right 
hand  and  the  otlier  on  the  left  hand  of  Jesus 
in  his  future  kiujidoiii  ;  but  at  the  same  time 
tlieir  zeal  was  manifested,  for  they  declared 
themselves  ready  to  face  deatii  for  him  (.Mat. 
-XX.  20-24;  Mark  x.  :5.")-tl).     But  the  natural 
•defects   of   their   character    were    overcome, 
and   their  very    vehemence,    chastened    by 
^race,    became   an    element  of  strength  and 
a,    glory.     They   early   belonged    to    the    in- 
ner   circle   of    Christ's    friends,    and    .lolin 
showed    an    eminently    loving    and    unself- 
ish   disjwsition,    becoming   in    consequence 
the  di.sciple    wh(mi  Jesus    ju'culiarly  loved, 
and    occui)ying    the    ])lace    next    to     Jesus 
at  the  table  (John  xiii.  2:5;  xix.  2<» :  xx.  2 ; 
xxi.  7.  2tM.     Joim  was  one  of  the  three  a])os- 
tles  whom  Jesus  honored  iibove  the   rest  l)y 
selecting  them  to  be  ]U'esent  at  the  raising  of 
Jairiis'    daughter   (Mark    v.    :}7 :    Luke   viii. 
oD.at  the  transliguration  ( Mat.  xvii.  1  ;  Mark 
ix.  2;  Luke  ix.  2~'),  and  at  the  agony  in  the 
garden  (Mat.  xxvi.  37;  ]\Iark  xiv.  :i:i}.     He 
was  known  to  the  Jewish   high   ])riest,  and 
he    brought    into  the    pontifical    jialace   the 
ajiostle    I'eter  (.lohn   xviii.   Ki),   whose    i)art- 
ner   in    tisliing   he  once   at    least   had    been 
<>i\   the   sea  of   Cialilee   (Luke   v.  10).      He 
followed   Jesus  to  the  place  of  crucitixion, 
and  Jesus  on  the  cross  commended  his  mother 
Mary  to  .luliu's  loving  care,    ami    the   trust 
was  acce|)ted  and  ethciently  dischargeil,  with 
a  sense  of  the  high  honor  which  it  conferred 
(J(tlin   xix.  27).     On   the  resurrection   morn- 
ing, when  the  women  rei)orte(l  that  the  Lord 
had   risen.    Peter  and  .loiiii    ran    together  to 
the  sepulcher.     .John  arrived  lirst  ;  but  stood 
at  the  opening,  looking  in.      IVter  boldly  en- 
tered (xx.  1-10).     ,SIiortly  after  this  John  re- 
turned again  for  a  time  to  liis  old  means  of 
livelihood    on    the    s<-a   of   (iaiilee    (xxi.   2). 
While  there  a   misunderstanding  as  to  the 
meaning  of  a  certain   utterance  of  .Tesus  led 
to  the  unfounded  notion  that  a  promise  had 
been  made  that  the  apostle  should   never  die 
(xxi.  22).      Subse(iuent   to  the  ascension,   he 
was  one  of  the   120  who  met   in   the   uiiper 
room  at  Jerusalem  (Acts  i.  13).     After  Pente- 
25 


cost,  he  became  Peter's  colleague  in  active 
mi.ssionary  work  (iii.  1).  Both  were  imjiris- 
oned  by  tin;  Jewish  authorities,  and  witnessed 
a  good  confession  (iv.  I'J).  Both  weiv  sent 
by  their  fellow-apostles  to  Samaria  to  aid  in 
the  work  begun  by  Philip  (viii.  14).  J(din 
was  one  of  the  ajtostles  who  renuiined  in  .le- 
rtisalem  during  tiie  lursecutions  that  soon 
assailed  the  infant  church,  and  he  was  still 
there,  a  pillar  of  strength,  when  Paul  visited 
the  city  after  his  first  missionary  journey 
(XV.  (};'(ial.  ii.  !»).  Five  books  of"the  N.  T. 
are  ascribed  to  him — the  Fourth  Gospel,  three 
epistles,  and  the  book  of  Kevelation.  h\  the 
title  of  the  last-named  work  the  author  is 
calletl  St.  John  the  Divine.  Tradition  fixes 
on  Ephesus  as  the  scene  of  his  later  minis- 
trations, and  it  is  ])rol)able  that  the  seven 
churches  of  Asia  enjoyed  his  care  (Rev.  i.  11). 
When  he  ])eniied  tlie  Revelation,  probably  in 
A.  D.  !»."),  he  was  in  the  island  of  Patmos,  an 
exile  for  the  word  of  God  and  the  testimony 
of  Jesus  (Rev.  i.  Jt).  The  accession  of  Nerva 
is  said  to  have  fri'ed  him  from  danger  and 
enabled  him  to  return  to  Lphesiis.  Polycarp, 
Papias,  and  Ignatius  were  his  pupils.  Poly- 
car]>'s  disciple  Irena'us  states  that  he  con- 
tinued to  reside  at  Ephesus  until  his  death 
in  the  reign  of  Trajan. 

s!.  John  Mark.  .Mark  the  evangelist.  Mark, 
however,  was  only  the  surname  ;  .T(din  was 
the  i)roper.  and  i)robablv  the  earlier,  name 
(Acts  xii.  12,  25).     See  M.\rk. 

9.  A  Jewish  digiiit;iry  who  took  part  witli 
Annas,  ('aia]ilias.  .Mexander.  and  as  many  as 
were  of  the  kindred  of  the  high  priest, 
which  jjcrliaps  he  was  himself  in  calling  the 
ajiostles  Peter  and  .John  to  account  for  their 
lireacliing  (Acts  iv.  (il. 

John,  E-pis'tles  of. 

The  First  Ejiistle  of  John  is  evidently  by 
the  author  of  the  Fourth  Gospel.  The  siime 
characteristic  phraseology  is  found  in  both 
works  and  the  same  way  of  constructing 
sentences.  The  ejiistle  moreover  iilainly  su]!- 
poses  the  readers'  acquaintance  with  the  fio.-*- 
])el.  Both  were  evidently  .sent  ju'lmarily  to 
the  same  churches,  and  in  the  o|)iiiion  of 
many  the  e])istle  was  an  accom]ianiiiient  of 
the  gospel.  The  ojiening  words  of  the  epis- 
tle suggest  at  once  the  gospel's  (irologue,  and 
jiarallels  betjveen  the  two  books  may  be 
found  in  nearly  every  verse  of  the  ejiistle. 
The  ejiistle.  moreover,  has  in  view  the  w<irld 
as  the  antagonist  of  the  ehurch  and  the  field 
of  its  ojierations  (ii.  2,  l.")-17  ;  iv.  3-."> ;  v.  4,  ri, 
lit),  ami  wai'iis  against  heresies  wliicli  struck 
at  the  integrity  of  Christ's  jierson  (ii.  lS-21) ; 
iv.  l-.'{;  V.  (i-10).  These  features  harmonize 
with  the  date  and  jiurjiose  of  the  gosjiel.  The 
two  Works  therefore  clearly  came  from  the 
same  hand  and  at  about  the  same  time.  The 
ejiistle  seeks  to  ajijily  to  Christian  life  the 
truth  whose  hist<iric;il  revelation  is  recorded 
in  tiie  gosjnd.  It.  no  less  than  the  gospel, 
claims  to  be  l>y  an  ajiostle.     The  writer  was 


John,  Epistles  of 


38G 


John,  Gospel  according  to  St. 


one  of  those  who  had  lived  in  personal  con- 
tact witli  Christ  (i.  1-3,  5;  iv.  11)  and  writes 
in  an  aiilhoritativc  manner  as  became  an 
apostle  (i.  -1;  ii.  1;  iv.  6,  14).  How  deeply 
he  liad  absorbed  tlie  teaching  of  his  Lord  is 
proved  by  the  similarity  of  jiliraseology  and 
thoiijiht  between  the  epistle  and  C'lirisls  dis- 
conrses  in  thegdsiiel.  The  Johannean  author- 
ship of  the  epistle  is  vouched  lor  l)y  Irena?us 
and  the  Miiratori  Fragment;  while  earlier 
quotations  by  Polycarj),  I'apias,  etc.,  ]irove 
its  use  in  the  church  from  the  lieginning  of 
the  second  century.  Its  train  of  thought 
may  be  outlined  as  follows:  After  the  intro- 
duction (i.  1-4),  in  which  John  declares  the 
purpose  of  his  ministry  to  l>e  the  declaration 
to  men  of  the  manifestation  of  the  life-giv- 
ing, divine  Word,  in  order  that  they  may 
have  joyful  fellowshii)  in  him  with  the  orig- 
inal apostles,  he  teaches  that  the  character 
of  God,  as  learned  from  Christ,  must  deter- 
mine the  character  of  the  Christian's  inward 
and  outward  life  (i.  5-ii.  6)  ;  hence  he  urges 
to  love  of  the  brethren,  warns  against  love 
of  the  world  and  heretical  teaching  (ii.  7-27). 
He  next  insists  (ii.  28-iii.  24)  on  the  necessity 
of  doing  righteousness,  and  so  of  abiding  in 
God.  in  view  of  the  coming  second  advent  of 
Christ ;  since  at  it  our  divine  sonship  will 
be  fully  manifested  and  that  sonship  is 
distinguished  by  obedience  and  love.  Then 
he  reminds  his  readers  (iv.)  that  the  test  of 
having  the  Spirit  of  God  is  to  be  found  in  the 
true  confession  of  Christ  as  the  incarnate  Sou 
of  God,  in  adherence  to  apostolic  teaching,  and 
in  love  ;  and  that  right  faith  in  Jesus  is  the 
condition  of  the  whole  spiritual  life  of  love  (v. 
1-12).  In  the  conclusion  (v.  13-21)  he  tersely 
summarizes  the  pur]>ose  of  the  epistle  as  in- 
tended to  confirm  them  in  faitli  and  com- 
munion with  God,  and  solemnly  recites  the 
historical  and  si)iritual  facts  on  which  their 
eternal  life  steadfastly  reposes. 

The  Second  Epistle  of  John.  The  author 
calls  himself  "  the  elder,"  and  writes  to  ''  the 
elect  lady  and  her  children,"  expressing  his 
joy  at  the  Christian  life  of  her  children  and 
warning  her  against  heretical  teachers.  The 
brevity  of  the  e])istle  easily  explains  the 
paucity  of  references  to  it  in  the  earliest 
writei'S.  In  fiict  the  external  evidence  is 
larger  than  would  be  expected.  The  .Tohan- 
nean  authorship,  however,  is  abundantly 
proved  by  the  remarkable  coincidences  of 
language  and  thought  with  1  John  and  no 
motive  can  be  imagined  for  its  forgery.  Some 
have  sup]i()sed  that  by  the  elect  lady  was 
meant  a  church  ;  others  suppose  her  an  indi- 
vidual named  Kuria  (the  Greek  for  lady). 
It  is  prol)ably  best  to  leave  the  name  in- 
definite. 

The  Third  Epistle  of  John.  Another  brief 
letter  addressed  by  the  elder  to  Gains  the 
well-beloved,  expressingjoy  at  the  hospitality 
to  the  brethren  which  Gains  had  shown,  and 
urging  his  friend  to  continue  to  imitate  that 
which  is  good.     Eeference  is  also  made  to  a 


certain  Diotrephes  who  had  opposed  tho 
writer;  and  on  theotherhand  toa  Demetrius 
who  is])raised.  It  is  impossibletoidcntify  this 
Gains  with  any  of  that  name  mi'ntioned  in 
the  N.  T. ;  see  Gaius  3.  He  ai>pears  to  have 
been  a  jirominent  man  in  one  of  the  churches 
of  Asia,  but  nut  an  ofHcer  of  the  church. 
This  epistle  is  ri'markably  like  the  first  and 
second  in  style  and  thought:  so  that  there  is 
no  reason  to  doubt  that  the  three  were  by  the 
same  writer. 

All  John's  epistles,  with  those  of  James, 
Peter,  and  Jude,  are  frequently  included  in 
the  number  of  the  so-called  "  catholic  "  or 
"general''  epistles,  i.  e.  those  addressed  not 
to  particular  churches  or  per.sims,  but  to  large 
or  many  communities.  1  John  was  no  doubt 
sent  to  the  churches  of  Asia,  among  which 
the  Fourth  (iospel  was  first  issued.  To  2  and 
3  John,  however,  this  title  does  not  ai)ply, 
nor  are  they  styled  "general"  in  A.  Y.  or 
E.  V.  They  were  probably  placed  among 
the  "general  "  epistles  simi)ly  because,  being 
brief,  they  were  attached  to  1  John. 

(i.  T.   1'. 

John  the  Divine,  The  Revelation  of  St. 
See  Ki:v?:lati(>x. 

John,  Gos'pel  according  to  St. 

The  title  iirefixeil  to  the  Fourth  Gospel,  in 
accordance  with  the  universal  belief  of  the 
early  church  that  the  book  was  written  by 
the  apostle  John.  Like  the  other  gos]>els  it 
does  not  mention  the  writer's  name,  but  both 
internal  and  external  considerations  support 
the  traditional  belief. 

I.  Inteninl  evidence.  (1)  The  writer  was 
one  of  the  apostles.  This  apjiears  from  his 
use  of  the  first  person  plural  (i.  14  and  jier- 
haps  xxi.  24)  and  from  many  items  of  minute 
description,  especially  concerning  the  impres- 
sion made  on  the  disciples  by  events  in 
Christ's  life,  etc.  (i.  37:  ii.  11,  17;  iv.  27,  54; 
ix.  2:  xi.  8-lG  ;  xii.  4-(5,  21,  22:  xiii.  23-26; 
xviii.  lr>:  xix.  26,  27,  35;  xx.  S),  and  from 
the  explicit  statement  in  xxi.  24.  (2)  He 
mentions  a  "discijile  whom  Jesus  loved" 
(xiii.  23  ;  xix.  26  ;  xx.  2  ;  xxi.  7,  20,  21).  who, 
in  xxi.  24.  is  said  to  lie  the  author.  All  the 
apostles,  however,  are  mentioned  by  name  in 
the  book  excejit  Matthew,  James  the  son  of 
Alphseus.  Simon  Zelotes,  and  the  sons  of 
Zebedee.  The  three  former  did  not  belong 
to  the  narrower  circle  of  intimate  disciples, 
to  one  of  whom  this  title  would  atone  be 
ap])licable.  and  James  the  son  of  Zebedee 
died  early  (Acts  xii.  2l.  John,  therefore, 
alone  remains.  (3)  That  the  writer  was  a 
Jew  is  proved  incontestably  by  the  str<ingly 
Hebraistic  character  of  bis  style  in  writing 
Greek.  (4)  He  shows  intimate  acciuaiutance 
with  the  geograjiby,  history,  and  customs  of 
the  Jews  during  Christ's  ministrv  {e.  g.  i.  21, 
28,  46  ;  ii.  6 ;  iii.  23 ;  iv.  5.  27.  R.  V". ;  v.  2. 
3;  vii.  40-52;  ix.  7;  x.  22,  23;  xi.  18;  xviii. 
28 ;  xix.  31),  and  his  book  gives  more  personal 
details  than  any  of  the  gospels.    The  internal 


John,  Gospel  according  to  St.        387        John,  Gospel  according  to  St. 


evidence  thus  Imrmoiiizes  strikingly  with  the 
Juliannoan  iUithorshiii.  Nothiiifi  stioii;;c>r 
CDiilil  lie  asked,  sliort  of  an  f.\|ili<Mt  slatc- 
niiiit.  Till'  latliT.  in  tact,  is  aliiinst  };ivcn  in 
xxi.  :i4,  for,  according;  to  tin-  unanimous  tes- 
timony of  early  Christian  history,  .loliu  was 
the  only  a|iostle  who  lived  lonji  enoujih  to 
t,'ivi'  rise  to  tin-  Ix'liel'  that  he  would  survive, 
till  tlie  second  advent.  Cliai).  xxi.  is  evi- 
dently an  addition  hy  the  author  to  his  work, 
wiiicli  was  orif;iuaily  intended  to  close  with 
cha|i.  XX.  It  amounts  sui)stiintially  to  an 
atlirniation  tiiat  St.  John  was  the  author  of 
the  whole  treatise. 

II.  Extenidl  evideiicr.  The  testinu)uy  of 
Ireuii'us  (horn  ahout  A.  D.  115-12')  and 
iii>ho|)  of  Lyons  in  the  last  i)art  of  the 
.second  century),  who  was  a  disciple  of 
I'olycari),  wiio  was  a  di.scijile  of  St.  John,  is 
exi)licit  that  John  wrote  this  ttosi)el  in  E])he- 
sus  after  the  other  j^ospels  hail  Ijeen  i.ssued. 
Tliis  is  of  itself  suliicient  evidence.  It  is 
conlirnied,  however,  i)y  a  line  of  testimonies 
from  the  very  close  of  the  aiiostolic  ajie.  The 
First  Epistle  was  plainly  written  hy  the  au- 
thor of  th(!  (iospel,  and  its  apost(tlic  authority 
is  attested  hy  its  use  l)y  I'olycarp  (.\.  I).  110) 
and  I'apias  (A.  D.  1:50-110).'  The  If^natian 
epistles  (A.  D.  100)  show  that  the  (iospel  was 
familiar  and  authoritative  to  the  (diundies  of 
Asia  Minor  at  the  he^iinning  of  the  second 
century.  .lustin  (A.  p.  l.')0)  used  it  freidy, 
and  (|Uotes  from  it.  evidently  cousiderinj;  it 
one  of  "  the  nuMuoirs  of  the  apostles."  which 
lie  says  were  called  j;osi)els,  and  were  written 
hy  the  apostles  and  their  com])anions.  In  the 
Tcachinj;  of  the  Apostles  the  use  of  the 
Fourtii  (lospel  is  thoujrht  hy  nuiny  to  he  im- 
plied ;  and,  while  that  is  i)erha])s  doubtful, 
the  more  recently  recovered  aiiocryjdial  (ios- 
pel of  Peter  shows  that  the  Fourth  (iospel 
formed  with  the  other  three  the  narrative 
upon  the  basis  of  wliich  the  pseudo-Peter 
wrote.  Tatiau's  Diatessaron  was  a  harmony 
of  the  f;os])els  used  in  the  churches,  and  is  a 
combination  of  our  four.  The  .MS.  of  Syriac 
>;ospels,  recently  found  by  Mrs.  Lewis,  proves 
that  in  the  second  century  our  four  {rosjiels 
were  the  accejited  ones  in  the  Syrian  church. 
Finally,  it  is  certain  that  even  the  earliest 
heretics  ((Juostic)  of  tlu'  secon<l  century  ac- 
cepted the  Fourth  (iosjiel  as  ajjostolic.  Thus 
external  evidence  ani])ly  confirms  the  belief 
that  the  Fourth  fiospel  was  written  by  St. 
John,  and,  as  such,  was  re<-eived  as  authori- 
tative by  the  church  from  the  very  bejiinuiug 
of  the  post-apostolic  a^e.  The  evidence  also 
jioints  to  its  com])osition  in  Asia  Minor  (tra- 
dition says  I'.phesus)  in  the  last  (juarter  of 
tht^  tirst  century.  The  ojiponents  of  .Jesus 
are  called  simply  the  Jews  (i.  li) ;  ii.  18; 
v.  10;  vii.  15,  etc.),  ex)>lanations  are  given 
about  the  .Jewish  feasts  (vi.  4  ;  vii.  2;  xi.  r^'t; 
\\\.  .'tl),  the  sea  of  (ialilee  is  explained  hy 
its  gentile  nanu",  sea  of  'IMberias  (vi.  1), 
ami  the  designation  in  tlie  prologue  of  Christ 
as  the  Word  of  Cioil  points  to  a  period  when 


Christianity  was  confronted  with  such  philo- 
sophical tendencies  as  we  know  existed  in 
Asia  Minor.  Tliis  ex|(lains  alscj  tlie  ajiparent 
purpose  of  the  book.  It  was  to  give  Christ's 
testimony  to  him.self  as  the  incarnate  Son  of 
(iod  and  Siiviour  of  the  world  (xx.  30,  31). 
It  assumes  ac(iuaintaiice  with  the  other  gos- 
]iels  and  intends  to  su|)plemeiit  them;  see 
(iosi'Ki,.  They  had  not  given  tlio.se  great 
discourses  of  the  Lord,  in  which  he  had  re- 
jilied  to  the  attacks  of  the  Jews  ujjon  his  di- 
vine claims  or  iiad  unfolded  to  his  disii]>les 
the  mysteries  of  his  being  and  their  si)irilual 
relations  to  himself.  This  self-iestinioiiy  of 
Jesus  John  determined  to  set  down,  especial- 
ly since  here.sies  had  risen  which  denied 
some  aspects  of  the  ]ierson  of  Christ.  With 
this  lie  couibini'd  also,  as  was  natural,  many 
items  of  ])ersoual  ri-miniscence.  The  result 
was  to  provide  tlie  church  with  a  complete 
portrayal  of  her  diviue-human  Lord. 

.John's  (iosjiel  begins  with  a  ]>rologue(i.  1- 
IS),  in  which  the  apostle  suniiiiarizes  tlie 
great  truth  about  to  be  shown  in  the  life  of 
Christ,  viz.  the  existence  of  a  second  divine 
person  whose  othce  it  is  to  reveal  fiod  and 
who  is,  therefore,  called  the  Word,  who,  be- 
sides being  the  universal  source  of  life  and 
light  to  creation,  !)ecame  incarnate  as  Jesus 
(Jiirist,  and  thus  to  those  who  believed,  re- 
vealed (iod  and  imparted  salvation.  He 
then  relates,  1.  The  opening  testiiiKUiics  to 
.Jesus  given  by  John  the  I}ai)tist  and  by  Jesus 
himself  to  his  first  disci])les  (i.  Ift-ii.  11). 
2.  Christ's  revelation  of  himself  in  a  .seriesof 
acts  and,  still  move,  of  discourses  iuldres.sed 
to  inquirers  or  to  his  advei-saries  {ii.  12-xii. 
i)0).  This  includes  (a)  his  testimony  at  his 
first  passover  (ii.  12-25',,  and  the  discourse 
with  Nicodemus  (iii.  1-21).  together  with 
the  renewed  testimony  of  the  Baptist  (22- 
'Mi) ;  (6)  the  conversation  with  the  woman  of 
Samaria  (iv.  1-42)  ;  (c)  the  second  miracle  in 
Galilee  fJ-'i  54)  ;  ((?)  Christ's  defense  to  the 
.Jews  of  his  divine  dignity  and  autiiority  (v.) ; 
((')  his  ]U'esentalion  of  himself  as  the  bread 
of  life  (vi.)  :  (/)  his  renewed  defen.se  of  his 
authority  and  dignity  at  the  feast  of  taber- 
nacles (vii.,  viii.)  ;  {</)  the  healing  of  the 
blind  man  and  parable  of  the  good  slie])lierd 
(ix.  1-x.  21);  (h)  Christ's  final  testimony  to 
the  Jews  (22-42) ;  (.;')  the  raising  of  Laz- 
arus and  its  consequences  (xi.)  ;  {k)  the  tes- 
timony given  at  Pethany,  in  the  triumphal 
entry,  ami  at  tiie  visit  of  the  (ireeks  (xii.). 
;{.  Clirist's  revelation  of  himself  in  connec- 
tion with  his  death  and  resurrection  (xiii. 
1-xxi.  25).  This  includes  (<i)  his  last  dis- 
courses with  his  di.sci]iles  (xiii.-xvii.)  ;  (h)  his 
arrest,  trial,  and  crucilixiiui,  in  which  he 
bore  witness,  jiarticularly  before  Pilate,  to 
his  jierson  and  work  (xviii.,  xix.);  (c)  liis 
resurrection  and  certain  testimonies  con- 
nected with  it  (xx.,  xxi.).  The  result  is  to 
show  that  in  the  human  .J<'sus  there  was  the 
eternal  Son  of  (iod,  who  by  his  person, 
teaching,  and  redeeming  work  has  revealed 


Joiada 


388 


Jonah 


God  and  secured  eternal  life  to  those'  wbo 
receive  him.  St.  John  thus  rei)rescnts  the 
mission  of  Jesus  as  the  cliniiix  of  (iod's  self- 
revelation  and  as  the  ])rocniTnK'iit  for  be- 
lievers of  that  lijilit  wliicli  consists  in  knowl- 
edge of  the,  higliest  truth  and  of  that  life 
■which  consists  in  spiritual  union  with  God, 
which  together  constitute  the  ])erfect  good 
and  the  everlasting  salvation.  "These 
[things]"  hesays,  "  are  wi'ittcn,  that  ye  might 
hciii'vo  that  Jesus  is  the  Christ,  the  Son  of 
(i<i(l  ;  and  that  believing  ye  might  have  life 
through  his  name  "  (xx.  31). 

G.  T.  P. 

Joi'a-da  [Jehovah  hath  known]. 

1.  A  son  of  Paseah,  who  re])aired  a  gate  of 
Jerusalem  (Neb.  iii.  6  ;  in  A.  V.  Jehoiada). 

2.  A  high  priest,  grcat-grand.sou  of  Jeshua 
(Neh.  xii.  10). 

Joi'a-kim  [Jehovah  doth  establish]. 

A  higli  priest,  son  of  Jeshua  (Neh.  xii.  10, 
12,  21-2()),  in  the  reign  of  [Arta]xerxes  (An- 
tiq.  xi.  r>,  1). 

Joi'a-rib  oi-  Jehoiarlb,  the  two  forms  freely 
interchanging  in  Het)rew  [Jehovah  defends]. 

1.  A  descendant  of  Aaron.  His  family 
formed  the  first  of  the  twenty-four  courses 
into  which  David  divided  the  priests  (1  Chron. 
xxiv.  7),  and  it  dwelt  at  Jerusalem  (ix.  10)  ; 
see  Jehoiarib. 

2.  A  chief  of  the  priest*  who  returned  from 
Babylon  with  Zenibbahel  (Neh.  xii.  6,7).  In 
the  next  generation  a  father's  house  bore 
this  name  (19;  cp.  1  Mac.  ii.  1,  Joarib  being 
the  Greek  form). 

3.  A  man  of  understanding  who  was  re- 
turning from  Babylon  with  PIzra  and  was 
sent  with  others  from  the  encampment  on 
the  river  of  Ahava  to  secure  Levites  and 
Nethinim  for  the  service  of  the  temple 
(Ezra  viii.  16,  17). 

4.  A  manof  Judah,  descended  from  a  cer- 
tain Zechariah  (Neh.  xi.  5). 

Jok'de-am  [perhaps,  possessed  by  people]. 

A  town  in  the  mountains  of  Judah  (Josh. 
XV.  56).     Site  unknown. 

Jo'kim. 

A  man  of  Jiulah,  family  of  Shelah  (1 
Chron.    iv.  22). 

Jok'me-am  [the  ])eo]ile  is  brought  to- 
gether]. 

A  town  of  Ephraim  (1  Chron.  vi.  68),  ap- 
parently near  Abel-meholaii  (1  Kin.  iv.  12, 
where  A.  Y.,  contrary  to  the  Hebrew  text, 
calls  it  Jokneam).  The  Kohathite  Levites 
were  given  residence  in  it  (1  Chron.  vi.  66, 
6S).  Instead  of  this  town,  Kibzaim  is  given 
in  Josh.  xxi.  22,  and  is  commonly  believed  to 
))»'  another  name  oi  the  same  i)lace. 

Jok'ne-am  [the  peojile  is  permitted  to 
possess,  or  it  is  allowed  to  i)ossess  i)eo]>le]. 

1.  A  town  on  or  near  mount  Canuel  (Josh. 
xii.  22).  The  boundary  line  of  the  tribe  of 
Zebulun  extended  to  the  river  that  is  before 
Jokneam  (xix.   11).     It  was  given   with  its 


suburljs  to  the  Merarite  Levites  (xxi.  .34). 
The  identification  proposed  by  Eli  Smith  and 
Kobinson  is  generally  acce])ted,  namely  Tell 
Keiniuu,  protiably  the  Cyamon  of  Juditli  vii. 
3,  on  the  southern  maigin  of  the  jilain  of 
Esdraelon,  on  the  sl(»pes  of  Carmel,  a  little 
south  of  the  Kishon.  and  about  15  miles 
northwest  by  west  of  Jezreel.  It  commands 
the  main  pass  from  the  western  ])ortion  of 
Esdraelon  to  the  more  south(>rn  i)lain. 

2.  A  i)lace  mentioned  in  A.  \'.  of  1  Kin.  iv. 
12  ;  l)Ut  see  JoKMKAM. 

Jok'shan  [jierhaps,  a  fowler]. 

The  ]>rogenitor  of  a  tribe  descended  from 
Abraham  by  Keturah  (Gen.  xxv.  1,2).  From 
Jokshan  sprang  Shel)a  and  Dedan  (3).  Exact 
place  of  settlement  unknown. 

Jok'tan  [Hebrew  Yuktaii.  little,  small!. 

A  jier.son  or  tril)e  descended  from  Shem 
through  Eber  and  from  whom  thirteen  tribes 
of  Arabia  sju-ang  (Gen.  x.  25,  29;  1  Chron.  i. 
19-231.  The  Mussulmans  correctly  or  incor- 
rectly call  Joktan  Kiiht/iii. 

Jok'the-el  [probably,  subjection  to  God  or 
it  is  made  to  serve  God]. 

1.  A  village  in  the  lowland  of  Judah  (Josh. 
XV.  38).  The  identilication  with  the  ruin 
Kutliineh,  about  4  miles  east  by  south  of 
Ekron,  and  4  west-southwest  of  Gezer  is 
groundless. 

2.  A  name  given  by  Amaziah,  king  of 
Judah,  to  Selah,  now  Petra,  when  he  had 
taken  it  in  war  (2  Kin.  xiv.  7). 

Jo'na.     See  Jonah  2. 
Jon'a-dab  and    Jehonadab    [Jehovah    is 
bounteous]. 

1.  Son  of  David's  brother  Shimeah  (2  Sam. 
xiii.  3). 

2.  A  son  of  Eeehab,  the  Kenite  (Jer.  xxxv. 
6  ;  cp.  1  Chron.  ii.  55).  He  became  head  of 
the  tribe  and  gave  character  to  it  by  his  rule 
requiring  his  people  to  dwell  in  tents,  refrain 
from  agriculture,  and  abstain  from  wine  (Jer. 
xxxv.  6,  7)  in  order  to  preserve  primitive 
simjilicity  of  manners.  Jehu,  finding  that 
Jonadab  symjiathized  with  his  work  of  sup- 
pressing Baal  worship,  took  him  to  Samaria, 
where  he  aided  Jehu  in  ])Utting  out  of  Baal's 
temple  all  who  were  not  priests  of  that  god, 
in  preparation  for  the  massacre  which  was  to 
ensue  (2  Kin.  x.  15,  23). 

Jo'nah,  in  A.  Y.  of  N.  T.  Jonas,  twice 
Jona,  the  Greek  genitive  case  (JIat.  xvi.  17  ; 
John  i.  42)  [a  dove]. 

1.  A  prophet  of  Israel,  a  son  of  Amittai, 
and  citizen  of  Gath-hepher  in  Galilee,  who 
before  the  close  of  the  reign  of  Jeroboam  II. 
foretold  Israel's  recovery  of  its  l)orders  from 
the  entering  of  Hamath  to  the  sea  of  the 
plain  (2  Kin.  xiv.  25;  Jon.  i.  1). 

The  book  of  Jonah  is  the  fifth  in  order  of 
the  minor  ])roi>hetic  books  in  tlie  Hebrew 
original,  in  the  Septuagint.  and  in  the  Eng- 
lisii  Bible.  It  nuiy  be  divided  into  three  sec- 
tions : — 


Jonah 


389 


Jonah 


I.  Jonah's  disobedience  (i.)-  He  was  i)id- 
dcn  tofjo  to  Nineveh  and  cry  iif^ainst  it.  I5ut 
he  desired  the  destruction  of  the  i-ity,  [irotia- 
bly  lieiMiise  its  pmiishiiieiit  woiihl  hmiil)le  ;in 
enemy  (if  Isi-acl  ;  and  lie  ftarcd  h'St  it  slniiild 
rejient  at  his  nu-ssa^e  and  he  sjiared  lo  the 
destruction  of  liis  nation.  Accordinfjly  he 
toolv  ship  at  .Io]ipa  to  (h-e  to  Tarshish.  A  great 
storm  arose.  Tlie  ship  was  in  dant;er.  At 
len<;tli  tlie  Siiihirs  cast  lots  to  ascertain  on 
who.st!  account  tlie  storm  had  been  sent.  Tlic 
lot  fell  upon  Jonali.  He  told  them  that  he 
was  a  worshiper  of  the  (rod  of  heaven 
who  had  made  the  sea  and  the  dry  lan<l ;  and 
that,  if  they  would  cast  him  uvi'rlioard.  the 
sea  Would  become  calm.  They  reluctantly 
obcyeil.  The  sea  became  (juiet  ;  and  the 
jirophet,  who  had  disappeared  in  the  dejiths, 
was  swallowed  by  a  ;ireat  lish  which  the  Lord 
had  prepared.  II.  Jonah's  jirayer  ( ii.).  Sur- 
jirised  at  tlndinj^  Iiimself  alive  in  the  midst 
of  the  .sea,  the  prophet  gave  thanks  to  (xod 
for  his  present  escajie  from  death  and  grate- 
fully exi)re.ssed  the  hoiie  of  ultimate  (leliver- 
auce.  The  (ish  at  length  vomited  him  upon 
the  dry  land.  III.  Jonah's  message  and  its 
results  (iii.,  iv.).  Hidden  a  second  time  to  go 
to  Nini'veh,  he  obeyed  and  delivered  his  mes- 
siige.  The  Nincvites  publicly  rejiented  and 
(tod  s))ared  the  city.  At  this  Jonah  was  dis- 
])leased  ;  not  tliat  his  prophecy  had  lieen  nulli- 
(ie<l  l)V  the  rejientaiu'e  of  the  jieople.  for  he 
and  his  hearers  e.\]>ected  that  it  would  be 
(iii.  9;  iv.  2),  but  [irobably  because  he  felt 
that  the  doom  of  his  own  country  was  sealed. 
Hut  by  the  withering  of  a  gourd  the  Lord 
taught  him  the  lesson  of  divine  com])assion 
on  man  an<l  l)c-ast  generally,  irrespective  of 
man's  relation  to  the  church. 

It  has  been  urged  tliat  the  book  of  .Tonah 
nowhere  claims  to  have  lieen  written  by  that 
I)ropli(t.  Hut  the  title  li.  li  is  like  th'e  title 
of  Ilosea.  .loel,  .Micah,  Zephaniab,  Ilaggai, 
and  Zechariah,  books  of  which  the  author- 
ship is  not  disputed.  It  is  urged  further  that 
the  book  was  written  long  after  .lonah's  time, 
because  in  the  ]irayer  ascribed  to  him  are 
some  (piotations  from  late  jisalms  (ii.  '.i  with 
I's.  xlii.  7;  ;">  with  Vs.  Ixix.  1;  5»  with  Ps.  1. 
11).  Hut  the  Jisalms  may  ('([Ually  well  con- 
tain (juotations  from  Jonah.  The  prophecy 
may  be  dated  liefore  or  shortly  after  the  chise 
of  the  reign  of  .Feroboam  II.  (2  Kin.  xiv.  2')). 
It  perhaps  belongs  eh  ronologieally  after  .\nios 
f.\mos  i.  1)  and  probalily.before  the  vigorous 
reign  of  Tiglatb-]iileser  over  A.s.syria,  which 
began  in  7  l.'i  it.  <■. 

The  narrative  has  been  variously  regarded 
as  myth,  legend.  ]iarable.  history.  The  chief 
interi)retations  an^  — 1.  The  allegorical  or  ]iar- 
abolical.  This  c<ince]ition  <if  the  projihecyis 
much  in  voirue.  for  it  avoids  the  miracle.  It 
interprets  .loiiali  as  a  tyjH-  of  Israel  fleeing 
Iroin  the  duty  imposed  on  the  nation  to  bear 
witness  to  the  worlil  for  fJod.  The  sea  typi- 
fies, as  frecpiently,  the  raging  nations;  the 
sleep  of  Jonah  represents  Israel's  sloth  to  ful- 


fill its  mission  to  the  gentiles,  for  which  it  is 
delivered  into  captivity  to  the  world,  but  yet 
is  jire.served  alive;  having  been  disciiilined, 
it  is  ready  to  engage  ill  its  appointed  mi.ssion, 
but  it  is  still  narrow  and  needs  to  be  Uiught 
the  wideiiess  of  liod's  mercy.  In  sujiport  of 
this  view  it  is  pointed  out  that  Jeremiah 
sjieaks  of  Xebuchadne/.zar  under  the  figure 
of  a  dragon  swallowing  up  Israel,  but  com- 
jielled  to  disgorge  bis  jirey  (li.  .■;i),and  llo.sea 
ri'iire.seiits  the  exile  of  Israel  as  lasting  three 
days  (vi.  2).  If,  however,  there  was  any  bor- 
rowing at  all,  .Jeremiah  is  as  likely  to  have 
borrowed  from  .lonah  as  vice  iwrsd.  llosea 
was  a  contemjiorary  projihet  with  Jonah  in 
the  nortiiern  kingdom,  and  might  draw  a 
lesson  from  .Jonah's  experience,  if  there  is 
any  interdependence  of  Hos.  vi.  2  and  Jon.  i. 
17.  2.  The  historical.  The  miraculous  ele- 
ment is  magnified  or  minimized  according  to 
individual  judgment  and  knowledge.  The 
conception  <if  the  narrative  as  historical  has 
these  supports:  (1)  The  form  of  the  book  is 
liistorical  and  has  left  this  imjiression  on  its 
readers.  [2)  .Jonah  himself  was  unquestion- 
ably a  historical  jiersonage.  (.'{)  While  it  is 
conceivaiile  that  the  words  of  Christ  regard- 
ing .Jonah  in  the  belly  of  the  fish  and  at 
Nineveh  do  not  imiily  his  belief  in  the  events, 
it  is  liighly  probable  that  they  do,  especially 
since  Jonah  was  a  real  jierson  (Mat.  xii.  'id, 
■10  :  Luke  xi.  2<t,  :i()).  (4)  The  narrative  was 
regarded  by  the  Jews  as  historical  (.Xiiticj.  ix. 
10,  2).  (ii)  The  repentance  of  the  Ninevites 
is  credible.  They  were  given  to  superstition  ; 
national  distress  and  a  low  state  of  the  em- 
pire would  disjiose  them  to  listen  to  .a  warn- 
ing from  the  gods  ;  the  arrival  from  a  for- 
eign country  of  a  strange  prophet,  of  whose 
peculiar  history  they  may  have  heard,  was 
calculated  to  affect  them:  the  .'^jiirit  of  God 
worketh  when  and  where  be  will.  It  is 
urged,  indeed,  against  the  historical  cliarac- 
ter  of  the  book  that  a  jiermanent  conversion 
of  the  Ninevites  did  not  take  place.  Cer- 
tainly it  did  iKit,  and  it  is  nowhere  asserted 
that  it  did.  The  statement  merely  is  that 
the  men  of  that  generation  repented  under 
the  lead  of  their  king.  .So  the  men  of  Judah 
in  Hezekiah's  and  Josiah's  reigns  .sanctified 
themselves  under  the  leadership  of  those 
kings.  It  is  further  urged  that  the  book  was 
scarc(>ly  regarded  as  a  historical  narrative 
when  the  Hebrew  <'anon  was  arranged,  or  it 
would  have  lieen  placed  among  the  historical, 
and  not  among  the  prophetical,  books.  Hut 
the  recorded  events  are  typical  and  prophetic, 
like  the  events  narrated  in  Zecli.  vi.  !t-l.^. 
.\n<l  what  is  more,  tin-  Hebrew  canon  does 
not  make  the  distinction  between  historical 
and  proiihetical  books.  The  jn-ose  writings 
of  otiicial  )irophets  are  grouped  by  them- 
selves. Omittini.'  Kiilh.  the  books  from  .Joshua 
to  2  Kings  inclusive  are  classed  as  prophetic. 
This  collection  forms  continuous  history,  and 
it  is  immediately  followed  by  a  second  group 
<leiU)niinated   prophetic,  and   containing   all 


Jonam 


390 


Jonathan 


the  remaining;  books  which  bear  the  name  of 
an  odkial  i)r(iiihtt.  Hero  .Jonah  iij,'btly  be- 
longs, and  here  the  book  has  )>een  placed.  See 
Canon. 

2.  Father  of  Simon  Peter  (Mat.  svi.  17; 
John  i.  42;  xxi.  15).  In  i;.  V.  of  John 
Simon'.s  father  is  called  John  on  the  anthority 
of  mauuscriiits. 

Jo'nam,  in  A.  V.  Jonan,  the  reading  of 
variant  texts  [])erhai)s  a  modification  of  the 
Hebrew  Yoliiuidii,  Jehovah  hath  been  gra- 
cious]. 

An  ancestor  of  Christ,  who  lived  about  two 
hundrid  years  after  David  (Luke  ill.  30). 

Jo'nas.     See  Jonah. 

Jon'a-than  [Jehovah  has  given]. 

1.  A  Levite,  son  or  remoter  descendant  of 
Gershom,  son  of  Moses  (Judg.  xviii.  30,  E.  V.). 
He  was  doubtless  the  Levite  who  had  so- 
journed at  Bethlehem-judah,  but  had  left 
that  town  to  seek  another  residence,  and, 
when  passing  tlirough  Ephrairn,  was  hired 
by  Micali  to  officiate  as  priest  before  an  image 
of  Jehovah  (xvii.  7-13).  When  the  Dauites 
were  on  their  way  to  seek  new  settlements 
in  the  north  of  Palestine,  they  robbed  Micah 
of  his  image,  and  persuaded  his  mercenary 
priest  to  go  with  them,  tempting  his  ambition 
by  promising  that  he  should  be  the  priest, 
not  of  a  single  household,  but  of  a  tribe. 
They  kept  their  word,  and  Jonathan  became 
the  first  of  a  line  of  priests  who  worshiped 
at  the  shrine  of  the  stolen  idol  all  the  time 
that  the  tabernacle  was  in  Shiloh,  till  the 
captivity  of  the  land  or  district  (Judg.  xviii. 
3-6,  14-31).  To  avoid  the  dishonor  accruing 
to  Moses  from  the  idolatry  of  his  descendant, 
a  nun  was  inserted  in  the  Hebrew  word  for 
Moses,  which  changed  it  into  Manasseh  (30, 
A.  v.).  The  inserted  letter  was  not  incor- 
porated into  the  text,  but  was  suspended  above 
the  line. 

2.  Eldest  son  of  king  Saul  (1  Sam.  xiv.  49 ; 
cp.  XX.  31).  When  first  mentioned,  after  his 
father  had  reigned  two  years,  he  is  in  com- 
mand of  1000  men,  while  Saul  leads  other 
2000.  Jonathan  with  his  forces  attacked  and 
destroj'ed  the  Philistine  garrison,  or  rather 
deputy,  at  Geba  (1  Sam.  xiii.  3).  Shortly 
afterwards  the  young  prince,  attended  only 
by  his  armor-bearer,  climbed  up  an  ascent 
between  two  rocks,  called  Rozez  and  Seneh, 
and  suddenly  assailing  the  fir.st  Philistines 
he  met,  created  a  panic  in  their  army,  which 
became  so  great  that  in  their  fright  the  sol- 
diers turned  their  arms  against  each  other 
(xiv.  1-23).  The  same  day  Saul  had  almost 
put  his  heroic  son  to  d(>ath  for  having  eaten 
honey  in  a  wood,  being  ignorant  that  the 
king  had  pronounced  a  rash  imprecation 
against  any  one  who  .should  partake  of  food 
that  day.  But  the  peo])le  interfered,  and 
would  not  allow  .Tonathan's  life  to  be  sacri- 
ficed (24-4(i).  When  David,  then  a  young 
man  and  known  but  to  few,  achieved  his 
great  victory  over  Goliath,  Jonathan,  who 


was  of  a  singularly  unselfish  nature,  con- 
ceived a  warm  friendsliii)  for  the  hero 
(xviii.  1).  and  would  not  give  it  up,  even 
when  Saul  pointed  out  that  his  friend  might 
one  day  sujiersede  him  on  tlie  tlirone.  During 
Saul's  persecution  of  David,  Jonathan  com- 
municated witii  his  youtliful  associate. giving 
liim  most  valuabk-  intelligence  of  tlie  king's 
feelings  and  movements,  till  at  length  the 
tyrant,  provoked  by  what  he  considered  his 
untilial  conduct,  threw  a  .javelin  at  him,  as 
he  had  more  than  once  done  at  David  (xviii.- 
XX.).  On  this  last  occasion  Jonathan  was 
seeking  to  discover  whether  a  reconciliation 
of  Saul  with  David  was  possible.  David  was 
lying  in  concealment  in  the  fields  waiting 
for  word.  Tlie  two  friends  anticipated  the 
difficulty  Jonathan  might  have  in  conveying 
this  information  to  David,  es]>ecially  in  case 
Saul  should  be  evilly  minded  toward  the  son 
of  Jesse,  for  Jonathan  was  known  to  favor 
David,  and  Saul  and  the  party  o]i])osed  to 
David  would  watch  Jonathan  to  prevent  him 
from  communicating  with  David  and  a  sec- 
ond time  frustrating  their  plans.  Accord- 
ingly, to  disarm  suspicion,  Jonathan  arranged 
to  go  ont  with  company,  and  as  though  to 
hunt,  and  by  means  of  arrows  to  give  a  sign 
to  David.  He  did  so,  and  then,  finding  that 
suspicion  had  been  allayed  and  that  he  was 
no  longer  observed,  he  sent  the  boy  back  to 
the  town  with  the  bow  and  arrows,  and  re- 
mained for  a  final  interview  with  David. 
The  two  friends  met  once  after  this  in  the 
wood  of  Ziph  (1  Sam.  xxiii.  Ifj-lS).  Jona- 
than was  killed,  with  two  of  his  brothers 
and  their  father,  at  the  battle  of  Gilboa,  and 
his  bones,  like  theirs,  were  affixed  to  the 
wall  of  Beth-shean,  till  the  men  of  Jabesh- 
gilead  removed  them  and  gave  them  honor- 
able burial  (xxxi.  1,  11-13;  1  Cliron.  x.  2,  S- 
12).  David  dee])ly  lamented  his  death  (2 
Sam.  i.  17-27).  .Tonathan  left  behind  him  a 
son  called  Mephibosheth  and  Merib-baal,  who 
was  lame,  his  nurse  having  let  him  fall  from 
her  arms  when  he  was  five  years  old,  as 
she  was  running  away  with  him  in  terror 
when  the  news  of  Gilboa  came  (2  Sam.  iv.  4). 
David  ultimately  showed  him  great  kindness 
for  Jonathan's  sake,  and  the  line  of  his  de- 
scendants is  traceable  for  several  generations 
in  increasing  numbers,  as  if  all  danger  of  its 
extinction  had  passed  awav  (2  Sam.  ix.  1-13; 
1  Chron.  viii.  33-40;  ix.  39-44). 

3.  Uncle  of  king  David.  He  was  a  coun- 
selor, a  man  of  understanding,  and  a  scribe 
(1  Chron.  xxvii.  32).  Some  expositors  l)elieve 
that  in  this  passage  the  Hebrew  word  for 
uncle  is  used  in  a  general  .sense  for  relation, 
and  they  identify  this  counselor  with  David's 
nephew  Jonathan  (R.  Y..  margin). 

4.  Son  of  the  high  priest  Abiathar.  He 
was  one  of  two  young  men  who  concealed 
themselves  at  En-rogel.  near  .Terusalem.  dur- 
ing Absalom's  rebellion,  and  sent  D.avid  in- 
formation of  everything  passing  in  the  city 
(2  Sam.  XV.  36  ;  xvii.  15-22).     When  Adonijah 


Jonathan 


391 


Joppa 


attenii)tcd  to  usurp  tl»e  tliroiie  and  was  telc- 
})ratiiit;  a  I'l'ast.  Jouallian  liroiifilit  (Ir-  news 
that  SdIduioii  liail  I)l-i-ii  iirdL-laiiiicd  kiii^,  a 
l)iece  of  iiiti'llitioiu'o  which  loil  to  tlie  l)reak- 
ing  up  of  the  assi-inlilaKc  (1  Kin.  i.  41-49). 

5.  A  son  of  David's  brother  Siiinieah,  and 
victor  over  one  of  Goliath's  s(jns,  as  David 
liad  been  over  Goliath  himself  (2  Sam.  xxi. 
■21,  2->). 

().  Cue  of  David's  mijjhty  men,  son  of 
Shiige  or  rather  Shammah  the  llararite  (1 
Chron.  xi.  :J4  ;  cp.  2  Sam.  x.xiii.  11).  The 
text  of  2  Sam.  xxiii.  32,  3:5  is  to  be  emended 
by  comparison  with  Chronicles. 

7.  A  son  of  Kareah.  After  the  capture  of 
Jerusjilem  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  he  i)laced 
himself  under  the  ]>rotectioii  of  (Tcdaliah 
(Jer.  xl.  H).  The  name  is  not  found  in  the 
corresponding  passagir  (2  Kin.xxv.23).  IVr- 
haiis  it  accidentally  dropped  out  of  Kings  or 
erroneously  crei>t  into  the  text  of  .Feremiah. 

8.  Father  of  that  Ebed,  head  of  the  house 
of  Adin,  who  with  fifty  males  accompanied 
Ezra  to  Palestine  (Ezra  viii.  (>). 

9.  A  son  of  Asahel.  who  ojiposcd  Ezra's 
proposition  that  the  Jews  should  i)ut  away 
their  foreign  wives  (Ezra  x.  15,  R.  V.). 

10.  A  Levitc  of  the  lineage  of  A.saph  (Neh. 
xii.  3ri ;  cj).  xi.  l.^i,  17). 

11.  A  i)riest.  head  of  a  father's  house  in  the 
days  of  the  high  priest  Joiakim  (Neh.  xii.  14). 

12.  A  high  ])riest,  son  of  Joiada  (Neh.  xii. 
11).     See  JoHAXAN  11. 

13.  Youngest  son  of  the  jiriest  Mattatliias 
(1  Mac.  ii.  .')).  When  his  hroth.M-  .liiilas  Mac- 
cabiL'Us  was  slain  in  i)attle  in  H!()  h.  c,  .Jona- 
than was  chosen  his  successor  (ix.  23-31). 
The  forces  at  his  disposal  were,  however,  too 
few  for  offensive  o])eratious  against  the 
Syrians,  and  he  withdrew  into  the  wilder- 
ness of  Tekoa  (33).  He  was  surnamed 
A])])hus  (ii.  ii),  which  is  thought  to  mean 
Dissembler,  and  to  have  been  given  him  on 
account  of  his  first  exi)loit,  in  which  he  laid 
an  amliush  for  the  children  of  .laiiibri  and 
slew  them  becansi!  they  had  killed  his 
brother  John  (ix.  37-41 ).  On  a  Sabbath  day 
in  l.")7  B.  c.  he  repulsed  an  attack  of  the 
Syrians  under  Hacchides  on  the  .Jordan, 
lircihal)ly  on  tiie  eastern  bank  ;  but  after  the 
victory  he  and  his  followers  leaped  into  the 
river  and  swam  to  the  other  side  (ix.  43-4S), 
where  they  remained  (.'>M).  outwitting  the 
attemjits  which  were  made  to  assassinate 
their  leader  (liO,  fill.  Jonathan  anil  Simon 
afterwards  fortified  themselves  at  Hethbasi 
in  tlm  wilderness,  iirobably  of  Tekoa  ;  and 
when  Hacchides  besieged  the  fortress,  .Jona- 
than h'fl  Simon  to  defend  the  )ilace.  while 
he  himself  ravaiied  the  surrounding  cuiiiit  ry 
i(i2.  CO.  Hacchides  was  so  straitened  that 
he  made  peace  with  Jonathan  and  withdrew 
from  .Fudsea  (<i7-72).  Jonathan  took  nj)  his 
rcsidiMice  at  Michmash,  .and  l)egan  to  .judge 
tli(!  iieojile  (73).  When  .Mexauder  15alas  re- 
volted aiiaiust  DiMuetrius.  king  of  .Syria,  the 
latter   hastened    to   secure   .Jonathan    as   an 


ally,  and  gave  him  authority  to  gather 
troops.  The  Syrians  who  were  still  in  the 
stronghohls  of  Jiuhea  fled,  anil  Jonathan  en- 
tered .Feriisiilem  in  l.")2  H.  c.  (x.  1-14).  Alex- 
ander, ei|ually  desirous  to  have  the  support 
of  .Jonathan,  ajipointed  him  high  i)riest  of 
the  Jews  and  king's  friend,  and  .Jonathan 
put  on  the  i)ontifical  robes  at  the  feast  of 
tabernacles  in  l.")2  15.  c.  (l.")-21).  Upon  hear- 
ing of  this  event,  Demetrius  hastened  to 
make  further  concessions  to  the  Jews  (22-4;")). 
Jonathan,  however,  gave  no  credence  to  the 
words  of  Demetrius;  and  Alexander,  when 
he  secured  the  throne  of  Syria  in  l.")()  h.  c. 
a])i)ointed  him  governor  of  Judiea  i4().  .">!)- 
(ifi).  In  14.S-7  B.  c.  Demetrius  II.  raised 
the  standard  of  revolt  against  Alexander. 
Demetrius  was  assisted  by  Ai)ollonius,  who 
sent  a  threateninj;  message  to  .Jonathan. 
Jonathan  .seized  .loppa  and  defeated  Apol- 
lonius  in  the  neighboring  plain  (<)7-w7). 
Wlieii  Alexander's  father-in-law,  Ptolemy, 
intervcTied  in  the  war,  .Jonathan  showed  his 
friendshij)  and  accompanied  him  to  the  bor- 
ders of  Syria  (xi.  1-7).  Ptolemy  jiroved 
treacherous  to  Alexander  and  jilaced  Deme- 
trius on  the  throne.  Jonathan  was  able  to 
secure  the  friendship  of  the  new  king,  and 
riMidercd  him  great  service  by  a  contingent 
of  .'JOIHI  .Jewish  soldiers,  who  (|nelled  an  in- 
surrection against  Demetrius  in  Autioch. 
Demetrius  proved  false,  and  Jonathan  sided 
with  the  young  Antiochus  and  fought  suc- 
cessfully with  the  troo]is  of  Demetrius  near 
Kcilcsh  in  Galilee,  .loiiathan  now  sought 
the  aid  of  the  Komans  and  Spartans  (xii.  1, 
2) ;  he  al.so  undertook  aggressive  openitions 
against  Demetrius,  and  defeated  his  troojjs 
and  allies  in  th.e  vicinity  of  Ilamath  (21-3.")). 
Hut  Tryiihon,  wlio  had  cliani]ii(ined  the 
cause  of  the  young  Antiochus.  now  lifted  up 
his  hand  again.st  his  master  and  sought  to 
destroy  .Jonathan  also.  He  iiersuadtnl  the 
Jewis;b  leader  to  come  with  but  a  small  body- 
guard to  Ptolemais.  When  .Jonathan  en- 
tered, the  gates  of  the  city  were  close<l, 
Jonathan's  escort  was  ])ut  to  the  sword,  he 
himself  was  seized  and  kept  for  a  time  a 
jtrisoiu'r  and  flnallv  slain  in  Tiilead  in  14.'} 
II.  c.  (39-4S;  xiii."  12-23).  The  bones  of 
Jonathan  were  recovered  and  buried  in  the 
family  .sepulcher  at  Alodin  (2.5-27). 

1 1.  A  general  who,  at  the  command  of 
Simon  ilaccabieus,  took  pos.se.ssion  of  Joppa. 
He  was  a  sou  of  Absalom  (1  Mac.  xiii.   11). 

Jo'nath  e'lem  re-ho'kim,  in  A.  V.  Jonath- 
elem-rechokim  [the  siliul  dove  of  fheni  that 
are  afar  oil"  oi-.  by  changing  the  prounncia- 
tiou  of  the  middle  word,  the  dove  of  the  dis- 
tant terebinthsj. 

Probablv  the  air  to  which  Ps.  Ivi.  was  to 
beset  (P.s.'lvi.  title). 

Jop'pa,  in  A.  V.  once  Japho  (Josh.  xix.  W), 
and  so  twice  on  marj^in  of  ]l.  V.  of  O.  T., 
this  lieing  the  Hebrew  fiu-m.  while  Joppa  is 
derived  from  the  Greek  [lieautj*]. 


|l|111ifi,iliiljl:ll*l 


ifwiimrT^ 


> 


Jorah 


393 


Joram 


A  town  in  Palestine  which  was  assigned  to 
Dsin  (Josh.  xix.  4(!).  It  was  tlie  st-ajKjrt  of 
JiTUsiik'ni,  to  which  the  wood  cut  down  in 
LehaiiDii  for  tlic  liuildiiif;  <if  SuhinKin'.s  tciii]ih- 
waslliiatcd  tnnii  Ty re  Ci  ('liri)ii.  ii.  Ki).  Joiiali 
iMiiharkcd  at  .I(i]>pa  in  a  shi|i  aliiiiit  to  sail  to 
Tai-sliisli,  wlitn  lie  made  liis  vain  attempt  to 
escape  from  .Idiovali  (Jon.  i.  3).  Wlien  tlie 
temple  was  rel)uilt,  after  the  return  from 
Haliyhin  under  Zcrutihahcl  and  .It-shua,  rafts 
of  cedar  trees  wi-re  again  floated  from  Tyre 
to  .Joiii>a  (l'>.ra  iii.  7,  K.  V.)-  The  t'hristian 
woman  Tahitha  lived  lier  charitable  life  and 
died  at  Joi)pa  and  was  raised  from  the  dead 
hy  Peter  (Acts  ix.  ;«;-42).  The  miracle  re- 
sulted in  many  converts  to  Christianily  heing 
made  in  tlie  place.  The  ajjostle  remained 
witli  them  for  some  time,  lodging  in  the  house 
of  one  Simiiu  a  tanner  (43;  x.  5,  (i) ;  and  it 
was  to  .lo]ipa  tliat  the  servants  of  Cornelius 
came  to  invite  I'eter  to  C'a-sarea  (7-48). 
Joppa  still  tlourislies.  It  is  called  hv  the 
Arabs  Yafa,  and  by  the  English  Jatlii.  A 
ledge  of  rocks  runs  out  from  the  ])romontory 
on  which  the  houses  stand,  and  iiiakes  a 
liarbor  which,  thougli  small  and  dangerous, 
is  still  the  only  one  on  the  coast  for  many 
mih's  north  and  south.  The  harbor  is  sur- 
rounded by  rocks,  with  two  entrances,  the 
most  nortlu'riy  one  rendered  dangerous  hy 
Siindbanks.  the  other,  which  is  only  1(1  feet 
wide,  by  its  jiroxinnty  to  rocks.  Only  a  few 
small  vi'ssels  can  find  accommodation  within 
its  confined  area.  The  town  stands  on  a 
rocky  hill  of  oblong  form  on  stu'cessive  plat- 
forms produced  by  strata  rc]>osijig  the  one  on 
till'  otlier.  In  the  vicinity  are  fine  gardens, 
watered  liy  Persian  water  wheels,  and  con- 
taining orange,  lemon,  apricot,  (luince,  and 
C)ther  fruit  trees.  It  has  various  soap  works, 
and  tanneries  still  exist  ujton  the  seashore. 
It  is  the  gate  of  entrance  into  Palestine  for 
j)ilgrinis  froiu  all  (|uartei-s,  and  is  the  western 
terminus  for  the  .Tatta  and  Jeru.sideni  railway. 

Jo 'rah.     See  Hakiph. 

Jo'rai. 

A  (ladite  (1  Chron.  v.  13). 

Jo'ram  and  Jehoram,  the  forms  being  in- 
terchangeable ill  Hebrew  [Jehovah  is  high]. 

1.  .\  Son  of  Toi.  king  of  Hamath.  who  was 
sent  by  bis  father  to  congratulate  David  on 
his  vi<'tory  over  Iladadezer  (:J  Sam.  viii.  10). 
Called  in  1  Cliron.  xviii.  Kl  Ha<loram.  which 
in  this  case  probably  means  "the  god  Addu 
or  Hadad  is  exalt<'(l." 

•i.  \  I.evite.  descended  from  Moses'  son 
Eliezer  (I   Cbmii.  xxvi.  So  ;  c|).  xxiii.  15,  17). 

.'{.  Son  of  .\hah,  king  of  Israid.  f)n  the 
death  of  his  elder  brother,  Ahaziah.  he  suc- 
ceeded to  the  tlirone  H~>'.i  n.  c,  and  reigned 
till  S(-.'  11.  c.  He  iMit  away  the  image  of  Uaal 
which  his  father  had  made,  but  ailhered  to 
the  calf  worship  instituted  bv  .lerolioam.  Oji 
the  death  of  Ahab.  Mesha.  king  of  Moab,  had 
rebelled  and  withheld  tribute.  To  recover 
his  donnnion  over  Moah,  Jonim  obtained  the 


assistance  of  king  Jehoshaphatof  Judah,  and 
of  the  Edomite  ruler.  As  the  confederates 
were  marching  around  the  .southern  j)ortion 
of  the  Dead  Sea,  they  were  nearly  ]ierishing 
with  thirst,  but  lOlisha  bade  tliem  digtrenches, 
and  on  the  following  morning  water  came 
rushing  down  the  wady  and  filled  the 
trenches.  Not  only  did  the  water  supjjly 
the  neeils  of  the  Israelites,  but,  looking  ruddy 
under  the  rays  of  the  morning  sun,  was  mis- 
taken by  the  Moabites  for  blood  ;  and,  sujijios- 
ing  that  the  Israelites  had  fallen  out  anioiig 
themselves,  they  rushed  to  the  s\hi\\.  Jcjnim 
and  his  allies  rose  against  them  when  they 
were  thus  oil'  their  guard,  and  juit  them  to 
flight,  and  thCn  overran  Moah,  but  without 
being  able  pernuiuently  to  reduce  it  to  sub- 
.jection  (2  Kin.  iii.  1-27) ;  see  Moabitk 
Stonk.  Joram  was  the  king  to  whom  the 
Syrian  sovereign  sent  Naaman,  with  a  letter, 
to  be  cured  of  his  lejtrosy  (v.  1-27).  It  was 
Joram  to  whom  Elisha  communicated  every 
movement  of  the  Syrian  invaders,  and  who 
had  them  in  his  jiower  at  Samaria.  aTid 
by  Elisha's  advice  sent  them  home  unmo- 
lested (vi.  S-23).  He  was  king  during  tliat 
siege  of  Samaria  which  brought  on  the 
dreadful  famine,  and  was  incompetent  and 
wicked  enough  to  vow  vengeance  against 
Elisha,  his  best  ally  (31-3:5).  Joram's  end 
was  tragic.  Wounded  at  Ramoth-gilead, 
which  lie  was  besieging,  he  returned  to  Jez- 
reel  to  be  cured  of  his  wounds,  and  liad  for 
liis  guest  Ahaziah,  king  of  .ludah,  who  had 
come  to  visit  him  in  his  sickness.  The  two 
kings  rode  out  together,  each  in  his  chariot, 
when  the  ruthless  Jehu  drove  furiously  up 
and  slaughtereil  them  both.  The  murder  of 
Joram  took  ]ilace  in  the  ]ilot  of  ground  which 
had  once  constituted  Xatioth's  vineyard,  and 
the  body  of  the  king  was  cast  out  of  the 
chariot  at  that  sjxit  to  be  devoured  by  dogs, 
thus  fulfilling  jiart  of  the  iiro]diecy  against 
Ahab's  ajiostate  house.  With  Jonim  the 
dynasty  of  Oniri  ceased,  and  that  of  Jehu  be- 
gan (ix.  1-x.  17). 

4.  ( >ue  of  the  priests  sent  by  Jehoshaphat 
to  instruct  the  people  (2  Chron.  xvii.  8). 

5.  Sou  of  Jehoshaphat.  From  about  854 
B.  c.  he  was  a.ssociated  with  his  father  in  the 
government,  ami  in  slit  it.  c,  in  the  fifth 
year  of  .[eboram,  king  of  Israel,  the  reins  of 
government  were  tninsferred  entirely  to  his 
hands  (2  Kin.  viii.  Ifi ;  cp.  i.  17;  iii.  1).  No 
sooner  did  he  feel  himself  secure  on  his 
throne  than  he  murdered  all  hisbrothersand 
some  other  ])rinces  of  .ludah  (2  Chroii.  xxi. 
1-4).  He  had  for  his  wife  a  daughter  of 
Ahab,  who  led  him  into  gross  forms  of 
heathenism,  as  .Jezebel  had  seduced  Ahab  (2 
Kin.  viii.  18:  2  Chron.  xxi.  (i.  11).  As  in 
other  cases,  his  dejiarture  from  Jeh<pvah 
lirouglit  with  it  adversity.  Tlie  Edouiites 
rose  in  rebellion,  and  though  he  gained  a 
victory  over  them,  yet  this  did  not  ]irevent 
their  achieving  their  indejiendence.  Libnah 
also  revolted,  and   successfully  i2  Kin.   viii 


Jordan 


394 


Jordan 


20-22;  2  Chron.  xxi.  8-10).  Pbilistiue  and 
Arab  marauders  entered  Judali  and  plun- 
dered the  palace,  carrying  off  tlit  king's  wives 
and  children,  with  the  single  exception  of 
Jehiiaha/..  or  Ahaziah.  the  youngest  boy  (2 
Chron.  x.xi.  l(i,  17;  xxii.  1).  .V  writing  from 
the  prophet  Elijah  was  handed  to  the  king, 
denouncing  his  ai)ostasy  and  his  wickedness, 
and  threatening  liim  with  painful  disea.se  and 
death  ;  see  Eli.i.vh.  He  was  soon  after- 
wards seized  with  dysentery,  which  l)ecame 
chronic  and  continued  for  two  years  (2  Chron. 
xxi.  18,  19).  During  this  sickness  Ahaziah 
acted  as  regent  (2  Kin.  ix.  29  with  viii.  25, 
2(3).  There  was  no  jn-etense  at  lamentation 
when  his  death  occurred.  His  sole  reign, 
beginning  in  the  fifth  year  of  Jehoram  of 
Israel,  was  eight  years.  He  died  in  842  B.  c, 
leaving  his  one  surviving  son  Ahaziah  to  as- 
cend the  throne  (2  Kin.  viii.  24  ;  2  Chron.  xxi. 
12-xxii.  1). 

Jor'dan  [descender]. 

The  most  important  river  in  Palestine, 
and,  in  some  respects,  the  most  interesting 
one  in  the  world.  It  rises  from  various 
sources.  The  eastern  source  isatBauias.  the 
ancient  Csesarea  Philippi,  where  a  copious 
stream,  the  Banias,  issues  from  a  cave  at  the 
base  of  a  mountain.  The  central  source  is 
at  Tell  el-Kadi,  probably  the  ancient  Dan, 
where  from  two  springs  a  yet  more  abundant 
stream,  the  Leddan,  rises.  The  Christian 
father  Jerome  assumed  that  .Tor  was  the  name 
of  the  Banias,  and  Dan  that  of  the  Leddan, 
and  that  the  combination  of  the  two  made 
Jordan.  But  the  eastern  source  had  no  such 
name  as  Jor  ;  and  the  word  Jordan  is  not 
compounded  of  the  two  words  Jor  and  Dan, 
but  is  a  simple  word.  The  third  source  of 
the  Jordan,  and  the  one  most  remote  from 
its  mouth,  is  the  fountain,  below  Hasbeiya, 
from  which  the  river  Hasbany  proceeds. 
Thomson  says  that  the  Hasbany  is  the  longest 
by  40  miles,  the  Leddan  much  the  largest, 
and  the  Banias  the  most  heautiful.  In  the 
rainy  season  the  Hasbany  is  fed  by  many 
small  streams  and  rills  from  the  ravines 
around  the  north  of  Hermou.  In  fact,  the 
proximity  of  that  great  mountain  is  a  potent 
factor  in  determining  the  existence  and  the 
magnitude  of  the  .Jordan.  From  the  Banias 
source  of  the  river  to  its  entrance  into  the 
lake  of  Huleh  or  the  waters  of  Merom  is  a 
distance  of  12  miles  ;  the  junction  of  the 
Banias  and  the  Leddan  taking  place  about 
midway  Ix-tween  these  jioints,  and  the  con- 
fluence with  the  Hasbany  a  fraction  of  a  mile 
lower.  The  lake  itself  is  4  miles  long.  The 
Jordan,  emerging  from  it  at  its  southern  side, 
next  makes  its  way  lOJ  iniles  more  to  the  sea 
of  Galilee,  which  is  12^  miles  long.  After 
jia.'i.sing through  thislake,  it  i)ursuesa  tortuous 
course,  till  it  enters  the  Dead  Sea.  at  a  point 
65  miles  in  a  straight  line  from  the  southern 
part  of  the  sea  of  Galilee.  Including  the 
two  lakes,  and  taking  no  note  of  the  wind- 


ings, the  river  from  Banias  to  tlie  D<'ad  Sea 
is  104  miles  long.  As  far  as  is  known,  it 
stands  ab.solutely  alone  among  the  rivers  of 
the  world  in  the  fact  that  throughout  the 
greater  j)art  of  its  course  it  runs  below  the 
level  of  the  ocean.  Wlien  it  issues  forth 
from  the  cave  at  Banias  it  is  1000  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  Mediterranean.  By  the  time 
it  enters  the  waters  of  Merom  it  has  fal- 
len all  but  seven  of  tho.se  thousand  feet ;  at 
the  sea  of  Galilee  it  is  082  feet  below  the  sea 
level,  and  when  entering  the  Dead  Sea  1292 
feet.  It  was  appropi'iately  named  Jordan, 
the  descender.  If  a  smart  earthquake  were 
to  establish  a  connection  between  the  Medi- 
terranean and  the  Jordan  valley,  or  if  the 
Vandal-like  proposal,  once  made,  were  car- 
ried out,  of  joining  them  by  a  channel  arti- 
ficially cut,  such  hallowed  spots  as  the  sea 
of  Galilee,  with  the  sites  of  Capernaum, 
Bethsaida,  etc.,  and,  farther  down  the  river, 
Jericho,  would  disappear  into  the  depths  of 
a  salt-water  gulf.  In  1848  an  expedition 
from  the  United  States,  led  by  Lieut.  Lynch, 
of  the  American  navy,  successfully  sailed 
from  the  sea  of  Galilee  to  the  Dead  Sea. 
The  explorers  found  two  terraces  along  the 
banks  of  the  river.  The  stream  itself  pur- 
sued a  very  tortuous  course.  Lieut.  Lynch 
thus  wrote:  "  In  a  space  of  60  miles  of  lati- 
tude and  4  miles  of  longitude  the  Jordan 
traverses  at  least  200  miles.  .  .  We  have 
plunged  down  twenty-seven  threatening  rap- 
ids, besides  a  great  many  of  lesser  magni- 
tude." The  low-lying  valley  of  the  Jordan 
in  its  southern  parts,  where  the  depression  is 
greatest,  is  virtually  a  tropical  country,  and 
requires  nothing  but  irrigation  to  make  it 
produce  crops  of  tropical  luxuriance  (Wariv. 
8,  3).  On  account  of  its  fertility  Lot,  for- 
getful of  moral  considerations,  chose  it  as  the 
place  of  his  residence  (Gen.  xiii.  8-13).  The 
Jordan  was  not  bridged  in  ancient  times,  but 
forded.  The  fords  are  frequent  and  easy  in 
the  upper  stream  and  as  far  down  as  the 
mouth  of  the  Jabbok,  where  Jacob  crossed 
(xxxii.  10  ;  xxxiii.  18).  Below  that  point  the 
river  is  rarely  fordable,  and  then  only  at  cer- 
tain seasons  of  the  year.  The  current  of  the 
river  is  so  rapid  near  Jericho  that  the  numer- 
ous pilgrims  who  go  thither  to  bathe  are 
always  in  danger,  and  not  infrequently  are 
swept  away.  For  the  Israelites  to  cross  the 
Jordan  at  any  time,  and  above  all  when  the 
river  was  in  flood,  required  the  miracle  of 
the  dividinfir  of  the  stn>am  narrated  in  the 
Book  of  .Toshua  (Josh.  iii.  1-17  :  iv.  1-24  ;  Ps. 
cxiv.  3,  5).  The  overflow  of  the  .Tordan  dur- 
ing the  time  of  harvest  (March  or  April  in 
that  warm  valley)  is  produced  by  the  meltitig 
of  the  snow  on  mount  Hermon  (Josh.  iii.  15). 
TIic  river  was  anciently  fringed,  as  it  is  now, 
with  a  thicket  of  trees  and  shrubs,  in  which 
lions  lurked  (Jer.  xlix.  19 :  Zech.  xi.  3). 
Naaman,  the  Syrian,  was  directed  to  wash  in 
Jordan  seven  times  that  he  might  he  miracu- 
lously cured  of  his  leprosy  (2   Kin.   v.  10). 


Jorim 


390 


Joseph 


and  ultiniatfly  did  as  lie  was  bidden  (14). 
John  tlie  Baiuist  aduiinisteieil  tlie  special  rite 
wliieli  gave  liini  his  designation,  in  Jordan, 
and  it  was  there  that  our  Lord  was  baiilized 
(Mat.  iii.  6,  13-17). 

Jo'rim. 

An  ancestor  of  Christ,  who  lived  about  350 
years  after  David  (Luke  iii.  -'9). 

Jor'ke-am,  in  A.  V.  Jorkoam  [perhaps, 
pallor  or  tear  of  the  people,  or  possibly,  sta- 
bility, expansion]. 

A  place  peoiiled  by  members  of  the  family  of 
Hezron  and  bouse  of  Caleb  (1  Chron.  ii.  44). 

Jos'a-bad.     See  Jozabad. 

Jos'a-phat.     See  Jehoshaphat. 

Jo'se.    See  Jesus  2. 

Jo'sech. 

An  ancestor  of  Christ,  who  probably  lived 
after  the  exile  (Luke  iii.  26).  The  A.  V.,  fol- 
lowing a  ditlereut  reading,  calls  him  Joseph. 

Jos'e-dech.    See  Jozadak. 

Jo'sepll  [may  he  add].  The  name  has  also 
the  sound  of  a  verb  of  different  etymology, 
Djeaning  "  be  taketb  away  ;"  and  the  Hebrew 
writer  in  Gen.  xxx.  23,  24,  following  custom, 
plays  upon  the  sound  and  upon  both  etymol- 
ogies when  he  explains,  not  what  the  root  of 
the  word  is,  but  the  reason  for  bestov.-ing  the 
name. 

1.  The  eleventh  of  Jacob's  twelve  sons, 
and  the  elder  son  of  Eacbel,  who,  when  she 
gave  him  birth,  said,  "The  Lord  add  to  me 
another  son,"  and  therefore  called  his  name 
Joseph  (Gen.  xxx.  22-24).  He  was  born  in 
Paddan-aram,  about  six  years  before  the  re- 
turn of  Jacob  to  Canaan  (25  ;  cp.  xxxi.  41), 
when  Jacob  was  90  or  91  years  old.  He  was 
his  father's  favorite  child,  because  he  was  the 
son  of  his  old  age  and  Eachel's  child  ;  and  he 
made  him  a  coat  such  as  was  worn  by  young 
people  of  the  better  class  (xxxvii.  3).  The 
father's  favoritism  aroused  the  envy  of  the 
elder  brethren  ;  and  their  ill-will  was  in- 
creased by  two  dreams  which  Joseph  bad,  and 
which  foreshadowed  the  time  when  his 
father,  his  mother,  and  his  brethren  should 
V)ow  down  and  do  him  obeisance.  When 
Joseph  was  seventeen  years  old  (xxxvii.  2), 
Jacob  sent  him  to  Shecliem,  where  his  broth- 
ers were  feeding  their  flocks,  to  ask  after 
their  welfare.  On  reaching  Shechem,  he 
found  that  they  had  gone  on  to  Dothan,  and 
he  followed  them  thither.  As  he  was  seen  ap- 
])roaching,  the  brothers  i)ro])osed  to  slay  him 
and  report  to  his  father  that  a  wild  beast  had 
devoured  him.  Reuben,  however,  prevailed 
ujion  them  not  to  take  Josejdi's  life,  but  to 
cast  him  alive  into  a  pit,  intending  eventu- 
ally to  take  the  youtli  out  and  restore  him  to 
his  father.  In  Keuben's  absence  a  caravan 
of  Ishmaelites,  traveling  on  the  great  high- 
way that  led  down  into  Egypt,  drew  near. 
ToMidianite  nierchantnien  of  the  company 
Jose])h  was  sold.  A  kid  of  the  goats  being 
killed,  his  coat  was  dipped  in  the  blood  and 


the  besmeared  garment  was  sent  U)  Jacob, 
who  concluded  that  his  son  had  been  torn  to 
Iiieces  by  some  wild  beast  (Gen.  xxxvii.  1-35). 
Meanwhile    the    slave    dealers   took    JosL'])h 
down  into  Kgypt,  and  sold  him  to  rotijihar, 
the  captain  of  I'haraoh's  guard.     The  young 
slave's    ability    was    soon    discovered,    and 
Potiphar  gave  him  charge  of  all  his  house. 
But  on  false  accusations  be  was  committed 
to  i)rison,  where  be  was  confined  for  years. 
There  he  so   gained    the   confidence  of  the 
jailer  that  all  the  jirisoners  were  ccjuimitted 
to  his  charge.     God  enabled  him  to  interpret 
prophetic  dreams  of  the  chief  butler  and  the 
chief  baker  of  Pharaoh,   who  were  conlined 
with  him  in  prison,  and  his  interjiretation  in 
each  instance  was  found  correct.     Two  years 
later  Pharaoh  dreamed  two  j)rophetic  dreams, 
which  no  one  could  interjiret,  and  the  chief 
butler,  who  had   been   restored   to  his  royal 
master's  favor,  remend)ered  Joseph  and  told 
of  the  occurrences  in  the  prison.  Josejih  was 
immediately  sent    for,  and    interpreted    the 
dreams,  both  of  which  had  the  same  mean- 
ing.    Seven  years  of  great  ]ilenty  were  to  be 
succeeded  by  seven  years  of  grievous  famine. 
He  ventured   to  recommend  that  some  one 
should  be  appointed   to  collect  the  surplus 
produce  during  the  seven   years  of  plenty, 
and  store  it  against  the  years  of  famine.  Pha- 
raoh saw  the  wisdom  of  the  suggestion  ;  and, 
justly  believing  that  no  one  would  carry  out 
the  plan  more  eflectively  than  its  author,  ele- 
vated Joseph  to  be  the  second  man  in  the 
kingdom  of  Egypt.     Joseph  was  now  thirty 
years  of  age  (xli.  46).  He  had  been  chastened 
and  humbled  by  the  sufferings  of  thirteen 
years.    Pharaoh  gave  him  Asenath,  daughter 
of  a  priestly  family  at  On,  to  wife  ;  and  be- 
fore the  years  of  famine  came,  two  sons  were 
born  to  him,   ]Manassch   and  Ephraim  :  and 
from  them  two  tribes  sprang  (Gen.  xli.  50-52  ; 
xlviii.    5;    Num.    xxvi.    28).      The    famine 
came  as  predicted  (see  Nile),  and  ati'ectedall 
the  known  world,  especially  the  western  part 
of  it  around  the  Mediterranean  (xli.  54,  56, 
.57).     In   Egypt,  however,  there  was  a  store 
of    food.      In    due    time    Joseph's    brothers 
had    to  come  down   to    the    latter   country 
to  buy   grain.     They  did  not  recognize  Jo- 
seph, but  he  knew  them  ;  and   as  they  did 
obeisance   to   him.   he  saw   that  the  dreams 
which    brought    him   into  such   trouble  had 
come  to  be  verified.    After  testing  their  char- 
acter in  various  ways,  on  their  second  vi.sit 
he  revealed  himself  to  them,  forgave  them 
the  wrong  they  had  done  bim,  and  persuaded 
them  and   their   father  to  settle    in    Egypt. 
Pharaoh  warmly  welconu'd  them.     The  king 
who  acted  thus'kiiully  has  long  been  believed 
to  have  been  Apci)i  II.  or  Aiiopbis  (Eusebius). 
At  any  rate,  he  was  doubtless    of  the  Hyk- 
sos  or  Shepherd  dynasty,  aiul  Inking  himself 
a   Semite,   was  the  more   ready  to  welcome 
men  of  a  race  identical  with  bis  own.     Joseph 
died  at  the  age  of  110  years,  and  his  body 
was  embalmed  and  put  in  a  cofBn  in  Egypt ; 


Joseph 


397 


Joseph 


but  he  had  left  strict  injunctions  that  when 
tho  exodus  took  plaee  liis  remains  should  he 
removed  to  Canaaii  ((ien.  xlii.-l.;  Uel».  xi. 
22i.  His  wishes  were  carried  out;  and  his 
remains  were  ultimately  l)uried  near  Slu'- 
ehem,  in  the  very  center  of  the  promised  lan<l 
(Kx.  xiii.  1!»;  Josh.  xxiv.  :i2). 

The  ))articulars  of  Joseph's  life,  which  in- 
volve lCKy])tian  customs,  are  l)orne  out  hy 
the  monuments  and  the  pajiyri.  It  is  known, 
for  instance,  from  the  Uosetta  stone  that  it 
was  the  hai)it  of  the  kin^  to  release  prisoners 
at  his  hirthday  feast  and  on  othergreat  occa- 
sions. References  to  ma};icians  and  sooth- 
saj-ers  are  freiiuent,  and  gi'eat  stress  is  laid 
on  dreams  as  messiiges  from  the  gods.  When 
Joseph  was  sent  for  in  the  jjrison,  although 
there  is  express  niention  of  haste,  yet  he 
stayed  to  shave  himself  and  put  on  clean 
raiment  (lien.  xli.  14).  Shaving  was  particu- 
larly ])racticed  and  among  the  priests  was  a 
religious  rite.  The  term  "  J^ord  over  the 
whole  land''  has  been  found  but  once  (on  a 
monument  in  the  museum  of  Turin),  hut  the 
investiture  of  an  ollicial  of  hi,i;h  rank  is  fre- 
quently dcpictcul  and  agrees  with  the  descrip- 
tion in  Genesis,  the  signet  ring,  the  linen  ves- 
ture, and  the  chain  about  the  neck  being 
j)rominent.  The  jilirase,  also,  "According  un- 
to thy  Word  [mouth]  siiall  all  my  jieoiile  lie 
ruled  "  is  emphasized  by  the  fact  that  the 
hieroglyjih  for  ruler  is  a  mouth. 

There  is  reference  to  Egyptian  conceptions 
of  ]iropriety  in  the  se]>arate  setting  of  bread 
for  .Fox'iib.  for  liis  brethren,  and  for  the  I'gyp- 
tians  present  ((Jen.  xliii.  '32).  Joseph  ate  l)y 
himself,  because  he  was  a  man  of  highest 
rank  and  a  member  of  the  priestly  class, 
whicli  kejit  apart  from  the  laity.  The  Egyp- 
tians ate  by  themselves,  for  Egyptians  held 
aloof  from  fori'igners ;  the  priests  ate  and 
drank  nothing  that  was  importi'd  ( Porphery 
iv.  7),  and  the  people  generally  considered  it 
an  abomination  to  ust-  the  eating  utensils  of 
the  (ireeks  (Ilerod.  ii.  Ill,  and  ostracized 
sheiiiierds,  swineiierds,  and  cowht>rds.  even 
when  native  Egyptians,  because  the  occiijia- 
tion  of  tending  cattle  was  irn'omjiatible  with 
the  ri'linement  and  cleanliness  deiuanded  by 
Egy))tian  standards  i  (ien.  xlvi.  :!4  :  Herod,  ii. 
47;  c]i.  Kit).  This  objection  to  herdsmen 
was  jirobably  the  cause  of  .I()sei>h's  settling 
his  kindred  in  the  land  of  (loshen,  where 
they  Would  not  ccjine  in  contact  with  the  na- 
tives of  the  land. 

.lacob-el  and  .lose))h-(d  are  names  of  places 
in  Palestine  con(|iH'red  by  Thotlimes  III., 
the  Egyptian  warrior-king,  long  after  the 
descent  of  ,Iacob  and  his  sons  into  Egypt  and 
about  a  century  before  the  exodus.  It  is 
doubtful  whether  they  stainl  in  any  relatioti 
to  the  iiatiiarcb  .lacob  and  his  son  .losejih. 
They  are  names  like. liphthah-el  or  Iiihtali-el, 
a  valley  ill  the  territory  of  Zebulun  (,Iosh. 
xix.  14),  may  mean  (to(l  doth  supplant  and 
(f<Kl  doth  take  away,  and  they  were  in  use  in 
Babylonia  as  personal  names. 


The  two  tribes  of  Manasseh  and  Ephraim 
descended  from  ,Jr)seph's  two  sons.  The  bless- 
ings iironounced  on  .loseph  by  the  dying 
Jacob  were  di'signed  for  these  tribes  as  well 
as  for  Joseph  himself  (Gen.  xlviii.  h-22;  xlix. 
22''2(i).  In  Ps.  Ixxx.  1  Josei>h  is  a  poetic 
designation  of  the  tribes  of  Mauasseh  and 
E]ihraim. 

2.  Father  of  the  spy  from  the  tribe  of  Issa- 
char  (Num.  xiii.  7). 

3.  A  son  of  Asajdi  and  head  of  a  course  of 
musicians  iu  the  reigu  of  David  (1  C'hrou. 
XX v.  2,  [)). 

4.  An  ancestor  of  Christ,  who  lived  between 
the  time  of  David  and  the  exile  (Luke  iii. 
30). 

5.  A  son  of  Rani,  induced  by  Ezra  to  put 
away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  42). 

(5.  A  jiriest,  head  of  the  family  of  Sheba- 
niali  in  the  davs  of  the  high  jiriest  Joiakim 
(Neh.  xii.  14j. 

7.  An  ancestor  of  Christ  who  lived  after 
the  exile  (Luke  iii.  2(i,  in  E.  V.  Josech). 

8.  Son  of  Mattathias,  in  the  ancestry  of 
Christ  (Luke  iii.  24.  2.")). 

!).  Son  of  Zacharias.  When  Judas  Jlacca- 
bseus  sent  Simon  to  aid  the  Jews  in  Galilee 
and  himself  went  to  tight  in  Gilead,  he  left 
Josei>h  and  Azarias  in  charge  of  the  forces  iu 
,Iu(hea.  They  engaged  in  battle,  contrary  to 
their  orders,  and  were  defeated  (1  Mac.  v.  IS, 
55-62). 

10.  The  husband  of  Mary,  the  mother  of 
Jesus  (Mat.  i.  Hi ;  Luke  iii.  23).  For  his  an- 
cestry see  Geni;ai.<)(;v.  \\'hen  Mary  was 
fouiul  with  child  before  marriage,  .Joseiih 
was  minded  to  ])ut  her  away  without  public 
exposure,  for  he  was  a  just  man.  But  an 
angel  informed  him  in  a  dream  that  the<hild 
to  be  born  had  been  miniculousl>'  conceived 
by  the  Holy  Si)irit.  Now  he  had  no  hesita- 
tion in  carrying  out  his  contract  with  her, 
and  he  made  her  his  wife  (Mat.  i.  LS-25). 
Being  a  descendant  of  David,  he  had  to  go 
to  Bethlehem,  the  early  home  of  his  ances- 
tors, for  enrollment,  acciu'ding  to  the  decree 
of  the  em])eror  Augustus,  and  was  there  with 
Mary  when  .Jesus  was  born  (Luke  ii.  4.  Hi). 
He  was  with  Mary  when,  at  the  jiresentatiou 
of  Jesus  in  the  temiile,  Simeon  and  Anna 
gave  forth  their  prophetic  utterauc-es  i'.V.i). 
Warned  by  an  angel  in  a  dream  that  Herod 
l)lotted  tiie  murdi'r  of  the  child.  Josejili  con- 
ducted the  tlight  into  Egypt  (Mat.  ii.  13.  l!l). 
He  returned  to  Nazaretli  when  Herod  was 
dead  (22,  23).  He  was  accustomed  to  go  with 
Mary  annually  to  the  jiassover  at  .Ierus;ileni, 
and  he  took  Jesus  also  to  the  feast  when 
our  Lord  was  twelve  years  old  (Luke  ii. 
43),  and  he  also  safely  reached  Naziireth 
on  the  return  journey  (.")1).  He  was  a  car- 
(leiiter  (Mat.  xiii.  .")  ,  and  was  assisted  in  his 
Work  by  the  young  man  ,Iesus  I.Mark  vi.  3). 
A]i|)arently  .Joseph  was  alive  when  Jesus' min- 
istry had  well  begun  (.Mat.  xiii.  ."d),  but  as 
we  do  not  hear  of  him  in  connection  with 
the  crucitixiou,  it  may  be  inferred  that  he 


Joses 


598 


Joshua 


died  previous  to  that  event.  This  was  the 
reason  why  .Ti'siis,  wlieu  on  tlie  cross,  coiu- 
mendi'd  Mary  to  tlio  kindnt'ss  of  the  ai)ostle 
John,  which  lie  wouUl  scarcely  have  done 
had  her  natural  guardian  still  been  alive 
(John  xix.  26,  27). 

11.  The  same  as  Joses  1  (Mat.  xiii.  .">,  R.  V.). 
See  Bkethken  ok  thk  I.okd. 

12.  A  Jew  of  Ariniatluea,  a  member  of  the 
sanhedrin,  a  councilor  of  honorable  estate, 
who  looked  for  the  kingdom  of  (iod  (Mark 
XV.  43).  He  had  not  consented  to  the  resolu- 
tion of  the  SiUihedrin  to  i)Ut  Jesus  to  death, 
for  he  was  a  discijjle  of  Jesus,  although  se- 
cretly, for,  like  Nicodemns,  the  only  other 
member  of  the  governing  body  who  believed 
on  our  Lord,  he  was  fearful  of  publicly  com- 
mitting himself.  Both  l)ecame  more  cour- 
ageous when  they  saw  the  crucifixion.  Joseph 
went  boldly  to  Pilate,  begged  the  body  of 
Jesus,  and  laid  it  in  his  own  new  toml).  which 
he  had  hewn  out  in  a  rock  (Mat.  xxvii.  57- 
60;  Luke  xxiii.  50-53;  John  xix.  3S). 

13.  A  Christian  called  Barsabbas  or  son  of 
Sabbas,  and  Justus.  He  had  companied  with 
Jesus  and  the  disciples  from  the  time  of 
Jesus'  bajitism,  and  was  one  of  two  who 
were  considered  worthy  to  fill  the  vacancy 
among  the  apostolic  twelve  produced  by  the 
apostasy  of  Judas ;  but  the  lot  fell  upon 
Matthias  (Acts  i.  21,  26).  He  was  probably  a 
brother  of  Judas,  called  Barsabbas  (Acts  xv. 
22). 

14.  The  personal  name  of  Barnabas  (Acts 
iv.  .3(1.  in  A.  V.  Joses). 

Jo'ses. 

1.  One  of  the  brethren  of  the  Lord  (Mark 
vi.  3).  In  Mat.  xiii.  55,  R.  V.  prefers  the 
manuscripts  which  give  the  name  as  Joseph. 

2.  The  personal  name  of  Barnabas,  for  a 
time  the  missionary  colleague  of  Paul  (Acts 
iv.  36,  in  R.  V.  Joseph). 

Jo'shah  [perhaps,  uprightness]. 
A   Simeonite,   son  of  Amaziah  (1   Chrou. 
iv.  34). 

Josh'a-pliat  [Jehovah  hath  judged]. 

1.  A  ."\Iillinite,  one  of  David's  mighty  men 
(1  Chron.  xi.  43). 

2.  A  priest,  one  of  the  trumpeters  before 
the  ark  during  its  removal  to  Jerusalem  (1 
Chron.  xv.  24,  in  A.  V.  Jehoshaphat). 

Josh-a-vi'ah  [perhaps,  Jehovah  setteth 
upright]. 

One  of  David's  mightv  men  (1  Chron.  xi. 
46). 

Josh-be-ka'shah  [possibly,  seat  of  hard- 
ness] . 

A  singer,  son  of  Heman  (1  Chron.  xxv.  4), 
and  head  of  the  seventeenth  course  of  singers 
(241. 

Josh-eb-bas'she-beth,  in  A.  V.  margin 
Josheb-bassebet. 

A  textual  corruption  in  2  Sam.  xxiii.  8  for, 
ajipareiitly,  Ish-baal,  there  is  a  Lord.  Baal 
was  altered,  as  was  often  done  after  it  had 


acquired  idolatrous  associations,  to  bo.sheth, 
shame  ;  and  instead  of  bosheth.  (.  c.  b-sh-th, 
the  word  h-sh-h-lli  which  ends  the  jireceding 
verse  was  seen  by  a  cojiyist.  His  identity 
with  Jaslicibeain  is  fairly  established  by  com- 
parison of  tills  verse  with  1  Chron.  xi.  11 
and  verses  S  and  0  with  1  Chron.  xxvii.  2, 
4.  This  latter  form  is  pciiiajis  another  mode 
of  avoiding  the  name  Baal. 

Josh-i-bi'ah,  in  A.  V.  Josibiah  [Jehovah 
gives  an  abode]. 

A  Simeonite,  family  of  Asiel  (1  Chron. 
iv.  35). 

Josh'u-a,  in  A.  Y.  mice  Jehosbua  iXum. 
xiii.  16),  and  once  Jehoshuah  (1  Cinoii.  vii. 
27),  the  latter  an  inconsistency  not  found  in 
A.  V.  in  the  original  edition  of  Kill.  Jehoshua 
developed  into  Jesbua  (Neh.  viii.  17).  and 
this  form  was  (Trecianized  and  aiijiears  as 
Jesus  (Acts  vii.  45)  [Jehovah  is  salvation]. 

1.  An  Ephrainiite,  the  son  of  Nun  (Num. 
xiii.  8,  16).  His  military  tendencies  were  so 
soon  recognized  that,  when  first  he  appears 
in  the  Scripture  narrative,  he  is  the  leader 
of  the  Israelitish  army  in  its  first  confiict 
with  the  Amalekites,  and,  aided  by  the 
prayers  of  Moses,  achieves  the  victory  (Ex. 
xvii.  8-16).  A  personal  attendant  on  Moses, 
he  was  with  him  on  mount  Sinai  when  the 
golden  calf  was  made,  and  mistook  the  noise 
of  idolatrous  revelry  in  the  camp  for  the 
shouting  of  hostile  combatants  (xxiv.  13  ; 
xxxii.  17,  18).  He  had  charge  of  the  first 
tent  of  meeting  (xxxiii.  11).  As  prince  of 
Epliraim,  he  was  one  of  the  twelve  spies  sent 
to  report  on  the  land  of  Canaan  and  its  as* 
sailability  :  and  he  was  one  of  the  two  who 
encouraged  the  people  to  go  and  possess  the 
land  (Num.  xiii.  8  ;  xiv.  (5-9).  For  this  he 
narrowly  escaped  being  stoned  to  death  (10). 
When  the  ten  cowardly  s])ies  M'ere  doomed  to 
die  in  the  wilderness  for  their  distrust  of  Je- 
hovah's power  to  aid  them,  Joshua  and  his 
faithful  colleague,  Caleb,  were  exemjited 
from  the  penalty,  and  lived  on  (xiv.  30,  38). 
At  the  end  of  the  forty  years'  sojourn  in  the 
wilderness,  by  divine  direction  ISIoses  placed 
Joshua  before  the  high  jiriest  and  the  congre- 
gation in  Shittim  and  pul)licly  ordained  him 
to  be  his  successor  (Num.  xxvii.  18-23  ;  Deut. 
i.  38)  ;  and  just  before  death,  the  lawgiver 
took  Joshua  to  the  tabernacle  to  receive  his 
charge  from  the  Lord  (xxxi.  14.  23).  On 
the  death  of  Moses,  Joshua  began  immediate 
preparations  for  crossing  the  Jordan.  The 
peoiile  were  allowed  three  days  in  which  to 
prepare  victuals  (Josh.  i.  10,  11).  the  two  and 
a  half  tril)es  were  reminded  of  their  oliliga- 
tioii  to  render  their  brethren  armed  assist- 
ance (12-18).  and  s])ies  were  disiiatched  to 
search  out  Jericho  (ii.  1).  The  camp  was 
then  moved  to  the  river  and  the  people  care- 
fully instructed  as  to  tli(>  order  of  march  (iii. 
l-()).  He  showed  his  military  skill  in  the 
plan  of  campaign  which  he  adopted  for  the 
conquest  of  Canaan  :  a  central  camp,  advan- 


Joshua 


399 


Josiah 


tageously  situated  ;  the  capture  of  the  to^^^ls 
which  coniiiiiiii(h'(l  tlie  ainiroaches  to  his 
camp:  <;reatcaiiii>:ii^'iisr(illu\\iiij;  up  victories; 
see  Canaan.  lie  bhiiideretl,  liowever.  in 
inakiiit;  a  treaty  with  the  <iiheoiiites  ami  in 
not  >.Mrris()iiinf;  the  citadel  of  the  Jel)usites. 
By  these  two  mistakes,  Jiuhili  was  toa  degree 
i.sohited  from  the  northern  trilx-s.  lie  car- 
ried out  the  injunction  to  assLiid)le  the  peo- 
ph'on  l]hal  and  (Jerizini  to  hear  the  bles.sin}j;s 
and  the  cursinjis  (viii.  ."JO  :{.")).  Aided  by  tlie 
liinh  i)ricst  and  a  commission,  he  superin- 
tended tlie  allotment  of  the  conquered  coun- 
try, hcfiiunin^'  the  distribution  while  the 
camp  was  at  Ciilfxal  (xiv.  C-xvii.),  and  com- 
pletiuL;  it  and  assifininj;  cities  of  refuj;e  and 
the  Levitical  towns  after  he  had  removed  the 
tabernacle  to  Shihdi  (xviii.-xxi.).  For  him- 
self he  asked  and  obtained  a  town,  Timnath- 
serah,  in  mount  Kphr.iim  (xix.  ')()).  When 
old,  he  convoked  an  assembly  of  the  i)eople 
at  Shechem,  because  it  was  the  place  of 
Abraham's  first  altar  on  enterinj^  (.'anaan  and 
the  locality  where  the  tribes  had  invoked 
blessinps  and  cursinjis  upon  tlieniselves. 
There  he  made  them  a  powerful  address, 
urging  them  not  to  forsake  Jehovah  (xxiv. 
1-28).  Soon  afterwards  he  died,  at  the  ajje 
of  110,  and  was  buried  at  the  place  of  his 
clioicc.  Timnath-serah  (-Jit,  '.iO). 

The  Hook  of  Joshua  j)ro]ierly  follows  Deu- 
teronomy in  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  and  in 
the  Knjilish  Hible  ;  for  it  continues  the  his- 
tory from  the  death  of  Moses,  which  was  the 
last  event  recorded  in  Deuteronomy.  It  is 
more  intimately  connected  with  the  Penta- 
teuch than  with  the  books  which  follow  it : 
for  the  sjiirit  of  the  Mosaic  times  was  still 
active  in  the  history  which  it  recounts:  and 
it  is  the  se(|Uel  of  (ienesis  in  that  it  ri'cords 
the  j)ossession  of  the  promised  land  for  which 
Abraham  waited,  as  related  in  Genesis.  But 
since  it  was  not  written  by  Moses,  it  was 
ke])t  distinct  from  the  five  books  of  Moses  in 
the  Hebrew  Scrii)tures.  In  these  Scrijitures 
it  is  the  first  of  "  the  pro]dicts  : ''  and  begins 
that  division  of  them  called  the  "  former 
prophets,"  which  embraces  all  the  books  of 
the  I^iglish  Hible  between  Joshua  and  2 
Kings  inclusive,  except  Kuth  ;  see  Canon. 
The  book  maybe  divided  into  three  .sections  : 

I.  The  eon(iuest  of  Canaan  (i.-xii.)  :  includ- 
ing the  pre])aration  for  crossing  the  Jordan 
and  the  passage  of  the  river  (i.-iv.  18),  the 
estalilishnieiit  of  the  caniji  and  celebration 
of  the  ])assover  liv.  l!t-v.  12).  the  cajtture  of 
Jericho  and  .\i.  the  confirm.uion  of  the  cov- 
enant on  Kbal,  and  the  treaty  witii  the<Jibe- 
onites  (v.  i:{-ix.),  the  southern  and  northern 
campaigns  (x.,  xi.),  an<l  tlie  summary  (xii.). 

II.  The  settlement  of  Canaan  (xiii.-xxii.)  ; 
including  a  descrijition  of  the  land  which  re- 
mained to  be  divided  (xiii.).  its  allotment, 
with  the  assignment  of  cities  of  refuge  and 
tlie  allotment  of  towns  to  the  tribe  of  Levi 
(xiv.-xxi.),  and  the  temporary  misunder- 
standing about  the  altar  on   the  Jordan,  as 


though  it  were  intended  to  divide  the  nation 
(xxii.).  III.  Joshua's  farewell  address  and 
death  (xxiii.,  xxiv.). 

It  is  expressly  stated  that  Josiiua  wrote 
"  these  words,"  including  at  least  the  ac- 
count of  the  proceedings  at  Shechem  (xxiii. - 
xxiv.  2."))  in  the  book  of  the  law  of  (Sod 
(xxiv.  26).  The  c(jncluding  verses  of  the 
book  (xxiv.  29-33)  were  written  after  the 
death  of  Joshua,  Kleazar,  and  the  men  of 
that  generation.  The  simplest  the(jry  is  that 
the  coiKiuest  of  Hebron,  Debir,  and  Anab  by 
Caleb  took  place  after  the  ih-ath  of  Joshua 
and  is  recorded  proleptically  in  xv.  13-;20 
(sec  Hkiskon),  that  Zephath  is  called  Hormah 
by  anticipation  in  xii.  M,  and  that  this  verse 
reflects  an  event  which  occurred  after  the 
death  of  Joshua  (Judg.  i.  17;  see  Hokmaii)  ; 
and  that  xix.  47  records  the  migration  of  the 
Danites  in  the  days  of  the  judges.  It  is 
reasonable  to  conclude  from  the  general 
character  of  the  documents  and  casual  state- 
ments in  them  that  large  portions  of  the 
book  were  in  writing  in  the  time  of  Joshua. 
At  any  rate,  they  received  final  form  while 
the  town  of  Ai  was  still  in  ruins  (viii.  2.'^), 
before  the  reign  of  Solomon,  while  the 
Canaanites still  dwelt  in  Gezer  (xvi.  10  with 
1  Kin.  ix.  1(!),  and  before  the  reign  of  David, 
at  a  time  when  the  Jebusites  still  occupied 
the  stronghold  of  .lerusalem  (xv.  ti.'5).  In  gen- 
eral, see  Pentatkich. 

2.  A  native  of  Beth-shemesh,  the  owner  of 
a  field  to  which  the  kine  drawing  the  cart 
which  carried  the  ark  from  the  Philistine 
country  made  their  way  (1  Sam.  vi.    14). 

."5.  The  governor  of  Jerusalem  during  the 
reign  of  Josiah  (2  Kin.  xxiii.  ."<). 

4.  The  high  priest  while  Zerulibabel  was 
governor  of  Jiulah  (Hag.  i.  1,  12,  14:  ii.  '2- 
4 :  Zech.  iii.  1-9).  Called  in  Ezra  and  Nehe- 
miah  Jeshua  (q.  v.). 

Jo-si'ah,  in  A.  V.  of  X.  T.  Josias  [Jehovah 
healeth]. 

1.  Son  and  successor  of  Anion  in  the  king- 
dom of  Judah.  He  came  to  the  throne  about 
the  year  ()39  B.  (".  He  was  then  only  eight 
years  old.  but  he  had  already  begun  to  .seek 
after  the  (Jod  of  David  his  father.  While  he 
was  of  immature  years,  the  keeper  of  his 
conscience  and  the  director  of  the  kingdom 
.seems  to  have  been  the  high  priest  Ililkiah, 
but  in  Josiah  he  had  an  a]tt  and  willing 
)iu]iil.  When  the  king  was  in  his  twelfth 
year,  he  made  a  first  movement  against  idol- 
atry, breaking  down  the  images  of  Haal  and 
the  Asherim,  not  merely  in  .ludah.  bnt 
in  Israel  (2  Kin.  xxii.  1,2:  2  Chron.  xxxiv. 
1-7).  In  his  eighteenth  year  he  took  ener- 
getic stejis  to  rcjiair  and  adorn  the  t(>ni]ile; 
and  the  workmen,  entering  with  enthusiasm 
into  his  i)lans,  acted  with  exem])lary  fidelity 
in  using  tlie  money  intrusted  to  them  for  the 
liur]>ose.  While  the  rejiairs  of  the  temple 
were  being  executed,  Hilkiah,  the  high 
priest,  informed  Shaphan,  the  scribe,  that  he 


Josiah 


400 


Jotbathah 


had  found  the  book  of  the  law  in  the  house 
of  tlio  Lord.  He  handed  tlie  book  over  to 
Shaiiliaii,  who  read  it  to  tlie  monarch.  Josiah 
■n-as  deeiily  impressed  l)y  the  i>roi)liecy  that 
if  the  jieojiU'  deiiarted  from  Jehdvah  dread- 
ful eon.se(|iieiRes  would  ensue.  He  rent  his 
clothes  and  humbled  himself  before  God,  who 
Avas  pleased  to  jiivc  him  the  gracious  assur- 
ance that  the  threatened  calamity  should  not 
come  in  his  time  (2  Kin.  xxii.  S-20  ;  2  Chron. 
xxxiv.  ir)-2S).  The  jjrojdiecy  which  so  af- 
fected Josiah  was  Deut.  xx  viii.-xxx.,  especial- 
ly xxix.  25-28.  The  book  found  by  Hilkiah 
must  thus  have  contained  Deuteronomy  at 
least,  and  it  may  have  been  a  coi>y  of  the  en- 
tire Pentateuch.  The  sacred  books  had, 
doubtless,  been  generally  destroyed  and  lost 
sight  of  during  the  apostasy  and  persecution 
in  the  long  reign  of  Manasseh  (2  Kin.  xxi. 
16  ;  2  Chron.  xxxiii.  Jl)  ;  and  the  book  found 
by  Hilkiah  was  probably  the  temple  co])y  of 
the  law,  which  had  been  hidden  or  thrown 
aside  during  the  profanation  of  the  sanctuary 
(Ueut.  xxxi.  9,  20).  That  Deuteronomy  was 
iui  old  bodk  at  the  time  may  be  argued  from 
the  fact  that  it  reflects  the  condition  of  Israel 
in  early  times  and  not  in  the  reign  of  Josiah. 
It  enjoins  upon  the  people  the  extermination 
of  the  Canaanites  and  Amalekites  (xx.  10- 
18 ;  XXV.  17-19),  but  in  Josiah's  day  there 
was  no  occasion  for  such  a  law.  It  contem- 
plates foreign  conquest  on  the  part  of  the 
Israelites  (xx.  10-15)  ;  but  in  Josiah's  day 
and  for  nearly  a  century  previously  the  ques- 
tion was  not  of  conquest,  but  whether  Judah 
could  maintain  its  existence  at  all.  It  vests 
the  supreme  authority  under  Jehovah  in  a 
judge  and  the  priesthood,  but  makes  pro- 
vision for  a  time  when  the  Israelites  should 
desire  a  king  (xvii.  8-20:  xix.  17);  but  in 
Josiah's  day  the  Israelites  had  been  ruled  by 
kings  for  centuries.  It  discriminates  against 
Amnion  and  Moab  in  favor  of  Edom  (xxiii. 
3-8)  ;  but  in  Josiah's  day  and  for  a  longtime 
previously  Egypt  was  the  representative  foe 
of  the  people  of  God  (Is.  Ixiii.  6;  Joel  iii.  19; 
Obad.),  and  Jeremiah  promises  future  resto- 
ration to  Jloab  and  Amnion,  but  denies  it  to 
Edom  (xlviii.  47;  xlix.  0,  17,  18).  The  leg- 
islation of  Deuteronomy  was  in  force  long 
before  the  time  of  Josiah  :  it  was  observed  at 
the  coronation  of  .Toasli  in  835  B.  c.  (2  Kin. 
xi.  12),  and  was  followed  by  Joash's  son  and 
successor,  Amaziah  (xiv.  0;  cp.  Deut.  xxiv. 
10).  The  reading  of  the  book  to  the  people 
affected  them  as  it  had  the  king.  So  deep 
was  the  impression  ]>roduced  that  a  sec- 
ond assault  upon  idolatry  was  begun,  more 
sweeping  than  the  first.  After  the  king  and 
his  subjects  had  together  covenanted  to  wor- 
ship Jehovah  only,  they  proceeded  to  take 
the  vessels  of  Baal,  of  the  Asherim,  and  of 
the  heavenly  bodies,  burn  them,  and  cast  the 
ashes  into  the  brook  Kidron.  The  Asherah  in 
the  house  of  the  Lord  was  similarly  burnt, 
the  residences  of  the  sodomites  were  broken 
down,  and  the  high  places  were  destroyed, 


not  merelj'  through  the  kingdom  of  Judah, 
but  through  the  former  territory  of  the 
northern  tribes,  now  largely  emjity  of  its 
Israelitish  inhabitants.  The  valley  of  Hin- 
noni  and  the  shrine  of  Topheth,  in  which 
children  had  been  made  to  pass  through  the 
tire  to  Molech,  were  defiled,  and  other 
sweeping  reforms  effected.  When  at  Bethel, 
Josiah  took  the  bones  of  the  idolatrous 
priests  from  their  graves,  and  burnt  them  on 
the  altar,  thus  fulfilling  the  prophecy  of  a 
man  of  God  in  Jeroboam's  time  (1  Kin.  xiii. 
2).  Nor  did  he  scruple  to  slay  the  living 
idolatrous  priests  themselves  on  the  altars  on 
which  they  had  been  accustomed  to  sacrifice. 
Theu  he  concluded  by  holding  a  passover,  so 
well  attended  and  so  solemn  that  nothing 
like  it  had  been  celebrated  since  the  time  of 
Samuel  (2  Kin.  xxiii.  1-25;  2  Chron.  xxxiv. 
29-xxxv.  19).  Thirteen  years  afterwards 
Pharaoh-necho,  king  of  Egypt,  marched  an 
army  along  the  maritime  portion  of  Palestine 
on  his  way  to  the  Euphrates,  where  he  de- 
signed to  try  his  strength  against  the  great 
Assyrian  power.  Situated  as  the  small  and 
comparatively  feeble  kingdom  of  Judah  was 
between  the  Assyrian  and  Egyi)tian  empires, 
then  in  mutual  hostility,  it  was  dithcult  for 
it  to  maintain  neutrality ;  indeed,  Josiah 
seems  to  have  looked  on  himself  as  a  va.s.sal 
of  the  Assyrian  king,  legally  and  morally 
hound  to  give  him  military  aid  in  war ;  and 
he  gave  battle  to  Pharaoh-necho  at  Megiddo 
in  the  plain  of  Jezreel,  and  in  the  fight 
was  mortally  wounded  by  an  arrow  .  His  at- 
tendants removed  him  from  his  war  chariot 
to  a  second  conveyance,  w'hich  brought  him 
to  Jerusalem.  He  had,  however,  only  reached 
that  capital  when  he  died.  Great  lamenta- 
tions were  made  for  him  by  Jeremiah,  the 
singing  men  and  the  singing  women,  and  the 
people  generally.  His  loss  to  his  country  was 
irreparable.  The  religious  reforms  which  he 
had  commenced  were  assailed,  and  the  par- 
tial independence  which  his  country  had  en- 
joyed under  his  rule  passed  away.  He  had 
reigned  thirty-one  years,  but  was  only  thirty- 
nine  when  he  died,  about  608  B.  c.  (2  Kin. 
xxii.  1 ;  xxiii.  29,  30  ;  2  Chron.  xxxv.  20- 
27;  cp.  Zech.  xii.  11).  Jeremiah  aud  Zeph- 
aniah  prophesied  during  the  latter  part  of 
of  his  reign  (Jer.  i.  2;  iii.  0  ;  Zeph.  i.  1). 

2.  A  son  of  Zephaniah,  in  Zechariah'sdays 
(Zech.  vi.  10).  Perhaps  the  same  as  Hen  of 
ver.  14  ;  but  see  Hen. 

Jos-i-M'ah.     See  Joshibiah. 

Jos-i-phi'ah  [Jehovah  will  increase]. 

Head  of  the  house  of  Shelomith,  who  re- 
turned from  exile  with  Ezra  (Ezra  viii.  10). 

Jot'bah  [pleasantness,  goodness]. 

The  town  of  king  Anion's  grandfather  (2 
Kin.  xxi.  19). 

Jot'ba-thah,  in  A.  Y.  once  Jotbath  (Deut. 
X.  7)  [goodness,  pleasantness]. 

A  station  of  the  Israelites  in  the  wilder- 
ness,   apparently    near   Ezion-geber    (Num. 


Jotham 


401 


Jubile 


xxxiii.  .33).    The  place  abounded  in  brooks 
of  water  (Deut.  x.  7).     Situatitin  unknown. 

Jo'tham,  in  A.  V.  once  Joatbam  (.Mat.  i. 
9).  in  imitation  of  the  Greek  form  [Johovali 
is  upright]. 

1.  YiMinjir.st  son  of  'iiih'on.  Hv  escaped 
wlien  liis  si'Vi-nty  l)r<itliers  (tlie  oll'sprinji  uf 
polvtfimy,  of  course)  were  massacred  liy  their 
half-brotlier  Al)inielech  ;  and  afterwards,  in 
contempt  of  the  nsnrj>ation,  standing  on 
mount  (Jeri/im,  he  uttere<l  the  iiaral)le.  audi- 
ble to  the  .Slictliemites  in  the  vaUey  l)eh)W, 
of  the  trees  anointing;  a  kinu  (Judg.  i.\.  l-'Jl). 

2.  A  king  of  .ludah,  who  reigned  as  regent 
of  his  fatlier,  Uzziah,  while  tiie  hitter  was  a 
leper  {2  Kin.  xv.  5).  His  n-gency  heyan 
while  Jeroboam  II.  was  still  king  of  Israel 
(1  Cliron.  V.  17).  Further  evidence  of  the 
partial  contemiioraneousness  of  the  regency 
of  .Jotham  and  the  reign  oi  .Jeroboam  exists, 
if  the  eartluiuake  took  place  while  Uzziah 
and  Jeroboam  were  reigning  I  Amos  i.  1; 
Zech.  xiv.  5)  and  occurred  coincidently  with 
or  shortly  after  Uzziah's  invasion  of  the 
priest's  ottice  (.\nti((.  ix.  10,  4).  Jotham  be- 
came sole  ruler  when  his  fatlu-r  died,  about 
734  B.C.  He  followed  Jehovah,  hut  did  not 
interfere  with  the  high  jilaces  at  which  the 
people  worshijied  other  gods.  He  Ituilt  tiie 
high  gate  of  the  tempU^  and  worked  on  tlie 
wall  on  the  hill  of  Ophel.  south  of  the  holy 
house.  He  erected  cities  in  the  u]>lands  of 
Judah  and  castles  and  towers  in  the  forests. 
He  gained  a  victory  over  the  Ammonites 
and  made  them  tributary.  During  liis  reign 
of  sixteen  years  Isaiah  and  Hosea  continued 
to  i)rophesy  (Is.  i.  1  ;  Hos.  i.  1).  At  the 
close  of  liis  reign  the  allied  Israelites  and 
Syrians  began  their  invasion  of  .Judah.  He 
died  at  the  age  of  forty-one;  surviving  his 
father  scarcely  a  year,  it  seems.  He  left  his 
son  Ahaz  to  ascend  the  throne  (2  Kin.  xv. 
32-:5.-i;  2  I'hron.  xxvii.  1-9).  With  .Jotham, 
Hoshea  is  connected  l)y  a  stranue  syn- 
chronism: "  Hoshea  reigned  in  thetwentieth 
year  of  .Jotham"  (2  Kin.  xv.  .30).  This  ref- 
erence lias  been  explained  as  meaning  the 
twentieth  year  since  .Jotham  began  to  reign, 
his  accession  having  lieeii  recorde<l  (ver.  ."t), 
but  his  reign  and  death  not  having  been  yet 
de.scril)ed  by  the  author  of  Kings.  What- 
ever be  the  true  explanation,  this  strange 
synchronism  goes  far  to  l)ring  the  data  of 
the  Hebrew  ncord  into  harmony  with  the 
Assyrian   ehriincilot;v. 

.3.'   A  soli  of  .l;ilid:ii  i\  ( 'broil,  ii.   17). 
Jour'neys  of  the  Is'ra-el-ites.    See  Wii,- 

DKKNKSS  u|-  nil;  W.VN'DKUINi;. 

Joz'a-bad,  in  \.  V.  once  Josabad  ■  1  (  luon. 
xii.  4)  [.Jehovah  has  l)estowed]. 

1.  \  <  iederathite  who  joined  Dasid  at  Zik- 
lag  (1  Chron.  xii.  4). 

2  ami  3.  Two  Mamissites  who  assisted 
David  to  itiirsm-  the  .Xmalekites  after  their 
capture  of  Ziklag  (1  Chron.  xii.  20). 

4.  \  Levite.  one  of  the  overseers  of  the 
2() 


tithes  in  Hezekiah's  reign  (2  Chron.  xxxt. 
13). 

'i.  A  chief  of  the  Levites  m  the  tune  of 
Josiah  (2  Chron.  xxxv.  9). 

•  >.  A  Levite,  son  of  Jeshua  (Ezra  viii.  33). 
IVrhajis  he  was  the  Jozal)ad  who  by  order 
of  Ezra  took  jiart  in  teaching  the  i)eople  the 
law  (Nell.  viii.  7),  and  was  the  Levitical 
chief  who  had  the  (jversiglit  of  the  outward 
l)Usiness  of  the  house  of  (iod  (Neh.  xi.  Hi)  ; 
he  may  have  been  the  Levite  of  the  name, 
who  was  induced  by  Ezra  to  jiut  away  his 
foreign  wife  (x.  23). 

7.  .V  priest,  a  son  of  Pashhur.  induced  by 
Ezra  to  put  away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  22). 

Joz'a-car,  in  A.  V.  Jozacbar  [Jehovah  has 
remembered]. 

Son  of  an  Ammonitess  and  one  of  the  two 
assiissins  of  Joash,  king  of  Judah  (2  Kin. 
xii.  21).  Called  erroneously  Zabad  in  2 
Chron.  xxiv.  2() ;  see  Bktii  and  Dai.ktii. 

Joz'a-dakand  Jebozadak,  in  .V.W  Josedech 
in  ilaggai  and  Zechariah  [Jehovah  is  just]. 

Father  of  Jeshua,  the  high  priest  (Ezra  iii. 
2,  8).  He  was  carried  cai)tive  to  Babylonia 
by  Nebuchadnezzar  (1  Chron.  vi.  15). 

Ju'bal  [a  stream,  a  moist  region ;  perhaps 
also  music]. 

The  younger  son  of  Lamech,  by  his  wife 
,\dah.  ,Iul)al  was  the  father  of  all  such  as 
handle  the  harp  and  pipe  ((tcu.  iv.  21). 

Ju'bi-le,  in  some  editions  of  A.  V.  Jubilee 
[joyful  shout,  sound  of  the  trumpet]. 

The  tiftieth  year  occurring  after  seven 
times  seven  years  had  been  counted  from 
the  institution  of  the  festival  or  from  the 
last  jubilee  (Lev.  xxv.  H-10) ;  cp.  the  calcu- 
lation of  Pentecost.  It  derived  its  name 
from  the  custom  of  proclaiming  it  by  a  blast 
on  the  trumpet.  .\s  every  seventh  year  was 
a  Sabl)atic  year,  the  jubilee  followed  innne- 
diately  after  one  of  this  eharacter.  In  the 
tenth  day  of  the  seventh  month  (the  great 
day  of  atonenuMit),  in  the  tiftieth  year,  the 
trum]H't  of  the  jubile(»  was  sounded.  It  ]>vi<- 
claimed  lilierty  to  all  Israelites  who  were  in 
bou<lage  to  any  of  their  countrymen,  and  the 
return  tr>  their  ancestral  pos.sessions  of  any 
who  had  been  comjielled  through  jioverty  to 
sell  them.  Even  the  ground  for  that  year  was 
allowed  to  remain  fallow,  though  it  had  lieen 
so  in  the  jirevious  Sabliatic  yeai-.  To  jire- 
vent  injustice  to  one  who  having  pnrehasetl 
land  could  retain  it  only  to  the  lirst  jul)ilee, 
the  i)ractice  (thoroiitrhly  in  conformity  with 
the  i)riuciiiles  of  ])olitical  economy)  was  to 
give  for  the  iiurchased  ])ossession  only  the 
worth  of  the  temjioiiiry  occu])ation  till  the 
jubilee  year.  But  one  iiurchasing  froiu  an- 
other a  house  in  a  walled  city  retained  it 
jiermaneiitly ;  it  did  not  revert  to  the  orig- 
inal owner  at  the  jubilee,  since  city  lotsw<'re 
a]>parently  not  bound  up  with  the  .seveml 
]iortions  of  Canaan  as  originally  allotted  to 
families.  Tliose  of  the  un  walled  villages  were 
regarded  as  belonging  to  the  field  and  did  so 


Jucal 


402 


Judah 


ivtiini ;  so  also  did  the  houses  of  Levites 
wheresoever  situated  (Lev.  xxv.  8-55;  xxvii. 
17.  18;  Num.  xxxvi.  4).  Tliere  ai)i>ears  to 
be  an  aUusion  to  the  jubilee  in  Is.  Ixi.  1-3 
and  H/ek.  xlvi.  17;  cp.  also  Neh.  v.  1-13. 

Ju'cal.     See  Jehucwl. 

Ju'da.     See  Jud.\h,  Jud.\.s  Joda. 

Ju-dse'a,  in  A.  V.  in  canouieal  hnuks  once 
Judea  (Kzra.  v.  8),  and  thrice  Jewry  (Dan.  v. 
13;  Luke  xxiii.  5;  John  vii.  1)  [I.,atiu  from 
Gi-eek  hiKdtiUi.  Jewish  land,  and  that  in  turn 
from  Hel>re\v  Y'liiiddh]. 

A  freographical  term  first  introduced  in 
the  Bible  in  Ezra  v.  8,  A.  V.,  to  designate  a 
province  of  the  Persian  emj)ire.  It  is  there 
the  i-endering  of  the  Aramaic  Y'liial.  The 
E.  V.  translates  it  "'  the  province  of  Judah." 
The  land  of  Judsea  is  mentioned  in  1  Esdras 
i.  39,  and  the  kings  of  Judaea  in  verse  33. 
The  laud  of  Judjea  is  also  spoken  of  in  Mac- 
cabee  times  after  the  Persian  had  given  place  to 
the  Macedonian-Greek  dominion  (1  Mac.  v.  45 ; 
vii.  10,  A.  v.).  On  the  banishment  of  Arche- 
laus  Judsea  was  annexed  to  the  Eoman 
province  of  Syria ;  but  it  was  governed  by 
procurators  appointed  by  the  Eoman  em- 
peror. The  succession  of  procurators  w^as 
interrupted  for  a  brief  pei'iod  by  the  reign 
of  llerod  Agrip]ia  I.,  A.  D.  41-44.  The  pro- 
curator resided  at  Ca-sarea.  His  immediate 
superior  was  the  proconsul,  or  president,  of 
Syria,  ruling  from  Antioch  (Luke  iii.  1 ; 
Autiq.  xvii.  13,  5;  xviii.  1,  1).  This  ar- 
rangement obtained  when  our  Lord  carried 
out  his  ministry  on  earth,  and  Judsea  is  often 
mentioned  in  the  N.  T.  (Luke  xxiii.  5-7; 
John  iv.  3;  vii.  3;  Acts  i.  8).  Its  northern 
l)ouudary  may  1)6  considered  as  extending 
from  .Io])pa  on  the  Mediterranean  to  a  jioint 
on  the  Jordan  about  10  miles  north  of  the 
Dead  Sea.  Its  southern  boundary  may  be 
drawn  from  the  wady  Ghuzzeh,  about  7 
miles  southwest  of  Gaza,  through  Beer-sheba, 
to  the  southern  portion  of  the  Dead  Sea. 
The  length  from  north  to  south  is  about  55 
English  miles,  and  that  from  east  to  west 
the  same.     See  History. 

Ju'dah,  Grecianized  Judas,  genitive  Juda, 
and  once  anglicized  Jude  ( Jude  i.)  [object  of 
praise]. 

1.  The  fourth  son  of  Jacob,  the  fourth  also 
of  Leah.  There  were  noble  elements  about 
his  character,  and  when  Simeon  and  Levi, 
two  of  his  elder  brotliers,  by  treachery  and 
murder  avenged  the  wrongs  of  Dinah,  who 
was  the  full  sister  of  all  three,  Judah  took 
no  part  in  the  double  crime  (Gen.  xxxiv.). 
He  married  a  C'anaauite,  a  daughter  of  Shua 
of  .\dullam,  and  had  two  wicked  sons,  Er 
and  Ouan,  who  were  slain  by  divine  judg- 
ment for  their  sins  (xxxviii.  1-10).  Prior  to 
this  he  hud  had  a  third  son,  Shelah  (5). 
Afterwards,  by  Tamar,  the  deceased  Er's 
widow,  Judah  becauu^  the  father  of  twin 
sons,  Perez  and  Zerah  (11-30  ;  xlvi.  12  ;  Num. 
xxvi.  19).     It  was  through  Perez  that  Judah 


became  the  ancestor  of  David  (Ruth  iv.  18-22), 
and  when  the  fullness  of  time  was  come,  of 
our  Lord  (Mat.  i.  3-lfi).  Judah  saved 
Joseph's  life  by  proposing  that  he  should 
be  sold  instead  of  uiunkMed  ((ien.  xxxvii. 
2t)-28).  When  Joseph,  whose  relationship 
to  his  brother  was  not  suspected,  proposed 
to  detain  Benjamin  in  Egypt.  Judah  depre- 
cated the  ste]i  in  a  speech  marked  by 
great  natural  elcKiuence,  and  ended  l)y  offer- 
ing himself  to  remain  a  jirisuner  jn'ovided 
Benjamin  was  set  free  (xliv.  33,  34).  The 
result  of  this  splendid  advocacy  was  that 
Joseph,  with  no  further  delay,  revealed  him- 
self to  his  brethren  (xlv.  1).  \Vhen  Jacob 
was  on  his  way  to  Egypt  he  chose  Judah, 
though  not  the  eldest  son,  to  go  before  him 
to  Joseph,  to  show  the  way  before  him  unto 
Goshen  (xlvi.  28).  On  account  of  the  sins 
of  Eeuben,  Simeon,  and  Levi,  they  were 
passed  over,  and  the  blessing  of  the  birth- 
right was  bestowed  by  Jacob  on  Judah  (xlix. 
3-10).     See  Shiloh. 

2.  A  tribe  sprung  from  Judah.  It  was  di- 
vided into  five  tribal  families  which  proceeded 
from  his  three  sons  and  two  grandsons  (Num. 
xxvi.  19-21;  1  C'hron.  ii.  3-()).  The  prince  of 
the  tribe  of  Judah  in  the  early  period  of  the 
wanderings  was  Nahshon,  the  son  of  Am- 
minadab  (Num.  i.  7;  ii.  3 ;  vii.  12-17;  x.  14). 
Another  prince  was  Caleb,  son  of  Jephunneh 
(xiii.  (i :  xxxiv.  19).  At  the  first  census  in 
the  wilderness  it  numbered  74,600  (i.  26,  27) ; 
and  at  the  second  census,  taken  at  Shittim 
on  the  eve  of  entering  Canaan,  76,500  (xxvi. 
22).  It  was  one  of  the  tribes  which  stood  on 
mount  Gerizim  to  bless  the  people  (Deut. 
xxvii.  12).  Achan,  who  brought  destruction 
on  his  countrymen  and  on  himself,  belonged 
to  the  tribe  of  Judah  (Josh.  vii.  1,  17,  18). 
After  the  death  of  Joshua,  the  people  of  this 
tribe  were  chosen  to  set  an  example  to  the 
others  of  dispossessing  the  Canaanites;  and, 
with  the  assistance  of  the  Simeonites.  they  cap- 
tured Bezek,  Hebron,  Zephath,  Gaza,  Ashke- 
lou,  and  Ekron.  the  last  three  being  Philis- 
tine cities.  To  these  Caleb's  younger  brother 
Othniel  added  Debir  (Judg.  i.  1-20). 

The  tribe  of  Judah  occupied  the  greater 
part  of  southern  Palestine.  The  boundary 
drawn  for  it  ))y  Joshua  commenced  at  the 
extreme  soutlu'rn  point  of  the  Dead  Sea, 
passed  thence,  probably  by  wady  el-Fikreh, 
south  of  the  ascent  of  Akrabbim,  to  the 
wilderness  of  Zin,  thence  by  the  south  of 
Kadesh-bariu'a  and  the  ))rook  of  Egypt  to 
the  Mediterranean  Sea.  The  eastern  border 
was  the  Dead  Sea.  The  northern  boundary 
started  from  the  northern  end  of  the  sea,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Jordan,  and  i>as.sing  by 
Beth-hoglah  and  near  Jericho,  went  ui>  by  the 
ascent  of  Adummim,  l)y  l^n-shemesb,  to  En- 
rogel  and  the  valley  of  the  son  of  Hinnom, 
south  of  Jerusalem,  passed  on  to  Kirjath- 
jearim,  and  thence  by  Beth-shemesh  and 
Timnah,  north  of  Ekron,  to  Jabneel,  and  on 
to  the  ^lediterranean.     That  sea  itself  con- 


Judah 


403 


Judah 


stitutid  the  WL.sltTii  hoiiiulary,  but  a  portion 
of  the  area  was  almost  always  in  the  hands  of 
the  Philistines  (Josh.  xv.  l-l'J  ;  ep.  also  i:j-<!;{ ; 
xviii.  11 --'U).  Tlic  liiij;th  of  t  lie  territory  of  the 
trilie  of  .liidali  from  north  to  soiitii  was  al)oiit 
.")()  miles  where  most  tliiekly  inhabited,  hut 
alioiit  i)'i  miles  from  Jerusalem  to  Kadesh- 
barnea  ;  and  its  breadth  from  the  Jordan  to  the 
I'hilistine  plain  was  about  I.")  miles.  .\s  to  its 
physieal  feature.s,  it  is  naturally  divided  into 
three  regions:  the  hill  eounlry  of  Jiulah 
(Josh.  XV.  48 ;  Luke  i.  39)  ;  the  lowland  or 
Shephelah  (Josh.  xv.  3:5),  and  the  jilain  near 
the  -Mediterranean  Sea.  The  country  about 
JJeer-slieba  was  known  as  the  Xegeb  or  south. 
A  great  jiart  of  .ludah  is  rocky  aiul  barren, 
but  it  is  admirably  adapted  for  the  culture 
of  the  vine  and  for  jiasture  (cp.  (Jen.  xlix.  11, 
V2).  The  artificially-terraced  hills  (now  neg- 
lected) were  once  the  scene  of  extensive  cul- 
tivation. Parts  of  the  territory  were  regarded 
as  a  wilderness,  especially  the  region  south 
of  Arail  (Judg.  i.  !(>)  ancl  that  immediately 
west  of  the  Dead  Sea  (Ps.  Ixiii.  title).  The  city 
of  Judah  (2  Chron.  xxv.  28)  is  the  city  of 
David  1 2  Kin.  xiv.  20).  The  text  is  probably 
corrupt. 

.Soon  after  their  conquest  of  Canaan  the 
Israelites  were  ojjpressed  by  the  king  of  Meso- 
I>otamia,  but  Othniel  of  the  tribe  of  Jiulah 
delivered  the  nation  from  tlic  foreign  domi- 
nation (.luilg.  iii.  s-U).  In  the  troublous 
times  which  now  came  uixin  the  Israelites, 
due  to  tlieir  neglect  of  (iod,  to  tribal  jealousies, 
anul  to  failure  to  dispossess  all  the  heathen, 
Judah,  Dan,  and  Simeon  became  a  groiii)  by 
themselves,  separated  from  the  other  tribes 
to  the  north  by  a  strip  of  country  several 
miles  broad  which  was  traversed  with  incou- 
venience,  in  i>art  by  reason  of  its  Canaanite 
iniiabitauts,  Amorites,  (;il>eonites,  and  ,Iebu- 
sites.  and  in  ])art  on  account  of  its  luitural 
roughness  and  wildness,  being  cleft  by  deep 
transverse  valleys  between  Jeru.salem  and 
Jericho.  It  was  also  se|)arated  from  (lad  and 
Keuben  by  the  chasm  of  the  .Ionian  and  the 
Di'ad  Sea.  The  tribe  bad  its  own  dilliculties 
to  contend  with,  being  besi-t  by  the  Phili.s- 
tines  (.ludg.  iii.  :U ;  x.  7:  xiii.  1),  and  took 
little  part  in  the  wars  of  the  other  tribes 
against  opiu'essoi-s.  Moa/.  and  Ktitii  lived  in 
Hethlehem  at  this  time.  .ludah.  however, 
united  with  the  other  tribes  to  |)unish  I'.enja- 
iniiMxx.  1,  IS).  In  the  timeof  Hli  and  Sanniel, 
when  the  Philistines  o])pressed  both  .Fiulah 
and  Meujamin.  intercourse  witli  the  northern 
trilx's  becaUK'  closer  :  and  .ludah  was  included 
in  the  kingdom  of  Saul.  After  the  death  of 
Saul,  the  men  of  .Fudah  sujiitorted  the  claims 
of  their  tribesman  David  to  the  throne,  and 
lor  .>even  years  warred  in  his  behalf.  When 
his  cause  trinmidu'd,  Jerusalem  on  tlu?  bor- 
der of  , ludah  and  Hen.jamin  was  made  the 
capital  of  all  Israid.  The  promise  had  been 
given  to  Daviil  that  his  posterity  should  for- 
ever occu])y  his  throne  (2  Sam.  vii.  i:5-l(!;  1 
t'hron.  xvii.  12,  14,  2U),  though  chastisement 


would  be  inflicted  if  there  were  a  departure 
from  Jehovah.  The  promise  was  not  intended 
to  do  away  with  the  necessity  for  wisdom  in 
the  king,  and  when  Kelioboam  manifested 
his  unac(iiuiintance  with  the  first  iuincii)les 
of  government,  ten  tribes  were  lost  to  the 
house  of  David.     See  IsK.XKL. 

Judah  and  a  large  i)art  of  Benjamin  re- 
mained loyal  to  David"s  lini',  and  constituted 
tlu-  main  elements  <if  the  kingdom  of  Judah. 
This  kingdom  lasted  from  about  'Jlil  H.  c. 
until  till-  tall  of  Jeru.salem  in  os?  B.  c.  During 
this  time  nineteen  kings  of  David's  line,  ex- 
clusive of  the  usuri)ing  (pU'eii  Alhaliah,  oc- 
cuiiied  the  throne;  see  ( 'iih<»noi,o(;y.  Its 
territory  was  nearly  coincident  with  that  of 
the  tribes  of  Judah  and  lienjamin,  save  that 
the  northern  boundary  lluctualed,  Ikthel 
being  sometimes  held  by  Judah,  esjiecially 
after  the  fall  of  Samaria.  An  event  which 
exerci.sed  the  most  jiowerful  inlluence  on 
the  history  and  ultimate  fate  of  the  rival 
kingdoms  was  the  construction  of  the  two 
golden  calves  by  Jeroboam,  that  the  i)eo]ile 
of  his  kingdom  might  have  local  siinctuaries, 
and  not  have  to  visit  Jerusalem  for  worshij), 
and  ]ierhapsbe  there  won  over  to  their  old  al- 
legiance. Oni-  etlect  this  had  was  to  nuike  all 
who  were  faithful  to  Jehovah  emigrate  to  the 
kingdom  of  Judah,  bringing  it  no  mean  ac- 
cession of  si)iritual  and  even  of  political 
strength  (1  Kin.  xii.  2()-.3;3  ;  xiii.  'S.i;  2  Chron. 
X.  1(>.  17).  The  first  relations  of  the  two  rival 
kingdoms  were  naturally  those  of  mutual  hos- 
tility. This,  doubtless,  emboldened  the  neigh- 
boring nations  to  intermeddle  in  Jewish  af- 
fairs, and  ill  the  (ifth  year  of  Kehoboani's 
reign  Shishak,  king  of  Egyjit,  plundered  .Je- 
rusalem (1  Kin.  xiv.  2o-2):3;  2  Chron.  xii. 
1-12).  War  between  Jndah  and  Israel  went 
on  in  a  languid  way  during  the  first  sixty 
years  of  their  separate  existence  (1  Kin.  xiv. 
30 ;  XV.  7,  Hi;  2  Chnm.  xii.  If);  xiii.  2-20); 
after  which,  under  Ahab  and  Jehosha])hat, 
not  merely  jieace,  but  a  political  and  family 
alliance  took  place  between  the  two  reigning 
houses.  In  ct)nse(|iU'nce.  the  worshiji  of  liaal 
was  introduced  into  Judah,  and  at  last  be- 
came a  potent  factor  in  the  destruction  of 
the  kingdom.  Two  great  ]iarties  were  formed, 
the  one  attached  to  the  worshi]!  of  .Jehovah, 
the  other  in  favor  of  Haal  and  other  fon  ign 
divinities.  During  the  subse(iueiit  ])eriod  of 
the  kingdom  of  .Judah  these  i)arlies  were  in 
continual  conflict  with  each  other,  first  oiio 
and  then  the  other  becoming  temjiorarily 
dominant,  according  as  the  reigning  monarch 
was  its  friend  or  its  ojiiKUieiit.  As  at  other 
])eriods  of  the  theocracy,  fidelity  to  Jehovah 
brought  temiioral  as  well  as  sjiiritual  ]iros- 
jii'rity,  while  a]iostasy  fnun  him  was  attended 
by  clisaster.  Among  the  good  kings  were  Asa, 
Jehoshaidiat,  Ilezekiah,  and  Josiah,  while 
Aliaz,  Manasseh,  and  some  others  were  con- 
spicuously the  reverse.  The  foreign  relations 
of  the  kingdom  were  important.  Kgypt  was 
Judah"s  neighbor  on  the  southwest,  and  was 


Judah 


404 


Judas 


frf(iiitiitly  involved  in  tlic  aflairs  of  .Tmlali. 
The  K;> yi)tian  kinj^s  Sliisliak  and  Zerali  and, 
after  a  long  interval,  Neclio  warrc'd  with 
Judah.  On  tlie  other  hand,  Egypt  was  re- 
garded as  a  vahial)le  ally  against  the  great 
emiiircs  on  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates;  and 
the  Mow  inflicted  upon  the  Assyrians  by 
Tirhakah  in  the  reign  of  Hezekiah  (•ontrilm- 
ted  to  the  deliverance  of  Judah,  and  later 
the  advance  of  the  Egyi)lians  compelled  the 
anny  of  Nehuchadnezzar  to  raise  the  siege 
of  Jerusalem  temiiorarily.  See  Phakaoh. 
On  the  capture  of  Jt'rtisaleni  by  the  Bal)y- 
lonians,  a  large  body  of  Jews  found  refuge 
in  the  country  of  the  Js'ile.  During  all  these 
years  the  varied  inlluences  of  Egyptian  cul- 
ture and  religion  were  exerted  ujjou  the 
people  of  Judah.  In  rosjiect  to  the  powerful 
nations  on  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates,  there 
were,  of  course,  an  Assyrian  and  a  Baby- 
lonian period.  The  Assyrian  period  began 
in  734  B.  c,  when  Ahaz  invoked  the  aid 
of  Tiglath-iiileser  against  the  allied  kings  of 
Israel  and  Syria,  and  afterwards  did  homage 
to  him  at  Damascus.  After  the  Assyrian  con- 
quest of  the  northern  kingdom  a  decade  later, 
Judah  was  exposed  for  nearly  a  century  and 
a  quarter  to  the  greed  ■  and  fury  of  the  As- 
syrians, until  Nineveh  was  overthrown  by 
the  Babylonians.  Sargon.  Sennacherib,  Esar- 
haddon,  and  Ashurbanipal,  four  successors  on 
the  Assyrian  throne,  mention  more  or  less 
extensive  conquests  of  Judah.  Three  of 
these  four  kings  are  mentioned  in  the  He- 
brew records  (Is.  XX.  1  ;  xxxvi.  1 ;  xxxvii.36). 
The  Babylonian  period  began  in  605,  when 
Jelioiakim  was  subjugated  by  Kebuchadnez- 
zar.  In  less  than  a  score  of  years  Jerusalem 
was  in  ruins  and  the  people  of  Judah  were 
dejiorted  to  Babylonia.  The  divine  jjromise 
to  David  did  not  preclude  the  temporary  loss 
of  the  throne  by  his  descendants. 

The  causes  which  led  to  the  fall  of  Jerusa- 
lem and  the  exile  were  :  1 .  Those  causes  which 
issued  in  the  disrujition  of  the  kingdom  and 
the  fall  of  Samaria,  which  left  Judah  solitary. 
See  Israel.  2.  The  neglect  of  God's  com- 
mand to  exterminate  the  C'anaanites.  When 
the  Israelites  could  not,  that  is,  would  not, 
utterly  destroy  the  Canaanites,  they  pre- 
served the  leaven  of  corruption  in  their 
midst.  3.  Social  and  jiolitical  alliances  with 
idolatrous  peoples.  4.  The  loss  of  moral 
strength  by  ai)ostasy  and  the  loss  of  enthu- 
siasm for  a  great  caus(^  on  earth,  the  estab- 
lishment of  (lod's  kingdom.  5.  Eefusal  to 
repent  at  the  call  of  the  prophets,  (i.  When 
these  agencies  had  wrought  ruin  to  the  state 
and  to  manhood,  when  it  was  tinie  to  yield, 
the  jK-rsistent  resistance  to  the  dominant  em- 
pire made  with  the  helj)  of  petty  alliances 
was  a  short-sighted  jiolicy,  and  a  mistaken 
estimate  of  the  coming  imjierial  i)ower.  Little 
.Tudab  should  not  havt;  been  submissive  to 
Assyria,  but  should  have  yielded  to  Babylon 
toward  the  last.  Such  was  the  exhortation 
of  Jeremiah.     From  the  very  beginning  of 


their  national  existence  tlie  Hebrew  ])eople 
needed  to  husband  all  their  resources.  i)hysi- 
cal  and  ])oliti(al,  moral  and  spiritual,  if  their 
kingdom  was  to  stand  amidst  the  enijiires  of 
the  world.  On  the  return  from  exile.  Zerub- 
babel,  a  descendant  of  David,  was  the  civil 
ruler  ;  btit  he  was  only  a  local  governor  under 
the  Persians.  He  was  followed  after  a  time 
by  Nehemiah,  also  of  the  tribe  of  Judah.  Ex- 
cejit  during  the  administration  of  these  two 
men,  the  governor  of  the  Persian  ju'ovince 
Beyond-the-river,  of  which  Judah  foinied  a 
part,  was  the  res])onsii)le  head.  After  the 
conijuest  of  Alexander  the  Great,  Judaea  be- 
longed to  Egypt  and  Syria  in  turn.  The  suc- 
cessful revolt  of  the  Maccabees  against  the 
Syrians  led  to  the  establishment  of  a  dyna.sty 
of  priest-kings,  who  sjirang  from  the  tribe  of 
Levi,  but  occujiied  the  throne  of  David.  See 
Maccabees.  They  were  succeeded  by  an 
Idumtean  dynasty,  beginning  with  Herod  the 
Great,  ruling  under  the  authority  of  the  Po- 
mans.  See  Hekod,  History,  Jeeisalem. 
When  the  scepter  reverted  to  the  house  of 
David  the  kingdom  was  no  longer  temporal 
but  spiritual,  and  the  sovereign  no  earthly 
potentate,  but  the  Son  of  God. 

To  judge  from  the  context,  by  Judah  the 
tribal  territory  is  meant  in  Josh.  xix.  34. 
The  ])assage  has  not  been  satisfactorily  ex- 
plained, the  word  Judah  is  not  found  in  the 
Septuagint;  iierhajis  the  text  is  corrujit. 

3.  A  Levite,  among  whose  descendants  was 
Kadmiel  (Ezra  iii.  9).     See  Hodaviah. 

4.  A  Levite  who  returned  from  Babylon 
with  Zerubbabel  (Neh.  xii.  S). 

5.  A  Levite.  induced  by  Ezra  to  put  away 
his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  "io). 

6.  A  Beujamite,  son  of  Hassenuah,  and 
second  in  command  over  the  city  of  Jerusa- 
lem (Neh.  xi.  9). 

7.  One  who  took  part  in  the  dedication  of 
the  wall,  probably  a  prince  of  Judah  (Neb. 
xii.  34). 

Ju'das,  genitive  Juda ;  the  Greek  form  of 
the  Hebrew  imijier  name  Judah. 

1.  Judah,  son  of  Jacob  (Mat.  i.  2,  3,  A.  V.). 

2.  An  ancestor  of  Jesus,  who  lived  before 
the  exile  (Luke  iii.  30;  in  A.  V.  Juda). 

3.  Judas  IVIaccaba-us,  third  of  the  five  sons 
of  the  priest  Mattathias  (1  Mac.  ii.  1-5).  His 
father,  driven  to  desperation  by  the  deter- 
mination of  Antiochus  Epijihanes  to  force 
idolatry  upon  the  Jews,  began  the  struggle 
for  religious  liberty.  On  the  death  of  Matta- 
thias, in  1(>()  B.  c,  Judas,  in  ci'mjiliance  with 
his  father's  wish,  assumed  the  military  lead- 
ershiii  of  the  faithful  Jews  iii.  6() ;  iii.  1).  He 
entered  immediately  u])on  a  career  of  vic- 
tory. A  combined  Syrian  and  Samaritan 
army,  under  the  command  of  A])ollonius,  ad- 
vanced against  him.  He  routed  it.slew  Apol- 
lonius,  and  took  his  sword  (10,  11).  Judas 
fought  with  this  sword  during  the  remainder 
of  his  life  (12).  He  defeated  another  Syrian 
army  under  Seron  near  Beth-boron  (13-24). 


Judas 


405 


Judas 


and,  probably  still  in  166  B.  c,  won  a  de- 
cisive battle  with  (roririas  near  Kinniaus  (27- 
iv.  2")).  In  the  t'DUowiii;;  year  Antidchus 
sent  a  lar;;e  army  into  JiKhea  under  tlie  euni- 
inand  of  l>ysias,  hut  it  was  defeated  l)y  Judas 
at  Hi'th-zur  (iv.  "Jfi-:!!).  In  eonseejuenee  of 
tliese  successes,  the  Jews  recovered  control 
of  the  temple,  jiurilied  it,  and  consecrated  it 
anew  (.'j'i-"):}).  This  event  was  celebrated  by 
the  annual  feast  of  dedication  (John  x.  22). 
This  Syrian  war  was  followed  by  otlensive 
oi)e rations  nnder  .ludas  and  his  brother  Simon 
ajjainst  hostile  nelKhhorin^i  nations  (1  .Mac.  v. 
9-.">ll.  .\ntiochus  Kupatorsuccceded  liis  father 
Antiochus  ICpiphanes  on  the  throne  of  Syria, 
and  reigned  from  l(i4  to  1()2  H.  c.  Under  the 
guidance  of  Lysias  he  renewed  the  war  witli 
tiie  Jews.  Lysias  defeated  Judas  at  Heth- 
zjicharias  (vi.  28-47),  and  laid  siege  to  .Jeru- 
salem (4S-.")4),  but  was  conii)clled  by  comi>li- 
cations  at  home  to  conclu<ie  a  i)eace  with 
Judas  and  return  to  Antioch.  The  Jews  ac- 
knowledged the  suzerainty  of  .Syria,  but  were 
])ronnsed  the  free  exercise  of  their  religion 
(.">-(>ll.  Demetrius  .Soler,  who  reigned  from 
1(>2  to  l.")0  B.  (".,  again  favored  the  (irecian 
I>arty  among  the  .Jews,  and  put  the  hellen- 
izer  Alcimus  into  the  higli-priesthood  (vii.  1- 
2th.  Judas  resisted  the  ellbrts  of  this  high 
|>riest  (2.'{,  24),  and  Demetrius  sent  an  army 
uniler  Nicanor  tosuiii)ort  Alcimus;  l)ut  Nica- 
uor  was  defeated  at  C'a])liarsalama  and  again 
at  Adasa  near  Betli-h(n-on  (2fj-.o0).  During 
the  brii'f  peace  wliich  ensued  Judas  began 
negotiations  with  the  Romans,  and  obtained 
trom  them  assurances  of  friendship  and  as- 
sistance (viii.)  ;  but  prol)ably  before  the  an- 
swer of  the  senate  was  returned,  Demetrius 
sent  another  army  nnder  nacchides  into 
.ludiea  in  ItiO  B.  c.  Judas  olfered  valiant  re- 
sistance to  the  invaders  at  Elasa,  but  his 
troo])s  were  worsted  and  he  himself  was  slain 
(ix.  1-181.  His  l)ody  was  rec(jvered  by  his 
brothers,  and  buried  in  the  family  sepulcher 
at  Modin  (191.  It  was  some  time  before  the 
patriotic  party  recovere(l  from  the  demorali- 
zation caused  l)y  their  defeat  and  the  death 
of  their  leader,  but  at  length  they  ofl'ered  the 
commanil  to, ludas"  I)roth<-r  .Tonathan  (2:5-31). 

4.  .Son  of  Chalphi  and  one  of  the  two  cap- 
tains who  stond  liy  Jonathan  Maccabieus  at 
Hazor  when  all  the  rest  hail  lied,  and  emibled 
him  to  retrieve  the  day  (1  Mac.  xi.  70). 

5.  A  son  of  Simon  .Maccaba-us  (1  Mac.  xvi. 
2).  His  father  devolved  the  command  of  the 
army  uiion  liim  and  his  brother  John,  and 
sent  them  atraiiist  ( 'emlebieus.  The  two 
brothers  gained  a  great  victory  over  the 
Syrian  geiu-ral  near  Kidron.  not  far  from 
Ashdod  (2-10).  .ludas  was  wounded  in  the 
battle  i!»l.  In  l.T)  n.  c.  about  three  years 
later,  he  and  his  brother  Maltathias  were 
treacherously  murdered  in  the  castle  of  Dok 
by  a  kinsman  by  marriage,  either  at  a  feast 
at  the  .sjime  time  that  their  father  Simon 
was  a.ssitssinated  (14-17)  or  a  little  later 
(Antitj.  xiii.  8,  1). 


6.  Judas  of  Galilee,  who,  in  the  days  of 
the  enrollment,  raised  a  revolt;  but  he  per- 
ished, and  all.  as  many  as  obeyed  him,  were 
scattered  aliroad  (Acts  v.  37:  cji.  Luke  ii.  2). 
Jo.sejdius  calls  him  several  times  a  (Jalihean, 
but  once  a  (iaulonite,  of  the  city  of  (iamala, 
imiilying  that  he  was  from  (Jauloiiitis,  east 
of  tlie  .Jordan.  It  ajijiears  that,  with  the 
sU])port  of  a  Pharisee  called  .SaddiU',  .ludas 
imbued  his  countrymen  with  the  belief  that 
the  enrolhiK-nt  under  <.2"ii"'nius  was  the  c(jm- 
mencenient  of  their  reduction  to  a  state  of 
servitude.  He  founded  a  i)hilosophic  sect 
whose  chief  tenet  was  that  their  only  ruler 
and  lord  was  God  (Antiii.  xviii.  1.  1  and  6; 
War  ii.  8,  1).  Josephus  states  that  Judas 
succeeded  in  making  some  of  the  Jews  re- 
volt, and  im])lies,  but  does  not  directly  men- 
tion, that  he  lost  his  life.  He  expressly 
states,  however,  that  his  sons  were  slaiu 
(Anti(i.  XX.  r>.  2'.  The  indirect  consequence 
of  this  attempt  was  the  ri.se  of  the  party  of 
zealots,  who  largely  contributed  to  the  dis- 
turl)ances  which  provoked  the  Jewish  war  of 
A.  I).  (i()-70. 

7.  .Judas  Iscariot,  son  of  Simon  Iscariot 
(John  vi.  71.  R.  V.),  ami  the  ajjostle  who  be- 
trayed his  divine  Lord,  and  that  by  a  kiss. 
I>y  being  snrnanied  Iscariot  he  is  distiu- 
guislied  from  aiiotlu'r  of  the  twelve  who  was 
named  Judas  (Luki'  vi.  KJ;  John  xiv.  22). 
The  surname  jjrobably  meant  that  he  came 
originally  from  Kerioth  in  the  south  of  Judah, 
toward  the  land  of  Edom  (.Tosh.  xv.  2.^). 
Jiulged  by  his  character,  he  followed  Jesus 
probably  because  he  expected  to  derive 
earthly  advantage  from  the  establishment 
of  Christ's  kingdom.  Jesus,  without  naming 
any  i)erson,  early  referred  to  the  future  act 
of  treason  which  one  of  the  twelve  would 
commit  (Jolin  vi.  70).  Judas  was  ai)j)ointed 
to  keep  the  bag,  but  he  yielded  to  dishon- 
esty, and  api)roi>riated  part  of  the  money 
to  himself.  When  Mary  of  Bethany  in 
her  attection  for  Jesus  broke  the  alabaster 
box  of  precious  ointnu'ut  and  anointed 
him,  Judas  was  the  s]iokesman  of  himself 
ami  others  in  deiuxmcing  what  he  con- 
sidered extravagatue ;  not  that  he  cared 
for  the  poor,  but  that  he  wisheil  the  jirice 
of  the  ointment  to  be  put  into  the  bag, 
whence  he  could  help  himself  as  he  had 
done  before  (,Jolin  xii.  '■>.  (!).  .Tesus  mildly 
reproved  him ;  but  the  rebuke  aroused  his 
resentment,  and  he  went  to  the  chief  i>riests 
and  otlered  to  betray  Jesus  unto  them  for  a 
j)rice.  They  agreed  witli  Iiim  on  thirty 
l»ieces  of  silver,  about  819. .")(>,  an  ordinary 
jirice  for  a  slave.  Trom  that  time  Judas 
sought  an  opjxirtunitv  to  deliver  .Tesus  unto 
them  (Mat.  xxvi.  14~1(!;  Mark  xiv.  10,  11; 
Kx.  xxi.  .{2:  Ztch.  xi.  12.  1.'?).  At  the  jiass- 
over  sujiper  .Jesus,  in  order  to  carry  out  his 
design  of  being  cnu'ilied  at  the  feast,  i>ointod 
out  tlie  tniitor.  The  devil  liad  already  put 
into  the  heart  of  Judas  to  betniy  his  Master 
(John  xiii.  2).     When  Jesus  solemnly  .ssiid, 


Judas 


406 


Jude 


"One  of  you  shall  betray  me,"  each  disciple 
asked,  "Lord,  is  it  I?"  Peter  beckoned  to 
John  to  ask  Christ  who  it  was,  and  as  .Jesus 
and  Judas  were  di]ijiinj{  toi;elher  in  tlie  disli 
Jesus  said:  "He  it  is.  I'ur  wlioni  I  shall  dij) 
tiie  sup.  and  fjive  it  liini ;  "  and  he  j;ave  it  to 
Judas  (Mat.  .\xvi.28;  Jolin  xiii.2H  K.V.).  After 
the  sop  Satan  entered  into  Judas  (27).  See- 
ing; the  attention  of  tlie  disciples  directed  to 
him,  he  also  asked  :  "  Is  it  1,  Kahl)i  ?  "  Jesus 
answered  :  "Thou  hast  said,"  which  was  the 
eciuivaleut  of  "  Yes"  (Mat.  xxvi.  21-25  R.  V.). 
Even  yet  the  disciples  did  not  know  what 
Jesus  meant,  and  when  he  added,  "  That  thou 
doest,  do  quickly,"  they  su]iposed  that  this 
was  a  direction  to  the  treasurer  to  lose  no 
time  in  buying  some  articles  of  which  they 
had  need.  The  traitor  went  at  once  to  the 
clnef  priests.  It  is  i)robable  that  Judas  was 
not  at  the  institution  of  the  sacrament.  He 
was  jiresent  at  the  supper,  and  partook  of  it 
Avith  the  twelve  (Mat.  xxvi.  20)  ;  but  he  went 
out  immediately  after  receiving  the  sop  (John 
xiii.  oO).  and  the  eucharist  was  after  the 
su]iper  (Mat.  xxvi.  26-29;  Mark  xiv.  22-25; 
Luke  xxii.  19,  20).  Luke  in  narrating  the 
events  of  the  supper,  changes  the  actual  order 
that  he  may  place  the  spirit  of  Chi-ist  and  the 
spirit  of  the  disciples  in  contrast  (xxii.  15-20 
and  21-24).  After  the  departure  of  Judas 
the  tone  of  Jesus'  conversation  changes. 
When  supper  was  ended  he  led  the  eleven  to 
the  garden  of  Gethsemane.  Thither  Judas 
came,  accompanied  by  a  great  multitude  with 
swords  and  staves,  from  the  chief  priests 
and  elders.  In  accordance  with  a  sign  which 
had  been  agreed  ujion,  in  order  to  point  out 
Jesus  to  the  soldiers,  Judas  advanced  and 
saluted  Jesus  with  a  kiss,  and  Jesus  was 
seized  (Mat.  xxvi.  47-50).  The  next  morn- 
ing, when  Judas,  now  in  calmer  mood,  saw 
that  Jesus  was  condemned,  anil  was  likely  to 
be  put  to  death,  he  awoke  to  the  emjrmityof 
his  guilt,  and  went  to  the  chief  priests  with 
the  confession,  "  I  have  sinned  in  that  I 
have  betrayed  the  innocent  blood,"  and 
offered  to  return  the  money.  His  conscience 
was  not  so  seared  as  the  consciences  of  the 
chief  priests,  who,  having  seduced  the  erring 
apostle  into  his  great  sin,  then  turned  round 
on  him  and  said,  "What  is  that  to  us?  see 
thou  to  that."  On  which  lie  cast  down  the 
silver  i)ieces  in  the  tenijile,  and  went  and 
hanged  himself  (Mat.  xxvii.  3-5),  and  falling 
headlong  he  burst  asunder  in  the  midst,  and 
all  his  bowels  gushed  out  (Acts  i.  LS).  The 
109tli  Psalm,  directed  primarily  against  some 
contemporary  of  the  writer,  found  fulfillment 
in  Judas  (Ps.  cix.  8;  Acts  i.  20).  But  no 
heavenly  coercion  compelled  the  son  of  per- 
dition (.John  xvii.  12)  to  fulfill  his  destiny. 
Nor  was  li(>.  a  suppliant,  refused  mercy  ;  he 
did  not  ask  it. 

8.  One  of  the  twelve  apostles,  carefully 
distinguished  from  .Judas  Iscariot  (John  xiv. 
22).  He  was  son  or  perhaps  brother  of  James 
(Luke  vi.  16 ;  Acts  i.  13 ;  see  E.  V.  text  and 


margin).  He  was  also  called  Thaddaens.  for 
this  name  is  lound  in  otlier  lists  in  the  place 
corresjioiiding  to  his  (Mat.  x.  3;  Mark  iii. 
18).  The  received  text  of  Mat.  x.  3  has 
"  Lebba-us,  whose  surname  was  Thadda'iis." 
These  two  surnames  are  believed  to  mean 
the  .same  tiling :  the  former  coming  from 
Hebrew  and  Aramaic  leb,  heart,  and  the 
latter  fr<ini  Aramaic  thud,  a  mother's  breast, 
and  both  signifying  a  beloved  child. 

9.  One  of  the  four  brethren  of  the  Lord 
(Mat.  xiii.  55  ;  Mark  vi.  3,  in  A.  V.  Juda), 
and  probably  the  author  of  the  Epistle  of 
Jude.     See  Brkthrkn  of  thk  Lohd,  Ji'de. 

10.  A  man  who  lived  at  l);imascus.  in  the 
street  called  Straight,  and  with  wlioni  Paul 
lodged  just  after  his  conversion  (Acts  ix. 
11). 

11.  Judas,  surnamed  Barsabbas.  He  was  a 
leading  man  in  the  church  at  Jerusalem,  and 
■was  chosen  with  .Silas  to  accomjiany  Barnabas 
and  Paul  to  Antioch,  bearing  the  letter  from 
the  council  at  Jerusalem  to  the  churches 
of  Syria  and  C'ilicia.  He  had  projihetic  gifts. 
His  subsequent  history  is  unknown  (Acts  xv. 
22,  27,  32).  He  bears  the  same  surname  as  the 
disciple  Joseph,  who  was  proposed  for  the 
apostleship,  and  was  probably  his  brother 
(i.  23). 

Jude.  in  E.  V.  of  Jude  1  Judas. 

An  English  form  of  the  name  Judas,  given 
in  the  A.  V.  to  the  writer  of  the  Epistle  of 
Jude  (ver.  1).  He  describes  himself  simply 
as  "brother  of  James,"  by  whom  the  author 
of  the  Epistle  of  James  and  leader  of  the 
church  in  Jerusalem  seems  to  be  meant.  In 
this  case  Jude  should  be  a  brother  of  the  Lord, 
and  not  an  a]iostle ;  and  these  inferences 
seem  borne  out  by  tlie  presence  of  a  Judas  in 
the  lists  of  our  Lord's  brethren  (Mat.  xiii.  .55; 
Mark  vi.  3),  and  by  the  apparent  implication 
of  verse  17  of  his  epistle,  that  its  writer  was 
not  an  apostle.  Those  who  identify  the 
brothers  of  the  Lord  with  the  .sous  of 
Alphfeus,  nevertheless,  identify  Jude  with 
the  apostle  Judas.  Except  his  bare  name, 
uotliing  is  recorded  of  him  beyond  what  we 
may  infer  from  the  facts  that  the  brethren 
of  the  Lord  did  not  believe  in  him  during 
his  life  on  earth  (John  vii.  5)  and  that  after 
his  resurrection  they  were  his  followers 
(Acts  i.  14).  An  interesting  story  told  of  his 
grandchildren  by  the  church  writer,  Hege- 
sijjpus.  and  preserved  by  Euscbius  (H.  E.  iii. 
20),  eonfirms  the  possible  inference  from  1 
Cor.  ix.  5  that  he  was  married,  and  imjilies 
that  he  was  dead  before  A.  D.  SO. 

The  General  Epistle  of  Jude  is  a  brief 
epistle.  It  names  its  author  as  Judas,  a 
bond  servant  of  Jesus  Christ  and  brother  of 
James  (ver.  1.  R.  ^^  margin)  :  that  is  jiroba- 
bly  Judas,  the  l)rother  of  the  Lord  (Mat.  xiii. 
55  ;  Mark  vi.  3).  Its  address  is  quite  general : 
"to  them  that  are  called,  beloved  in  (xod  the 
Father,  and  kept  for  Jesus  Chri.st  "  (ver.  1, 
E.  v.).     Nevertheless,  it  is  probable  from  the 


Judges 


407 


Judges,  Book  of 


character  of  the  epistle,  whicli  seems  intended 
f'tir  ;i  special  occasion  and  is  lull  of  allusions 
which  would  Ijc  likely  to  he  iMlflliuililf  only 
to  Jews,  that  sonic  paiticular  liody  ol'  Chris- 
tians was  inteniled,  whicli,  I'roin  the  circum- 
stances of  sendiiifi  the  letter,  did  not  need  to 
he  spcciticd  in  the  adilress.  It  is  most 
natural  to  think  of  it  as  inleiided  lor  the 
Jewish  Christians  dwellinti  in  Palestine.  The 
letter  has  heen  largely  used  hy  2  Pet.  ii., 
and  must  have  heen  written  before  it, 
liidhahly  not  much  before:  it  seems  most 
natural  to  date  it  about  a.  ij.  (j(J.  It  was 
called  out  by  the  outbrt'ak  among  .lude's 
readers  of  an  alarming  heresy  with  imnKU'al 
tendencies,  probably  something  like  the  in- 
cipient gnosticism  rel)nked  in  the  pastora' 
epistles  and  the  Apocalyjise  (ver.  3,  4,  10, 
1.'),  Ki,  IS),  and  was  designed  to  save  the 
churches  addressed  from  its  inroads.  After 
the  address  (ver.  1,  2),  it  assigns  the  reason 
for  its  writing  (ver.  '.i,  4)  and  then  lirst  an- 
nounces the  condemnation  in  store  for  the 
false  teachers  (ver.  5-1!)),  and  afterwards 
divulges  the  duty  of  true  Christians  in  tlie 
circumstances  (ver.  17-'2;]),  c<jnclnding  with 
a  rich  and  ai)proi)riate  doxology  (ver.  24,  2.")). 
Owing  doubtless  to  its  brevity,  there  are  no 
very  clear  traces  of  the  use  of  Jiide  in  the 
very  earliest  fathers  of  the  church.  In  the 
hitter  i)art  of  the  s(!coiid  century,  however, 
it  is  found  in  full  use  in  the  (xreek  and 
Latin  churches  alike,  and  was  clearly  from 
the  beginning  a  jiart  of  the  Christian  canon. 

1!.  B.  w. 
Judg'es. 

Jleii  who  were  raised  up  to  head  successful 
revolts  against  foreign  op])refisors  and.  hav'- 
ing  enianciiiated  the  nation  and  shown  there- 
by their  call  of  (ioil,  were  looked  to  by  the 
peo])le  to  maintain  their  rights.  National 
apostasy  from  Jehovah  and  the  worship  of 
heathen  deities  were  uniformly  i)unished.  both 
then  and  in  after  times,  by  .Fehovah's  allow- 
ing the  nation  to  be  brought  under  a  foreign 
yoke.  Upon  the  reiientance  of  the  ])eople 
and  return  to  .lehovah.  a  saviour  like  unto 
Moses  was  raised  up.  There  were  twelve  of 
tliese  judges,  not  including  Abimelech.  who 
was  a  petty  king  and  not  called  of  (Jod  fix.). 
They  were  Othiiiel  of  .Judali,  delivi'rer  of 
Israel  from  tlu^  king  of  .^[esopotamia  ;  Ehud, 
who  (^xiH-Ued  the  Moabites  and  .\inmonites  ; 
Shamgar,  smiter  of  six  hundred  Philistines 
and  saviour  of  Israel  :  Deborah,  associated 
with  Harak,  who  led  Xaphtali  and  Zehulun 
to  victory  against  the  northern  Canaanites  ; 
(jideon,  who  drove  the  Mitlianites  from  the 
territory  of  Israel;  Tola  and  Jair;  Je])h- 
thah,  snbduer  of  the  .\minonites ;  Il)zan, 
Klon,  Abdon,  and  Samson,  the  tronbler  of 
the  Philistines.  Kli  and  Samuel  also  judged 
Israel  (1  Sam.  iv.  IS;  vii.  1.")).  but  tlie  former 
acted  in  his  oflicial  cajiacity  as  high  jiriest 
anil  the  latter  as  a  i>roiihet  of  .lehovah. 
The.sc  judges  did  not  form  an  unbroken  suc- 
ccssioQ  of  rulers,  but  appeared  sporadically. 


They  were  often  hjcal,  discharging  their  du- 
ties in  restricted  districts.  They  apjiarently 
exercised  only  such  authority  as  was  spon- 
taneously accorded  to  them.  They  couhl  not 
order  the  various  tribes  to  war.  Some  of  the 
oiipres-sions  and  ncjt  a  few  of  the  judges  were 
evidently  coiiti'mpoianeous  and  ovcrlai>|)ed. 
Siunngar,  for  exaui|ile,  was  contemporary 
with  Eiiud,  I'or  the  account  of  his  exploit  is 
inserted  in  the  midst  of  the  narrative  of 
Ehud's  work  (iii.  31);  and  a  Philistine  op- 
pression of  .Fudah  was  coeval  with  the  Am- 
monite (loiiijiation  east  of  .Ionian  and  attack 
on  Judah,  J5cnjamin  and  Ephraiiu  (x.  7).  See 
CiiR«)X()L()t;v. 

These  facts  throw  light  on  the  distracted 
state  of  the  nation  during  the  period  of  the 
judges.  The  political  districts,  moreover, 
are  found  to  be  those  that  were  se])arated  by 
the  Jordan  and  by  the  heathen  barrier  be- 
tween Judah  and  the  north.  The  song  of 
Deborah  and  the  liistory  of  .lephthah  show 
the  laxity  of  the  bonds  which  united  the 
tribes,  and  make  known  what  tribes  were 
able  and  willing  to  join  forces  and  fortunes. 
Tiie  isolation  of  Judah  is  remarkable;  .see 
Judah.  But  there  were  centralizing  inllu- 
ences  at  work.  National  feeling  existed,  for 
the  war  of  extermination  waged  against 
Benjamin  shows  the  sense  of  national  guilt 
and  national  resiioiisibilily.  There  was  one 
ark  for  all  the  tribes  in  the  national  taber- 
nacle at  Shiloh  (Josh,  xviii.  1  ;  Judg.  xxi. 
19;  cj).  Ex.  xxiii.  14-17).  It  was  carrieil  to 
Bethel,  tlu!  frontier  town  of  ]?eiijainin  near- 
est to  (iibeah,  when  the  men  of  Israel  gath- 
ered there  to  w'age  war  against  the  tribe  of 
Benjamin,  ))ut  would  first  worship  the  Lord 
and  ask  counsel  of  him  (.Tudg.  xx.  ls-29). 
(ireat  oppressions  united  the  peo]>le  in  com- 
mon misery  and  called  for  united  action  ; 
great  deliverers  united  the  hearts  of  the  jieoijle 
in  loyalty  and  i)ride  about  one  head  ;  great  de- 
liverances, obtained  by  united  action,  bound 
tribes  more  closely  together  in  common 
glory. 

The  period  of  the  judges  has  been  called 
Israel's  iron  age.  The  people  frecjuently 
lai)sed  into  idolatry,  and  woi-shi]iat  the  s;inc- 
tuary  was  rendered  diflicult  by  tlii'distracted 
state  of  the  country.  Kiideiiess  of  manners 
was  <lis]ilayed  in  Jael's  Jiiurder  of  Sisera.  in 
Jephtliah's  sacrifice  of  his  daughter,  in  (Jid- 
eon's  treatment  of  the  men  of  Sticcoth.in  the 
sin  of  the  men  of  (iibeah.  .\gainst  these 
shadows,  however,  there  stainl  out  brightly 
the  trust  and  tilial  jiiety  of  .Tt^iihlb.ib's 
daughter,  the  liilelity  of  Ruth  to  Naomi,  and 
the  kindly  and  U|>riglit  character  of  Boaz. 

Judg'es,  Book  of. 

A  historical  book  of  the  O.  T.  iilaced  after 
.Tosliua  and  continuing  the  narnitive  from 
the  deatli  of  Joshua.  The  work  consists  of 
three  iiarts.  I.  Introduction  (i.-ii. ."»),  giving 
an  account  of  the  ext<'nt  to  which  the  coun- 
try had    been    subdued   after   the  death  of 


Judges,  Book  of 


408 


Juniper 


Joshua.  II.  A  history  of  the  judges  as  saviours 
of  Isiaol,  from  the  death  of  Joshua  to  that  of 
Samson  lii.  (i-xvi.  151).  Tliis  section  has  its 
own  introduction  in  proiilietic  style,  sum- 
marizing the  events  of  the  jieriod  and  point- 
ing out  the  religious  lesson  (ii.  (j-iii.  (i),  fol- 
lowed by  more  or  less  detailed  accounts  of 
six  judges  and  brief  mention  of  other  six. 
The  assumjition  of  kingship  by  Abimelech, 
son  of  tiideon,  is  rt'corded  as  an  integral  part 
of  the  history,  although  he  was  a  petty  king 
rather  than  a  judge,  and  wasuota  saviour  of 
Israel.  III.  Two  ajipendices,  namely,  an  ac- 
count of  Micah's  image  worship  and  its  es- 
tablishment among  the  Danites  of  the  north 
(xvii.,  xviii.),  and  of  the  sin  of  the  men  of 
Uibeah  and  the  consequent  war  for  its  pun- 
ishment (xix.-xxi.). 

The  date  of  the  composition  of  the  Book 
of  Judges*  is  difficult  to  determine.  At  any 
rate,  the  following  facts  must  be  satisfied. 
All  schools  of  criticism  at  present  acknowl- 
edge the  great  antiquity  of  the  song  of  Deb- 
orah, and  that  it  is  ])ractically  contemporary 
with  the  event  which  it  celelirates.  This 
section,  the  second  and  main  portion  of  the 
book,  could  not  have  been  written  until  after 
the  death  of  Samson  (xvi.  30,  31).  In  the 
appendices,  the  recurring  expres.sion,  "  in 
those  days  there  was  no  king  in  Israel," 
points  to  the  comjiosition  of  these  chapters  at 
least  after  the  establishment  of  the  kingdom. 
The  tabernacle  was  no  longer  at  Shiloh 
(xviii.  31)  when  they  were  written.  The 
mention  of  the  "  captivity  of  the  land " 
(xviii.  30)  has  been  interpreted  as  a  reference 
to  the  ravages  of  Tiglath-pileser  in  the  north 
(2  Kin.  XV.  29),  or  to  the  deportation  of  the 
ten  tribes  after  the  fall  of  Samaria.  But  this 
explanation  conflicts  with  the  ]iarallel  state- 
ment, "all  the  time  that  the  house  of  God 
was  in  Shiloh "  (Judg.  xviii.  31).  More- 
over, historical  circumstances  in  the  reigns 
of  David,  Solomon,  and  Jeroboam  (1  Kin. 
v.-vii. ;  xii.  2H-31)  make  it  highly  imi>rob- 
able  that  this  image  worship  continued 
to  be  practiced  until  the  time  of  Tiglath- 
pileser  or  the  Assyrian  exile.  Hence  from 
the  time  of  David  Kimchi  many  interpreters 
have  understood  the  cajitivity  of  the  land  to 
refer  to  the  ca]iture  of  the  ark  l)y  the  Philis- 
tines, when  Jehovah  forsook  Shiloh.  Several 
expositfirs  have  adopted  the  conjecture  of 
Houbigant  that  the  last  letter  in  the  phrase 
"captivity  of  the  land"  has  become  C(n-rupt, 
and  that  the  Het)rcw  text  originally  had 
nun  instead  of  tzade,  which  would  then 
read  "captivity  of  the  ark."  Keil  thinks 
that  the  reference  is  to  a  conquest  of  the  land 
of  the  northern  Danites  and  enslavement  of 
its  population  by  the  neighboring  Syrians  of 
Damascus.  Any  of  these  supiiositions  is  be- 
set by  fewer  ditliculties  than  the  assumption 
that  Micah's  image  worship  continued  until 
the  fall  of  Samaria.  The  expression  "  from 
Dan  even  to  Reersheba  "  (xx.  1)  was,  of  course, 
appropriate  in  tlie  times  of  the  judges,  for  it 


doubtless  originated  then.  For  x.  11-13  ;cp. 
i.  31,  32,  34  ;  iii.  13,  31  ;  vi.  3,  y,  10,  33.  The 
indications  of  time,  which  are  found  in  the 
appendices,  thus  point  to  the  period  before 
David's  reign  over  all  Israel.  The  general 
introduction  to  the  book  was  written  while 
the  Jebusites  still  occupied  the  stronghold  at 
Jerusalem  (i.  21).  All  these  indications  of 
time  strongly  favor  the  inference  that  the 
book  as  a  whole  was  written  in  the  time  of 
Samuel,  if  not  actually  by  that  propliet  him- 
self, as  the  Jews  of  old  believed.  Critics 
who  deny  the  Mosaic  authorshiji  of  Deu- 
teronomy assume  that  a  late  reviser  worked 
over  the  material,  because  the  book  reflects 
the  same  religious  conception  as  d(jes  Deu- 
teronomy. 

As  the  analysis  of  the  work  shows,  these 
histories  were  gathered  and  placed  in  their 
present  framework  in  order  to  exhibit  their 
religious  teaching  and  serve  as  an  admonition 
to  subsequent  ages.  This  religious  signifi- 
cance of  the  events,  which  the  compiler  de- 
sired to  exhibit,  was  not  concealed  from  the 
actors  themselves.  The  song  of  Deborah  and 
the  national  uprising  to  punish  the  perjietra- 
tors  and  abetters  of  the  crime  of  Gibeah  re- 
veal the  consciousness  of  the  participants  that 
they  were  engaged  in  sacred  warfare  and 
that  the  history  which  was  being  enacted 
was  full  of  religious  instruction. 

Judg'ment  Hall.     See  Pe^etorium. 

Ju'dith  [object  of  praise,  praiseworthy  ; 
also  feminine  of  Y'hndi,  a  Jew,  and  meaning 
a  Jewess] . 

1.  A  wife  of  Esau  and  daughter  of  Eeeri, 
the  Hittite  (Gen.  xxvi.  34).  She  was  also 
called  Oholibamah  (xxxvi.  2:  cp.  Axah). 

2.  Heroine  of  the  book  of  Judith ;  see 
Apocrypha. 

Ju'li-a  [feminine  form  of  Latin  Jidius]. 
A  female  Christian  at  Eome  to  whom  Paul 
sent  his  salutation  (Rom.  xvi.  15). 

Ju'li-us. 

A  centurion  of  the  Augustan  band,  em- 
ployed to  ccmduct  Paul  as  a  prisoner  to  Rome 
(Acts  xxvii.  1).  He  showed  courtesy  to  the 
ai>ostle,  allowing  him  to  visit  his  friends  at 
Sidon  (3).  He  did  not  believe  Paul's  predic- 
tion of  the  C(miing  storm,  but  on  finding  it 
verified  by  the  event,  he  evidently  formed  a 
high  o])inion  of  the  ajiostle,  and  for  his  sake 
saved  all  the  prisoners  from  being  put  to 
death  by  the  soldiers  to  prevent  their  escap- 
ing when  the  ship  became  a  wreck  (43). 

Ju'ni-as,  in  A.  V.  Junia. 

A  Jewish  Christian  at  Rome,  to  whom  Paul 
sent  a  salutation,  alluding  to  the  fact  that  he 
was  his  kinsman  and  fcllow-pvisoncr.  and 
had  been  before  him  in  Christ  (Rom.  xvi.  7). 

Ju'ni-per. 

Not  the  coniferous  tree  of  the  genus  Juni- 
periiK,  of  which  sevenil  species  occur  in 
Lebanon,  Galilee,  and  Bashan ;  but  a  legu- 
minous plant  {Retama  rxtam),  an  almost  leaf- 


Jupiter 


409 


Kadesh 


less  broom  (1  Kin.  xix.  4,  5;  Job  xxx.  4;  Ps. 
cxx.  1) ;  si't-  I5KOOM. 
Ju'pi-ter. 

The  siipri'iiK'  ;^i»l  of  the  Romans.  He  cor- 
n-sponikd  t<>  the  Ziiis  iil'  tlie  (Jrci'ks,  anil  in 
ihu  only  part  of  the  N.  T.  in  whitli  the  name 
is  introduced  (.\tts  xiv.  1"J,  l.J)  the  (Jreek 
text  has  Zens.  Zeus  had  a  noted  temple  at 
Olynipia  in  Klis  (Herod,  ii.  7i,  from  wliieh  lie 
derived  his  ilesif^natiini  of  Olynipiiis.  Anti- 
oehiis  ICpiphunes  erected  a  temple  to  him  un- 
der that  title  at  Athens,  dedicated  the  tem- 
ple at  .leriisalem  to  Jupiter  Olymjiius,  and  at 
the  reiniest  of  the  Samaritans,  .Foseiihns.sjiys, 
called  the  s;inctuary  on  (Jerizim  by  the  name 
of  Jupiter,  the  jtrotector  of  stranjiers  (2 
.Mac.  vi.  "i;  .\nti4.  .\ii.  .">,  ■">).  The  worship 
of  .Iiipiter,  which  Paul  and  narnahas  met 
with  at  Lystra,  existed  at  the  time  over  the 
whole  Greek  and  Roman  world.  He  had 
tem]dcs  and  a  iiriesthood  ;  i;arlands  were 
presented  to  him.  as  were  also  otleriniis  of 
other  kinds,  and  oxen  and  sheep  were  sacri- 
ficed to  |)ri(pitiate  his  favor. 

Ju-shab-he'sed  [lovin<;-kindness  is  re- 
turuedj. 

A  son  of  Zerubbabel  (1  Chron.  iii.  20). 

Jus'tus  [just,  righteous]. 

1.  .V  siiriiaine  of  ,losi  ph,  the  unsuccessful 
candidate  for  tlie  apnstleship  rendered  va- 
cant bv  the  fall  of  the  unworthy  .Judas 
(Acts  i."  2:J). 

2.  \  jrodly  man  of  Corinth,  whoso  house 
adjoiiu'd  the  .synajro^uu.  and  witli  wliom 
Paul  lodjied  (.\.cts  .xviii.  7).  Uis  fuller  name 
was  Titus  Justus  (R.  \^). 

.!.  The  surname  of  a  Jew  called  Jesus,  who 
joined  Raul  in  sendinj;  salutations  to  the  Co- 
lossians  (Col.  iv.  II ). 

Ju'tah  and  Jut'tah  [extended,  inclined]. 

.V  tmvn  in  tlie  hill  country  of  .Fudali,  men- 
tioned witii  Maon,  Carmel,  and  Zii>h,  and 
doubtless  in  their  vicinity  (.losh.  xv.  5.5). 
With  its  suburbs  it  was  assi<<ned  to  the  priests 
(xxi.  1(!).  It  is  now  called  Yuttali,  and  stands 
on  a  low  eminence,  about  .">;:  miles  S.  by  W.  of 
Hebron.  The  sniijiosition  is  credible  that 
.lutah  was  the  cityof  .Indah  in  the  hill  coun- 
try to  which  Mary  went  to  visit  Rlisabeth 
(Luke  i.  .''.Iti,  and  that  Judah  [' Intulu)  has 
been  substituted  for  .lutah  {'Imifii).  The 
more  common  view,  however,  is  that  Hebron 
was  the  city  of  Elisabeth. 


K. 


Kab,  in  A.  V.  Cab. 

.\  Hebrew  dry  measure  i2  Kin.  vi.  2.">)  : 
containinfj,  accordinj;  to  rabbinical  tradition, 
one  sixth  of  a  scab  or  one  one  hundred  and 
ciLrhtieth  of  a   homer.     See  Mi:.\siKi;. 

Kab'ze-el  ami  once  Jekabzeel '  Neh.  xi.  2.">) 
[GikI  brings  toKctlier]. 

A   city    in    the   extreme   south    of   .ludali 


(Josh.  XV.  21).  It  was  the  home  of  David's 
heroic  sujiporter,  Bemiiah  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  20  ; 
1  Chron.  xi.  22).  The  town  was  inhabited 
after  the  exile  (Neh.  xi.  2."> ;  where  it  is 
called  by  the  synonymous  name  of  Jekabzeel). 
Exact  situation  unknown. 

Ea'desb,  includinn  Ka- desh- bar' ne-a 
[consecrated].  The  meaning  of  Jiarnea  is 
unknown. 

1.  .\  fountain,  city  or  town,  and  wilderness 
on  the  southern  frontier  of  .ludah  and  of 
Palestine  (Num.  xx.  1(J ;  xxxiv.  4  ;  Josh.  xv. 
;5  ;  Ps.  .xxix.  H;  Ezek.  xlvii.  lit;  xlviii.  2H) ; 
dislinjiuished  as  Kadesh-bariiea  from  other 
places  bearin{{  the  name  Kadesh  (Num.  xiii. 
2()  with  xxxii.  b;  Dent.  i.  19  with  4()).  At  an 
early  ])eriod  it  was  called  En-mislijiat  or 
Fountain  of  Judjiment  ((Jen.  xiv.  7l.  It  was 
in  the  wildeniosof  Paran  (Num.  xiii.  3.  2(J), 
in  the  wilderness  ot'  Zin  (Num.  xx.  1  ;  xxvii. 
14),  eleven  days'  journey  from  Sinai  by  way 
of  mount  Seir  (l)eut.  i.  2),  in  the  uttermost 
of  th(^  border  of  Edom  (Num.  xx.  KJ).  It 
ap])ears  to  have  been  not  a  great  distance 
from  the  highway  between  Palestine  and 
Egypt,  for  IIagar"s  well  was  situated  between 
Kadesh  and  Bered,  and  on  the  road  to  Egypt 
(Gen.  xvi.  7,  14;  cp.  xx.  1).  The  place  was 
overrun  by  Chedorlaomer  (xiv.  7).  Into  the 
region  adjacent  Hagar  fled  (xvi.  7,  14),  and 
Abraham  sojourned  there  for  a  time  (xx.  1). 
The  Israelites,  during  their  wanderings, 
twice  encamped  at  Kadesh.  They  arrived  in 
the  neighborhood  in  the  second  year  about 
the  fifth  month  (Num.  xiii.  2(i;  ip.  x.  11). 
.sent  thence  the  spies  into  Canaan,  received 
the  discouraging  reiiort  there  aliout  the  difli- 
culties  of  conquest  (xiii.  2(J),  refused  to  ad- 
vance, and  were  condemned  to  remain  in  the 
wilderness,  and  abode  at  Kadi'sh  many  days 
(Deiit.  i.  4t)).  They  returned  to  Kadesh  in 
the  first  month  (Num.  xx.  1)  of  the  fortieth 
year  (xxxiii.  3(),  33;  cp.  Dent.  ii.  7,  14).  Here 
^liriam  died  and  was  buried  (Num.  xx.  1)  ; 
and  here  Moses  smote  the  rock  that  water 
might  gush  out.  as,  in  similar  circumstances, 
it  had  done  at  Repliidim  (xx.  l-i;>);  see 
MKKn5.4.H.  Rut  he  and  Aaron  sinned  in  act- 
ing in  their  own  name.  From  Kadesh  am- 
bassadors were  sent  to  the  king  of  Edom  to 
ask  permission  for  the  Israelites  to  jiass 
through  his  territory  (xx.  14.  10,  22;  Judg. 
xi.  Hi,  17).  In  1S42,  the  Rev.  J.  Rowlands 
discovered  a  fountain  called  by  the  Arabs 
Kades  or  Kudes,  on  the  east  of  Jibel  Helal. 
In  1^-7.^  the  Rev.  T.  W.  Holland,  anil  in 
iHbl  the  Rev.  Dr.  H.  Clay  Trumbull.  vi>ited 
the  s])ot  and  revived  the  identification.  The 
name  remains  in  wady  Kadis,  .lebel  Kadis, 
and  '.\in  Kadis;  the  site  answers  to  the  l)ib- 
lical  description  in  every  res]>ect ;  and  coji- 
(irmation  is  atforded  liy  the  name  of  the  ad- 
jacent wady,  Abu  Retemat.  On  the  ground 
that  the  Israelites  encamped  twice  at  Kadesh 
(Num.  xiii.  2(! ;  xx.  1.22:  xxxiii.  3()),  many 
intenireters  had   long  been   of  the    opinion 


Kadmiel 


410 


Kanah 


that  Kitliniah  was  practically  identical  with 
Kadcsh  ixii.  !(>  with  xxxiii.  IS)  ;  and  now  it 
apiicai-s  that  the  wady  nearostand  parallel  to 
that  of  Kadis  bears  the  name  corresponding 
to  Rithniah,  wady  Abu  Keteniat.  'Aiu  Kadis 
is  abont  77  miles  to  the  south  of  Hebron  and 
51   miles  south  of  Beersheba.     The  spring, 


Kad'mon-ites  [people  of  the  east]. 

A  tribe  (hvetling  somewhere  between  Kgypt 
and  the  Euphrates  (Gen.  xv.  ID),  probably  in 
the  Syrian  desert. 

Kain  [possession,  creature,  smitli]. 

1.  I'rogenitor  of  the  Kenite  tribe,  which 
was  sometimes  called  from  him  simply  Kain 


Wilderness  of  Kadesh. 


which  is  of  sweet  water,  issues  from  under  a 
rugged  spur  of  rock  belonging  to  the  north- 
eastern mountain  range  west  of  the  Arabah. 
The  stream  is  copious,  and  is  intercepted  in 
its  course  by  two  or  three  wells  built  round 
with  masonry.  Then  after  traversing  the 
oasis  which  it  has  created,  it  is  finally  lost  in 
the  desert  beyond.  This  identification  has 
been  generally  accepted  as  probably  correct. 
Numerous  other  sites  had  previously  been 
suggested,  especiallj'  'Ain  el-Wcibeh,  on  the 
western  side  of  the  Araljah,  northwest  of 
Petra.  Robinson  liad  failed  to  discover  auy 
spring  called  Kadis,  and  settled  on  the  spring 
el-Weibeh  because  of  its  copiousness  and  its 
proximity  to  the  borders  of  Edom.  Wetz- 
stein  identified  Kadesh  with  Kadus,  north 
of  .Tcbcl  IMadara  ;  but  see  Kedesh  1. 

2.  The  name  is  i)erhaps  contained  in  "  the 
land  of  Tahtim-hodshi "  (2  Sam.  xxiv.  fi), 
corrected  by  means  of  I.ucian's  text  to  "  the 
land  of  the'llittites.  toward  Kadesh." 

Kad'mi-el  [God  is  of  old], 

A  Levite,  head  of  a  trilial  house,  who  re- 
turned from  Babylon  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra 
ii.  40;  Neh.  vii.  "4:5 ;  xii.  8).  He  helped  to 
oversee  the  workmen  engaged  in  reliuilding 
the  temiile  (Ezra  iii.  !)).  The  representative 
of  the  house  sealed  the  covenant  (Neh.  x.  9), 
perhaps  being  the  same  person  who  had  pre- 
viously assisted  in  the  ]Hil)lic  confession  (ix. 
4,  5). 


(R.   V.   of   Num.   xxiv.    22 ;    Judg.   iv.   11, 
margin). 

2.  A  village  in  Judah,  in  A.  Y.  spelled 
Cain  (Josh.  xv.  57). 

Kal'lai  [swift]. 

A  jiriest,  head  of  the  father's  house  of 
Sallai  in  the  time  of  Joiakim,  the  high  priest 
(Neh.  xii.  20). 

Ka'mon;  in  A.  V.  Camon. 

The  place  where  the  judge  Jair  the  Gile- 
adite  was  buried  (Judg.  x.  5).  The  site  is  un- 
known. Eusebius  and  Jerome  locate  it  in 
the  plain  of  Esdraelon,  between  Megiddo 
and  Acre;  but  ]iresunial)iy  it  was  in  GiU-ad. 
as  Josephus  states  (Antiq.  v.  7,  (i).  Polybius 
mentions  a  town  Kamoun  which  was  taken 
by  Antiochus  in  his  war  with  Ptolemy  Philo- 
pator,  immediately  after  he  had  cajitured 
Scvthopolis  and  at  tlie  same  time  that  he 
took  Pella,  Abila.  Gadara  and  other  places 
in  Gilead   (Hist.  v.  70,  12). 

Ka'nah  [jdace  of  reeds]. 

1.  .\  lirook  which  formed  part  of  the 
boundarv  line  between  Ephraim  and  Manas- 
seh  (Josii.  xvi.  8;  xvii.  9).  Robinson  identi- 
fied it  with  the  wady  Kanali.  which  rises 
south  of  Shechem,  and  joins  the  'Anjah,  the 
combined  streams  falling  into  the  Mediter- 
ranean 4  miles  north  of  Joj^jia.  This  seems 
too  far  south,  but  the  identity  of  the  ancient 
and  modern  names  is  in  its  favor. 


Kareah 


411 


Kenath 


2.  A  town  ou  the  boundary  of  Ashcr  (Josh. 
xix.  28).  It  was  i)hui:iil)ly  idcnlitied  by 
Robinson  with  the  modern  Kana.  al)oiit  7i 
miles  southeast  of  Tyre.  It  is  a  villau'i'  with 
no  marks  of  aiiticiuity,  but  lower  down  tlie 
ravine  which  eouies  from  it  are  old  seulfitures 
ou  the  face  of  tlie  southern  elilis. 

Ka-re'ah,   in  A.  V.  once  Careah    [bald]. 

Father  of  tlie  cajitaius  .Tohauau  aud  .Jona- 
than, wlio  canu-  to  (ledaliah,  the  l>al)ylonian 
{iovernor  of  .ludah  ('i  Kiu.  xxv.  'Si;  .ler. 
xl.  s). 

Kar'ka,  in  .\.  \'.  Kar'ka-a,  retaining  the 
final  syllable  wliich  denotes  direction  [rent, 
ravine]. 

A  i)lace  on  tiiesouthern  Ixiundary  of  .ludah 
(Josli.  XV.  ;}i.  The  name  has  tlie  delinite 
article,  and  may  l)e  a  common  noun  meauiujj 
simply  the  ravine  (Wetzstein). 

Kar'kor  [foundation]. 

A  place  cast  of  tlie  Jordan,  where  Zebah 
and  Zalmunna  encamped  with  their  army 
(.liidg.  viii.  10).     Site  unidentified. 

Kar'tab  [city]. 

A  town  of  Zebulun  t;iven  to  the  Merarite 
Levites  (>losh.  xxi.  'M).     Not  identified. 

Kar'tan  [perhapsan  old  dual,  twin  towns]. 

A  town  (jf  Xaphtali,  given  to  the  tier- 
shonite  Levites  (Josh.  xxi.  32).  Called  in  1 
Chron.  vi.  7<j  Kiriathaim,  A.  V.  Kirjathaim. 
Site  unidentified. 

Kat'tatli. 

A  town  of  Zebulun  (.Tosh.  xix.  1.5)  ;  identi- 
fied soiiietimes  with  Kitron  of  Judg.  i.  30, 
aud  suiiielimes  with  Kartali. 

Ke'dar  [probably,  mighty].  To  the  He- 
brews the  name  was  also  suggestive  of  the 
black  tents. 

A  tribe  descended  from  Ishmael  (den.  xxv. 
13),  children  of  the  east,  dwelling  in  bhudc 
tents,  possessing  fiocks  and  camels  (Song  i.  .">; 
Is.  Ix.  7;  Jer.  xlix.  2^,  2!J),  aud  having  vil- 
lages also  in  the  wilderness  (Is.  xlii.  11). 
Tlu-y  were  an  .\rabian  tribe  (Is.  xxi.  13,  IG; 
Kzek.  xxvii.21).  They  were  ruled  liy  princes 
(ibid.),  and  wert;  skillful  in  archery  (Is.  xxi. 
H),  17).  They  dwelt  between  Arabia  Petraa 
and  Babylonia.  The  people  of  Kedar  were 
Pliny's  Cedrai.  and  fruiii  their  trilie  Mnham- 
med  ultimately  arose. 

Ked'e-mah  [toward  the  east]. 

.\  lril)e  descended  fnnii  Ishmael  (Gen.  xxv. 
l.")-,  1  Chripii.  i.  31 1.  Not  mentioned  else- 
where. 

Ked'e-moth  [ancient  ])laces  or  betrinnings]. 

A  city  east  of  the  .Jordan,  near  the  wilder- 
ness (I)eiit.  ii.  2(1),  allotted  to  the  Keiilu'iiites 
Mosli.  xiii.  1M|  and  assigned  to  the  Merarite 
Levites  for  residcMiee  (xxi.  37;  1  Chron.  vi. 
7!)'.     Site  unidentified. 

Ke'desh  [sacred  place,  sanctuary]. 

I.  A  town  in  the  extrenu>  south  of  Jiidah 
(.Josh.  XV.  23\  probably  different  from 
Kadesh-barnea  (ver.  3).     Its  site  is  perhaps 


Kadus,  about  f)\  miles  north  of  Jel)el  Madara 
near  wady  el-Yemen. 

2.  A  fortified  city  of  the  Canaauites,  whose 
king  was  slain  by  .Joshua  (Josh.  xii.  22;  xix. 
37).  It  was  allotted  to  the  tril)e  of  Naphtali, 
and  is  therefore  sometimes  called  Keilesh- 
naphtali  ( Judg.  iv.  (j).  It  was  given  to  the 
(iershonite  Levites  for  their  residence,  and 
was  made  one  of  the  cities  of  refuge  (Josh.  xx. 
7;  xxi.  .')2;  1  Chron.  vi.  7(i).  It  was  the  resi- 
dence of  IJarak  (.Judg.  iv.  (j).  Its  inhal)itants 
were  carried  into  cajitivity  to  Assyria  by 
Tiglath-iiileser  (2  Kin.  xv.  29).  Demetrius 
considered  it  a  strategic  jioint  in  his  war 
against  the  Jews  (1  >Iac.  xi.  (i.'J,  7.3;  Antiq. 
xiii.  ."),  G).  Kol}inson"s  identification  of  it 
with  the  village  of  Kades  in  Upper  Galilee, 
about  i\  miles  northwest  from  the  waters  of 
Merom,  has  met  with  general  acceptance. 

3.  A  city  of  Issachar  given  to  the  Ger- 
shonite  Levites  (1  Chron.  vi.  72;  in  Josh.  xxi. 
28  Kisliioii,  \.  V.  Kishon).     See  KiSHlox. 

Ke-hel'a-thah  [an  assembly]. 

A  station  of  the  Israelites  in  the  wilder- 
ness (Xnm.  xxxiii.  22,  23).     Not  identified. 

Kei'lah. 

A  town  in  the  lowland  of  Judah  (Josh.xv. 
41;  1  Chron.  iv.  l!»i.  The  Philistines  fought 
against  it,  but  David  attacked  them  and  de- 
livered the  town.  Nevertheless  he  did  not 
remain  in  the  town  when  Saul  ajiproached, 
lest  the  men  of  Keilah  should  surrender  him 
to  Saul  (1  Sam.  xxiii.  l-13j.  The  town  was 
inlialiited  after  the  captivity  (  Xeh.  iii.  17.  !■>). 
The  identilication  with  Kila.  a  ruined  vil- 
lage 8i  miles  northwest  of  Hebron,  is  .scarcely 
tenal)lc ;  for  Kila  is  in  the  mountains  and 
Keilah  was  situated  in  the  lowland. 

Ke-la'iah  [perhaps,  contempt].    See  Kel- 

ITA. 

Kel'i-ta  [dwarf]. 

A  Levite,  called  also  Kelaiah.  who  was  in- 
duced by  Ezra  to  jmt  away  his  foreign  wife 
(Ezra  X.  23).  He  was  employed  with  otJiers 
by  him  to  read  and  interpret  the  law  to  the 
people  (Xeh.  viii.  7i,  and  with  Nehemiah 
sealed  the  covenant  (x.  10). 

Kem'u-el  [perhaiis,  congregation  of  God]. 

1.  Son  of  Xahor  and  Milcah.  and  head  of 
a  younger  branch  of  the  .Viaiuieans  ((Jen. 
xxii.  21). 

2.  \  jirince  of  the  trilie  of  Ephraim  and  a 
commissioner  for  tlie  allotment  of  Canaan 
(Xum.  xxxiv.  21). 

3.  .\  Levite.  father  of  Hashaliiah  (1  Chron. 
xxvii.  17). 

Ke'nan.     See  C.\ix.\N. 

Ke'nath  [pos,session]. 

A  town  on  the  western  slope  of  the  .Teb(d 
llauran.  on  tlie  extreme  northeastern  tuirder 
of  Israelitish  territory.  It  was  the  most 
easterly  of  the  ten  cities  of  the  Deca|iolis 
(Pliny,  Hist.  Xat.,  .5,  ]G).and  was  nt'ar  Hostm 
(.Jerome.  Oiinm.).  Imi)osing  ruins  of  it  still 
remain,    which    bear    the    name    Kanawat. 


Kenaz 


412 


Key 


There  is  no  reason  to  clout)t  that  tliis 
town  is  that  referred  to  in  the  Okl  Testament. 
It  was  taken  by  Xobah,  probably  a  Manas- 
site,  who  called  it  after  his  own  name  (Num. 
xxxii.  42).  The  new  name,  liowever,  did 
not  permanently  supplant  the  old  one.  The 
town  passed  again  into  gentile  hands  (1  Chron. 
ii.23).  Herod  theCireat  was  defeated  here  by 
the  Arabians  (War  i.  19,  2). 

Ee'naz  [perhaps,  hnnting]. 

1.  A  descendant  of  Esan  throngh  Eliphaz 
(Gen.  xxxvi.  11).  lie  became  a  chieftain  in 
monnt  Seir  (15),  probably  taking  his  title 
from  the  clan  which  lie  rnled  (40-43).  The 
reference  in  Josh.  xv.  17 ;  1  Chron.  iv.  13  is 
probably  likewise  to  the  tribe.     See  Keniz- 

ZITE. 

2.  A  descendant  of  Caleb,  son  of  Jephunneh 
(1  Chron.  iv.  l.">).  A  name  has  evidently 
dropped  out  of  the  text  before  it. 

Ke'nez-ite.     See  Kenizzite. 

Ke'nite. 

A  tribe  of  which  a  branch  dwelt  in  Canaan 
or  vicinity  in  the  time  of  Abraham  (Gen.  xv. 
19),  while  another  portion  of  the  same  people 
settled  in  Midian,  and  by  the  time  of  Moses 
had  become  incorjiorated  with  the  Midian ites 
(.Judg.  i.  IB;  iv.  11;  cp.  Num.  x.  29).  The 
Midianite  Kenites  may,  however,  have  been 
merely  a  tribal  family  descended  from  a  man 
of  Midian  named  Cain,  and  have  had  nothing 
in  common  with  the  Kenites  who  dwelt  in 
Canaan.  Balaam,  looking  from  the  heights 
of  Abarim  on  the  region  inhabited  by  the 
Amalekites,  jirophesied  the  destruction  of 
Amalek,  and  then  looking  on  the  Kenites  of 
Canaan  in  their  rocky  fastnesses  foretold 
their  captivity  (Num.  xxiv.  20-22).  It  may 
perhaps  be  gathered  from  this  that  before  the 
conquest  of  Canaan  the  Kenites  dwelt  in  the 
rugged,  rocky  country  northeast  of  the  Ania- 
lekitesand  to  the  ea.stand  southeast  of  Hebron. 
Hobab  the  Midianite,  of  the  family  of  the 
Kenites,  accompanied  the  Israelites  on  their 
march  from  mount  Sinai  to  Canaan  to  aid 
them  with  his  knowledge  of  the  country 
(Num.  X.  29-32).  When  the  Israelites  crossed 
the  Jordan,  encamped  at  Gilgal,  and  took 
Jericho,  Hobal)'s  family  pitched  their  tents 
at  Jericho  ;  but  after  the  (-(MKiuest  of  Canaan 
they  cast  in  their  lot  with  the  trilH'  of  Judah, 
and  settled  in  the  wilderness  of  Judah,  south 
of  Arad  and  southeast  f)f  Hebron  (Judg.  i. 
16).  This  choice  jierhaiis  indicates  that  they 
were  indeed  a  branch  of  the  old  Kenite  tribe 
of  Canaan  and  sought  the  home  of  their  fore- 
fathers. One  Kenite,  however,  did  not  care 
to  dwell  with  his  brethren  in  the  south,  but 
took  up  his  abode  near  Kedesh  in  Naphtali 
(Judg.  iv.  11).  The  Kenites  who  settled  in 
the  south  of  Judah  were  still  there  in  friendly 
relations  with  the  Israelites  in  the  time  of 
Saul  and  David  (1  Sam.  xv.  6;  xxvii.  10; 
XXX.  29).  They  had  their  registry  with 
Judah  (1  Chron.  ii.  55). 


Ken'iz-zlte,  in  A.  V.  Eenezite,  save  once 
(Gen.  XV.  19). 

One  of  the  tribes  in  or  near  Canaan  in  the 
time  of  Abraham  ((Jen.  xv.  19).  Like  some 
other  trilus,  it  ajij^'ars  to  have  been  absorbed 
later  by  the  contjuering  jjcople.  Having  set- 
tled in  mount  Seir,  it  became  subject  to  the  vic- 
torious descendants  of  Esau,  when  they  took 
possession  of  the  country  (Deut.  ii.  12),  amal- 
gamated with  the  conquerors,  and  looked  to 
one  of  Esau's  descendants  as  its  head.  This 
chieftaiir  was  known  as  Kenaz  from  the  tribe 
which  he  ruled  (Gen.  xxxvi.  11,  15,  40-42). 
Individuals  of  the  tribe,  on  the  other  hand, 
united  with  the  sons  of  Jacob,  Jejihunneh 
the  Kenizzite  apparently  taking  to  wife  a 
woman  of  the  tribe  of  Judah,  ami  Othniel 
the  Kenizzite  becoming  the  first  judge  of 
Israel  after  the  conquest.     See  C.\LEB  2. 

Ker-en-hap'puch  [the  horn  of  paint]. 

The  youngest  of  Job's  three  daughters 
born  after  his  great  trial  (Job  xlii.  14). 

Ke'ri-oth,  in  A.  V.  once  Kirioth  (Amos  ii. 
2)  [cities]. 

1.  A  town  in  the  extreme  south  of  Judah, 
properly  Kerioth-hezron  (Josh.  xv.  25).  The 
same  as  Hazor  2  (q.  v.).  Possibly  it  may 
have  been  the  birthplace  of  Judas  Iscariot, 
as  tlie  latter  half  of  the  name  means  man  of 
Kerioth. 

2.  A  town  of  Jloab  (Moahite  Stone  13 ;  Jer. 
xlviii.  24),  apparently  fortified  (41).  It  i)OS- 
sesscd  palaces  (Amos  ii.  2).  It  is  supposed  to 
be  a  synonym  of  Ar,  the  ancient  capital  of 
Moab,  because  it  seems  to  be  referred  to 
as  the  capital  (ibid.),  and  because  in  enu- 
merations of  the  towns  of  Moab  when  Kerioth 
is  cited  Ar  is  omitted  (Jer.  xlviii. ;  Moabite 
Stene)  and  vice  versa  (Is.  xv.,  xvi. ;  cp.  Josh, 
xiii.  1(!-21).  Unidentified  ;  not  Kureiyat,  for 
which  see  Kiriathaim. 

Ke-ri-oth-hez'ron.  See  Kerioth  1  and 
Hazor  2. 

Ke'ros  [the  reed  of  a  weaver's  loom]. 

Founder  of  a  family  of  Nethinim,  members 
of  which  returned  from  captivity  (Ezra  ii. 
44  ;   Neh.  vii.  47). 

Ket'tle.    See  Pot. 

Ke-tu'rah  [incense]. 

Abraham's  wife,  whom  he  married  after 
the  death  of  Sarah  when  he  had  still  38 
years  of  life  bi'fore  him.  She  Ijecanie  the 
ancestress  of  the  tribes  of  Ziniran.  Jokshan, 
Medan,  Midian,  Ishbak.  and  Shuah  ((ien. 
XXV.  1.  2  :  1  Chron.  i.  32).  Her  sons  were 
not  regarded  as  on  the  same  level  with  Isaac, 
and  their  father  gave  them  gifts  and  sent 
them  away  during  his  lifetime  to  the  east 
country  (Gen.  xxv.  G).  A  tribe  Ketiha  is 
mentioned  in  late  Arabian  genealogies  as 
dwelling  near  Mecca. 

Key. 

An  instrument  for  turning  bolts  (Judg.  iii. 
25).  An  oriental  key  consists  of  a  piece  of 
wood  with  pegs  fastened  on  it  corresponding 


Keziah 


413 


Kidron 


to  small  holes  in  a  wooden  bolt  within.  Sec 
Lock.  It  is  jicnerally  carried  in  tlie  ninlle, 
but  occasionally  it  is  laslencd  lo  sona-tliin;; 
else  and  ijorne  over  the  shoulder  (cj).  Is.  .\.\ii. 
2-^}.  Tlie  key  is  the  .symbol  of  authority 
(ibid.;  .Mat.  .\vi.  19;  Ivev.  i.  1« ;  iii.  7;  ix. 
1;  XX.  1).  It  is  al.so  the  symbol  of  access  to 
that  from  which  one  would  otherwise  he  shut 
out  ( Lukr  xi.  .yj). 

Ke-zl'ah,  m  \.  V.  Kezia  [ca.ssia]. 

Tlie  siciiiKl  of  .lob's  daughters  born  after 
his  j^reat  trial  (Jol)  xlii.  14). 

Ke'zlz.     See  Emkk-kkziz. 

Klbroth-hat-ta'a-vah  [the  graves  of  lust]. 

A  place  ill  tin-  SiiKiilic  peninsula,  between 
mount  Sinai  ami  Ha/.erotli,  wliere  the  Israel- 
ites were  burii'd  wbo  were  slain  by  a  plague 
for  lusting  after  the  llesh  pots  of  Egypt 
(Num.  xi.  ;53-3.'>;  xxxiii.  Hi,  17;  Dent.  ix. 
22).  In  1870  Palmer  and  Drake  believed 
that  they  had  fouml  the  site  at  Erweis  el- 
Ebeirig.  a  day's  journey  from  'Aiu  el-lUnJLera. 
It  is  an  elevated  table-land  well  a<lapted  for 
the  encampment  of  a  great   multitude,  and 


Kid. 

A  young  goat.  It  was  highly  esteemed  as 
an  article  of  food  (Luke  w.'M).  The  tlesh 
was  boiled  and  eaten  (Judg.  vi.  19),  being 
sometimes  cooked  in  milk  (Ex.  xxiii.  l',>,'. 
The  law  probalily  did  not  jirohibii  the  use 
of  a  sucking  kid  for  food,  but  fiu'bade  that  it 
be  cooked  in  its  own  mother's  milk.  Tin- 
relation  between  even  a  lower  animal  an<l 
its  oll'sj)ring  was  sacred  and  should  not  be 
disregarded  by  man.  A  kid  might  be  used 
as  a  Ijuriit  ollering  (.Judg.  xiii.  !.>,  19).  The 
Hebrew  words,  Sit'ir  and  >''i/«/i,  rendered 
kid  of  the  goats  in  A.  V.,  are  tran.slated  by 
goat  and  he  goat  in  K.  V.  ((ieii.  xxxvii.  ol ; 
and  wherever  kid  occurs  in  Lev.,  >i'uin.,  and 
Ezek.j.     See  Goat. 

Kid'ron,  in  A.  V.  of  1  Mac.  and  N.  T. 
Cedron  [dark,  turbid]. 

1.  A  ravine  which  begins  about  half  an 
hour's  walk  to  the  northwest  of  Jerusalem 
near  the  so-called  tombs  of  the  judges, 
trends  for  a  mile  and  a  half  toward  the 
southeast,    turns  sliarply  to  the  south  and 


with  traces  for  many  miles  round  of  having 
been  so  employed.  Tradition  s;iys  that  it 
was  the  camp  of  a  great  Hajj  caravan,  which 
in  the  distant  |iast  sojourue<l  here  and  was 
never  heard  of  again. 

Klb'za-lm  [two  heaps].     Si-e  Ji>kme.\m. 


continues  in  this  direction  past  the  city  as 
far  as  the  valley  of  HiniKim  and  En-rogel. 
Here  it  bends  again  to  the  southeast  and 
|)ursiies  a  tortuous  course  to  the  Dead  Sea. 
No  stream  Hows  in  it  except  during  continu- 
ous heavy  rains  in  winter,  and  there  is  no 
evidence  that  its  bed  was  ever  occujiicd  by  a 


Kinah 


414 


King 


perennial  brook.  Indeed,  tbe  word  brook, 
which  is  connected  witli  it  in  the  English 
version,  represents  a  llelirew  word  which 
coniniunly  either  means  a  ravine  occniiied  by 
the  eliannel  of  a  tornnt  dry  during  the  hot 
season  or  denotes  tin-  winter  torrent  itself. 
By  writers  who  use  Greek,  the  Kidron  is  ex- 
pressly called  winter  brook  (John  xviii.  1  ;  1 
Mac.  .xii.  37).  The  name  may  he  derived 
from  tlie  turbid  water  of  tlie  winter  torrents 
or  from  the  gloominess  of  the  valley,  espe- 
cially iu  its  lower  part.  To  speakers  yf  the 
(ireek  language,  the  Greek  form  of  the  name 
suggested  the  word  for  ct'dar  and  the  rivulet 
came  to  he  fri'(iurntly  called  the  In'ook  of  the 
cedars  (.John  xviii.  1,  Iv.  V.  margin  ;  2  Sam. 
XV.  23,  codex  Vat.).  The  Kidron  separates 
Jerusalem  from  the  mount  of  Olives  and  had 
to  be  crossed  by  those  g(»ing  from  the  city  to 
Bethany  or  .Jericho  (2  Sam.  xv.  'Si).  It  was 
regarded  as  the  eastern  boundary  of  the  city 
(1  Kin.  ii.  37  ;  Jer.  xxsi.  40).  The  i)ortion  of 
the  valley  lying  near  the  southern  part  of 
the  city  was  early  used  as  a  common  burying 
ground  (2  Kin.  xxiii.  (5)  ;  and  godly  kings, 
who  from  time  to  time  found  it  necessary  to 
cleanse  the  temple  of  idolatrous  symbols, 
made  the  Kidron  valley  the  dumping  place 
for  the  ashes  of  these  abominations  (1  Kin. 
XV.  13;  2  Ghron.  xxix.  IG  ;  x.xx.  14;  2  Kin. 
xxiii.  4).  Athaliah  is  reported  to  have  been 
led  away  to  the  Kidron  for  execution  that 
the  temple  might  not  be  defiled  by  her  blood 
(Antiq.  ix.  7,  3). 

2.  A  town  near  Jamnia  and  Ashdod  (1 
Mac.  XV.  39 ;  xvi.  9, 10),  fortified  by  C'Cndebseus 
and  occupied  by  a  detachment  of  his  Syrian 
army  because  it  commanded  several  roads 
into  ,Jud?ea  (xv.  41).     See  Gederoth. 

Ki'nah  [song  of  mourning,  lamentation]. 

A  village  in  the  extreme  south  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  22).     Situation  unknown. 

Kine.     See  Cow. 

King. 

The  head  of  that  form  of  state  which  is 
specifically  called  a  kingdom.  The  title  for- 
merly implied  autocratic  power.  Nimrod 
ruled  over  a  kingdom  in  Babylonia  contain- 
ing several  cities  (Gen.  x.  10).  Chedorlaomer 
was  king  of  Elam  and  head  of  a  confederacy 
of  kings  (xiv.  1,  .")).  Pharaoh  lield  sway 
over  the  princes  of  Egypt  (xii.  1.')).  Nebu- 
chadnezzar of  Babylon  and  Artaxerxes  the 
Persian  were  each  a  king  over  kings  (Ezra 
vii.  12;  Dan.  ii.  37,  cp.  2  Kin.  xxiv.  17).  In 
Canaan  in  the  time  of  Abraham  the  rule  of  a 
king  was  often  over  one  town  only  (Gen.  xiv. 
2,  18;  XX.  2).  Some  centuries  later  Joshua 
enumerated  thirty-one  kings  whom  he  had 
coiuiuered  witliin  the  bounds  of  Canaan 
(.Josli.  xii.  7-24).  It  was  nut  until  centuries 
after  the  tribes  and  nations  adjacent  to  Pal- 
estine had  been  ruled  by  kings,  that  the 
Israelites  demanded  a  visible  monarch.  Al- 
though tlie  demand  when  made  was  jirompted 
by  unbelief  and  in  so  far  was  rebellion  against 


Jehovah,  yet  it  was  not  in  itself  at  variance 
with  the  theocracy  and  the  invisible,  but  ef- 
ficient, rule  of  Jehovah;  IVn-  the  tlieocracyin 
its  viry  institution  contenii)lated  tlic  adminis- 
tration of  tlic  several  ofliccs  of  govi'rnnient  by 
human  agents;  see  TliKocK.VtV.  Moses  fore- 
ssiw  the  need  that  would  arise  for  a  visible 
king  and  he  provided  for  the  event,  just  as 
l)rovision  was  made  for  i)rophets  and  ]iriests 
to  make  known  tlie  will  or  legislation  of 
Jehovah  and  for  judges  to  reiireseiit  the 
unseen  Judge  (Dent.  xvii.  14-20).  When  the 
king  was  cho.sen  the  theocracy  was  not  abol- 
ished. The  nominally  nncoiitrolUd  soveri'ign 
was  required  to  be  the  vicegertnt  of  .Icliovah  ; 
and  when  Saul,  mistaking  his  iiosition,  sought 
to  act  independently,  another  was  chosen  to 
supersede  him  and  his  posterity  on  the 
throne.  The  same  rule  obtained  with  all 
Saul's  successors  ;  when  they  gave  nj)  fidelity 
to  Jehovah,  they  forfeited  their  title  to  the 
kingdom  (1  Kin.  xi.  31-36).  For  the  suc- 
cession of  kings  who  ruled  in  Judah  and 
Israel,  see  Chronology. 

A  man  became  king  of  a  nation  through 
api>ointment  to  the  ofhce  by  one  higher  in 
authority  (1  Sam.  ix.  16;  xvi.  1,  13;  2  Kin. 
xxiii.  33,  34 ;  xxiv.  17),  by  the  choice  of  the 
people  (1  Sam.  xviii.  8;  2  Sam.  v.  1-3;  1 
Kin.  xii.  20;  2  Kin.  xxiii.  30),  by  usurjiing  a 
throne  (1  Kin.  xv.  27,  28),  or  by  inheritance 
(xi.  36).  The  ceremony  of  coronation  among 
the  Israelites  consisted  regularly  in  plac- 
ing on  the  throne,  putting  the  crown 
upon  the  head,  anointing  with  oil,  and  proc- 
lamation (2  Kin.  xi.  12;  cp.  1  Sam.  x.  24;  2 
Sam.  ii.  4;  v.  3;  1  Kin.  i.  34;  2  Kin.  xxiii. 
30).  It  was  doubtless  regularly  acconijianied 
by  sacrifice,  and  sometimes  also  by  a  solemn 
procession  (1  Sam.  xvi.  2,5;  1  Kin.  i.  2,5,  43- 
46).  The  king  often  led  the  army  to  battle 
in  person  (Gen.  xiv.  '•>;  Num.  xxi.  23;  1  Sam. 
viii.  20;  xiv.  20),  made  treaties  in  behalf  of 
himself  and  his  people  (Gen.  xxi.  22-32;  1 
Kin.  XV.  19),  enacted  laws  and  executed 
them  (Esth.  iii.  12,  13  ;  viii.  7-12 ;  Dan.  iii. 
4-6,  29  ;  vi.  6-9),  exercised  judicial  functions 
(2  Sam.  XV.  2;  Is.  xxxiii.  22),  and  had  the 
power  of  life  and  death  (2  Sam.  xiv.  1-11  ;  1 
Kin.  i.  51,  52  ;  ii.  24-.34  ;  Esth.  iv.  11 ;  vii.  9, 
10).  The  restraints  ujion  the  king  were  the 
fear  of  God  and  man.  The  jioimlar  will 
might  not  always  be  ignored  (1  Sam.  xiv.  45; 
XV.  24 1.  The  endurance  of  the  people  might 
not  be  overtaxed  with  impunity  (1  Kin.  xii. 
4).  There  were  ollicirs  of  religion,  both 
priests  and  ]n-iiiihets,  who  in  religious  mat- 
ters were  iiidejiendeiit  of  the  king  and  did 
not  hesitate  to  rebuke  misdemeanors  (1  Sam. 
xiii.  10-14:  xv.  10-31;  2  Sam.  xii.  1-15;  1 
Kin.  xviii.  17,  18  :  xxi.  17-22  ;  2  Chron.  xxvi. 
16-21 1.  But  a  despotic  king  sometimes  lu'oke 
through  these  restraints  (1  Sam.  xxii.  17-19; 
1  Kin.  xii.  13-16;  Jer.  xxvi.  20-23.  In 
view  of  the  royal  duties  and  prerogatives, 
the  king  required  physical,  mental,  and 
moral  qualities  of  a  high  order  to  rule  well. 


Kingdom 


415 


Kings,  Books  of  the 


Physical  sujieriority  is  appreciated  the  mo- 
ment it  becomes  visil>k'.  Thus,  when  Saul 
wasi»resenteil  to  his  future  sulyects,  ami  tliey 
saw  him  tower  liead  and  shoulders  above  all 
tlie  multilude  lucsent,  they  raised  the  shout, 
■•(rod  save  the  kiny"  (1  Sam.  x.  Si,  21  ;  ej). 
also  xvi.  7).  In  order  to  be  an  al)le 
jndge  the  king  must  be  a  man  of  pene- 
tration, able  to  disentangle  truth  from 
falseliood,  and  punish,  not  the  innocent, 
but  the  guilty.  Tliis  is  the  reason  why 
there  was  such  emotion  among  the  Israelites 
when  Solomon,  trying  his  first  case,  tiiat  of 
the  two  wnuien  and  th<^  child,  so  signally 
detected  where  the  truth  and  where  the 
falsehood  lay  (I  Kin.  iii.  -JS ;  cp.  Is.  xi.  1-!M. 
But  penetration  was  not  enough ;  the  moral 
element  was  reijuisite  to  make  the  sovereign 
give,  without  fear  or  favor,  tiie  verdict  which 
lu!  considered  just.  For  the  protection  of 
his  ]ierson  and  assistance  in  tlie  discliarge  of 
his  duties  the  king  had  a  bodyguard,  the 
cai)tain  of  which  generally  acted  as  <'xecu- 
tioiier  ('i  Sam.  xv.  l^;  .\x.  2.3  with  1  Kin.  ii. 
2.'>,  -JiM:  see  (JcAKD.  Wealthy  kings  liad 
maiinilicent  palaces,  surrounded  Ihem.selves 
with  luxury,  an<l  lived  in  state  (1  Kin.  x). 
See  also  Skpi'I-cHKR. 

(rod  is  compared  to  a  king  possessed  of 
unlimited  ji  )\ver,  and  using  it  under  the  in- 
fluence of  supreme  beneficence  (Ps.  v.  2  ;  x. 
Kj).  He  is  the  King  of  kings  (1  Tim.  vi.  1.")). 
Christ  is  a  king.  He  calle(l  liimself  so, 
hut  explained  tiiat  his  kingdom  is  not  of  this 
world  I. John  xviii.  33-;3S).  He  also  i.s  the 
Kin^  of  kings  (Kev.  xix.  KJ). 

Klng'dom. 

1.  The  territory  or  the  people  ruled  over 
by  a  king  (2  Kin.  xv.  19). 

2.  The  sovt'reign  rule  of  God  over  the  uni- 
verse (1  Citron,  xxix.  11  ;  Ps.  xxii.  28;  exlv. 
13;   Mat.  vi.  13). 

3.  X  sovereignty  which  Daniel  ])rophesied 
that  (i(jd  was  about  to  establish  on  earth,  and 
which,  oiK^e  set  up,  shouhl  remain  forever. 
Of  this  kingdom  tiie  .Son  of  man  should  l)e 
the  ruler  (Dan.  vii.  13.  H).  John  the  IJaj)- 
tist  declared  that  in  his  day  it  was  at  hand 
(Mat.  iii.  2).  So  did  Jesus  in  the  earlier  part 
of  bis  ministry  (iv.  17),  and  he  taught  his 
disciples  to  pray  for  its  coming  (vi.  Id).  The 
apostles  when  first  sent  forth  wen;  instructed 
to  say  that  it  was  at  han<l  (x.  7).  Afterwards 
the  divine  Preacher  s])oke  of  it  as  having 
come  ixii.  2-;|,  and  gavi^  forth  many  jiarables 
illu>tr,itive  of  its  nature.  It  is  sometimes 
called  the  kingdom  of  heaven,  and  at  others 
the  kingdom  of  ({od,  Matthew  preferring  the 
fornu-rand  Mark  and  Luke  the  latter  desig- 
nation (cp.  Mat.  xiii.  2t,  31,  Xi.  -11,  I.")  with 
Mark  iv.  11,  2(i,  .!<i  ;  laike  xiv.  1.');  xvii.  2<t, 
etc.).  The  kingdom  was  to  be  of  a  spiritinil 
character,  and  no  carnal  weajions  were  to  be 
u.seil  in  its  establisbnu'nt  (John  xviii.  .3.3-37). 
Commemcd  on  earth  with  the  royal  ministry 
of  Christ,    it  was   to  be  consummated  amid 


the  bliss  of  the  eternal  world  (Mat.  xxv.  31- 
4();  Luke  xxiii.  42,  43).  The  kingthjin  of 
(iod  is  thus  the  "invisible  church."'  It  is  the 
whole  siiiritinti  commonwealth  of  (i<jd's  chil- 
dren, the  true  comjiany  of  all  faithful  jieojde. 
It  is  represented  tiy  tlie  organized  or  visible 
church,  but  is  more  comprehensive  and 
greater  than  the  visible  church  in  any  age 
or  all  ages. 

Kings,  Books  of  the. 

The  two  Books  of  the  Kings  were  origi- 
nally one  book,  but  were  divided  in  the  .Sep- 
tuagint  into  two.  They  are  placed  among 
"till'  pioplii-ts"  in  the  llibrew  canon,  in  that 
group  of  .Scripturi's  which,  because  standing 
first  among  the  jirophets,  were  known  as 
"  former  jirophets."  The  writings  of  the  for- 
mer iirophets  form  a  continuous  narrative 
which  be;;ins  at  the  death  of  .Closes  and  ends 
with  the  exile.  Joshua  is  the  first  book  in 
the  series  and  the  Books  of  the  Kings  are  the 
last.  These  were  w-ritten  to  point  out  the 
religious  teaching  of  the  national  history 
during  the  period  of  the  kingdom  from  the 
accession  of  Solomon.  The  author  shows  the 
growth  and  decay  of  the  kingdom,  indicates 
the  causes  which  worked  to  eti'ect  these  re- 
sults, and  draws  attention  to  the  large  ]iart 
jilayed  by  forces  of  a  moral  and  religious 
character  (cp.  2  Kin.  xvii.).  His  narrative 
covers  a  jicriod  of  more  than  four  hundred 
years,  and  he  is  consecjui-ntly  deiicndent  njion 
fornii'r  historians  for  his  facts.  He  draws 
chiefly  from  the  "  book  of  the  chronicles  of 
tiie  kings  of  Israel"  (1  Kin.  xiv.  ]!>),  down 
to  the  death  of  Pekab,  and  the  "book  of 
the  chronicles  of  the  kings  of  Judah  "  (2ft), 
down  to  the  death  of  Jehoiakini.  It  is  gen- 
ci-.illy  believed  that  these  chronicles  were 
originally,  as  the  titles  suggest,  two  sejiarate 
works.  Probably  they  were  ultimately 
united  into  one  and  constituted  the  work 
(|noted  by  the  chronicler  as  the  "  hook  of  the 
kings  of  .Tiidah  and  Israel  ''  (2  Chron.  xvi. 
11).  These  two  chronicles  contained  more 
than  the  iirescnt  Books  of  tlie  Kings,  for  the 
writi'r  of  Kings  refers  his  readers  to  them 
for  further  details  (1  Kin.  xiv.  1!».  2il),  and 
the  chronicler  quotes  ])ortions  wliich  the 
writer  of  Kings  docs  not  (2  Cliron.  xxvii.  7  ; 
xxxiii.  IS).  It  is  believed  that  these  two 
cbronick's  were  not  the  ]iublic  annals,  but  a 
com|ii1ation  from  several  documents.  This 
o]iinion  is  based  on  the  fact  that  writings  of 
various  i>ro)diets  are  mentioned  as  haviiifr 
been  inserted  in  the  book  of  the  kings  of 
Israi'l  (2  Chron.  xx.  31;  xxxii.  .32),  which 
could  not  have  been  done  if  the  book  were 
the  state  annals  added  to  from  day  to  day  by 
the  loyal  scribe.  The  double  chronicles  were 
writt<ii  before  the  fall  of  ,Ieriis;ileni  ;  for  the 
plirasi'  "unto  this  day"  refers,  so  far  as  can 
be  determined,  invarialily  to  the  time  when 
the  city  and  tenijile  were  in  existence  (1  Kin. 
viii.  H)  ;  ■•ind  if  it  does  not  jirove  that  the 
writer  of  the  present  Books  of  the  Kings  lived 


Kir 


416 


Kiriath-jearim 


before  tlio  exile,  it  at  least  slinws  thai  tlic 
writer  ot  tlie  Ixjok  from  wliieli  lie  (iiiotcs  did. 
Whether  the  writi'r  uf  the  ]irtsi.'iit  Books 
of  tiie  Kiiiys  hi'fjau  the  work  ht-fort'  the 
destnietion  of  .Icriisaleiii  or  not,  lie  did  not 
coinjilete  it  until  after  the  middle  years  of 
the  JJahylonian  exile  (2  Kin.  xxv.  27).  lie 
]>erhaiis  finished  it  belVjre  the  elo.se  of  the  ex- 
ile, siiiee  the  work  eonlains  no  allusion  to  the 
deliverauee  of  the  jH'ople  from  IJaliyloii. 

The  author  is  ehieliy  eonei'riied  with  the 
history  of  the  Davidie  monanhy.  Like  the 
author  of  Genesis,  he  disposes  of  subsidiary 
matters  liefore  treating  his  main  theme.  In 
following;  this  method,  he  records  events  re- 
latiiij,'  to  Israel  before  givinjj  the  contem- 
poraneous history  of  Judah.  This  leads  him 
to  sometimes  narrate  the  same  event  in  con- 
neotioii  with  both  the  northern  and  the  south- 
ern kingdoms  (1  Kin.  xv.  l(i  with  32  ;  2  Kin. 
xvii.  .5,  ij  with  xviii.  9). 

The  work  is  divided  into  three  parts.  I. 
The  reign  of  Solomon  (1  Kin.  i.-xi.).  II.  A 
synelironistic  aeeount  of  the  kingdoms  of 
Judah  and  Israel  until  the  captivity  of  Is- 
rael (xii.-2  Kin.  xvii.).  III.  The  kingdom  of 
Judah  until  the  Babylonian  exile. 

Kir  [wall,  fortified  town]. 

1.  The  place  from  which  the  Aramfeans 
migrated  to  Syria  (Amos  ix.  7),  and  to  which 
those  of  them  living  in  Damascus  were  car- 
ried back  again  on  being  conquered  by  the 
Assyrians  (2  Kin.  xvi.  i) ;  Amos  i.  5).  Its  in- 
habitants are  represented  as  arrayed  with 
Elam  against  Judah  (Is.  xxii.  6).  Not  iden- 
tified. Gesenius'  doubtful  identification  of 
it  with  a  region  called  Kur,  between  the 
Black  and  the  Cas]iian  seas,  is  groundless. 
Nor  is  Schrader's  identification  of  it  with 
Media  probable  (cp.  Is.  xxi.  2  with  xxii.  6), 
for  there  is  no  reason  for  believing  that  the 
Aramfeans  carue  from  ^ledia.  Furrer's  iden- 
tification with  the  district  Cyrrhestica,  north- 
wi'st  of  Antioch,  lacks  proof. 

Kir  of  Mo'ab. 

A  fortified  city  of  southern  Moab  (Is.  xv. 
1),  culled  also  Kir-hareseth  and  Kir-heres 
(xvi.  7,  11  ;  Jer.  xlviii.  ol,  '.'>C>;  in  A.  V. some- 
times Kir-harasetb  and  Kir-harcsh).  It  was 
strong  enough  to  resist  the  combined  forces 
of  Israel,  Judah,  and  Edom  (2  Kin.  iii.  25).  Its 
modern  name,  traceable  back  to  the  Targum, 
is  Kerak.  It  is  11  miles  east  from  the  south- 
ern bay  of  the  Dead  Sea,  south  of  the  Lisan 
or  tongue,  and  18  south  of  the  Arnon  river. 
It  stands  on  a  triangular  hill,  at  an  elevation 
of  3323  feet  above  the  Mediterranean,  on  a 
rocky  platform  which  rises  at  its  southeastern 
extremity  to  3720  feet.  Excejit  at  one  or  two 
spots,  the"  hill  is  isolated  from  the  neighboring 
bills  l)y  precipices  falling  sheer  down  to  the 
deep  valleys  below.  Its  weak  ])oint  for  mili- 
tarv  iiurposes  is  that  it  iscommaiided  by  adja- 
cent hills  40.")()  feet  high.  Kerak  constitutes  a 
triangle  from  2400  to  3000  feet  on  each  side. 
It  is  entered  by  two  arched  tunnels,  probably 


of  Roman  age.  There  are  remains  of  Eomau, 
crusading,  and  Mohammedan  times.  There 
is  a  great  castle  which  was  built  by  king 
Fulco  about  .v.  u.  1131,  and  which  in  11&3 
defied  the  etiorts  of  Saladin  to  efiect  its  cap- 
ture. Kerak  was  also  found  impregnable  by 
Ibrahim  Pasha  in  Ibll.  Its  present  jiopula- 
tiou  is  believed  to  be  about  6000,  of  whom 
IGOO  are  (  liristians. 

Kir-har'a-seth,  Kir-har'e-seth,  Kir-ha'- 
resh,  Kir-he'res  [city  of  bricks  or  city  of 
pottery].     .See  KiR  of  Moak. 

Kir'i-ath,  in  A.  Y.  Kirjath  [city]. 

A  town  of  Benjamin  (Josh,  xviii.  28).  some- 
times identified  with  Kirjath-jearim. 

Kir-i-a-tha'im,  in  A.  Y.  sometimes  Kir- 
Ja-tha'im  [twin  cities]. 

1.  An  ancient  city  of  the  Emim  (Gen.  xiv. 
5),  rebuilt  l)y  the  Eeubenites  (Num.  xxxii. 
37;  Josh.  xiii.  19),  which  afterwards  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  Moabites  (Moal)ite  Stone  10 ; 
Jer.  xlviii.  1,  23 ;  Ezek.  xxv.  9).  It  is  be- 
lieved that  its  site  was  at  Kureiyat.  north  of 
the  Arnon,  and  2i  miles  south  by  east  of 
Ataroth.     The  ruins  are  on  two  hills. 

2.  The  same  as  Kartan  (q.  v.)  (1  Chron.  vi. 
76). 

Kir-i-ath-ar'ba,  in  A.  Y.  Kirjath-arba 
[city  otArba,  or  ])erliaps,  city  of  the  croucher]. 

An  old  name  for  the  city  of  Hebron,  point- 
ing to  the  fact  that  it  was  the  city  of  Arba, 
or  the  Arba,  father  of  Auak.  Perhaps  he 
W'as  its  founder  (Gen.  xxiii.  2  ;  Josh.  xiv.  1.5; 
XV.  13,  54  ;  XX.  7  ;  xxi.  11 ;  Judg.  i.  10).  The 
old  name  was  not  obsolete  even  in  the  time 
of  Nehemiah  (Neh.  xi.  25).     See  Hp;T;i;nN. 

Kir-i-ath-a'rim,  in  A.  Y.  Kirjath-arim. 
See  KimATH-JEAitiM. 

Kir-i-ath-ba'al,   in    A.    Y.    Kirjath-baal 

[city  of  Baal].     See  Kikiath-jkakim. 

Kir-i-ath-hu'zoth,  in  A.  Y.  Kirjath-hu- 
zoth  [city  of  streets]. 

A  Moabite  town  near  Bamoth-baal  (Num. 
xxii.  39,  41).  It  may  have  been  the  same  as 
Kiriatharim. 

Kir-i-ath-je'a-rim,  in  A.  Y.  Kirjath- 
jearim  [city  of  woods  or  forests]. 

A  town  belonging  originally  to  the  Gibcou- 
ites  (Josh.  ix.  17).  It  was  on  the  western  part 
of  the  l)oundary  line  between  the  trilies  of  Ju- 
dah and  Benjamin  (.Josh.  xv.  9;  xviii.  14,  15). 
but  pertained  to  Judah,  being  considered  a 
town  belonging  to  the  hill  country  of  the  latter 
tribe  (xv.  48,  60  ;  Judg.  xviii.  12).  After  the 
ark  had  been  returned  to  the  Israelites  by 
the  Philistines,  it  remained  in  safe  custody 
in  Kiriath-jearini  for  the  next  twenty  years, 
until  the  second  battle  of  Ebeiiezer,  and 
longer  (1  Sam.  vi.  19-vii.  2).  Some  of  its 
population  returned  fnmr  captivity  (Neh.  vii. 
29;  in  Ezra  ii.  25  the  name  aiii>eais  as  Kiri- 
ath-arini).  It  was  called  also  Kiriath-baal 
(Jo.sh.  XV.  60:  xviii.  14),  Baalah  (xv.  9.  11), 
or  Baale  (2  Sam.  vi.  2;  cp.  1  t'hron.  xiii.  6). 


Kiriath-sannah 


417 


Kiss 


Eiiscbius  states  that  it  was  situated  9  or  10 
Kiiiiuiii  miU's  I'roin  JiTiisjili'iii  on  tlio  road 
to  l)ios]iolis,  I.  c.  Lyil<la,  luiil  ;icconliii<;ly  it 
is  coimiioiily  idiMitilird  willi  Kiirit't  cl-'Kuab, 
7  mill's  west  by  iiortli  of  Jerusjilein.  Coiider 
ar;;iU'S  for  the  ruins  'Krnia,  11  miles  west  by 
soutli  of  .FeriiNilem,  and  '2\  south  by  west  of 
Kola.  Ihit  contrary  to  his  opinion.  Josh  .\v. 
1(1  is  surely  aj;ainst  the  location  proposed  by 
hint.  'Erma  and  Jearim  are  also  i-adieally 
ditlerent.  and  the  site  is  too  remote  from  the 
other  (Jibeonite  settlements. 

Kir-i-ath-san'nah,  in  A.  V.  Kirjath-san- 
nah.     See  l)i.;i;ii;. 

Kir-i-ath-se'pher,  in  A.  V.  Kirjatti-se- 
pher.     .See  Dkhik. 

Kir'i-oth.    See  Kerioth. 

Kir'jath.     See  Kiri.\th. 

Kir-jath-ar'ba,  etc.  See  KiKi.XTH-AiiiJ.v, 
ete. 

Kish,  in  A.  \'.  of  N.  T.  Cis,  in  imitation 
of  the  (ireek. 

1.  A  Benjamite,  son  of  Jeiel  (1  Chron.  viii. 
30;  ix.  3.'),  :{()). 

2.  A  Henjamite.  father  of  kinj;  Saul  and 
son  of  .\biel  1 1  Sam.  i.x.  1),  but  also  re;^istered 
as  a  son  of  Ner  and  a  descendant  of  .leiel  of 
(Jibeoii  (1  C'liron.  viii.  :W ;  ix.  'M,  :«)).  This 
latter  {jenealojjy  may  indeed  merely  register 
the  fact  that  Kish  was  a  (U'scendant  of  Xer, 
without  imiilyinji  that  he  was  his  immi'diate 
sou  ;  and  allow  of  the  insertion  of  Abiel  aud 
others  between  Kish  ami  Ner. 

Jeiel 


Jeiel  or  Abiel. 


Abdon.      Zur.      Kish.      Baal. 


Ner.  Nadab. 

Zeror. 

Abiel. 


Kish.     Ner. 

I  I 

Saul.      Ahner. 

But  i)erhaps  only  one  Kish  and  one  Ner 
<lescended  from  .leiel.  If  so.  the  explanation 
of  tin-  ^;euealo;;y  is  that  Ner's  descendants 
became  two  tribal  houses,  those  of  Kish  and 
Ner.  The  former,  the  imi)ortant  royal  family 
of  Saul,  looked  to  Ner's  son  Kish  as  its  founder; 
liut  it  was  merely  a  yonui^er  branch  of  the 
older,  but  less  distin^juislu'd,  line  of  Ner. 
lioth  houses  belonfie<l  to  the  family  of  Jeiel, 
and  hence  Kish  as  well  as  Ner  is  rejjis- 
tered,  accordiiiLj  to  the  familiar  princi|ile, 
anion;;  .leiel's  sons  (ix.  ."{(i).  SauTs  father, 
Kish,  and  .\biu'r"s  father,  Ner.  are  mentioned 
as  sons  of  .\biel  also  (1  Sam.  ix.  1  ;  xiv.  .'il), 
and  either  Ner  or  .Miner  is  stated  to  liave 
been  .Saul's  uncle  (xiv.  fiOi.  Abiel  maybe, 
as  some  i-xpositors  suppose,  or  may  not  be, 
another  name  or  the  uucorrupted  form  of 
Jeiel. 


Abdon.     Zur.  ;  Baal. 


Ner. 
I 


Nadi 


ab.     Gedor. 


Kish. 
Saul. 


Abner. 


3.  A  Levite,  iu  David's  time,  of  the  family 
of  Merari,  house  of  Mabli  (1  Chron.  xxiii.21, 
•22;  xxiv.  2!)). 

4.  A  Levite,  family  of  Merari  and  son  of 
Abdi,  who  aided  in  the  revival  under  Heze- 
kiah  (2  Chron.  xxix.  12). 

;").  A  Heujamite,  an  ancestor  of  Mordecai 
(Esth.  ii.  r>)'. 

Kish'i.     See  Kisii.vi.\ii. 

Kish'i-on,  iu  A.  V.  once  Kishon  (Josh.  xxi. 
2S|  [har<lness]. 

.V  border  town  of  I.ssachar  (Josh.  xix.  20), 
ifiven  to  the  Cershonite  Levites  (xxi.  2.S).  In 
1  Chron.  vi.  72  Kedesh  a])pears  in  its  stead, 
lirobably  by  a  copyist's  error.   Site  unknown. 

Ki'shon,  in  A.  V.  once  Klson  (Ps.  Ixxxiii. 
!))  [bending,  curving;,  tortuous], 

1.  The  most  important  river  of  Palestine 
next  to  the  Jordan.  "That  ancient  river, 
the  river  Kishon"  swept  away  the  soldiers 
of  Sisera's  beaten  army  when  they  tied  north- 
ward from  Taanach  aud  attemjited  to  cross 
the  stream  (.Fudg.  v.  19-21  :  I's.  Ixxxiii.  »). 
The  ])riests  of  Baal  who  had  the  contest  with 
Elijah  were  slain  on  its  southern  bank  (1 
Kin.  xviii.  40).  It  is  now  called  the  Nahr  el- 
Mukutta'.  ConderaiKl  Kitchener  state  that 
its  real  source  is  near  Khurbet  el-Mezrah  and 
the  springs  called  el-MuJahiyah.  the  place  of 
bursting  forth  of  water.  From  this  spot, 
which  is  only  a  little  west  of  Beth-sliean,  a 
scries  of  pools  (extends,  and  then  a  continuous 
.stream.  As  the  name  Kishon  implies,  the 
river  is  tortuous,  makini;  ;;reat  curves  as  it 
proceeds  in  a  generally  northwesterly  direc- 
tion throuijh  the  jilaiu  of  Esdraelon.  It  looks 
an  insignificant  stream,  of  1.^  or  IS  feet 
across,  liut  has  treacherous  lianks,  and  a 
nnuldy  bottom,  so  inudi  so  that  when  the 
Turks  aud  .Vrabs  were  defeated  by  the 
l''nnch  iu  the  battle  of  mount  Tabor,  on 
April  1(>,  ITStSt,  the  fate  of  the  vamiui.shed 
host  was  tlie  same  as  that  of  Sisera's  army. 
Toward  Ilarosheth  of  the  gentiles.  ,Iabin's 
city,  the  Kishon  runs  thron;;h  a  narrow 
gor;;e  iiudiT  the  dilfs  whidi  constitute  the 
nortiieru  side  of  mount  Cannel,  the  waterat 
one  jilace  being  nearly  liidden  l>y  oleander 
bushes.  Then  the  stream  enters  the  ])lain  of 
.\cre.  .Sanil  dunes,  dotted  with  |ialm  trees, 
interfere  with  it  in  the  latter  ]iart  of  its 
course  ;  and  it  is  only  wlu-n  full  of  wati'r  that 
it  can  overcome  the  obstacle,  and  make  a 
pro])er  entrance  into  the  Me<literranean. 

2.  .\  town,  sosjielled  in  A.  V.  .See  KisnioN. 
Kiss. 

A  salutation,  common   iu   the  Orient  from 


Kite 


418 


Kneading  Trough 


patriarchal  times  onward,  between  persons 
of  the  same  sex  and  to  a  limited  extent  l)e- 
tweeii  individuals  of  different  sexes.  Fathers 
and  mothers  kissed  their  ehildren  and  de- 
si-tndants  ((ien.  xxxi.  -JS.  .V);  xlviii.  10;  2 
Sam.  xiv.  'S.i,  ete.),  and  ehildren  their  parents 
(Gen.  xxvii.  2(J,  27;  1.  1 ;  1  Kin.  xix.  20). 
Brother  and  sister  kissed  each  other  (Song 
viii.  1).  and  hrother  kissed  lirother  ((ien.  xlv. 
l."> :  Ex.  iv.  27).  So  did  otlier  relatives  and 
kinsfolk  ((ien.  xxix.  11;  Ex.  xviii.  7  ;  Knth 
i.  H).  Comrades  kissed  each  other;  so  did 
friends  (1  Sam.  xx.  41;  2  Sam.  xix.  39;  xx. 
9  ;  Acts  XX.  37).  In  the  time  of  our  Lord,  a 
guest  invited  to  a  house  expected  on  entering 
to  be  kissed  by  his  entertainer  (Luke  vii.  45). 
It  was  in  these  circumstances  that  Christians 
were  enjoined  to  salute  each  other  with  a 
holy  kiss  (Rom.  xvi.  16:  1  Cor.  xvi.  20;  2 
Cor.  xiii.  12  ;  1  Thes.  v.  2()),  or  with  a  kiss  of 
love  (1  Pet.  V.  14),  symbolical  of  Christian 
brotherhood.  As  kissing  between  friends, 
guests,  and  entertainers  lapsed,  the  salutiition 
enjoined  by  the  apostle  fell  also  into  desue- 
tude. In  iill  the  foregoing  cases  a  kiss  was, 
or  at  least  professed  to  be,  an  expression  of 
love.  It  therefore  added  to  the  baseness  of 
Judas'  treachery  that  he  had  not  merely  be- 
trayed his  Lord,  but  did  so  by  means  of  a 
kiss  (Mat,  xxvi.  48,  49;  Luke  xxii.  47,  48; 
cp.  Prov.  xxvii.  6).  In  all  love  there  is  a 
greater  or  less  amount  of  respect.  The  feet 
of  kings  were  kissed  in  token  of  great  respect 
and  to  tender  allegiance  (Ps.  ii.  12),  and  the 
same  idea  was  involved  in  the  kiss  given  to 
idols  (1  Kin.  xix.  18;  Hos.  xiii.  2).  A  kiss 
was  sometimes  thrown  by  the  hand  to  the 
idol  (Job  xxxi.  27).  When  women  kissed  the 
feet  of  our  Lord,  it  indicated  the  unbounded 
respect  and  affection  whicli  they  felt  for  his 
character  and  work  (Luke  vii.  38,  45). 


Common  Kite  of  Palestine. 


Kite. 


A  bird  of  prey  of  the  falcon  family,  with 
long,  pointed  wings  and  usually  long,  forked 
tali.     The  word  is  used  in  R.  V.  to  render 


the  Hebrew  Da'ah  and  Dayyah  (Lev.  xi.  14  ; 
Dent.  xiv.  13 ;  Is.  xxxiv.  15  ;  in  A.  V.  vul- 
ture) and  twice  in  A.  V.  to  render  'Ayydh 
(Lev.  xi.  14;  Dent.  xiv.  13;  in  K.  V.  falcon). 
Both  birds  were  ceremonially  unclean  (Lev. 
xi.  14).  The  IIel)rew  name  of  the  former 
corresponds  to  the  Arabic  hadoyyeh,  vernacu- 
lar for  the  kite.  It  is  of  various  kinds  (Dent, 
xiv.  13).  The  black  kite  (MilvHs  niyrdiisi  is 
Ibund  in  central  and  .soullu-rn  Europe,  north- 
ern Africa,  and  western  .\sia.  It  appears  in 
Palestine  in  .March,  gliding  noiseles.sly  in  the 
air,  looking  down  for  its  food,  which  consists 
of  offal,  for,  being  a  somewhat  cowardly 
bird,  it  does  not  molest  poultry.  It  brei'ds  in 
trees,  ornamenting  its  nest  with  rags  of  differ- 
ent colors.  The  black- winged  kite  {Elanus 
cxnileux)  also  occurs  in  Palestine,  but  is  rare. 
Kith'lisli,  in  K.  V.  CWthlish. 
A  village  in  tlie  lowland  of  Judah  (Josh. 
XV.  40).  Not  identified. 
Kit'ron. 

A  town  in  the  territory  of  Zebulun,  but 
from  which  the  Canaanites  were  not  driven 
out  (Judg.  i.  30).     Compare  K.\ttath. 

Kit'tim  or  CMttim,  the  latter  being  the 
more  consistent,  and  in  A.  \.  more  frequent 
spelling  [origin  and  meaning  unknown]. 

Descendants  of  Javan,  who  inhabited  Cy- 
prus and  other  islands  and  coasts  of  the 
eastern  Mediterranean  (Gen.  x.  4  ;  1  Chron. 
i.  7;  Is.  xxiii.  1,  12:  Jer.  ii.  10;  Ezek.  xxvii. 
f) ;  and  Dan.  xi.  30,  where  the  language  of 
Num.  xxiv.  24  is  used  ;  Antiq.  i.  6,  1).  The 
name  is  connected  definitely  with  Cyprus, 
chiefly  through  Kition,  an  ancient  town  on 
the  southern  coast  of  the  island,  and  through 
the  Kiti,  whom  Thothmes  III.  mentions  as 
possessing  the  island.  The  name  was  even- 
tually greatly  extended.  In  1  Mac.  i.  1  Alex- 
ander tlie  Great  is  said  to  have  come  out  of 
the  land  of  Chittim,  and  in  viii.  5  Perseus  is 
called  king  of  (bittini,  meaning  Macedonia. 


Egj'ptians  kneading  Dough  in  a  Trough. 


Knead'ing  Trough. 

A   shallow   vessel,   usually   of   wood    and 


Knife 


419 


Korah 


portable,  in  which  dough  is  worked  iuto  a 
well-mixed  iiuiss  iireparatory  to  biikiiij;  (Ex. 
xii.  31).  The  Et^vptiaiis  kneaded  the  doufili 
with  their  feet  (llerod.  ii.  '.id)  or  with  their 
hands. 

Knife. 

Tlie  Hehrew.s  used  a  knife  which  they 
called  iiKt'dhclt'lh,  eating  instrument,  lor 
slangiitering  animals  for  food  or  sacrifice, 
and  for  cutting  uj)  the  carcass  ((ien.  xxii.  (i ; 
Judg.  xix.  2!);  cp.  Lev.  viii.  20;  ix.  l.i). 
Another  word,  Jierch,  which  commonly  sig- 
ui lies  a  sword,  denotes  a  knife  made  of  Hint 
(Josh.  V.  2),  and  jierhaps  a  knife  for  shaving 
(Ezek.  V.  1;  in  U.  V.  sword):  see  Fi.lXT. 
The  Egyptians  also,  when  emlialminga  corjise, 
used  a  sharp  stone  knife  for  making  an  in- 
cision in  the  body  (Herod  ii.  )<(>).  Tlu;  He- 
brew .scribes  sharpened  the  stylus  witii  a 
small  knife  (Jer.  xxxvi.  23).  llerod  tlie 
(ircat  was  accustomed  to  use  a  knife  for  i)ar- 
ing  fruit,  and  attempted  to  kill  himself  with 
it  (Anti(|.  xvii.  7,  I). 

Knop. 

1.  Tlie  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  luijihtnr 
iu  Ex.  xx\'.  '.V.i-'.H') ;  xxxvii.  17  22.  wiiere  it 
const itntcs  a  part  of  the  candlestick  used 
in  the  tabernacle.  In  other  passages  tlie 
Hebrew  word  apparently  denotes  the  capital 
of  a  column  (.Vmos  ix.  1  ;  Zeph.  ii.  14,  both 
E.  v.).  It  seems  to  have  been  some  proji'ct- 
ing  support  for  tlie  l)ranclH's  of  tlu'  candle- 
stick, and  for  the  corollas  of  tlie  ornamental 
flowers;  but  its  precise  nature  is  unknown. 
Josephus  jierliaps  states  tliat  it  represented 
a  iioinegranate  (Antic],  iii.  (5,  7),  but  his  words 
are  not  clear. 

2.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  P'l;ii'im 
(1  Kin.  vi.  18;  vii.  24),  an  ornament  cut  in 
cedar,  an<l  a.ssociated  with  open  flowers  in 
the  woodwork  of  Solomon's  t<'mple.  Since 
the  feminine  form  of  the  word  denotes  wild 
gourds,  tile  11.  V.  places  gourds  on  the  mar- 
gin of  the  first  passjige,  as  if  the  ornament 
was  shaped  like  a  gourd. 

Ko'a. 

A  people  named  between  Babylonians  and 
Assyrians  (Ezek.  xxiii.  23),  located  by  Fried- 
rich  Dclitzsch  east  of  the  Tigris,  south  of  the 
lower  ZaI). 

Ko'bath  [perhaps,  as.sembly]. 

A  .son  of  Levi  and  founder  of  the  great 
Koiiathile  family  ((ien.  xlvi.  11  ;  Ex.  vi.  Ifi, 
18). 

Ko'hath-lte. 

A  imiulicr  of  the  great  Levitc  family 
foundiil  l>y  Koliath.  This  was  subdivided 
into  the  families  or  houses  of  the  Amramites, 
the  I/.harites,  the  Hebronites,  and  the  l^z- 
ziclitcs  '  Ex.  vi.  IS;  Num.  iii.  27).  Moses  and 
Aaron  were  of  tlie  Kohalbite  family  (Ex.  vi. 
20).  The  Kohathilfs  pitched  on  the  south 
side  of  the  taiicruade  iu  the  wilderness 
(Num.  iii.  20).  When  tlie  jiriests  had  cov- 
ered the  smctuary  and  its  vessels,  the  Ko- 
hathites  carried  them,  but  were  not  to  touch 


any  holy  thing,  lest  they  should  die  (iv.  15, 
17-20;  2  Chroii.  xxxiv.  12).  At  the  first 
ceusus  in  the  wilderness,  the  Kohathite  males 
from  a  mouth  old  and  upward  were  ^(i(K) 
(.Num.  iii.  2S),  anil  those  fioin  thirty  to  fifty 
years  old  27"»0  (iv.  .■{4-37).  In  the  subseijui'iit 
allotnu'iit  of  cities  to  the  family,  the  priests, 
tiie  descendants  of  Aaron,  had  shares  with 
the  other  Koliatiiites,  the  former  obtaining 
thirteen  cities  out  of  the  tribes  of  .Judah, 
Simeon,  and  IJeujamin,  an<l  the  latter  ten 
cities  out  of  the  tribes  of  Ejiliraiui,  Dan,  and 
Manas.seh  (Josh.  xxi.  4,5;  1  Chron.  vi.  Gl, 
(J(>-70). 

Ko-la'iall  [voice  of  Jehovah]. 

1.  Father  of  the  false  prophet  Ahab  (Jer. 
xxix.  21). 

2.  A  Benjamite  (Xeh.  xi.  7). 
Koph. 

The  nineteenth  letter  of  the  Hebrew  al- 
jihaliet.  English  (^  conies  from  the  s:ime 
source  :  but  iu  anglicized  Hebrew  names  c  or 
k  represents  it,  as  in  Cain  and  Korah.  It 
heads  the  nineteenth  section  of  I's.  cxix.,  in 
which  s<'ction  each  verse  of  the  original  be- 
gins with  this  letter. 

Ko'rali,  ill  A.  V.  once  Kore  (1  Chron.  xxvi. 
10)  and  once  Core  (Jiule  11)  [ice,  baldness]. 

1.  A  son  of  Esau  by  his  wife  Oholibamah, 
born  in  Canaan  ((Jen.  xxxvi.  5,  14),  who 
founded  a  tribe  which  dwelt  in  Edoni  and 
was  ruled  by  a  chieftain  (IS). 

2.  A  son  of  Elijihaz  and  grandsen  of  Esau 
(Gen.  xxxvi.  Ki).  But  the  name  has  crejit 
into  the  text  erroneously,  not  being  found  in 
ver.  11,  12  or  1  Chron.  i.  30. 

3.  A  son  of  Hebron  (1  Chron.  ii.  43).  See 
Mari;sii.\ii  2. 

4.  A  Levite,  family  of  Kohath.  house  of 
Izhar  (Num.  xvi.  IK  In  coiijumrtion  with 
the  Keubeiiites  Dathan,  Abiram.  and  (>n  he 
rebelled  against  Moses  and  Aaron.  He  was 
jealous  that  Aaron,  a  Levite  of  the  same 
family  as  he  and  only  his  equal  in  rank, 
should  have  the  oirice  of  jirii'st  for  all  Israel. 
Tlie  Reubeiiites  were  discontented  because 
the  leadershi])  in  Israel,  which  belonged  to 
Reuben  as  the  firstborn  of  Jacob,  was  |)os- 
sessed  by  the  tribe  of  Levi,  represented  by 
Moses  and  Aaron.  At  length  Korah  and  his 
company,  sons  of  Levi  (7).  who  formed  a 
large  portion  of  the  consiiirators,  but  not 
all  of  them,  for  at  least  Dathan  and  .Abi- 
ram were  absent  (12),  a.ssembled  ag.iinst 
Moses  and  .\aroii,  publicly  chargeil  them 
with  usiiriiing  tlw  siiin-emacy  over  the 
trilies,  and  claime<l  that  all  the  congrega- 
tion was  holy  and  that  any  one  might 
ofliciate  as  a  i)riest  (.3).  Moses  replied  that 
(!od  would  himself  decide  the  matter,  and  lie 
liade  Korah  and  his  company  provide  them- 
selvi's  with  censers  and  be  ready  to  offer  in- 
cense on  the  morrow  ((>-ll).  Moses  sent 
word  to  Dathan  and  Abiram  to  apjtear  like- 
wise on  the  morrow,  l>ut  they  refu.sed  on  the 
ground  that  Moses  had  no  right  to  summon 


Korahite 


420 


Lachish 


them  (12-15).  Moses  then  turned  to  Korah, 
sayinj::  "  He  thuu  and  all  thy  c(ini|iany  pres- 
eui  with  censers,  two  Inindreil  and  fifty  cen- 
sers besides  those  of  yourself  and  Aaron  "  (IG- 
17).  They  did  so,  assembling  at  the  taber- 
nacle (18).  Korah  gathered  also  the  whole 
congregation  of  Israel  theri^  and  incited  them 
agaiu.st  Closes  and  Aaron  (19).  God  directed 
Moses  and  Aaron  to  separate  themselves  from 
the  multitude  that  it  might  be  destroyed,  but 
Moses  interceded  for  the  i)e()ple  (20-22). 
Moses  was  then  directed  to  hid  tlie  congre- 
gation remove  from  the  district  in  the  camp 
occupied  by  Korah,  Dathau,  and  Abiram  (24). 
It  will  be  remembered  that  the  division  of 
the  Levites  to  which  Korah  belonged  were 
accustomed  to  pitch  on  the  south  of  the 
tabernacle  in  immediate  proximity  to  the 
tribe  of  Eeuben  ;  see  Camp.  Accordingly,  fol- 
lowed by  the  elders  of  Israel,  and  certainly 
also  by  Korah,  Moses  went  to  the  locality 
where  the  tents  of  Korah,  Dathan,  and  Abi- 
ram were  pitched  and  warned  the  congrega- 
tion to  leave  the  district  (23,2(3).  The  people 
obeyed.  Dathau  and  Abiram,  together  with 
their  families,  appeared  at  the  door  of  their 
tents  (27).  The  earth  opened  and  swallowed 
them  up  with  their  households  and  Korah 
with  his  servants  (32,  33;  xxvi.  10).  The 
sons  of  Korah,  however,  were  not  destroyed 
(11).  After  the  earthquake  fire  devoured 
the  two  hundred  and  tifty  men  that  oflered 
incense  (xvi.  35;  cp.  40).  See  Korhite. 
Ko'rah-ite  and  Ko'rath-ite.      See  Kor- 

HITK. 

Ko're  [a  partridge]. 

1.  The  rebellious  Levite,  founder  of  a  house 
(1  Chron.  xxvi.  19) ;  see  Korah  4. 

2.  A  Levite  of  the  house  of  Korah  (1 
Chron.  ix.  19;  xxvi.  1). 

3.  A  Levite,  son  of  Imnah,  appointed  over 
the  freewill  ofierings  during  the  reign  of 
Hezekiah  (2  Chron.  xxxi.  14). 

Kor'Mte,  in  R.  V.  everywhere  and  in  A.  V. 
twice  Korahite,  and  in  A.  V.  once  Ko- 
rathite. 

A  descendant  of  that  Korah  who  was 
swallowed  up  in  the  wilderness  as  a  punish- 
ment for  his  rebellion.  The  Korhites  consti- 
tuted a  fatlier's  house  among  tlie  Kohathites. 

Ilenuin  the  singer  and  Samuel  the  iirojihet 
were  Korhites  (1  Chron.  vi.  3:5  38).  The  de- 
scendants of  Heman  were  organized  by 
David  as  singers  (xv.  17;  xvi.  41,  42;  xxv. 
4,  5).  I'salms  xlii.  (which  jirobably  once 
included  xliii.),  xliv.-xlix.,  Ixxxiv.,  Ixxxv., 
Ixxxvii.,  Ixxxviii.,  bear  tlu^  name  of  the 
family  in  the  title.  Korhites  were  gate- 
keejiersd  Chron.  ix.  19  ;  xxvi.  19)  and  bakers 
for  the  sanctuary,  i)reparing  the  showbread 
and  sacrificial  cakes  (ix.  31,  32). 

Koz.     See  Hakkoz. 

Ku-sha'iah. 

A  Levite  of  the  family  of  Merari,  house 
of  Mushi  (1  C'hron.  xv.  17j,  in  vi.  44  called 
Kishi. 


L. 


La'a-dah  [order]. 

A  man  of  Judah,  family  of  Shelah.  He 
was  the  father  of  the  inhabitants  of  Mare- 
shah  ( 1  Chron.  iv.  21 1. 

La'a-dan.     See  Ladan. 

La'ban  (white]. 

1.  Son  iif  Hethuel,  and  grandson  of  Xabor 
Abraham's  br<jther.  He  lived  at  Haran  in 
Paddan-aram  ((ien.  xxiv.  10,  15;  xxviii.  5, 
11).  He  was  the  brother  of  Kcbekah.  Al)ra- 
ham's  confidential  servant  had  met  Rebekah 
at  the  well  ;  and,  regarding  her  as  a  suitable 
woman  to  become  Isaac's  wife,  had  given  her 
valuable  presents.  When  Laban  .saw  the 
ring  and  bracelets  upon  his  sister's  hands, 
he  said:  "Come  in,  thou  blessed  of  the 
Lord;  wherefore  standest  thou  without?" 
He  readily  permitted  Rebekah  to  go  to 
Canaan  to  become  Isaac's  wife  (Gen.  xxiv. 
l-fi7).  When  Jacob  subsequently  fled  from 
the  vengeance  of  E.sau,  it  was  to  Laban  his 
uncle  that  he  went ;  and  he  remained  with 
Laban  twenty  years,  serving  him  seven  for 
his  daughter  Rachel,  and  then,  having  Leah 
handed  over  to  him  in  a  fraudulent  way,  a 
second  .seven  to  obtain  the  daughter  for 
whom  he  really  cared,  and  then  six  more 
for  cattle.  At  the  end  of  the  twenty  years, 
Jacob,  perceiving  that  his  prosperity  had  ex- 
cited the  envy  of  Laban  and  his  sons,  fled 
with  his  wives,  his  children,  and  his  cattle, 
in  the  direction  of  Canaan.  He  was  over- 
taken by  Laban  in  mount  Gilead;  but  the 
pursuer,  warned  by  (iod  nut  to  molest  Jacob, 
made  a  covenant  with  him,  and  the  two 
parted  to  meet  no  more  (Gen.  xxix.-xxxi.). 
Laban  worshiped  the  God  of  his  fathers,  the 
God  of  Nahor  (xxxi.  53),  Jehovah  (xxiv.  50 ; 
XXX.  27)  ;  but  he  combined  idolatry  with  bis 
worship,  making  use  of  household  gods  called 
tcraphim  (xxxi.  30 ;  cp.  xxxv.  4)  and  prac- 
ticing divination  (xxx.  27,  R.  V. ). 

2.  An  unidentified  place  in  the  Sinaitic 
peninsula  (Dent.  i.  1).  It  is  mentioned  with 
Hazeroth  ;  hence  some  have  thought  that  it 
may  have  been  the  same  as  Libuah,  the  sec- 
ond station  from  Hazeroth  (Xum.  xxxiii. 20). 

La'chish  [perhaps,  tenacious,  difficult  to 
cajiture]. 

A  fortified  city  in  the  lowland  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  33,  39).  At  the  time  of  the  con- 
quest of  Palestine,  its  king  was  defeated  and 
slain  by  .Joshua  (x.  3-35  ;  xii.  11).  Rehoboam 
strengthened  its  defenses  (2  Chron.  xi.  9). 
Amaziah,  king  of  Judah.  having  fled  thither 
from  consjiiralors  at  Jerusalem,  was  pursued 
and  slain  in  the  town  (2  Kin.  xiv.  19;  2 
Chron.  xxv.  27).  Lachish  was  besieged  bj- 
Sennacherib.  king  of  Assyria  ;  and  it  was  from 
thecami>  in  front  of  it  that  the  rabshakchwas 
dispatched  to  demand  the  surrender  of  Jerusa- 
lem (2  Kin.  xviii.  14,  17;  cp.  xix.  8,  and  2 
Chron.  xxxii.  9;  Is.  xxxvi.  2;  xxxvii.  8). 
Lachish  is  charged  with  being  the  beginning 


Ladan 


421 


Lamb 


of  sin  to  tlu'  (liiufthter  of  Zion,  for  the  trans- 
gres-sioiis  of  Israel  wrro  found  in  her  (Mif.  i. 
i:5).  Ncljiifh;i(liU'/./.araf<;iin  t>esioj;i'<l  Lacliish, 
with  other  foneed  ritifs  of  .hidah  (.J«r.  xxxiv. 
7 1.  It  was  iiilialiitcil  after  tht' captiviiy  (Neh. 
xi.:JO).  The  site  is  found  at  Tell  el-Ilesy.  1(5 
miles  east  l)y  north  of  Ciazii  and  11  miles 
west-southwest  of  Heit  Jihriu.  Excavation 
has  laid  hare  the  wall  of  the  ancient  city,  as 
well  as  later  constructions  helicvud  to  helong 


La'el  [devoted  to  God]. 

A  Gershouite,  father  of  Elias;iiih  (Num. 
iii.24). 

La'had  [oppressed,  oppression]. 

A  son  t)f  Jahalh,  a  man  of  Judah  1 1  C'hron. 
iv.  -2). 

La-hai'-roi.    See  Bkkr-l.vh.vi-roi. 

Lah'mam,  in  U.  V.  margin,  Lahmas. 

A  village,  in  the  lowlanil  of  Judah  (Josh, 


I.acliisli  assaulted  by  the  Army  of  Sennacherib. 


to  the  times  of  IJehoboam,  Asa,  Jehoshajihat, 
Uz/.iah,  Jothani,  and  Mana.s-seh.  Ten  towns 
seem  to  have  occupied  the  place  in  succes- 
sion. The  lowest  is  called  Amorite,  and  is 
re|iorted  to  be  about  a  quarter  of  a  mile 
sc(uare.  It  was  built  on  a  bliitf,  about  (iO  feet 
above  the  stream  which  flowed  on  the  east, 
and  10  feet  above  the  level  country  on  the 
north.  A  ravine  protected  it  on  the  south, 
anil  another  on  the  west.  The  northern  wall 
of  the  town  stood  on  tlu-  edge  of  the  blutf.  It 
was  about  s  feet  thick,  with  a  great  tower  at 
the  northi-astern  corner,  .">(!  liy  'JS  fec-t,  with 
rooms  about  10  feet  scpiare,  enclosed  by  a  wall 
9  or  10  feet  thick.  ( >ther  later  walls.'at  Ica.st 
twice  as  thick,  were  ercctt-d  before  the  con- 
quest of  Canaan  by  the  Hebrews.  Flint, 
copper,  bronze,  and  iron  implements,  with 
hron/.e  weapons  and  large  quantities  of 
pottery  have  been  unearthed.  There  were 
also  two  inscrijitions  fuund.  one  in  old  He- 
brew characlcr-i,  the  other  in  cuucifdrm.  The 
latter  rlates  from  about  ihe  fiflceiiih  century 
It.  (.'.,  and  conveys  the  information  th;it  the 
king  then  ruling  at  Lachish  was  called  Zim- 
rida. 

La'dan,  in  \.  V.  Laadan  [well  r>rdered]. 

1.  .\n  Kpbraimile  in  the  ancestry  of  Joshua 
(1  Chron.  vii.  "iiii. 

•2.  .\  Gershouite  in  whom  several  fathers' 
houses  had  their  oriiiin  il  Chron.  xxiii.  7-!> ; 
xxvi.  21}. 


XV.  10),  thought  to  be  possibly  marked  by 
the  ruined  village  of  el-Lahm,  2J  miles  south 
of  Beit  .librin. 

Lah'mi. 

The  brother  of  Goliath  the  Gittite.  He 
was  slain  by  Elhanan  the  son  of  .Tair  (1 
Chron.  .\x.  .5).  The  word  Lalimi,  however, 
corrcspotids  to  tlie  last  part  of  the  Hebrev? 
word  for  F.etblchemite  in  2  Sam.  xxi.  19. 
One  or  other  text  is  corrupt.    See  Ki.ii.\N.\N. 

La'ish  [a  lion]. 

1.  A  manof  (Jallim,  father  of  Talti  (1  Siim. 
XXV.  44). 

2.  A  C^naanite  city  in  the  extreme  north 
of  Palestine,  "  in  the  valley  that  lieth  by 
Iktli-rebob."  The  Dauites  captured  the  city, 
and  rebuilt  it.  altering  the  name  to  Dan 
(Judg.  xviii.  7-29).     See  D.VN  3. 

:i.  A  village  (Is.  x.  30).     See  L.\isn ah. 

La'i-shah,  in  A.  V.  Laish  [a  lion]. 
A  villaiie  in  Henjamin  between  Gallimand 
.\iiatliolli    Is.  X.  :>(i). 

Lak'kum,  in  A.  V.  La'kum  [obstruction]. 
A  town  «{■  Xaphtali   (.lush.   xix.  33).     Site 
iinkuDW  II. 

Lamb. 

The  tlesh  of  lambs  was  early  used  as  food 
(Ia'V.  iii.  7  with  vii.  1.") ;  2  Sam.  xii.  •! ;  Amos 
vi.  4)  :  and  lambs  and  kids  were  largely 
offered  in  .sicritice  even  before  tlie  proniulga- 


Lamech 


422 


Lamentations  ' 


tiou  of  the  Mosjiic  law  (Gen.  is'.  4;  xxii.  7). 
Wbeu  tlio  i)assovt'r  was  iustitiited  in  Egypt, 
a  laiub  or  a  kid  of  the  lirst  year  was  sacri- 
ficed and  eaten  ( Ex.  xii.  3,  5).  Under  the 
Mo-siiic  law  a  male  lamb  of  the  first  year  was 
ofl'ered  for  a  burnt  ottering  every  morning 
and  another  every  evening,  while  on  the 
Sabbath  there  were  two  (Ex.  xxix.  09-41 ; 
Num.  xxviii.  4).  On  the  lirst  day  of  each 
month  (Num.  xxviii.  11),  during  the  seven 
days  of  the  passover  (IG,  1!)),  at  the  feast  of 
weeks  (2G,  27),  on  the  day  of  blowing  of 
trumpets  (xxix.  1,  2),  and  on  the  day  of 
atonement  (7,  8),  seven  male  lambs  of  the 
lirst  year  formed  part  of  the  special  burnt 
ottering ;  while  at  the  feast  of  tabernacles 
the  lambs  numl)ered  fourteen  during  each 
of  the  first  seven  days  and  seven  on  the 
eighth  day  (13-3(i).  For  all  the  principal 
sacrifices  of  ordinary  occasions  a  lamb  might 
be  used ;  as  a  male  lamb  for  a  burnt  ottering 
(Lev.  ix.  3 ;  xxiii.  12,  18;  Num.  vi.  14;  vii. 
15),  a  ewe  lamb  for  a  sin  ottering  for  others 
than  the  nation  or  rulers  (Lev.  iv.  27,  32; 
Num.  vi.  14),  and  a  male  or  female  lamb  for 
a  guilt  ottering  (Lev.  v.  6;  xiv.  12,  21 ;  Num. 
vi.  12)  or  for  a  peace  ottering  (Lev.  iii.  6,  7; 
xxiii.  19;  Num.  vii.  17^.  In  every  case  the 
lamb  must  be  without  blemish.  Ail  this 
points  to  our  Lord.  He  resembled  a  lamb  in 
his  spotless  purity  (1  Pet.  i.  19).  He  was 
like  a  lamb  also  in  his  gentleness  and  in  his 
submission  to  unmerited  suflering  without 
murmur  or  complaint  (Is.  liii.  7  with  Luke 
xxiii.  25 ;  Acts  viii.  32  ;  1  Pet.  ii.  21-23). 
Finally,  he,  like  a  lamb,  was  sacrificed  for 
guilt  not  his  own.  Hence  he  is  called  the 
Lamb  of  God,  which  taketh  away  the  siu  of 
the  world  (John  i.  29,  3(5),  the  Lamb  slain 
from  the  foundation  of  the  world  ( Eev.  xiii. 
8),  or  simply  the  Lamb  (Kev.  v.  6,  8,  12  ;  vii. 
14,  17;  xiv.'l,  4).  Both  in  the  O.  T.  and  in 
the  N.  T.  the  term  lamb  is  at  times  used 
figuratively  for  child  (Is.  xl.  11 ;  John  xxi.  15). 

La'mech  [jiossibly,  a  strong  young  man]. 

1.  A  son  of  ;Methusael,  of  the  race  of  Cain. 
He  had  two  wives,  Adah  and  Zillah.  By 
Adah  he  was  the  father  of  Jabal  and  Jubal, 
and  by  Zillah  he  had  a  son,  Tubal-cain,  and  a 
daughter.  Naamah.  His  address  to  his  wives, 
in  its  Hebrew  r(>i)roduction,  is  a  fine  specimen 
of  Hebrew  ])oetr>-.  There  are  two  principal 
interpretations  of  Gen.  iv.  23.  1.  Lamecli  de- 
clares himself  a  murderer,  saying:  "  I  have 
slain  a  man."  Stung  by  remorse,  he  con- 
fesses the  rebuke  of  conscience.  He  had  slain 
another  to  his  own  wounding  and  hurt.  Or 
else  he  excuses  himself  for  a  murder  com- 
mitted in  self-defense,  having  slain  a  man 
for  wounding  him.  2.  Lamech  utters  a 
threat:  "I  will  slay  any  man  who  wounds 
me,"  his  words  being  a  song  of  exultation 
on  the  invention  of  the  sword  by  his  son 
Tubal-cain,  sung  in  anticijjation  of  the  ad- 
vantage he  would  have  in  avenging  wrongs 
done  to  him.     The  attempt  has  been  made  to 


explain  the  i)oem  as  simply  an  expression  of 
Lamech's  determination  to  put  the  new 
weapon  to  its  lawful  use;  but  expositors 
quite  generally  agree  that  Lamech  is  vaunt- 
ing himself.  If  Cain,  who  slew  a  man,  is 
under  (iod's  protiction  and  shall  be  avenged 
sevenfold  should  one  dare  to  slay  him.  surely 
Lamech  with  the  new  weajion,  a  visible  and 
surer  defense,  shall  be  avenged  seventy  and 
sevenfold  (Gen.  iv.  18-24). 

2.  An  antediluvian  ])atriarch  of  the  race 
of  Seth.  He  was  son  ol'  Methuselah  and 
father  of  Noah.  He  feared  the  Lord,  rested 
in  God's  promise  for  the  removal  of  the  curse 
of  sin,  and  on  the  birth  of  liis  son  Noah  gave 
expression  to  the  lio])e  that  tliis  child  would 
lead  men  to  a  better  and  a  liajijiier  life  under 
God's  blessing,  saying:  ''This  same  shall  com- 
fort lis  for  our  work  and  for  the  toil  of  our 
hands,  because  of  the  ground  which  the 
Lord  hath  cursed"  (Gen.  v.  25,  28-31). 

La'med. 

Tlie  twelfth  letter  of  the  Hebrew  alphabet. 
English  L  comes  from  the  same  source, and 
represents  it  in  anglicized  Hebrew  names.  It 
stands  at  the  head  of  the  twelfth  section  of 
Ps.  cxix.,  in  which  section  each  verse  of 
the  original  begins  with  this  letter. 

Lam-en-ta'tions. 

Mournful  speeches  or  compositions,  elegies, 
such  as  the  lament  of  David  over  Saul  and 
Jonathan  (2  Sam.  i    17-27). 

The  I^amentations  of  Jeremiah  are  an  ().  T. 
book  ])laced  in  the  English  Bible  between 
Jeremiah  and  Ezekiel,  but  in  the  Hebrew 
Scriptures  among  the  Hagiographa  or  Sacred 
Writings,  between  Ruth  and  Ecclesiastes. 
Let  the  English  reader  take  note  of  the  fact 
that  of  the  five  chapters  of  Lamentations, 
i..  ii.,  iv.,  and  v.  have  each  twenty-two 
verses,  and  iii.  22x3  =  66.  There  are 
twenty-two  distinct  letters  in  the  Hebrew 
alphabet,  and  in  chajiters  i.,  ii.,  and  iv.  the 
verses  are  arranged  alphabetically,  verse  1 
beginning  with  alejih.  verse  2  with  beth, 
verse  3  with  gimel.  and  verse  4  with  daleth, 
and  so  on  to  the  end.  In  chap.  iii.  the  first 
three  verses  begin  M'ith  aleph,  the  second 
three  with  beth,  and  so  on  to  the  end.  The 
fifth  chai)ter  has  not  an  alphabetical  ar- 
rangement. The  theme  of  tlie  whole  five 
elegies  or  lamentations  is  the  ca]'ture  and 
destruction  of  the  Jewi.~b  cai)ital,  with  dread- 
ful sutt'ering  to  its  defenders  by  famine,  the 
sword,  and  outrage  of  every  kind.  The 
catastrophe,  it  is  adm-tted,  was  brought  on 
by  the  sins  of  the  people,  not  omitting  even 
the  pro]dicts  and  the  priests.  In  various 
places  the  Jewish  state  is  personified  as  a 
man,  and  bemoans  its  hard  fate  (i.  9 ;  ii.  1, 
11,  22;  iii.  1-51,  etc.).  In  one  passage  the 
writer  recalls  what  he  himself  bad  suflered 
from  the  ])ersecution  of  his  countrymen  (iii. 
•52-6(i).  Notwithstanding  that  tliis  book  is 
anonymous,  in  the  Hebrew  ])eing  named 
only  by  its  first  word  "How,"  notwithstand- 


Lamp 


423 


Lappidoth 


ingalso  that  it  is  arranged  among  the  Uagiog- 
raplui,  ci'ltirs,  even  of  nitionalistit-  ti-nden- 
cit's,  altril>iitu  the  first  I'uur  fli:i|itors  to 
Jcrciiiiali ;  tlio  liflli  or  non-aliiliahi'tical 
cha|itfr  may,  tliey  think,  ixissiljly  have  come 
from  auDthcr  aiillior.  In  tlic  Septnajiint 
tlu'.  followinji  statoincnt  is  pretixud  to  the 
l)oi>k  :  "  And  it  came  to  pass  afttT  Israel  was 
led  into  cajitivity  and  Jerusalem  laid  waste, 
that  .Jeremiah  sat  weeiiin;;  and  lamented 
this  lamentation  over  Jerusalem,  and  said.'' 
The  aseriiitidii  of  the  book  to  the  prophet 
is  thus  aiR'ient;  and  it  has  heen  commonly, 
thoui^h  not  without  exeeption,  assigned  to 
him  hy  both  ancient  and  mudiTii  scholars, 
the  admission  beiiiji  j^eiH  ral  that  the  elej^ies 
must  have  been  written  in  or  near  the  times 
of  Jeremiah.  The  prophet  lamented  lor 
Josiah  ('J  Chron.  xxxv.  '2'>).  If  his  elej^ies  on 
the  sid)ject  were  ct)mmitted  to  writing,  tliey 
have  been  lost,  and  are  not  our  present  book 
of  Lamentations. 

Lamp. 

A  vessel  designed  to  contain  an  inflamma- 
ble liqiiid,  which  it  is  proposed  to  burn  for 
illuminatiug  jxirposes,  ami  a  wick  to  lift  the 
liquid  by  capillary  attraction  to  feed  the 
flame  (Herod,  ii.  C>2).  The  seven  lamps  of 
the  golden  candlestick  of  the  tabernacle  and 
ti'mi)le  were  made  of  gold  {K\.  x.xxvii.  23;  1 
Kin.  vii.  Ill)  and  burned  olive  oil  (Ex.  xxvii. 
21)).  Tongs  were  used  to  trim  the  wick,  and 
dishes  to  receive  the  suuff  (xxv.  3.-i).  The  or- 
dinary lamj>  for  domestic  use  was  made  of 
earthenware.     It  might  have  a  cover  which 


Ancient  Lamps. 

was  either  removable  or  made  of  one  piece 
>vith  the  rot  of  the  ]aiM|).  Near  the  cen- 
:er  of  the  cover  or  toji  was  a  hole  for  in- 
troducing (he  oil.  There  was  aintther  ojien- 
ing  at  the  margin  of  the  cover,  or  else  a 
spout,  for  the  wick. 

The    Hebrew    word      regul.irlv    reinlered 


lamp  is  Ker.  It  is  translated  light  in  2  Ssim. 
xxi.  17,  A.  v.,  and  candle  in  .ler.  xxv.  10 
and  Zeph.  i.  12.  In  the  latter  pass;ige,  Li.  V. 
places  lamj)  on  the  margin  ;  and  everywhere 
else  in  both  ().  and  N.  T.,  except  in  these 
two  jiassages,  K.  V.  stdjstitutes  the  word 
lamp  in  tlie  text  where  A.  V.  has  candle. 
The  Hebrew  word  Lajipiil  is  also  often  ren- 
dered lamp  in  ().  T.  ;  for  exam))lc,  Judg.  vii. 
It),  2(1,  A.  V.  .and  Is.  Ixii.  1  ;  Dan.  x.  ti.  IJut 
it  is  of  more  general  meaning.  Il  is  trans- 
lated lirebrainl  in  Judg.  xv.  4  ;  and  torch  in 
Nah.  ii.  4;  Zech.  xii.  (i ;  and  in  Ii.  V.  of  (ien. 
XV.  17;  Judg.  vii.  !(!,  20;  and  lightning  in 
Ex.  XX.  18.  The  Greek  word  rendered  lamj) 
in  Mat.  xxv.  1  and  Uev.  iv.  5  is  translated 
lights  in  Acts  xx.  «,  and  torches  in  John 
xviii.  3  and  margin  of  K.  V.  of  Mat.  xxv.  1. 
The  extinction  of  the  lamp  of  any  one 
means  figuratively  the  destruction  of  his 
family  (I'rov.  xiii.  9). 
Lan'cet.  See  Si'k.\k. 
Lan'guage.  See  Toxcjue. 
Lan'tern. 

Lanterns   were    carried    by    the   band    of 
Komau  soldiers  who  were  sent  with  Judas  to 
arrest  Jesus   (.Tohn   xviii.   3).     The   Komaus 
madi'  the  sides  of  lanterns  out  of  bladder  or 
plates  of  translucent  horn. 
La-od-i-ce'a  [pertaining  to  Laodice]. 
A  city  called  originally   Diosjiolis,  city  of 
Zeus,  which  was  enlarged  and   inii)roved  by 
Antiochus  II..  and  named  by  him  Laodicea, 
after  his  wife  Laodice.     It  was  the  chief  city 
of  Phrygia  Pacatiana.  in  Asia 
Minor,  and  was  situated  a  little 
south  of  Colossie  and  Hierajiolis, 
on  the  river  Lycos,  a  tributary 
of  the  Meander.     It  numbered 
many  Jews  among  its   inhab- 
itants    (Antiq.    xiv.    10,     20). 
Epaphras    labored    there  (("ol. 
iv.  12,  13),  and   is  regarded  as 
the    founder   of    its   Christian 
churdi.      Paul  felt  greatly  de- 
sirous of  siiiritually  benefiting 
the  Laodiceans  (ii.  1).    He  .sent 
them  salutations ;  and  he  wrote 
them  a  letter,  now  lost  (iv.  1.^, 
16).     Laodicea  was  one  of  the 
seven    (•hurches    in     Asia    ad- 
dressed  in    the  book  of  Reve- 
lation.    It  is  sharply  rebuked 
for  Inkewarmness  (Ivev.  i.  11; 
iii.  14-22).     About  the  year  ().") 
of  the  Christian  era,  Laodi<'ea, 
C'olossa-,  and    Hierapolis  wore 
destroyed    by  an    earthquake. 
Laodici-a  was  rebuilt  by  Mar- 
cus Aurelins.     Its  ruins  still  exist  at  a  i)lace 
called    Eski    llissar.   near  I)(>nizln.  aliout  .">() 
miles  east-southeast   of  Smyrna. 

Lap'pi-doth,  in  A.  \'.  Lapidotb  [torches]. 
Husband  of  Heborah  the  proidietess  (.Fudg. 
iv.  4). 


Lapwing 


424 


Laver 


Lap'wing. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Dukiphath  iu 
A.  V.  of  Lev.  xi.  lit;  Dent.  xiv.  lb.  The 
hipwing  (WineUiis  cristdtus],  a  nu'niber  of  the 
sub-fainily  ('li(U(i(liiiiin'.  dt  tviw  i)lovers,  is 
found  iu  tlocks  in  winter  in  Palestine.  li.  Y., 
following  the  Septuagint  and  Vulgate,  sub- 


Hoopoe. 

stitutes  the  hoopoe  {Upitpa  epojK),  the  type 
of  the  Upupidie,  a  family  of  tissirostral  birds 
(birds  with  deeply  cleft  bills).  The  hoopoe  is  a 
bird  about  a  foot  long,  grayish-brown  above, 
with  the  wings  and  shoulders  black,  barred 
with  white,  and  a  large  crest  of  feathers  upon 
the  head.  It  is  found  in  central  and  southern 
Europe,  in  Asia,  and  in  northern  and  central 
Africa.  Tristram  says  that  it  appears  in  Pal- 
estine in  March,  si)reading  in  small  parties 
over  the  whole  country.  On  the  approach  of 
winter  it  makes  a  short  migration  to  Egypt 
and  the  Sahara. 

La-se'a. 

A  seaport  of  Crete,  near  the  Fair  Havens, 
passed  by  the  vessel  which  carried  Paul  (Acts 
xxvii.  8).  In  IS^f!  the  Rev.  (4.  Brown  dis- 
covered ruins  which  mark  the  su])poscd  site 
on  the  southern  coast  about  5  miles  east  of 
the  Fair  Havens. 

La'sha  [a  fissure]. 

A  place  mentioned  with  the  cities  of  the 
plain  (Gen.  x.  19).  Jerome  says  it  was  at 
f'allirrhoe,  a  ravine  east  of  the  Dead  8ea, 
notable  for  its  hot  s]irings,  which  were  visited 
by  Ilorod  the  (rrcat  during  his  last  illness. 
The  gorge  in  which  they  ri.se  is  so  narrow 
that  it  may  quite  ai)i)ropriately  be  called  a 
fissure.  There  is  not  room  enough  in  it  for 
a  village  of  ordinary  size.  The  stream  from 
Callirrhoe,  now  called  tlie  Zerka  ISIa'in.  en- 
ters the  Dead  Sea  at  the  eastern  side,  about 
11  miles  in  a  dij'cct  line  from  the  mouth  of 
the  Jordan.  The  springs  are  about  3  miles 
up  the  stream. 

Las-sha'ron,  in  A.  V.  Lasharon  [i)robably, 
to  Sluirciu]. 

A  town  whose  king  was  one  of  those  slain 
by  Joshua  (Josh.  xii.  IH).  The  Hebrew  text 
may,  however,   be  read  king  over  Sharon. 


The  indications  of  the  Septuagint  are  that  the 
original  text  of  the  verse  was  "the  king  of 
Ai)liek  [which  belongs]  to  Sharon." 

Las'the-nes  [probably,  very  strong]. 

A  (  retail  who  raised  an  army  of  mercenary 
soldiers  for  Demetrius  II..  by  which  the  latter 
etl'ected  a  landing  in  C'ilicia  and  set  up  the 
standard  of  revolt  against  Alexander  lialas 
(Antiq.  xiii.  4,  3).  He  was  rewarded  with 
high  office,  perhaps  the  governorship  of  C'cele- 
svria.  Demetrius  calls  him  kinsman  and 
father  (1  Mac.  xi.  31,  in  A.  Y.  cou.sin  ;  32). 
The  latter  title  implies  that  he  was  a  man  of 
considerable  age ;  the  former  means  either 
that  he  was  related  to  Deiuetrius,  or  that  he 
held  a  high  position  at  court.  He  was  noti- 
fied by  letter  of  the  terms  of  peace  agreed 
iijxm  between  Demetrius  and  Jonathan  Mac- 
cabieus,  and  of  the  concessions  made  to  the 
Jews  (3-2-37). 

Latch'et. 

Tlie  thong  with  which  the  sandal  was 
bound  to  the  foot  (Is.  v.  27  ;  ISIark  i.  7  ;  cp. 
Gen.  xiv.  23). 

Lat'in. 

The  language  spoken  by  the  Romans. 
Though  from  the  fir'st  century  B.  C.  on  for 
some  hundred  years  the  supreme  power  iu 
Palestine  was  in  the  hands  of  the  Romans, 
whose  vernacular  language  was  Latin,  yet  it 
did  not  root  itself  in  that  country.  A  few 
words  only  were  adopted,  as  prsetorhim  and 
cenfurio,  which  are  written  in  Greek  letters 
in  Mark  xv.  16,  39,  45.  But  since  Latin  was 
the  language  of  the  Roman  officials,  tlie  in- 
scription over  the  cross  of  Christ  was  written 
in  Latin  as  well  as  in  Greek  and  Aramaic 
(John  xix.  20). 

Lat'tice. 

A  network  formed  of  crossed  laths  and 
covering  a  window  (Judg.  v.  28;  Prov.  vii. 
6,  in  A.  Y.  casement ;  2  Kin.  i.  2  ;  Song  ii.  9.) 

La'ver. 

A  basin  or  trough  iu  which  to  wash.  A 
laver  of  brass  or  copper  was  used  in  connec- 
tion with  the  tabernacle  services.  It  stood 
upon  a  base  of  brass  in  the  court  between 
the  altar  and  the  door  of  the  tabernacle. 
Both  laver  and  base  were  made  of  the  mir- 
rors given  by  the  women  who  assembled  to 
minister  at  the  door  of  the  tent  of  meeting 
(Ex.  xxxviii.  8  ;  cp.  xxxiii.  7).  Women  served 
at  the  door  of  the  tabernacle  (1  Sam.  ii.  22, 
E.  Y.),  as  did  the  Levites  (Num.  iv.  23:  viii. 
24).  They  ]u-obably  came  at  stated  intervals, 
as  did  the  Levites  and  priests  (Deut.  xviii.  (J; 
Luke  i.  8, 23),  to  render  various  kinds  of  serv- 
ice, such  as  the  performance  of  sacred  dances 
and  instrumental  and  vocal  music  (Ex.  xv. 
20;  Judg.  xxi.  21 ;  Ps.  Ixviii.  25).  The  priests 
washed  their  hands  and  their  feet  in  the  laver 
before  ministering  at  the  altar  or  entering  the 
sanctuary  (Ex.  xxx.  17-21 ;  Lev.  viii.  11).  This 
ceremony  symbolized  the  holiness  that  is  re- 
quired in  tiie  service  of  God.      In  Solomon's 


Law 


425 


Law 


temple  there  were  a  nioltcu  sea  ami  ten  lay- 
ers instead  of  (»ne  (1  Kin.  vii.  '^^-^ti,  .VS-IO, 
i:!).  Sonu"  of  the  arrangements  were  after- 
wards alti  ird  l)y  Ahaz  (2  Kin.  xvi.  17). 

Law. 

Of  the  several  meanings  which  the  word 
law  possesses,  two  are  employed  in  8eri])tnre. 

1.  A  uniformly  acting  force  wiiich  deter- 
mines tiie  regular  se(|Uciice  of  events;  any 
uniformly  acting  intluence  >ir  motive  which 
controls  the  will  (Kom.  vii.  S.i). 

•J.  A  rule  of  conduct  enjoined  by  a  compe- 
tent authority  and.  if  need  he.  inforced  hy 
lienallies.  Tliis  is  the  [irincipal  meaning  of 
the  Word  in  Scripture.  .Many  laws  liave  com- 
menced as  customs,  which,  arising  naturally 
in  the  intercourse  hetween  members«of  the 
same  society,  ultimately  gained  such  accei>t- 
ani-e  that  the  community  finally  resolved  to 
enforce  them  as  laws.  But  a  law  may  he  im- 
posed hy  a  ruler,  human  or  divine,  without 
any  reference  to  previous  custom  or  legisla- 
liiiii.  In  the  Knglish  version  law  is  mainly 
the  rendering  of  llelirew  Torah,  instruction, 
-Vramaic  Ihitlt,  perha])s  meaning  established, 
and  ( Jreek  Xoinas,  custom,  law  ;  and  it  de- 
notes, except  as  noted  under  1,  an  authorita- 
tive rule  of  conduct  whether  revealed  from 
within  or  from  without.  It  may  be  imposed 
liy  the  constituted  authorities  of  thc^  state, 
which  are  ordained  of  God  (  Kzra  vii.  'J(i ; 
listh.  i.  Ill;  l>an.  vi.  S),  or  proceed  immedi- 
ately from  (Jod,  being  revealed  in  a  super- 
natural manneraudibly  as  at  Sinai  or  through 
the  Spirit  to  i>ro))hets  (Zech.  vii.  1"^)  or  made 
known  in  tlie  constitution  of  our  nature 
I  Kom.  ii.  14,  1.")).  They  who  fear  God  and 
keei>  his  commandments  are  wise  ;  and  the 
godly  wisdom  which  they  have  acquired  from 
the  study  of  the  written  law,  from  observa- 
tion of  the  Imman  heart,  and  fi'oni  a  life  of 
holiness,  when  given  forth  in  instruction  is 
the  law  of  the  wise  which  is  a  fountain  of 
life  (Prov.  xiii.  14),  and  when  taught  by 
parents  to  children  is  the  law  of  father  and 
mother  which  to  them  that  obey  is  a  cha])let 
of  grace  about  the  head  (Prov.  i.  S.  !»).  The 
ttrni  law  with  the  delinite  article,  but  with- 
out other  (|ualifyiiig  word,  occasionally  refers 
to  the  whole  (>.  T.  in  general  i.Iohn  xii.  .'54  ;  1 
(or.  xiv.  •-'1  ;  c]).  .lolin  x.  :!1  :  xv.  •-.'."•).  but  it 
is  employed  much  more  frequently  as  the 
title  of  tiie  Pentateuch  (Josh.  i.  (S;  Neh.  viii. 
■J,  :5,  14:  .Mat.  V.  17;  John  i.  17).  The  law 
of  Muses  was  given  bv  (lod  through  Moses 
(i:x.  XX.  l!l  :.>J;  .Mat.  xv.  4;  John  i.  17i.  It 
is  the  law  of  (Jod  (.losh.  xxiv.  'Jti ;  -J  Chrttn. 
vxxi.  .'J).  It  was  writt<'n  in  a  book  (.losli.  i. 
7,  M),  included  the  legislation  cont.iined  in 
K\odus.  Leviticus,  Numbers.  an<l  I)cuteron- 
omy  iMark  xii.  "Jd  with  K\.  iii.  (i ;  M.irk  vii. 
Kt  with  V.x.  XX.  IJ;  xxi.  17;  Luke  ii. -'J  and 
.lohn  vii.  2-2,  '2'.l  with  Lev.  xii.  J, :? ;  Mat.  viii.  4 
with  Lev.  xiv. .'5;  Mat.  xix.  Sand  xxii.'Jl  with 
I)eut.  xxiv.  1  and  xxv.  r>i,  and  was  the  title 
of  the  Pentateuch,  constituting  the  first  di- 


vision of  the  canon  (Luke  xxiv.  44) ;  see 
Pkxt.\tkuch.  The  legal  portion  consists  of 
the  ten  commandments,  which  form  the  fun- 
damental law  of  the  theocracy,  and  statutes 
basid  on  them.  It  was  given  al  Sinai.  The 
fundamental  law  was  nllered  audibly  in  the 
hearing  of  the  whole  congregation.  The 
body  of  statutes  controlled  the  general  form 
of  worship,  protected  human  rights,  regulated 
personal  conduct,  ami  jirescriljed  sacred  sea- 
sons and  sacrilice.  It  was  given  at  the  same 
time  as  the  ten  commandments,  but  through 
Moses.  See  ThkockviY.  When  the  taber- 
nacle was  erected,  the  h'gishition  was  enacted 
which  in  detail  regulated  a|i|iroa<li  to<iod. 
See  LEViTitrs.  Thirty  and  eight  years  later 
Moses  rehearsed  the  law  i)ublicly  before  the 
new  generation,  ]ilaced  the  emphasis  where 
the  ex]ierience  of  a  third  of  a  century  had 
taught  him  to  be  advi.sable.  and  introduced 
niodilicatioiis  which  the  prosjiective  change 
in  the  circumstances  of  the  j)eoi)le  rendered 
necessary.  See  DKtTKiioxoMY.  It  is  gen- 
erally held  that  when  all  that  is  local  and 
tenii)orary  is  ]iut  away  the  remaining  portion 
of  the  coniiuandments,  constituting  the  es- 
sential part,  was  designed  for  the  Christian 
as  well  as  the  Jewish  dispensation,  and  will 
not  become  obsolete  at  any  future  time  (cp. 
Ex.  XX.  1-2  or  Dent.  v.  lb  with  Eph.  vi.  2.  :?). 
The  ten  commandments,  being  the  funda- 
mental law  and  a  summary  of  the  whole 
moral  code,  endure.  They  are  founded  in 
the  immutable  nature  of  tiod  and  in  the  ]>er- 
manent  relations  of  nu-n  on  earth.  ( »f  the 
fourth  commandment  Christ  s;iid  :  "The  Sab- 
b.ilb  was  made  for  man,"  hence  its  principles 
remain  in  force  while  man  continues  on  earth. 
Regarding  the  fifth  commandment,  the  ajios- 
tle  Paul  evidently  considers  both  the  precept 
and  the  essential  iiart  of  the  promise  still  in 
foi'ce.  though  the  local  or  temporary  jiortion, 
■"the  land"  of  Canaan,  disajipears,  and  "the 
earth"  takes  its  place  (Eph.  vi.  2,  .'J).  The 
ceremonial  law  apjiarently  referred  to  in  Heb. 
viii.  7  as  the  lirst  covenant,  is  there  described 
as  decaying  anil  waxing  old.  and  t)i'ing  ready 
to  vanish  away  (1.'3;  cp.  also  chajiters  viii. 
-X.).  Hence  the  apostles  declined  to  im- 
pose it  on  the  gentile  converts  (.\cts  xv.  2.3- 
29,  etc.).  Its  function  has  been  to  ]ioint,  by 
means  of  its  jiriesthond.  its  .sacrifices,  its  ci're- 
nionies,  and  its  symbols  to  Christ,  our  great 
High  Priest,  and  his  atoning  sjicrilice  for  sin. 
When  the  •■intityiie  came,  the  tyju'S  were  no 
hmger  needful,  though  the  memory  of  what 
they  had  been  rendered  them  objects  of  in- 
terest, and  will  do  so  through  all  future  ages. 
The  enactments  constituting  the  civil  and 
criminal  code  of  the  Isnielites  were  admini- 
bly  adapted  to  the  state  of  civilizaticui  which 
the  iieo])le  had  then  reacheil  ;  but  these  laws 
were  freely  modified  as  the  circiinistances 
contem)>lated  by  them  changed.  Moses  him- 
self was  the  first  to  introduce  modifica- 
tions, and  David  and  others  made  addi- 
tions. 


Lawyer 


426 


Lead 


Law'yer. 

Oui'  vt-rsed  in  the  law  of  Moses,  of  which 
he  was  tlie  iirolVssioiial  iiitc'r])ri'ter,  a  scril)c 
(Mat.  xxii.  o.")  willi  Mark  xii.  2ti)  ;  sec  Sckibe. 
In  Luke  xi.  44  tlie  words  "  scribes  and  I'liai'i- 
sees  "  are  omitted  in  K.  Y.,  and  there  is  no 
contrast  between  scribes  and  hiwyers  (45). 
The  lawyers  joined  the  I'liarisees  in  rejecting 
tlio  i)reacliing  of  John  the  15ai)tist  (Luke  vii. 
30).  They  considered  tliemselves  at)ove  the 
need  of  instruction  from  Jesus;  and  when 
one  of  tliem  did  condescend  to  hohl  communi- 
catiou  with  iiini,  it  was  to  try  to  jiuzzle  him 
by  means  of  a  ditiicult  question  (Mat.  xxii. 
'.io  ;  Luke  x.  2'^ ;  cp.  Luke  xiv.  3).  Jesus  de- 
nounced them  at  hist  in  severe  language  for 
laying  heavy  l)urdeus  on  the  people,  and 
keeping  back  from  them  the  key  of  knowl- 
edge (Luke  xi.  Ar^-r>2). 

Laying  on  of  Hands. 

An  act  synil)olizing  dedication  to  a  -special 
puriKise.  The  Israelites  placed  their  hands 
on  tlie  heads  of  the  Levites,  dedicating  them 
to  the  service  of  the  Lord  at  the  tabernacle 
in  the  stead  of  the  tirstborn  of  all  the  tribes. 
They  jjressed  down  their  hands  upon  the 
heads  of  the  Levites,  doubtless  with  the  in- 
tention of  signifying  thereby  that,  with 
God's  permission  and  by  his  authority,  they 
transferred  their  own  obligation  to  service  to 
the  Levites  (Num.  viii.  5-20).  The  Israelite, 
who  bi-ought  an  animal  to  the  sacrificial  altar, 
])laced  his  hands  upon  the  victim's  head, 
thereby  dedicating  it  to  God  and  making  it 
his  own  representative  and  substitute  (Lev. 
i.  4  ;  xvi.  21 1.  The  aged  Jacob  laid  his  hands 
on  the  heads  of  Joseph's  sons,  giving  them  a 
place  among  his  own  sons,  and  bestowing 
upon  them  the  covenant  blessing,  transfer- 
ring it  from  him.self  as  its  past  possessor  to 
them  (Gen.  xlviii.  5-20).  The  hands  of  pres- 
bytery were  laid  upon  the  head  of  Timothy. 
The  young  man  was  thereby  set  apart  to  of- 
ficial service  and  grace  was  bestowed  (1  Tim. 
iv.  14).  Imposition  of  the  hands  of  presby- 
tery denoted  not  only  commission,  but  also 
the  bestowal,  by  those  divinely  authorized, 
of  official  spiritual  grace  ;  or  at  least  it  signi- 
fied the  authoritative  recommendation  of  the 
candidate  to  God  as  a  recipient  f)f  grace. 

Laz'a-rus  [from  Hebrew  'EVaznr,  God 
Lath   helped]. 

1.  The  name  of  the  beggar  in  the  jtarable  of 
the  rich  man  aiul  Lazarus.  He  was  laid  at  the 
gate  of  the  rich  man  desiring  to  l)e  ft'd  with 
the  crumbs  which  fell  from  the  sum])tuously 
furnished  table.  He  was  also  afflicted  with 
ulcers.  Yea,  even  the  dogs  licked  his  sores. 
Nothing  is  said  of  his  and  nothing  of  the  rich 
man's  character  ;  but  when  they  died  I^az- 
arus  was  carried  hy  angels  into  Abraham's 
bosom,  while  the  rich  man  went  to  the  i)lace 
of  woe.  At  first  sight  it  might  api)ear  that 
the  one  was  rewarded  simi)ly  for  being  jioor, 
and  the  other  juinished  fur  being  rich  ;  but 
the   hint   that   the  rich  man's  brothers,  who 


evidently  lived  exactly  as  be  had  done,  did 
not  believe  Moses  and  the  ])roi)hets,  and 
as  to  their  life  needed  repentance,  shows  that 
a  moral  element  entered  into  the  case,  and 
that  conduct,  not  position,  decided  their  ul- 
timate destiny  (Luke  xvi.  19-31). 

2.  A  member  of  the  family  of  Bethany, 
and  brother  of  Martha  and  IMary.  He  was 
an  object  of  dee])  aflection  not  only  to  his 
sisters,  but  to  Jesus,  which  sjieaks  well  for 
his  character.  He  was  chosen  for  tlie  signal 
honor  of  being  raised  from  the  dead,  and 
when  he  fell  sick  with  a  grievous  disease 
the  sisters  sent  word  to  Jesus,  who  was  be- 
yond the  Jordan,  but  he  did  not  res]iond  at 
once.  Two  days  later,  when  Lazarus  was 
dead.  Jesus  went  to  Bethany.  Being  met  by 
Martha  outside  the  village,  he  had  an  im- 
portant cunver.sition  with  her  in  which  he 
called  forth  an  exi)ression  of  her  faith  in  tlie 
resurrection  and  in  his  power  to  do  all 
things,  and  declared  him.self  to  lie  the  resur- 
rection and  the  life.  When  Mary  had  come, 
Jesus  went  with  the  sisters  and  their  friends 
to  the  scpulcher,  which  was  of  the  usual  kind 
then  in  use  among  the  Jews,  namely,  a  cave 
either  natural  or  artificial  in  the  face  of  a  rock. 
After  the  stone  had  been  rolled  away,  Jesus 
prayed  to  the  Father.  He  did  this  for  the 
sake  of  the  ]ieo])le  that  stood  by,  that  in  the 
miracle  they  might  discern  proof  that  the 
Father  had  sent  him.  Then  he  said  in  the 
hearing  of  all  present:  "Lazarus,  come 
forth  I  "  and  the  dead  awoke  to  life  and  came 
forth  (John  xi.  1-44).  The  efiect  of  this 
miracle  was  profound.  It  was  the  cause  of 
the  enthusiastic  reception  of  Jesus  at  Jeru- 
salem. It  also  brought  the  sanhedrin  to  their 
decision  to  ]iut  him  to  death  :  for  the  ])eo])le 
were  hailing  him  as  king,  and  if  they  should 
accept  him  and  his  undisguised  doctrine  of 
the  spiritual  nature  of  Christ's  kingdom,  all 
hope  of  their  rising  against  the  Romans 
and  endeavoring  to  restore  the  theocracy 
would  vanish.  The  rulers  decided  that  it 
was  better  for  one  man  to  perish,  whether 
he  were  guilty  or  not,  rather  than  for  the 
whole  nation  to  be  lost  (xi.  4.5-53  ;  xii.  9-19). 
Lazarus  was  i)resent  at  a  supjier  given  in 
honor  of  his  great  benefactor  by  Simon  the 
leper  at  Bethany  six  days  before  the  pass- 
over  (xii.  1,  2).  The  extent  to  which  his 
restoration  to  life  tended  to  bring  new  fol- 
lowers to  Jesus  so  irritated  the  Jewish 
authorities  that  they  jilotted  to  put  liim 
al.so  to  death  (10,  11).  This  is  the  last 
mention  of  Lazarus  in  Scri])ture.  The  plot 
to  take  his  lil'e  does  not  seem  to  have  been 
carried  out.  and  in  due  time  he  doubtless  died 
a  second  death,  the  time,  the  ])lace.  and  the 
circumstances  of  which  are  all  unknown. 

Lead. 

Oni"  of  the  metals  known  to  the  ancients, 
in  Hebrew  'Ophcrelh.  It  was  taken  as  spoil 
from  the  Moabites  (Num.  xxxi.  22),  was  used 
by  the  Egyptians  (con.  Aiiion.  i.  34),  was  oh- 


Leaf 


427 


Lebanon 


tained  in  large  quantities  in  the  peninsula 
of  Sinai,  was  found  in  Egypt,  and  was  ini- 
l)ortrd  from  Tarsliisii  ( Ezcli.  xxvii.  12).  It 
was  used  for  weigiits  (Zeeii.  v.  7),  for  sinkers 
on  lis!)  lines  (Iliad  xxiv.  S(»),  and  for  tai)lois 
oil  wliicli  iiisiTiptions  were  written  (Taeitus, 
Anna!,  ii.  (iit;  I'liny,  Hist.  Nat.  xiii.  •_'!  ;  I'au- 
-anias  ix.  'M,  l).  .lob  xix.  21  lias  heen  nnder- 
slood  to  refer  to  sneli  tahlcts;  liut  the  words 
lirohalily  mean  that,  since  a  hook  ('J.'!)  is  liahle 
lo  pcrisii.  .lol)  desires  the  letters  to  he  cut  in 
the  rock  aTid  then,  to  render  them  more  dis- 
tinct and  dnrahle,  toi)e  tilled  with  molten  lead. 
It  is  nuestionahle  whether  it  was  consciously 
emiiloyed  for  cupellatiou  (Ezek.  xxii.  20). 
Leaf. 

1.  Foliage  of  a  tree  (Gen.  iii.  7  ;  viii.  11). 

2.  Part  of  the  wing  of  a  folding  door,  when 
each  of  the  two  wings  was  divided  eitln-r 
lengthwise  or  crosswise  (1  Kin.  vi.  :!l  :  E/ek. 
xli.  -Jl).  The  leaf  :is  well  as  the  entire  door 
is  called  (IflffU.  hecause  it  turns  on  hingt's  or 
l)ivots.  In  the  former  i)assage,  the  door  of 
the  holy  place  in  Solomon's  temple  is  re- 
ferred to.  It  was  the  fonrtli  part  of  the  wall 
(1  Kin.  vi.  :{3) ;  and  was  probably  ohlong  like 
the  wall  itself,  and  measured  .">  cubits  in 
width  by  7'  in  height  (cp.  2).  The  measure- 
ment presumably  includes  the  two  doorposts 
and  the  lintel,  leaving  an  ojiening  at  least  4 
cubits  wide  by  7  high.  Tills  was  closed  by  two 
doors,  each  of  which  was  divided  pi'ritendicii- 
larly  or  horizontally  into  halves.  If  divided 
horizontally  through  the  middle,  the  leaf 
measured  2  by  :\\  cubits,  or  :5  by  ?)\  feet,  and 
was  (piite  ample  to  afford  ingress  and  egress 
to  the  iirlents  in  their  daily  ministrations, 
without  re(i  Hiring  the  en  tire  door  to  be  opened. 

:j.  The  page  or  eolinnn  of  a  roll  (Jer. 
xxxvi.  23  ;  cp.  2). 

Le'ah  [wild  cow]. 

The  elder  daughter  of  Lahan.  She  was 
less  attractive  than  her  younger  sister, 
Rachel,  one  chi(>f  defect  l)eing  that  her  eyes 
were  temler.  I5y  a  trick  she  was  passed  off 
on  Jacob  as  his  bride,  when  he  had  served 
seven  years  for  liiiehel.  Leah  became  the 
mother  of  Keuben,  .Sinu'on.  Levi.  .Tudah, 
I-isacbar.  Zebuliin.  and  their  sister  Dinah 
(<ieii.   N\-i\-.    Ki-li.'i ;   XXX.  17-21). 

Leas'ing. 

Lying,  falsehood  (I's.  iv.  2:  v.  fi.  .\.  V.). 
As  I  lie  word  is  now  obsolete  'v.  V.  sulisfitutes 
falsehood  iiiid  lies. 

Leath'er. 

The  art  of  tanning  and  dying  skins  was 
understood  by  the  IIel)rews  (Ex.  xxv.  'y\ 
Acts  ix.  ■V.\).  Leather  was  us(>d  by  them  and 
other  nations  of  antu|uity  for  numerous  jiur- 
poses  :  for  articles  of  clothing  (Lev.  xiii.  ■l'^; 
Num.  xx\i.  2()>,  <-overlngs  of  tents  (Ex. 
\xvi.  11),  bottles  (.ludith  x.  .'.),  slil.-lds.  The 
leather  of  the  shield  was  oiled  to  keep  it  soft 
and  shining  (2  Sam.  i.  21  ;  Is.  xxi.  .'>).  Seal 
or  por]ioise  skin  was  used  for  niakini;  a  su- 
perior kind  of  s;iinlal  (Ezek.   xvi.  10;  in  A. 


V.  badgers'  skin).  Elijah  and  John  the  Bap- 
tist wore  leathern  girdles  (2  Kin.  i.  s  ;  Mat. 
iii.  4). 

Leav'en. 

A  sul)stance  used  to  produce  fernientatiou 
in  dough  and  make  it  rise  (Ex.  xii.  1."),  1!J; 
xiii.  7).  In  Scripture  times  leaven  generally 
einisisted  of  a  little  old  dough  in  a  high  state 
of  fermentation.  Its  disiid vantages  were  that 
the  bread  thus  produced  hail  a  tlisagree- 
ably  sour  taste  and  smell.  To  obviate  the.se 
defects  yea.st  or  barm  is  now  em]tloyed  as 
leaven.  The  use  of  leaven  was  forbidden  in 
all  oUerings  made  by  lire  to  the  Lord  (Lev. 
ii.  111.  15ut  wlu'U  the  otlering  was  to  be  con- 
sumed by  man,  leaven  miglit  be  usi'd  (vii.  i:j; 
xxiii.  17).  The  ju-iucipal  reason  for  the  pro- 
hibition was  that  fermentation  is  incipient 
corruption,  and  was  emblematic  of  corrup- 
tion. It  is  used  for  corrujit  doctrine  (Mat. 
xvi.  11  ;  Mark  viii.  l."))aud  for  wicko«inessin 
the  heart  (1  Cor.  v.  (»-■•?)  ;  and  it  symbolized 
moral  intiuenee  generally,  whether  good  or 
bad,  as  wlien  the  kingdom  of  heaven  is  com- 
pared to  leaven  whicli  a  woman  hid  in  three 
measures  of  meal  till  tlie  whole  was  leavened 
(Mat.  xiii.  .'515).  The  Israelites  were  forbidden 
to  eat  leavened  bread  or  to  have  any  leaven 
in  their  houses  during  the  passover  festival. 
The  absence  of  leaven  .symbolized  the  incor- 
ruptness  of  lit'e  which  (iod's  service  requires, 
reminded  them  of  the  liaste  in  which  they 
had  fled  out  of  I'^gyiit,  their  dough  in  their 
troughs,  and  suggested  the  aflliction  of  Egypt 
by  the  insipidity  of  the  bread  (Ex.  xii.  39  ; 
Dent.  xvi.  3  ;  1  Cor.  v.  7,  8). 

Leb'an-a  and  Lebanah  [white  (tliis  being 
a  poetic  designation  for  the  moon)]. 

Founder  of  a  family.  mtMiibers  of  which  re- 
turned fniin  captivitv  (Ezra  ii.  4.t:  Neh. 
vii.    I>). 

Leb'a-non  [white]. 

A  snow-dad  mountain  range  (Jer.  xviii. 
14),  with  hills  of  less  elevation  running  from 
it  in  every  direction  (Hos.  xiv.  .">).  Itsstrcams 
rendered  the  rich  soil  of  the  valleys  ex- 
trenu'ly  productive.  The  lower  zone  was 
covered  with  vines  ((>.  7),  but  the  mountains 
were  most  noted  for  their  forests  of  gigantic 
cedars.  Fir  trees  or  cypresses  also  abounded 
(1  Kin.  V.  ()-l();  2  Kin.  xix.  2."!:  Is.  xl.  Hi; 
Ix.  13;  Zech.  xi.  1).  Lions  and  leojiards 
roamed  in  the  woods  (2  Kin.  xiv.  !)  ;  .Song  i v. 
H).  The  trees  were  felled,  and  the  timber 
was  used  not  only  in  the  construction  of  |>al- 
aces  and  temiiles,  but  also  by  the  rii(eiiicians 
for  the  masts  of  sbi]>s  ( i;zni  iii,  7;  I>.ek. 
xxvii.  .")).  Lebaniui  was  the  northwestern 
boundary  of  the  promised  land  (Dent.  i.  7  ; 
xi.2l:  Josh.  i.  4  ;  xi.  17  :  xii.  7  :  xiii.  ."n.  It  is 
of  limestone  formation.  The  mountains  con- 
sist of  two  ranges,  running  north  ;ind  south, 
se|iarated  by  the  valley  of  the  Litany  and 
the  Orontes.  In  the  <{recian  ]>eriod  the  name 
Lebanon  became  restricted  to  the  western 
range,  wliile  the  eastern  received  the  name 


Lebaoth. 


428 


Legion 


Anti-Lebanon.  This  distinction  still  exists. 
The  intervening  valley  is  called  Ca'lesyria, 
that  is  hollow  Syria,  or  the  Bekaa.  The 
chain  may  be  considered  to  coniinencc  about 
15  miles  southeast  of  Sidon.  and  to  run  to 
about  rJ  miles  northeast  i)y  north  ol'Triiioli, 
a  distance  of  about  lUO  miles.  The  greatest 
elevation  of  Lebanon  is  at  its  northern  end  ; 
of  Anti-Lebanon,  at  its  southern  end  in 
mount  Hermon.  "For  10  miles  the  north- 
ern end  of  this  ridge  [of  Lebanon]  is  over 
10.000  feet  above  the  sea.  For  another  10 
miles  it  is  between  7500  and  8000  feet.  Then 
for  20  miles  it  sinks  to  an  average  of  from 
6500  to  7000  feet.  Then  it  rises  in  the  grand 
truncated  cone  of  Jebel  Suuuin  to  over  8500 
feet.  Again  it  sinks  to  the  plateau  between 
Sunnin  and  Keniseh,  to  about  6000  feet.  The 
highest  peak  of  Kenisehrisesagain  to  nearly 
7000  feet.  Then  comes  the  pass  of  the  Da- 
mascus road  at  Khan  Muzhir,  5022  feet. 
Then  the  ridge  of  Jebel  Baruk  and  Jebel 
Niha,  over  40  miles  long,  about  6500  feet,  the 
latter  ending  in  the  picturesque  Twins 
(Tomat  Niha).  Finally,  Jebel  Eihan,  which 
sinks  gradually  to  the  level  of  the  plateau 
of  Merj  'Ayiin.  Jebel  Keniseh,  and  Jebel 
Sunnin,  at  the  center  of  the  chain,  although 
not  the  highest,  are  from  their  isolation  far 
the  most  imposing  peaks"  (Post,  Quar.  State. 
Exp.  Fund,  1892).  The  highest  peaks  are 
Jebel  ;\[akmal  and  Kurnat  es-Sauda,  each 
about  10,200  feet.  The  present  population 
of  Lebanon  is  estimated  by  Dr.  Post  at  200,- 
000.  The  people  live  mostly  in  villages  ro- 
mantically situated  on  rocky  platforms  or 
on   the  mountain  slopes. 

Leb'a-otli  [lionesses]. 

A  town  in  the  extreme  south  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  o2).     See  Beth-leb.\oth. 

Leb-bEe'us.    See  Judas  8. 

Le-too'nah  [incense,  frankincense]. 

A  town  north  of  Shiloh  (Judg.  xxi.  19). 
It  has  long  been  identified  with  Lubban,  on 
the  road  between  Shechem  and  Jerusalem,  3 
miles  west  by  north  of  Shiloh. 

Le'cah  []ierhai)s,  going,  a  journey] 
A   village   of  Judah    (1   c'hron.  iv.  21),  to 
judge  from  the  context.     Site  unknown. 

Leek. 

The  rendering  in  Num.  xi.  5,  of  the 
Hebrew  Ila^'ir,  which  commonly  denotes 
grass.  The  leek  {.■lllhnn  porrnm)  is  probably 
intended  in  this  passage  :  for  it  is  mentioned, 
along  with  onions  and  garlic,  as  eaten  in 
Egypt ;  the  word  is  so  rendered  by  the 
Targum  of  Onkelos,  Septuagint,  Vulgate,  and 
Syriac ;  and  h"sir  is  used  iu  Aramaic  for  the 
leek. 

Lees. 

Dregs  or  sediment  deposited  from  wine  or 
other  liquor  (T*.  xxv.  6).  The  liquor  was 
allowed  to  stand  on  the  lees  that  its  color 
and  body  might  be  better  preserved  (Is. 
xxv.  6). 


To  settle  on  their  lees  is  to  settle  down  in 
contentment  with  one's  character  and  cir- 
cumstances (Jer.  xlviii.  11 ;  Zeph.  i.  12).  To 
drink  the  lees  of  the  cup  of  wrath  means  to 
di-ain  the  cup.  enduring  the  punishment  to 
the  utmost  (Ps.  Ixxv.  8,  rendered  dregs). 

Le'gion. 

The  chief  subdivision  of  the  Roman  army 
(War  iii.  4,  2).  It  originally  contained  .3000 
foot  soldiers  with  a  contingent  of  cavalry. 


Soldiers  of  the  Roman  Legion. 

From  the  .\icli  of  Coiistantine. 

From  100  n.  c.  to  the  fall  of  the  empire  the 
number  varied  from  5000  to  6200,  while  from 
Augustus  to  Hadrian  or  during  the  N.  T. 


Lehabim 


429 


Leopard 


period  f)fX)0  seems  to  Lave  becu  the  regular 
foinplement  and  the  cavalry  was  not  con- 
sidered as  forming  a  constituent  jiart  of  the 
legion.  At  this  time  the  legion  consisted  of 
tell  eiihorts,  each  culiort  of  tliree  nianiiiles, 
and  each  maniple  of  two  centuries  (c]).  Mat. 
x.wii.  27,  li.  V.  margin)  ;  and  was  otlicered 
by  tribunes  and  centurions  (War  iii.  5,  3; 
Acts  xxi.  :{].  :{■-',  K.  V.  margin;  xxiii.  23), 
numbering  ten  and  sixty  respectively.  In 
•Scripture  legimi  is  used  to  denote  any  large 
host  (Mat.  xxvi.  53;  Mark  v.  9). 

The  military  standard  of  the  Romans  was 
at  first  a  bunch  of  straw  attached  to  a  ]iole. 
Lateral!  eagle  and  four  other  animals  formed 
the  stanibirds  of  a  legi<ui,  but  after  101  n.  c. 
the  eagle  alont^  was  employed  (I'liny,  Hist. 
Nat.  X.  4).  It  was  committed  to  tiie  custody  of 
the  chief  centurion.  In  addition  to  the  eagle, 
the  standard  also  commonly  bore  a  small  im- 
age of  the  emperor,  and  the  introduction  of 
these  images  into  .Teru.salem  by  I'ontius  I'ilatu 
caused  an  insurrection  of  tlii^  Jews  iAnti(i. 
xviii.  3.  1  ;  War  ii.  it.  -2).  But  while  the  great 
standard  of  the  whole  legion  was  the  eagle, 
each  cohortaud  century  had  its  own  standard, 
and  these  minor  ensigns  assumed  a  variety 
of  forms. 
Le'ha-bim. 

A  tribe  sprung  from  or  incorporated  with 
the  Egyptians  ((Jen.  x.  13;  1  Chrou.  i.  11), 
ju-obably  the  same  as  the  Lubim  (q.  v.). 
Le'M  [cheek,  Jawbone]. 
A  jdace  in  Judah  (.Fiidg.  xv.  9),  elevated 
(11,  13),  where  the  riiilistines  spread  them- 
selves when  they  advanced  into  .Tudah  to 
seize  Samson.  It  may  have  been  a  ridge. 
It  received  its  naiin'  either  from  a  series  of 
jagged  crags  resembling  a  jawbone,  or  from 
Samson's  exploit  with  the  jawbone  of  an  ass. 
At  any  rate,  that  iKirt  of  it  where  Samson 
beat  flown  the  Philistines,  who  seem  to  have 
been  tlei'ing.  and  cast  aside  the  jawbone  which 
liaU  served  him  asa  weapon,  was  reiiiemliered, 
and  it  was  jxiiuted  out  a><  Kamath-lrbi,  height 
of  th(>  jawbone  (17).  (xuerin  locates  Lehi  at 
'Ain  el-I.ehi,  northwest  of  Hetblehem,  about 
2  miles  west-southwest  of  Malbah,  and  hence 
not  far  from  Ktam  (cj).  111.  Hut  the  exist- 
ence of  '.\in  el-Lehi  appears  doubtful.  The 
survey  ma])  does  not  indicate  it.  Moreover. 
Lehi  is  best  sought  near  the  southern  Ktam, 
for  Samson  went  from  Timnah  down,  not  up, 
to  the  rock  at  Ktam. 

Lem'u-el  [devoted  to  Cod]. 
Tlie  royal   author  of  I'rov.  xxxi.,  who  re- 
produces what  was  taught  him  by  his  mother 
(ver.  1). 
Len'til. 

A  i)lant  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  11),  boiled  as  pottage 
i(!en.  XXV.  2!t,  31)  and  in  times  of  scarcity 
m.iile  info  l)read  (I>.ek.  iv.  9).  Th(>  modern 
.\ribic  n:inie  is  identical  with  its  Hebrew 
de-<imiation  "linshini.  The  lentil  ( ICrriim 
Irun)  is  a  |iaiiilionaceous  plant,  allied  to  the 
vetches.     It  has  compound  leaves,  with  five 


to  six  pairs  of  oblong  leaflets,  white  flowers 
striped  with  violet,  and  small  broad  legumes. 
I'ottage  made  from  it  is  red.  It  was  this  which 
wasgiven  to  Esau  when  he  was  famishing,  and 
it  was  from  it  that  his  second  uanje  Edom  was 


Lentils. 


derived.  The  iilaut  is  wild  in  Moab,  and  is 
cultivated  in  all  i)artsof  Palestine.  The  seeds 
when  boiled  are  thoroughly  wholesome.  It 
is  from  them  tiiat  JU'nileidn  innliira  is  made, 
and  they  are  of  late  quite  familiar  at  most 
vegetarian  restaurants  and  in  many  house- 
holds. 

Leop'ard. 

A  wild  animal  ;  in  Hebrew  Nnmcr,  spotted 
beast,  ill  (ireek  Pmdiilis.  It  wa.s,  as  its  name 
imjilied,  a  sjiotted  animal  (Jer.  xiii.  23).  It 
was  very  swift  (Hab.  i.  8).  Its  ai)proi)riate 
food  was  the  kid  (Is.  xi.  6),  but  it  sometimes 
attacked  man  (Hos.  xiii.  7,  8);  lurking  for 
the  puri)ose  in  the  vicinity  of  cities  or  vil- 
lages i.Tcr.  V.  ()).  though  its  ordinary  ha))ita- 
tion  was  among  the  mountains  (Song  iv.  8). 
The  leopard  (Felis  pardns  or  I.copnnliiy]  was 
believed  by  the  ancients  and  some  moderns 
to  be  a  hybrid  between  the  lion  and  the 
panther;  hence  its  name,  which  is  com- 
])ounded  of  leo  and  j)iir(liis.  lion  and  ])anther. 
Now  it  is  generally  held  that  these  are 
merely  varieties  of  the  s;ime  species.  The 
api)ropriatc  habitat  of  the  leojjard  or  panther 
is  .\frica  and  southern  .\sia.  In  Palestine  it 
now  occui-s  chielly  in  the  region  east  of  the 
Jordan  :  but  it  was  evidently  uku'c  common 
in  .Scripture  times  than  at  present,  in  the 
country  west  of  the  river. 

Iti  Oan.  vii.  (i  it  symbolizes  a  fierce  nation 
and  its  king,  doulitless  (ireece  (viii.  21) ;  and 
in  Kev.  xiii.  2  the  composite  creature,  which 
combines  the  four  beasts  of  Daniel  and 
tyitifies  the  united  jiowers  of  this  world,  has 
the  body  of  a  leopard. 


Leper 


430 


Leprosy 


Lep'er. 

A  person  afl'ccted  with  the  disease  of  lep- 
rosy CJ  Kill.  vii.  !S ;  Mat.  x.  8).  The  leper  was 
exfhiikd  from  intercourse  with  his  fellow- 
men  anil  from  the  .saneliiary,  was  required  to 
exhibit  the  usual  signs  of  mourniiifi  and  to 
give  the  warning  cry  to  all  that  approached, 
"Unclean!  unclean!"  (Lev.  xiii.  45;  Luke 
xvii.  12,  13),  and  he  was  regarded  as  a  dead 
man  (Num.  xii.  12).  Strangely  enough,  if 
the  leprosy  was  spreading,  the  sufferer  was 
unclean ;  but  if  it  oversi)read  the  whole 
man,  he  was  adjudged  clean  (Lev.  xiii.  6, 
12,  13).  Some  expositors  understand  this  to 
mean  that,  while  the  disease  manifested 
activity,  the  law  imputed  iiollution ;  hut 
when  it  might  be  regarded  as  having  run 
its  course,  it  lost  its  character  as  a  curse 
from  God.  Others  understand  the  mean- 
ing to  he  that  only  when  the  leper  was 
acknowledged  to  be  defiled  in  every  part  by 
this  disease,  which  typified  sin,  could  he  be 
admitted  to  the  privileges  of  atonement. 
Yet  other  interpreters  believe  that  the  rapid 
eruption  over  the  whole  body  was  a  sign 
that  the  crisis  had  been  passed  and  recovery 
had  set  in.    See  Purification. 

Lep'ro-sy. 

1.  A  dreadful  disease,  in  Hebrew  Sara'ath, 
scourge.  The  symptoms  are  described  in 
Lev.  xiii.  1-46.  There  were  skin  diseases 
from  which  it  required  to  be  carefully 
distinguished.  It  was  not  a  superficial, 
but  was  a  deep-seated  malady.  It  often 
began  as  a  rising,  or  a  scab,  or  a  bright 
spot,  which  tended  to  spread,  turning  white 
the  hair  covering  the  i)arts  atlected  (xiii.  2,  3, 
7,  8,  10,  24,  20,  27,  35,  36).  Raw  flesh  tended 
to  appear  (10,  14-16,  24).  Among  the  parts 
of  the  body  specially  liable  to  attack  were 
the  scalp  of  the  head,  the  beard,  the  top  of 
the  head,  or  the  forehead,  after  these  had 
become  bald  ;  also  any  spot  which  had  been 
accidentally  injured  by  fire  (24,  29,  30,  42). 
A  leper  was  to  be  excluded  from  the  camp; 
was  required  to  let  the  hair  of  his  head  go 
loose  and  his  clothes  be  rent ;  while  he  was 
to  cover  his  upper  lip.  and  cry,  "  Unclean  ! 
unclean!"  (45,  46).  He  had  to  appear  re- 
peatedly before  the  ]n-iest.  who  was  to  pro- 
nounce on  the  character  of  the  disease  (1-44)  ; 
and  in  the  event  of  the  malady  departing,  he 
was  to  go  through  an  elaborate  process  of 
cleansing  and  sacrifice  (xiv.  1-32).  In  the 
description  of  the  disease  given  in  Lev.  xiii. 
there  is  no  mention  of  the  le]ier's  hue  chang- 
ing to  a  snowy  white,  as  was  the  case  with 
Miriam  (Num. "xii.  10)  and  (Jehazi  (2  Kin.  v. 
27),  and  momentarily  with  Moses  (Ex.  iv.  6). 
Not  even  those  whose  circumstances  were 
comfortalile  were  exempt  from  this  disease. 
Thus,  it  affected  Naaman,  wlien  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  army  of  Syria  (2  Kin.  v.  1-14), 
and  I^zziali  during  the  later  years  of  his 
reign  over  .Tudah  (xv.  5;  2  Chron.  xxvi.  21). 
The  regulations  about  excluding  the  leper 


from  society  were  carried  out  among  the  He- 
brews (Num.  V.  1-4  ;  xii.  10, 15 ;  2  Kin.  vii.  3,  8, 
10;xv.  5;2Chron.  xxvi.  21 ;  cp.  also  Luke  xvii. 
12)  ;  but  the  fact  that  the  king  of  Syria  seems 
to  have  leaned  on  Xaaman's  hand,  even  when 
he  was  a  lejier,  and  that  Naaman  dwelt  with 
his  family  and  was  accompanied  by  servants, 
shows  that  leprosy,  though  loathsome,  was 
not  actually  contagious  (2  Kin.  v.  1^).  The 
disease  to  which  tlie  English  word  leprosy  is 
now  confined  is  a  formidalile  malady,  techni- 
cally called  Elephantiasis  Griecornm,  elei»hant 
disease  of  the  Greeks.  It  ajijiears  under  two 
forms.  The  tuberculated  or  black  lejirosy  is 
at  jn-esent  the  more  common,  and  the  name 
is  restricted  to  it  by  some  authorities.  It 
affects  primarily  the  skin  and  mucous  mem- 
branes. The  ana»sthetic  or  white  le])rosy 
affects  the  nerves  principally,  and  produces 
numbness.  The  symptoms  of  the  two  forms 
are  often  united,  and  one  form  frequently 
jiasses  into  the  other.  The  coming  of  the 
disease  is  preceded  by  lassitude  for  months 
or  years.  Then  circular  spots  or  blotches  of 
irregular  form  and  varying  extent  appear 
on  the  forehead,  the  limbs,  and  the  body. 
After  a  time,  the  central  iiortion  (»f  the  sjjots 
and  blotches  becomes  white,  and  the  parts 
afl'ccted  contract  a  certain  numbness.  In  the 
worst  cases  the  joints  of  the  fingers  and  toes 
fall  ofi'  one  by  one,  and  injuries  to  the  other 
]iarts  ]iroduce  mutilation  and  deformity. 
Thomson  says:  "The  'scab'  conies  on  by 
degrees  in  different  parts  of  the  body ;  the 
hair  falls  from  the  head  and  eyebrows ;  the 
nails  loosen,  decay,  and  drop  off;  joint  after 
joint  of  the  fingers  and  toes  shrink  up  and 
slowly  fall  away.  The  gums  are  absorbed, 
and  the  teeth  disappear.  The  nose,  the  eyes, 
the  tongue,  and  the  palate  are  slowly  con- 
sumed." Again,  he  says,  that  when  approach- 
ing the  .Tafl'a  gate  of  Jerusakni  he  was  start- 
led by  the  sudden  apparition  of  a  crowd  of 
beggars,  without  eyes,  nose,  or  hair.  They 
held  up  handless  arms,  and  unearthly  sounds 
gurgled  through  throats  without  jialates.  This 
l(iatlis(inie  and  fatal  disease  is  poitularly  be- 
lieved to  be  identical  with  that  of  Leviticus 
and  the  other  liooks  of  the  Bible  (cp.  Num. 
xii.  12).  But  the  disease  mentioned  in  Scrip- 
ture seems  to  have  been  curable  (Lev.  xiv.  3), 
whereas  Elrjilnnifitisis  Grux'onnn  is  not,  except 
in  the  early  stages.  If  not  elephantiasis, 
what  was  it?  Sir  Risdon  Bennett  (Diseases 
of  the  Bible,  l.')-,52)  and  others  believe  prob- 
ably Lepra  riihinris.iM>v.-  merged  in  the  genus 
I'siii-iasis.  and  called  P.voc/u.v/.v  ruJaaris.  the 
dry  tetter.  It  is  a  non-contagious,  scaly  dis- 
ease, generally  commencing  about  the  elbows 
and  knees,  as  small  circular  jiatches  of  silvery- 
white  scales,  which  spread  till  tliey  become 
the  size  of  a  quarter  or  a  half  dollar,  by 
which  time  the  scales  have  fallen  from  the 
central  portion  of  the  circle,  leaving  it  red  ; 
other  circles  arising  coalesce.  Afterwards 
the  abdomen,  the  chest,  and  the  back  become 
affected,  and  in  rare  cases  the  disease  extends 


Leshem 


431 


Levites 


at  last  also  to  the  head,  face,  and  hauils.  The 
CDiistitiitioiial  ilistiirhaiK-i'  is  tritliufi;,  and  the 
disi'ast;  is  (•iini))lf,  tlii)iij;h  it  is  lial)k'  to  recur, 
ll  is  siiiijilN'  a  skin  disi'ase,  in  no  way  endan- 
ficrin^  life.  Or  tiie  wiiite  leprosy  of  tlieO. 
T.  may  liavi'  l)ei'n  I'.suriasis  (jutlntn.  m  wiiich 
the  scattered  patches  are  said  to  ^ive  an  ap- 
]iea ranee  to  tlic  skin  as  if  it  had  heen  splashed 
with  mortar.  IVrhaps  the  Hebrew  term 
siii<t'ttlli  was  a  ;;eiieric  one,  and  the  elejihan- 
tiasis  and  tlie  ]>soriasis  two  of  its  species; 
and  it  isquite  ]i(>,ssil)h'  that  dillerent  varieties 
have  i)revaik'd  at  did'erent  times.  If  the 
lejjrosy  of  the  Old  and  that  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament were  ideTitical,  then  conlirmation  is 
(.'iven  to  the  opinion  that  the  former  was 
jisoriasis,  for  Luke  (v.  12,  115),  himself  a  ph.v- 
sician,  employs  tlie  (treek  word  lepra,  which 
was  technically  used  of  psoriasis.  With  this 
,Io>epluis'  description  of  lejirosy  agrees,  for 
(.\nti(i.  iii.  11,  1)  he  defines  a  lejier  to  he  a 
man  who  has  a  misfortune  in  the  cidor  of  his 
skin,  and  makes  no  allusion  to  jjraver  symp- 
toms. He  mentions  also  that  amoiiji  the 
gentiles  lei)ers  were  not  excluded  from  so- 
ciety, hut  were  coni))etent  to  discharge  im- 
l)ortant  functions  in  the  body  politic. 

2.  The  same  word  surd'oth  was  ai>plicd  to 
a  greenish  or  redilisli  appearance  in  a  gar- 
ment and  to  hollow  greenish  or  reddish 
strakes  in  the  wall  of  a  lu)U.se  (I..ev.  xiii.  -17- 
59;  xiv.  ;!;{-:57).  It  may  he  some  minute 
cry|>togamous  ])]ant,  an  algal  or  a  fungal, 
which  has  grown  ui)on  the  garment  or  wall 
after  it  has  become  wet  in  the  rainy  season. 

Le'sbem.     See  D.\N  3. 

Le-tu'sbim. 

.\  tribe  descended  from  Dcdan  (Gen.  xxv. 
8).     They  doubtless  settled  in  .Vrabia. 

Le-um'mim  [peoples,  nations]. 

A  tribe  descended  from  Dedan  (fien.  xxv. 
;?).     They  doubtless  settled  in  Arabia. 

Le'vl  [adhesion.  as.sociate]. 

1.  Tliird  son  of  .Jacob  and  Leah  (Gen.  xxix. 
.11).  He  took  part  with  Simeon,  Leah's  scc- 
<»n<l  son.  in  massacring  Hamor,  Shechem.and 
the  men  of  their  city,  in  rt-venge  for  the  in- 
jury done  by  Shechem  to  their  sister  Dinah 
(xxxiv.  •J.V.Tl).  .Jacob  on  his  deathbed  re- 
mend)erod  with  fresh  abhorrence  this  deed 
of  blood,  and,  referring  to  Simeon  and  Levi, 
s;ii(l,  "  ( 'ursed  be  their  anger,  for  it  was  lierce  ; 
and  their  wrath,  for  it  was  cruel:  I  will  di- 
vide them  in  .Jacob,  and  scatter  thorn  in  Is- 
nu-1  "  (xlix.  7).  Levi  had  three  sons  :  Ger- 
shon  or  Gershom.  Kohath,  and  Merari  (<!en. 
xlvi.  11),  and  died  in  Kgypt  at  the  age  of  1:57 
(Ex.  vi.  l(j).     See  Lkvitks. 

2  and  3.  Two  ancestors  of  Christ,  one  the  son 
of  .^ymeon,  ami  the  other  a  son  of  Melchi 
(Luke  iii.  21.  2!l.  :!()). 

•1.  .Another  name  for  the  ajiostle  Matthew 
(cp.  Mat.  ix.  !»  13;  .Mark  ii.  11  17;  Luke  v. 
27. 32). 

Le-vi'a-than  [one  sjiirally  wound]. 

A  great  ai|uatic  animal  mentioned  only  in 


I)oetic  i)a.ssage.s.  He  was  formed  by  God  to 
l)ln>-  in  the  .sea  (Ps.  civ.  2(i).  He  has  limbs, 
head,  neck,  eyes,  nose,  jaw,  mouth,  teeth, 
and  tongue  (.Job  xli.  1,  2,  7,  12,  11,  IS,  lit,  22), 
and  is  covered  with  scales  and  an  impenetra- 
ble hide  (7,  l.j-17,  2(J-2!»).  He  lieth  upon  the 
mire  or  makelh  the  sea  to  boil  like  a  jiot  (30, 
31).  He  is  too  large  to  be  taken  by  fish  hook 
or  hai'poou  (1.  2()),  is  teri'ible  of  as|iect  (9), 
and  niiglity  in  strength,  but  comely  of  i)ro- 
]iortion  (12).  He  is  poetically  described  as 
breathing  fire  and  smoke  (19-21),  as  is  (lod 
in  I's.  xviii.  H  and  as  are  the  hor.ses  in  Kev. 
ix.  17.  \\'hen  (iod  worki-d  salvation  by  di- 
viding tlu'  sea.  lu' destroyed  the  sea  monsters 
which  inhabited  it,  broke  the  heads  of  levia- 
llian  and  left  his  carcass  to  be  eateu  by  the 
I)eoiile  of  the  desert  (I's.  Ixxiv.  14).  As  the 
sea  is  the  tyi>e  of  the  restless,  surging  nations 
of  the  earth,  so  leviathan  which  dwells  there- 
in, leviathan  the  flying  serjient,  leviathan 
the  swift  ser])ent,  leviathan  the  crooked  ser- 
l)ent,  and  tlie  dragon  symbolize  the  fierce 
and  terrible  [lowers  of  the  world  which  have 
aflHcted  tin-  iieojile  of  Go<l,  but  whom  (Jod 
will  ultimately  destroy  (Is.  xxvii.  1).  Le- 
viathan is  commonly  regarded  as  the  croco- 
dile (.Job  xli.  1,  K.  V.  margin).  As  such  the 
imagery  is  apt.  Egypt,  its  habitat,  is  the 
typical  oppressor  of  the  kingdom  of  God, 
and  Egy]>t's  power  was  broken  and  its  king 
thwarti'd  when  (4()d  divided  the  Red  Sea  for 
the  deliverance  of  his  people.  Leviathan 
may,  however,  be  merely  a  creation  of  the 
popular  fancy,  an  imaginary  .sea  monster; 
the  insjiired  poets  and  jirophetsof  Israel  sub- 
sidizing fable  to  serve  in  the  illustration  of 
truth.  In  .lob  iii.  8  leviathan  may  be  a  fabu- 
lous dragon  which  caused  eclip.ses  by  swal- 
lowing sun  and  moon,  and  the  cursors  of  the 
day  may  be  conjurers  who  claimed  th(>  power 
to  ])roduce  ecli])ses  by  his  aid.  ( )r  in  this 
passage  leviathan  m.-iy  be  the  untamable,  ter- 
rible crocodile  which  only  conjurers  of  high- 
est skill  claimed  ability  to  summon  to  their 
aid. 

Le'vltes. 

1.  The  descendants  of  Levi,  the  son  of 
.Jacob.  He  had  three  sons  :  Gershon  or  Ger- 
shom. Kohath.  and  Mt'rari,  each  of  whom 
founded  a  tribal  family  (Gen.  xlvi.  11;  Ex. 
vi.  1() ;  Num.  iii.  17:  1  C'hron.  vi.  l(j-4S). 
Moses  ami  .\aron  were  Levites  of  the  house 
of  Aninini  and  family  of  Kohath  (Ex.  vi.  16, 
18.  20.  2(;). 

2.  Tlie  men  of  the  tribe  of  Levi  charged 
with  the  care  of  the  sam'tuary.  .\aron  and 
his  sons  were  set  apart  for  the  iiriesthood  and 
the  office  was  made  hereditary.  Hut  the 
tabernacle  an<l  its  service  had  been  jirojected 
on  a  nolile  scale.  The  care  and  transiiorla- 
tion  of  the  costly  sanctuary  and  the  i>repara- 
tio!i  of  materials  for  the  elalxmito  service  on- 
tailed  labors  which  no  one  man  and  no  one 
family  was  etiual  to.  Helj)ors  were  needed. 
The  charge  of  the  tabernacle  was  an  honor- 


Levites 


432 


Leviticus 


able  work.  Who  should  undertake  it  ?  The 
tirstboru  belonged  to  God.  This  conviction 
was  deepened  ))y  tlie  circunistauees  connected 
with  tlie  deliverance  from  JCfiyi)t.  When  the 
lirsthdrn  of  tlie  JOjiyptians  were  .shiin,  t)loo(l 
(Ml  the  lintel  and  side  door  posts  was  needed 
lo  i)rotect  the  Israelite  lirstboru  males  from  a 
similar  fate.  They  had  then  become  the 
s]iecial  i)roiierty  of  Jehovah,  and  hence- 
liirtli  were  consecrated  to  him  as  a  memorial 
(Ex.  xiii.  ll-Ki).  But  instead  of  the  first- 
born of  all  the  tribes,  tlie  Levites  were  chosen 
for  service  in  connection  with  the  sanctuary  ; 
and  the  choice  was  made  because,  when  the 
lieojile  had  ))roken  the  covenant  with  .lehovah 
by  niakin<;  the  golden  calf,  the  Levites  alone 
had  voluntarily  returned  to  their  allegiance 
and  shown  zeal  for  (iod's  honor  (xxxii.  26-29 ; 
Num.  iii.  9,  11-13,  40,  41,  4.")  .se(i. :  viii.  l(j-18). 
It  was  their  duty  to  1rans])()rt  the  tabernacle 
and  its  furniture  when  the  camji  moved  ;  and 
when  the  camp  rested  to  erect  the  tent,  have 
care  of  it,  and  assist  the  ])riestsin  their  work 
(Num.  i.  50-53;  iii.  6-9,25-37;  iv.  ;  1  Sam. 
vi.  15  ;  2  Sam.  xv.  24).  The  age  at  which  the 
obligation  of  service  began  was  thirty  years 
as  carriers  of  the  tabernacle  (Num.  iv.  3)  ; 
and  twenty-liveasassistantstothepriests  (viii. 
24).  As  the  sons  of  Aaron  were  Levites 
as  well  as  priests,  they  are  frecjuently  in- 
cluded under  the  designation  Levite  (Dent, 
xxxiii.  8-10;  Josh.  xiv.  3;  xxi.  1,  4;  Mai. 
iii.  3);  and  also,  either  as  higher  officials  or 
as  Levites,  they  might,  if  they  saw  fit,  dis- 
charge any  service  that  pertained  to  the  Le- 
vites. No  official  dress  was  prescribed  for 
Levites,  but  on  great  occasions  they  drew  on 
festal  raiment  (1  Chron.  xv.  27  ;  2  C'hron.  v. 
12).  It  was  an  innovation  when  the  I^evitical 
singers  in  the  first  century  A.  d.  obtained  per- 
mission from  king  Agr)])]ia,  with  the  sanction 
of  the  sanhedrin  to  wear  linen  garments 
as  constantly  as  did  the  pri(>sts  (Autiq. 
XX.  9,  6).  They  were  not  required  to  de- 
vote their  entire  time  to  the  sanctuary 
nor  to  dwell  continually  near  it ;  but  cm  the 
allotment  of  Canaan  they  were  distributed  to 
various  towns  (Josh.  xxi.  20-40).  Exclusive 
of  the  towns  allotted  to  the  Levites  who  were 
priests,  all  of  which  were  in  Judah,  Simeon 
and  Benjamin,  the  Levitical  towns  numbered 
thirty-five  and  were  situated  among  the  re- 
maining tribes  on  the  north  and  east  (Josh. 
xxi.  5-7).  Since  the  Levites  as  a  tribe  were 
"wholly  given  unto  the  Lord  in  behalf  of 
the  children  of  Israel,"  and  were  appointed 
to  service  at  the  tabernacle,  it  was  natural 
that  in  the  northern  districts,  where  no  Le- 
vitical priests  dwelt,  the  lower  order  of  the 
Levites  should  be  drawn  upon  by  the  idol- 
atc^r  Micab  and  after  him  by  the  idolatrous 
migrating  Danites  to  furnish  a  man  for 
priestly  services  (Judg.  xvii.  8-13  ;  xviii.  18- 
20,  30^  31).  In  David's  reign  the  Levites 
were  divided  into  four  classes:  1.  Assistants 
to  the  priests  in  the  work  of  the  sanctuary ; 
2.  Judges  and  scribes  ;   3.  Gate  keepers  ;  4. 


Musicians.  Each  of  these  classes,  with  the 
possible  exception  of  the  second,  was  subdi- 
vided into  twenty-four  courses  or  families  to 
serve  in  rotatiim  (1  C'hron.  xxiv.-xxvi.  ;  cp. 
XV.  16-24  :  2  C'hron.  xix.  K-11  :  xxx.  16,  17; 
Ezra  vi.  18  ;  Neh.  xiii.  5).  CJu  the  disrup- 
tion of  the  monarchy,  many  Levites  and 
priests  (out  of  Benjamin)  (juitted  the  north- 
ern kingdom  and  came  to  Judah  and  Jerusa- 
lem (2  C'hron.  xi.  13-15). 

Le-vit'i-cus  [relating  to  the  Levites]. 

The  third  l>ook  (jf  the  I'entateuch.  When 
the  tabernacle  had  been  erected  and  a  priest 
apixiinted  to  minister  at  the  altar,  the  next 
step  was  to  open  and  regulate  access  to  Ciod. 
This  is  the  object  of  the  ordinances  con- 
tained in  Leviticus.  In  order  to  approach 
Jehovah :  1.  Sacrifice  is  recjuired ;  hence, 
laws  concerning  various  kinds  of  sacrifice 
(i.-vii.).  2.  The  ministration  of  a  jiriest  is 
required  who  has  been  ordained  by  God  and 
to  whom  it  pertains  to  offer  sacrifice  ;  hence, 
consecration  of  Aaron  and  his  sons,  and  ac- 
count of  the  punishment  of  Nadab  and 
Abihu  for  illegal  ajiproach  (viii.-x.).  3.  In- 
tercourse with  C4od  requires  the  attainment 
and  maintenance  of  purity,  both  ceremonial 
and  moral  ;  hence,  (a)  Laws  concerning  foods 
that  defile,  diseases  or  natural  functions 
that  render  unclean,  and  ceremonial  national 
purification  (xi.-xvi.l:  and  ib)  Laws  con- 
cerning holiness  of  life  (xvii.-xxvi.) ;  fol- 
lowed by  an  appendix  on  vows,  tithes,  and 
things  devoted  (xxvii.).  The  legislation  is 
dated  at  the  tabernacle  (i.  1);  and  in  each 
section  the  ])lace  assigned,  explicitly  or  im- 
plicitly, is  in  the  wilderness  at  mount  Sinai 
(vii.  38  with  iv.  12,  21  ;  and  viii.  17  ;  x.  4  ; 
and  XXV.  1;  xxvi.  46  with  xiii.  46;  xiv.  8, 
34  ;  xvi.  1  ;  xvii.  3  ;  xviii.  3  ;  xix.  23  ;  xx. 
22;  xxiii.  10;  xxiv.  10  ;  and  xxvii.  34).  Oc- 
casionally a  law  is  re])eated  in  a  new  connec- 
tion and  for  a  different  purpose.  At  times 
also  the  legislation  is  interrupted  by  the  nar- 
rative of  events  (viii..  ix.;  x.  1-7,  12-20; 
xxi.  24  ;  xxiv.  10-23).  It  would  thus  ajipear 
that  the  regulations  for  the  worship  and  life 
of  the  people  were  written  down  in  detail 
just  as  they  were  enacted,  and  no  attempt 
was  made  to  codify  them  as  a  whole. 

Throughout  the  book  but  one  sanctuary 
(xix.  21  et  passim)  and  one  altar  for  all  Israel 
are  recognized  (i.  3  ;  viii.  3  ;  xvii.  8,  9),  and 
the  sons  of  Aaron  are  the  sole  priests  (i.  5). 
The  Levites  are  only  incidentally  mentioned 
(xxv.  32,  33).  Variati(Uis  in  the  laws  or 
their  statement  as  found  in  Leviticus  and 
Deuteronomy  are  intelligible  when  it  is 
remem])ered  that  1.  Leviticus  is  a  man- 
ual for  the  priests,  to  guide  them  through  the 
technicalities  of  the  ritual  ;  while  Deuteron- 
omy is  ])rimarily  not  a  law  book  at  all,  but  a 
popular  address  to  instruct  the  peojde  in  their 
own  duties  and  to  exhort  them  to  fidelity. 
Deuteronomy  omits  matters  of  detail  which 
concern  jiriests  only.     2.    The  laws  of  Le- 


Libertines 


433 


Lily 


viticus  are  datt-d  at  Sinai  an  entire  generation 
before  the  addresses  eontaiiiiil  in  Deuteron- 
omy were  delivered  at  Sliitlini.  Aeeordinfjly 
tlie  le>,'islation  of  Levitieus  is  presupposeil  in 
Driiterononiv.  This  is  the  standpoint  of  the 
]{ihle. 

The  essentials  of  the  lcj;ishition  of  Leviti- 
eus are  retieeted  in  the  liistory  in  tlie  early 
rt'eoijnition  of  the  Aaronic  priesthood.  So  far 
as  the  evidenee  reaches,  the  jiriesls  were  sons 
of  Aaron  exclusively  (Dent.  x.  tj ;  Josh.  xiv. 
1  ;  xxi.  4  and  IS  with  1  Kin.  ii.  2() ;  Judg. 
XX.  27,  2-<;  1  Sam.  i.  3;  ii.  27,  2«  ;  xiv.  .i ; 
xxi.  (i  with  1  ("hron.  xxiv.  3;  1  Sam.  xxii. 
10,  II,  2it ;  xxiii.  (J;  and  2  Sam.  viii.  17  with 
lOzra  vii.  3  and  1  C'hron.  xxiv.  3i.  The  Le- 
vites  are  sojourners  and  subordinate  (Judg. 
xvii.  7-!);  xix.  1  ;  1  Sam.  vi.  lo  ;  2  Sam.  xv. 
21 1.  Compare  also  the  one  house  of  the 
Lord  (.ludj;.  xviii.  31;  xix.  18;  1  Sam.  i.  7, 
21;  iii.  3;  iv.  3),  and  the  feast  of  the  Lord, 
at  the  tabernacle  visited  by  all  Israel  (Judg. 
xxi.  lit  ;  1  Sam.  i.  3  ;  ii.  11,  22,  2!l) ;  see  fur- 
ther the  articles  Piuk.st,  Hksii  Priest,  Lk- 
viTi-:»,  Ai,T.\.i{,  DKUTF:i{axoMY. 

Lib'er-tines  [freedmen]. 

.\  sfctjoii  of  tlie  Jewish  community  who 
had  a  synagogue  at  Jerusalem,  and  were 
among  the  foes  of  the  first  martyr,  Stephen 
(Acts  vi.  1)).  They  were  i)rol)ably  Jews, 
who,  having  been  taken  jjrisoners  in  bat- 
tle by  Pomjiey  and  other  Roman  generals, 
bad  l)ccn  l)ondsmen  at  Rome,  but  were  after- 
wards iv-itored  to  liberty. 

Lib'nali  [whiteness,  pellucidness]. 

1.  An  encampment  of  the  Israelites  in  the 
wilderness  (Num.  xxxiii.  20).  Situation  un- 
known. 

2.  .V  city  in  the  lowland  between  Mak- 
kcdiih  and  Lichish  (Josii.  x.  29-31),  captured 
by  Joshua  (.30,  39;  xii.  1")).  It  was  situ- 
ated in  the  territory  allotted  to  Jndah  (xv. 
42),  and  was  subsequently  assigned  to  the 
descendants  of  .\aron  (xxi.  1.3;  1  ('hron.  vi. 
?>7).  When  .lehoram,  son  of  JelKishaphat, 
was  king,  Libnah  revolted  against  .Tudah  (2 
Kin.  viii.  22  ;  2  Chron.  xxi.  10).  Sennach- 
cril),  king  of  .\ssyria.  warred  against  it  (2 
Kin.  xix.  rt;  Is.  xxxvii.  S).  The  father  of 
llamiital,  the  motlier  of  Jehoahaz  anil  Zede- 
kiali,  was  from  this  place  (2  Kin.  xxiii.  31  ; 
xxiv.  18  ;  Jer.  Hi.  1).  Exact  situation  is  un- 
known. 

Lib'ni  [white,  pure]. 

1.  Son  of  (Jersbon,  and  grandson  of  Levi. 
Ill'  was  founder  of  a  minor  tril>al  family  or 
fat  tier's  iiouse  (Kx.  vi.  17:  Num.  iii.  18.  21  : 
xxvi.  r>8). 

2.  .\  Levite,  faiiiilv  of  Mirari,  hou.se  of 
.Mibli  (1  Chron.  vi.  :.';». 

Lib'y-a  and  Libyans. 

A  rendering  of  I'nt  (Jer.  xlvi.  9;  Ezck. 
XXX.  .");  xxxviii.  .')  iii  \.  V.)  and  I.ubim  (Dan. 
xi.  43).  A  country  and  its  inhabit.ants  in  the 
western  i>art  of  Lower  Egypt  or  on  its  bor- 
<lei-s.  The  people  are  said  to  be  distinguished 
2.S 


by  the  Egyi)tian.s  as  Tehenu  ;  later  Pi7,  Phmnit, 
probably  equivalent  to  the  Hebrew  Put;  and 
Kclin  or  Lebu.  that  is  in  Hebrew  Lithi-n,  and 
others.  The  Libya  of  the  Romans  was  an 
immense  and  vaguely  delincd  tract  extend- 
ing from  the  Nile  delta  and  valley  westward 
across  the  entire  African  continent.  It  com- 
l)rised  all  north  Africa  west  of  Egyi)t,  ex- 
cept the  small  (treek  settlements  of  Cyrene 
and  Harca.  and  the  I'liU'nician  colonies  of 
Carthage,  Utica,  and  Hijipo.  It  was  nearly 
all  a  sandy  desert,  studded  here  and  there 
with  oases,  on  which  palms  grew.  Its  tribes 
were  brave,  Init  were  not  very  formidable, 
owing  to  their  being  scattered  and  unable  to 
unite.  The  Romans  divided  the  African  re- 
gion bordering  the  Mediterranean  into  two 
provinces,  Libya  ^Larmarica  and  Libya 
Cyrenaica  or  reutai)olis.  The  ca])ital  of  the 
latter  was  Cyrene,  and  it  was  from  this  west- 
ern province  that  representatives  were  pres- 
ent at  Jerusalem  on  Pentecost  (Acts  ii.  10 ;  cp. 
Antiq.   xvi.  6,  1). 

Lice. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Khniaiii  or 
Khiitiiii  (Kx.  viii.  l(j-18  ;  Ps.  cv.  31),  referring 
to  .some  small  insect  noxious  to  man.  Jo- 
.sephus  understood  the  word  to  mean  lice 
(Antiq.  ii.  14,  3).  The  Septuagint  renders  it 
by  sl-nips,  an  aphis  or  other  small  insect  that 
sucks  or  gnaws.  Ii.  V.  margin  transl.ates  it 
sandflies  or  fleas. 

Lieu-ten 'ant.    See  Satrap. 

Lign-al'oes    [wood    or    tree    aloes].     See 

Al.oKS. 

Lig'ure. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Lvshem,  a 
gem,  the  first  stone  in  the  third  row  of  the 
high  priest's  breasti)late  (Ex.  xxviii.  19). 
This  translation  is  derived  from  the  Sep- 
tuagint, Vulgate  and  .Josephns  (War  v.  .5,  7)  ; 
but  it  is  imi)ossible  to  identify  the  ligurium 
of  the  ancients  with  any  known  gem. 

Llk'hi  [characterized  by  kiiowledge]. 
A  Manassite,  family  of  Sbemida  (1  Chron. 
vii.  19). 

Lil'y. 

1.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  words 
Sho.ihtiii.  ShoshauiKih.  and  Slmshini.  The  ])lant 
so  designated  is  found  in  ])astures  where 
sheep  and  gazelles  feed  (.Song  ii.  Ifi;  iv.  ."> ; 
vi.  31,  and  among  thorns  (ii.  2).  besides  being 
cultivated  in  gardens  (vi.2).  It  was  so  much 
at  home  in  valleys  that  it  was  designated  tlie 
lily  of  the  valleys  (Song  ii.  1).  It  was  a 
sweet-scented  jilant,  droi)])ing  a  myrrh-like 
Iterfume  (v.  1.3i.  TIn'  Hebrew  word  was  ren- 
dered kr'niou  by  the  (!reek  translators.  The 
kriiiou  is  a  ])lant  which  grows  beside  tlie 
water  (Ecclns.  1.  Si  and  among  the  grass  of 
the  field  (Mat.  vi.  2S).  It  is  often  mejitioned 
in  connection  with  frankincense  and  the  rose 
(Ei-clns.  xxxix.  1.'5,  14).  It  is  tlie  type  of  a  life 
of  beautiful  deeds.  The  high  priest,  coming 
forth  from  the  sanctuary  is  ctmiparcd  with 


Lily 


434 


Linen 


it  (1.  8).     It  excels  Solomon  in  his  glorious 
array  (Mat.  vi.  29). 

The  words  shushait  and  krinou  were  not 
always  used  with  reference  to  the  lily  in  its 
UKidern  seientitic  sense;  but  included  with 


Scarlet  Turk's  Cap  {Lilium  chalcedonicum). 

the  true  lily  various  plants  that  resemble  the 
lily.  The  lotus  was  known  to  the  ancient 
Egyptians  by  the  name  of  seshnin,  and  is 
called  by  Herodotus  krinon  (ii.  92).  The 
ordinary  word  for  a  lily  in  Arabic  is  still 
silsan ;  laut  it  is  used  generically  rather  than 


Kofl  Anemone  (Anemmiecnro77aiia). 

specifically,  including  the  tulip  and  even  the 
anemone  and  rantniculns.  Wliat  varieties 
of  lily  were  anciently  cultivated  in  the  gar- 
dens of  Palestine  is  not  known.  In  tlie 
fields  the  scarlet  Turk's  cap  {IJI'nim  chnlce- 
(lonicxm)  grows  sparingly.  Besides  the  true 
lily,  other  genera  of  the  order  Lilincex,  as 


hyacinths  and  tulips,  grow  in  jirofusion  in 
the  spring.  A  fine,  dark  violet  flower, 
known  as  susan,  is  found  far  and  wide 
in  the  Hauran.  Thomson  describes  a 
splendid  iris,  which  he  calls  the  IhiU'h  lily, 
growing  among  the  oak  woods  around  the 
northern  base  of  Tabor  and  on  the  liills  of 
Nazareth.  The  flower  is  dark  pur])le  and 
white.  He  believes  that  it  is  the  lily  re- 
ferred to  by  Jesus.  Eed  anemones  are  so 
marked  a  feature  (jf  the  valleys  of  Palestine 
in  the  spring  that  various  travelers,  Tristram 
included,  have  suggested  that  Aiu'wotie  coro- 
iiiiriii.  the  ri'd  varii'ty  of  which  is  very  com- 
mon, was  probably  the  lily  of  the  X.  T., 
while  others  would  identify  the  anemone 
with  the  rose  of  Sharon.     See  EosE. 

Lime. 

A  material  prepared  by  burning  limestone, 
shells,  and  other  calcareous  substances  (Is. 
xxxiii.  12;  Amos  ii.  1),  and  used  for  making 
mortar  and  plaster,  and  fur  whitewashing 
walls  (Dent,  xxvii.  2,  in  E.  V.  x>laister ;  Mat. 
xxiii.  27  ;  Acts  xxiii.  3).     See  Moet.\k. 

Lin'en. 

1.  Fine  linen  is  the  rendering  of  the  Hebrew 
word  Shesh,  white,  applied  to  a  stuff  of 
which  vestments  were  made.  It  was  in  it 
that  Joseph  was  arrayed  by  Pharaoh's  order 
(Gen.  xli.  42).  Of  this  material  also  were 
made  the  curtains,  vail,  and  door  hang- 
ings of  the  tabernacle  (Ex.  xxvi.  1,  31,  3C), 
and  the  hangings  for  the  gate  of  the  court 
and  for  the  court  itself  (xxvii.  9,  16,  18). 
The  distinguishing  attire  of  the  high  priest 
consisted  of  the  ephod,  breastplate,  robe  of 
blue,  and  the  gold  plate  on  the  miter;  and 
of  these  the  epht)d  and  breastplate  contained 
fine  linen  (Ex,  xxviii.  6,  l.")).  Other  ofScial 
garments  were  common  to  the  high  priest 
and  the  ordinary  i)riest,  the  tunic,  girdle, 
breeches,  and  headdress  (Ex.  xxviii.  40-42  ; 
xxxix.  27-29  ;  cp.  Lev.  xvi.  4).  The  head- 
dress, however,  of  the  high  priest  was  a 
miter  or  turl)an,  while  a  simple  cap  appears 
to  h.ive  been  worn  l)y  the  ordinary  jn-iest. 
Of  these  four  articles  of  priestly  dress,  the 
girdle  was  embroidered,  consisting  largely 
of  linen  (Ex.  xxxix.  29).  The  three  other 
garments  were  made  of  fine  white  linen  ex- 
clusively (xxviii.  39;  xxxix.  27.  28).  On 
the  margin  of  Gen.  xli.  42  and  of  Ex.  xxv.  4 
the  R.  V.  substitutes  cotton.  On  the  margin 
of  Ex.  xxviii.  39  the  R.  V.,  referring  to  the 
coat  and  miter  of  the  high  priest,  su1»titutes 
silk.  The  same  Hebrew  word  is  translated 
marble  in  Esth.  i.  (i  and  Sons  v.  1.")  (where 
the  reference  is  to  pillars),  and  silk  in  Prov. 
xxxi.  22. 

2.  The  Hebrew  word  Bud  is  a  synonym  for 
^hcah,  but  is  more  genernl  in  its  meaning, 
hence  it  is  rendered  merely-  linen  (Ex.  xxviii. 
42  with  xxxix.  28).  It  suificiently  described 
the  material  of  the  priest's  raiment,  when 
there  was  no  need  to  explicitly  state  the 
quality  of  the  stuflF  (ibid.;  Lev.  vi.  10;  xvi. 


Linen 


435 


Lizard 


4).  Of  it  was  made  tlie  plain  ophod  worn  by 
the  lioy  Siiiiiuel,  by  tbe  priests  at  Nob,  and 
bv  David  on  tbe,  occasion  of  ri-nioving  tbe 
ark  (1  Sam.  ii.  IS;  xxii.  is;  •,'  Sam.  vi.  14). 
In  it  tbi-  man  willi  the  ini-csland  in  i->,ekiers 
vi.sion,  and  Daniel's  iieavenly  comforter  were 
clotbed  (E/.ek.  i.\.  2;   Dan.  x.  ');. 

:>.  Tbc!  rendering  of  tiie  Hebrew  I'islilcli, 
llax,  llie  material  of  wbicli  tlie  goods  are 
made  being  tliougbt  of  (Jer.  xiii.  Ij.  It  is 
nsed  in  contrast  to  woolen  clotbing  (.Lev.  xiii. 
47  ;  Dent.  xxii.  11 ).  It  describes  tbe  material 
of  the  jiriestly  garments,  tbe  beadtires, 
breeches,  and  girdles  llv/.ek.  xliv.  17,  l."^). 

4.  The  rendering  of  tbe  Hebrew  />«>•,  which 
occurs  only  in  tbe  later  books,  and  of  tbe 
(ireek  Itits.so.i.  Of  this  material  were  made 
tbe  robe,  not  tbe  ei>Iiod,  which  David  wore 
at  the  removal  of  the  ark  (1  (.'bron.  xv.  27), 
tile  vail  of  the  temiile  in  part,  the  other 
stiilfs  empbtyetl  i)eing  l)lne,  itnrple,  and  crim- 
.son  (2  Chron.  iii.  11).  tlie  clothing  of  the  Le- 
vites  who  were  musicians  at  the  dedication 
of  the  temi)le  (v.  12),  tbe  cords  which  fas- 
tened the  hangings  iu  Abasnerns'  jialace 
(Estli.  i.  <)),  the  state  dress  of  Mordecai 
(viii.  l.")),  the  garments  of  the  rich  man  at 
whose  gate  La/.anis  sat  (Luke  xvi.  l!l),  and 
of  the  luxurious  cit.v  of  Babylon  (Rev.  xviii. 
Ki).  and  the  bright  and  pure  raiment  of  the 
Lamb's  wife  (xix.  S). 

Slir.sh  is  originally  an  Egy])tian  word,  in 
olil  Lgyptian  .shciiti :  bus  is  the  Aramaic  etiuiv- 
aleiit  (cp.  Targ.  Onk.  (ien.  xli.  42),  and  hu.t.son 
is  etymologically  the  same  word  as  hits.  It 
is  interesting  to  note  tliat  E/ekiel  uses  xhcsh 
for  goods  iin|iorted  from  Ku'Vpt,  and  liii^  for 
stnll's  that  came  from  Syria.  Whether  tbe 
Words  denote  linen  or  line  cotton  cloth,  or 
compndiond  both,  is  much  debated.  Linen 
and  cotton  were  em])loyeil  in  Egypt  from  the 
earliest  times  for  mummy  cloths. 

">.  The  renderingof  the  Hebrew  word  '  Ktini, 
fvitm'atiiii,  to  bind  (I'rov.  vii.  1(!;  in  R.V.  yarn). 
It  was  imported  from  Egypt,  where  the  mo.st 
skiili'iil  manufacturers  of  liiuMi  lived. 

t).  Linen  yarn  is  the  rendering  of  the  He- 
brew word  Mlhnli  in  .\.  \'.  of  1  Kin.  x.  2S ; 
2  Cliron.  i.  Ki.  11.  V.  renders  it  a  drove. 
Septuagint  and  Vulgate  regarded  tbe  Hebrew 
word  as  compc>site,  and  rendered  it  "and 
out  of  Koe,"  which  was  a  place  near  Egypt, 
according  to  I^iseliiiis. 

7,  K.  Tbe  rendering  of  the  Greek  word 
Shidon,  a  line  Indian  cloth,  muslin,  later 
linen.  A  tunic  or  ]ierliaiis  a  sheet  might  be 
made  of  it  (Mark  xiv.  51),  ami  in  this  ma- 
terial the  body  of  Jesus  was  wrai>ped  for 
Imrial  (Mat.  xxvii.  ."i!l).  It  is  a  synonym  of 
othoiiiiii,  though  nion;  sjiecial  in  meaning 
I  Luke  xxiii.  ."):{  with  xxiv.  12;  .lobn  xix.  4(»; 
XX.  r>,  7).  In  classical  Creek  tbe  latter  word 
means  either  genuine  linen  t)V  .sail  cloth. 

!(.  Tbe  rendering  of  the  ( ireek  /./huh.  linen 
n{ev.  XV.  (i,  A.  V.  and  margin  of  U.  V.).  Tbe 
text  of  Iv.  X.  has  precious  stones,  from  another 
reading  lUlunt. 


Lin'tel. 

The  transvei"se  piece  of  wood  or  other 
material  constituting  the  upper  part  of  a 
doorway  or  casement  (Ex.  xii.  \i2),  called  in 
Uehrew  Muslikoph. 

1.  ijintel  is  also  tbe  rendering  of  the  He- 
brew 'Ayil,  a  ram,  in  1  Kin.  vi.  31.  It  may 
denote  a  projecting  lintel  or  post.  The  He- 
brew word  occurs  eighteen  times  in  an  archi- 
tectural sense  in  Ewk.  xl.  and  xli.,  where  it 
is  rendered  post  (ver.  1),  etc.),  with  jamb  ou 
tbe  margin  of  If.  \'. 

2.  Tbe  rendering  of  the  IIel)rew  Ktiphtor, 
in  A.  \'.  of  Amos  ix.  1  and  Zepli.  ii.  14,  which 
is  tninslaled  chapiter  in  K.  \'.  In  Ex.  xxv. 
and  xxxvii.,  where  it  occurs  sixteen  times,  it 
is  rendered  knop  iu  both  versions. 

Li'nus. 

A  Christian  at  Rome  who  joined  Paul  in 
sending  salutations  to  Timothy  (2  Tim.  iv. 
21).  According  to  Irena-us  and  Eusebius,  he 
was  the  lirst  bishop  of  Rome.  See  Bishop. 
No  lofty  i)reeminence  was  attached  to  the 
otti('e,  for  be  is  mentioned  without  distinction 
between  two  other  members  of  the  church  at 
Rome. 

Li'on. 

The  Fclis  leo  of  naturalists.  The  lion  is 
ditl'used  over  the  wliok'  of  Africa  and  jiortions 
of  southern  .\sia,  as  far  east  as  the  province 
of  (tuzerat  in  India.  It  was  formerly  found 
in  (Jreece,  but  does  not  iu)w  occur  wild  in 
that  country  or  anywhere  in  Enrojic.  In 
Scripture;  times  it  was  common  in  Palestine. 
The  Uel)rews  had  no  fewer  than  six  words 
to  designate  it  in  dilfereiit  slates  or  at  suc- 
cessive stages  of  growth.  The  ordinary  words 
WQve'ari/ch  and  '"ri.  which  occur  eight.v times 
in  the  O.  T.  Allusion  is  made  to  the  lion's 
strength  (2  Sam.  i.  2.'5 ;  Prov.  xxx.  :>0)  and 
courage  (2  Sam.  xvii.  10;  Prov.  sxviii.  1),  to 
his  teeth  (Joel  i.  (i),  to  his  tendency  to  crouch 
before  si)ringing  on  his  victim  (Gen.  xlix.  9), 
to  his  tendency  to  prey  on  sheep,  calves,  and 
other  beasts  (1  Sam.  xvii.  iU  ;  Is.  xi.  (i,  7),  or 
ui)on  man  (1  Kin.  xiii.  24;  Jer.  ii.  30),  and  to 
his  roaring  (.lob  iv.  10;  Prov.  xx.  2;  1  Pet. 
V.  8).  He  is  rei>re.sented  as  lurking  in  thick- 
ets (Jer.  iv.  7),  forests  (v.  (i),  or  other  coverts 
(xxv.  3S).  A  special  liannt  of  bis  aiijiears  to 
have  been  among  the  trees  and  bushes  fring- 
ing the  Jordan  (xlix.  l!l).  Of  the  living 
creatures  seen  bv  Ezekiel  in  vision  one  had 
the  face  of  a  lion  (Ezek.  i.  10;  x.  14).  The 
first  of  the  four  living  creatures  seen  by  John 
was  like  a  lion  (Rev.  iv.  7).  Our  Lord  is 
called  the  Lion  of  the  tribe  of  Jiidah  (v.  ."> ; 
cp.  (ien.  xlix.  0). 

Llz'ard. 

.\ny  small  lacertilian  rejitile.  It  was  called 
I'ta'ah  by  tbe  Hebrews,  and  was  regarded  as 
unclean  (Lev.  xi.  .'!(>).  The  R.  ^'.  understands 
the  four  animals  associated  with  it  to  be  tbe 
gecko,  the  land  crocodile,  tbe  s;ind  liz;ird.  and 
the  chameleon  ;  but  states  on  tbe  margin  that 
the   words  are    of   uncertain    meaning,    but 


Loaf 


436 


Lock 


]irul);il)ly  dciiotc  four  kinds  of  lizards.  Liz- 
ards aliuiiiid  in  Palestine  and  tlu-  adjacent 
fonnlries.  'J'he  nuinl)er  id'  si)ecies  is  very 
great.  In  the  woods  and  ou  cultivated  fi;roiind 
the  green  lizards  are  the  most  heautilnl,  es- 
])ecially  Liuerta  v'nhUs  and  L.  livvin.  Ol'  the 
same  lamily  [Lncertidw),  but  of  a  dili'erent 
genus  iZoutk-ii),  are  the  wall  lizards,  wliicli 
appear  iu  warm  weather  in  multitudes,  crawl- 
ing over  walls,  rocks,  and  stony  ground, 
other  families  of  eriglossate  lacerlilians  are 
represented  in  Palesline,  as  the  Scinculie, 
ZoHitridiv,  A(j(imidn',  and  Monhoridx.  The 
first  of  these  contains  the  skinks  or  sand 
lizards  (Lev.  xi.  30;  in  A.  V.  snail).  They 
chiefly  inhabit  desert  districts,  are  generally 
small  and  of  the  yellowish  color  of  the  desert, 
are  as  common  as  the  true  lizard,  but  unlike 
it  do  not  climb,  and  hide  themselves  under 
stones  or  by  burrowing  rapidly  in  the  ground. 
The  family  of  Zuuioidw  is  represented  l)y 
the  glass  snake  (Fsendo2)iis  pallasi).  Its  hind 
legs  are  rudimentary,  so  that  it  looks  much 
like  a  snake.  It  is  black,  and  attains  a 
length  of  two  or  two  and  a  half  feet,  of 
which  the  tail  forms  two-thirds.  Closely  re- 
lated to  this  family  arc  the  Atjamhlie,  con- 
taining UroriKistix  sphiipes.  This  reptile  in- 
habits the  sandy  deserts  of  Africa  and  Arabia, 
and  is  common  in  the  wilderness  of  Juda?a. 
It  attains  a  length  of  two  feet.  Its  body  is 
green  in  color,  spotted  with  brown.  It  has  a 
powerful  tail,  encircled  with  rows  of  strong 
spines,  which  it  uses  as  a  weapon  of  defense. 
The  Hebrew  name  was  sab,  rendered  great 
lizard  (Lev.  xi.  29;  in  A.  V.  tortoise).  The 
Arabs  still  call  it  dabb.  The  family  of  Moni- 
toridie  or  Vuranldie  contains  the  monitors,  oi 
which  the  land  crocodile  of  the  ancients 
(Lev.  xi.  30;  in  A.  Y.  chameleon),  commonly 
known  as  the  land  monitor,  the  ivaran  el-urd 
of  the  Arabs  (Psammosaurns  scincus),  is  com- 
mon in  southern  Judaia,  the  peninsula  of 
Sinai,  and  the  sandy  parts  of  Egypt.  It 
attains  a  length  of  four  or  five  feet,  and  has 
a  long  snout,  sharp,  pointed  teeth,  and  a  long, 
tapering  tail.  The  M'ater  monitor,  tvaraii  el- 
hahr  (ifudrosnunis  niloficiis),  is  slightly  larger 
than  its  c<ingeiier  of  the  land,  and  is  readily 
distinguished  fi'om  it  by  the  high  keel  along 
the  whole  length  of  its  tail.  Both  reptiles 
are  extremely  rapid  in  their  movements,  and 
are  strong,  fully  justifying  their  suiijuised 
Hebrew  name  koah,  strengtli.  They  fe<(l  on 
small  lizards  and  jerboas,  and  devour  the 
eggs  and  young  of  the  crocodile  with  avidity. 
They  are  eaten  by  the  natives. 

Loaf. 

A  mass  of  bread.  It  was  made  of  the  flour 
of  barley  (2  Kin.  iv.  42;  John  vi.  9)  or  wheat 
fLcv.  xxiii.  17  with  Ex.  xxxiv.  22),  round  in 
shMi>e  (Ex.  xxix.  23  ;  Judg.  viii.  5,  in  Hebrew 
I  )ll:iir.  disc),  and  of  a  size  convenient  for 
baking  and  carrying  with  one  (1  .Sam.  x.  3; 
Mat.  xiv.  17;  John  vi.  9).     See  Bkead  and 

.SHOWIiEE.\D. 


Lo-am'mi  [not  my  peojjle]. 

The  ^ynlb(Jlic  name  of  the  prophet  Hosea's 
second  sun  by  his  wife  tiomer  (lios.  i.  8,  9). 

Loan. 

Anything,  es])i(ially  money,  that  is  lent. 
In  the  early  ages  of  the  Hebrew  nation  loans 
were  noi  sought  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining 
capital,  but  tor  the  necessaries  of  life.  The 
Israelites  were  commanded  to  ojien  their 
heart  to  their  brother,  who  had  fallen  into 
pcjvei'ty,  and  to  lend  him  sufficient  for  his 
need  (Deut.  x v.  7-11).  They  were  forbidden 
to  charge  interest  for  any  loan  to  a  i)oor  Isra- 
elite (Ex.  xxii.  25  ;  Lev.  xxv.  35-37).  But 
unto  a  foreigner  they  might  lend  on  interest 
(Dent,  xxiii.  20),  and  the  ])oor  Israelite  might 
sell  himself  as  a  servant  (Lev.  xxv.  39;  2 
Kin.  iv.  1).  If  a  jiledge  was  asked  from  a 
poor  Israelite  for  a  loan,  the  creditor  was  not 
to  go  int(j  the  del)tor"s  house  to  obtain  it,  but 
to  remain  outside  and  allow  it  to  be  brought 
out  to  him.  If  the  jiledge  was  a  garment,  it 
was  to  be  returned  to  the  owner  before  the 
evening,  as  ]irobably  it  might  be  part  of 
his  sleeping  attire  i  Ex.  xxii.  26,  27).  No  one 
was  to  take  the  upi:er  or  nether  millstone  as  a 
pledge,  thus  preventing  the  debtor  and  his 
family  from  grinding  corn  for  their  daily 
food  (Dent.  xxiv.  (J).  Nor  could  anyone  take 
a  widow's  garment  (17).  Finally,  \\  hen  the 
seventh  year,  called  the  year  of  release,  came, 
the  debt  was  to  be  forgiven  (xv.  1-11).  The 
practice  of  suretyship,  however,  unfortu- 
nately grew  up  (Prov.  vi.  1),  and  in  later 
times  interest  was  sometimes  exacted  for 
loans,  although  the  practice  was  condemned 
by  the  prophets  ( Jer.  xv.  10  ;  Ezek.  xviii.  13). 
The  beneficent  regulations  of  the  law  were 
systematically  ignored  after  the  exile,  and 
Nehemiah  took  vigorous  measures  to  termi- 
nate theabuse  (Nell.  V.  1-13!.  The  Roman  law 
was  a  marked  contrast  in  its  severity  to  that 
of  Moses.  By  a  law  of  the  twtdve  tables  a 
creditor  could  ]iut  his  insohent  del)tor  iu 
fetters  and  cords.  Doubtless  with  allusion 
to  the  ordinary  procedure  Jesus  describes  the 
lord  of  a  debtor  as  commanding  that  he.  liis 
wife,  his  children,  and  all  that  he  had.  be 
sold  in  liquidation  of  the  debt  |]\Iat.  xviii. 
25),  and,  when  he  had  abused  leniency 
which  was  shown  him  on  his  ajipeal  for 
mercy,  be  delivered  to  the  torturers  till 
he  should  pay  all  that  Avas  due  (34).  In 
the  time  of  Christ  hanking  was  a  regular  in- 
stitution (Mat.  xxv.  27;  Luke  xix.  23).  A 
luiblic  building  was  jirovided  in  Jerusalem, 
where  documents  relating  to  loans,  whether 
interest-bearing  or  not,  mi<iht  be  deposited 
(Warii.  17,6)." 

Lock. 

A  fastening  for  a  door  (Judg.  iii.  23).  evi- 
dently in  ancient  as  in  modern  times,  con- 
sisting of  a  short  biilt  of  wood,  which  slides 
through  a  groove  in  an  ujiright  i)iece  attached 
to  the  door  and  enters  a  socket  in  the  door- 
post.    Above  the  groove  in  the  upright  are 


Locust 


437 


Lord's  Day 


lioles  containiHg  small  iron  or  woodeu  pins. 

Wlioii  the  l)(tlt  is  tlinist  into  tlu' socki't.  these 
jiiiis  (Imp  iiitii  concspoiKliii^i  hole^  in  tlu-  holt 
and  hoUl  it  in  place.  The  key  is  furnished  with 
a  like  nninhertd'  projettions,  and,  wlien  intro- 
duced inti>a  hollow  in  the  bolt  underneath  the 
liins,  raises  them  and  allows  the  holt  to  he 
>iiovetl  hack.  When  llie  lock  is  inside,  a  h<ile 
iJiroujih  tlu-  door  admits  the  haiul  with  the 
key,  and  even  the  holhtw  in  the  holt  is  often 
larjie  enon<;h  to  admit  the  hand  (Song  v.  5). 

Lo'cust. 

The  renderin;,'  of  the  Hebrew  word  'Arbeh 
and  the  (ireek  Akris.  The  insect  referred  to 
is  eviilently  tlu'  niij;ratory  locust  ((Ed'uxida 
iiiiiji-iititiiin.  or  in  some  cases  jiossihly  an  allied 
insect,  (EiUiwild  ciiieresccnn,  Ac>i<litiiii  pvrdjrl- 
iiKiii.  or  <ither  species.  The  locust  is  two  inches 
or  more  in  leufjth.  It  is  a  winded,  creep- 
iiiir  thiuii.  Like  other  insects  of  the  order 
Oithiiptiid,  it  has  four  win-rs.  Those  of  the 
anterior  jiair  are  narrow,  while  those  of  the 
jiosterior  pair  are  broader,  folded  uj)  when 
not  in  use.  and  transjjarent.  It  has  six  legs, 
on  four  of  which  it  walks,  while  the  hind- 
most pair,  which  are  much  longer  than  the 
others  and  equal  to  the  body  in  length,  it  uses 


Locust. 

for  springing  (Lev.  xi.  •2\.  22).  The  mouth 
is  furnished  with  cutting  jaws,  by  means  of 
which  it  nips  olf  leaves  and  blades  of  grass. 
They  were  clean  insects  libid.),  and  .lolin 
the  Hiiptist  ate  them,  as  many  Orientals  did 
befori'  him  and  still  do  ( .Mat.  iii.  1).  They 
are  pre]iare(l  by  being  slightly  roasted,  dried 
in  the  sun.  and  salteil.  When  used  the  head, 
wings,  legs,  and  intestines  are  cominonly  re- 
moved, and  only  the  fleshy  portion  is  eaten. 
The  locust  is  exceedingly  destructive  to  veg- 
etation, and  locusts  blown  into  the  valley  of 
the  Nile  by  tin-  east  wind,  constitutecl  the 
eiglith  ICgyptian  i)lague  >  Hx.  x.  4,  .'•,  12,  1."), 
liM.  In  .some  pas.sages,  as  .Indg.  vii.  12  and 
.ler.  xlvi.  2:i,  the  \.  V.  renders  'arheh  gra.s.s- 
ho|iper ;  the  R.  V.  unifonnly  traiulates  it 
locust.  The  locust  is  di>tingiiished  from  the 
grasshop]ii'r  by  the  shortiu'ss  of  its  antenna-. 
It  nnist  not  be  c(»nfounded  with  tiie  harvest 
tly,  which  is  coinnmnly  called  locust  in  the 
I'nited   States. 

Many  r)iher  words  refer  to  different  species 
ipf  locusts  dillicult  to  identify,  or  some  of 
Ihem  may  nn-an  the  mlL'ratory  locust  in  dif- 
ferent stages  of  develo]iment  (Lev.  xi.  22; 
.Joel  i.  1 1.  The  eggs  of  the  various  species  of 
locust  are  deposited  in  .\pril  or  .May.  in  a  cy- 
lindrical bole  excavated  in  the  ground  by  the 
female.  They  are  hatchetl  in  .lune.  The  young 


insect  emerges  from  tlie  egg  a  wingless  larva. 
It  enters  the  ]iupa  state,  when  it  has  rudi- 
mentary wings  enclosed  in  cases.  It  is  more 
voracious  in  this  stage  (»f  its  development 
than  at  any  other  period.  In  another  mouth 
it  casts  the  pujia  or  nymph  skm,  and  has  be- 
come the  imago  or  i)erfect  in.sect. 

Lod  [perhai)s,  strife,  contest], 

A  town  of  lienjamin,  built  by  the  sons  of 
Elpaal.  a  man  of  iienjamin  (1  Chron.  viii. 
12),  and  generally  mentioned  in  connection 
with  Uno  (Xeh.  xi.  ;i.')).  It  was  inhabited 
after  the  Babylonian  cai>tivity  (Ezra  ii. 
:5:5 ;  Xeh.  vii.  .'57),  and  is  l)elieved  to  have 
been  the  Lydda  of  the  Gri'ck  ])eriod  (1  Mae. 
xi.  :il);  see  Lydo.\.  It  still  exists  as  Ludd, 
about  11  miles  southeast  of  Joj)pa.  In  it  are 
the  remains  of  the  church  of  St.  George,  the 
Christian  martyr  of  Xicomedia  and  adopted 
in  the  fourteenth  century  as  the  jiatron  s:iint 
t)f  England,  wh((  was  said  to  have  been  a 
native  of  the  place. 

Lo-de'bar  [perhaps,  without  pasture]. 

A  place  in  Gilead  (2  Sam.  ix.  4,  5 ;  xvii. 
27),  ]>robably  the  same  as  Lidebir  (Josh.  xiii. 
26,  \l.  V.  margin).     See  Dkbir  4. 

Lodge. 

A  shelter  erected  for  the  -watchman  of  a 
garden  for  occupation  during  the  time  of 
ripe  fruit  (Is.  i.  M;  in  xxiv.  20,  A.  V.  cottage, 
R.  V.  hut).  Xot  imjirobably  the  .structure 
intended  is  the  kind  built  among  the  branches 
of  a  tree  or,  where  trees  are  lacking,  ujion 
])osts.  and  consisting  of  a  rude  floor,  a  roof 
of  mats  or  branches,  and  sides  of  branches. 

Log  [dejith]. 

A  .lewish  measure  of  capacity  used  spe- 
cially for  oil  (Lev.  xiv.  10,  12,'l.5,  21,  24). 
The  rabbins  bidieve  it  to  have  contained 
twelve  hins,  so  that  it  efpialed  the  720th 
part  of  an  homer  or  about  three  gills. 

Lo'is. 

Timothy's  gratidnnither,  a  woman  of  un- 
feigned faith  (2  Tim.  i.  .'>). 

Look'ing-glass.     See  Miiu:i)u. 

Lord. 

When  used  of  God  and  printed  in  small 
letters  with  only  the  initial  a  capital,  it 
is  usually  tin-  rendering  of  the  Hebrew 
'Ailoii.  master  (Ex.  xxiii.  17:  I's.  cxiv.  7), 
much  more  fre(|Uently  of  '"(hnidii,  projierly 
my  master  (Ex.  iv.  10;  Is,  xl.  10).  or  of  the 
C4reek  Kiirios,  master,  sir  (Mat.  i.  20).  When 
])rinted  in  small  capitals,  it  rejiresents  the 
Hebrew  vitVM.  .Tehovah.  the  most  sacred 
and  incomiiumicable  name  of  God.  us<'d  of 
himself  alone  ((Jen.  ii.  4)     See  .Ii;ni>v.\H. 

Lord  of  Hosts.     See  Ho.st. 

Lord's  Day. 

The  day  siiecially  associated  with  the  Lord 
.Tosiis  Christ.  The  e\j>ression  occurs  but  once 
in  the  N.  T..  where  .lolin  .sijys.  "  I  was  in  the 
Spirit  on  the  Lord's  day  "  (Rev.  i.  10).  Vari- 
ous   interpretations    have   been    offered.     1. 


Lord's  Day 


438 


Lord's  Supper 


John,  it  is  said,  is  speaking  of  the  Sabbath 
or  seventh  day  of  the  week,  whieli  (Jod  him- 
self has  called  "My  holy  day"  (Is.  Iviii. 
l.'J).  But  if  he  jntendi'd  the  seventh  day,  it 
is  strange  that  he  did  not  use  the  i-ustoniary 
designation.  2.  It  is  held  to  he  the  day  of 
Christ's  birth.  But  that  day  is  nnknown, 
and  it  was  not  known  or  observed  by  the 
])rinutive  chureh.  3.  It  is  contended  that 
the  exi)ri'ssion  Lord's  day  is  the  same  as 
the  day  ol'  the  Lord  in  2  Pet.  iii.  10,  where 
it  undoubtedly  means  the  day  of  the  second 
advent,  and  John  would  state  that  he  was 
raiit,  in  vision.  In  the  day  of  judgment.  But 
.Idim  is  aiii)arently  dating  his  vision.  In  the 
l)receding  sentence  be  mentions  the  place 
where  he  was  at  the  time  he  received  the 
revelation,  the  isle  of  Patmos ;  and  declares 
the  canse  of  his  being  on  that  island.  In 
this  sentence  he  states  the  day  when  he  had 
the  vision.  It  is  also  to  be  noticed  that  he 
does  not  speak  of  the  day  of  the  Lord,  which 
is  the  constant  designation  of  the  day  of  the 
second  advent,  but  uses  the  adjective 
liu'iiike :  a  distinction  which  was  observed 
ever  afterwards  between  the  day  of  the 
second  advent  and  the  first  day  of  the  week 
when  Christ  rose  from  the  dead.  4.  It  has 
been  thought  possil)le  that  John  means  the 
anniversary  of  the  resurrection.  Bnt  none 
of  the  early  fathers  can  be  quoted  either  for 
this  interpretation  or  for  this  use  of  the 
designation  Lord's  day.  5.  Friday  or  cruci- 
fixion day,  which,  however,  seems  to  have 
had  no  sjjecial  honor  from  the  apostles, 
this  being  reserved  for  6.  Sunday  or  resurrec- 
tion day.  On  the  resurrection  day  itself 
our  Lord  appeared  to  his  disciples  (Mat. 
xxviii.  1-15;  Mark  xvi.  1-14;  Luke  xxiv. 
1.3-49;  John  xx.  1-26).  After  eight  days 
(John  XX.  2()),  which  according  to  the  or- 
dinary usage  meant  a  week  later,  our  Lord  a 
.second  time  honored  tlie  first  day  of  the 
week.  The  pentecostal  festival  being  on  the 
day  after  a  Sabbath  (Lev.  xxiii.  11,  15),  it 
is  at  least  probable  that  the  elfusion  of  the 
Holy  Sjiirit  took  place  on  the  first  day  of  the 
week  (Acts  ii.  1).  The  Christians  atTroasin 
Paul's  time  seem  to  have  regarded  that  day 
as  the  stated  one  on  which  they  were  accus- 
tomed to  as,sembl(>  to  break  bread  'Acts  xx. 
7).  On  the  same  day  of  the  wi'ek  the  Chris- 
tians were  to  lay  by  them  in  store  the  money 
which  they  designed  to  give  in  ch;irity  (1 
Cor.  xvi.  2).  These  passages,  aided  by  reason- 
ings on  more  general  princii)les,  have  led  the 
great  majoiity  of  Christians  to  consider  the 
Lord's  day  a  day  set  apart  by  the  exami)le 
of  oiir  Lord  and  his  apostles  for  sacred  i)ur- 
po.ses,  and  standing  in  a  certain  relation  to 
the  Sabbath  of  the  ten  commandments:  see 
Sabhath.  It  maybe  added  tliat  some  mem- 
bers f)f  the  primitive  chiinli  made  no  dis- 
tinction between  days,  including  Jewish 
festivals  and  Sabbaths  and  possibly  the 
first  day,  rightly  or  wrongly  esteeming 
every  day    alike.     They   were    not    to    be 


har.shly  judged,  they  were  acting  out  of  t>he 
fear  of  (iod  (IJom.  xiv.  5).  Some  of  the 
Jewish  converts  continued  to  keep  the  sev- 
enth day  and  the  .lewish  festivals.  It  was  a 
matter  of  liberty  (Col.  ii.  KiK  so  long  as  the 
convert  did  not  regard  tlie  observance  as 
necessary  to  salvation  (<!al.  iv.  10). 

Lord's  Sup'per. 

The  name  given  by  Paul  to  the  com- 
memorative ordinance  instituted  by  our  Lord 
on  the  evening  preceding  his  crucifixion  (1 
Cor.  xi.  20).  I'aul's  account  is  the  earliest 
record  of  the  institution  of  the  sujjper  by  at 
least  two  or  three  years.  It  was  written 
probably  early  in  A.  v>.  i>7,  just  twenty-seven 
years  after  the  supi)er  was  instituted.  The 
apostle  had  introduced  it  five  years  earlier, 
when  he  organized  the  Corinthian  church 
and  "  delivered  unto  them  "  the  ordinance 
(23).  He  pledges  his  own  truthfulness  and 
authority  for  the  correctness  of  his  account 
by  saying,  "I  received  and  I  delivered"; 
and  he  refers  to  the  source  of  his  information  : 
he  had  not  been  an  eyewitness  of  the  event, 
he  had  not  been  priseiit  at  the  institution  of 
thesu])per,  but  he  had  received  from  the  Lord 
what  he  had  delivered  unto  them.  These 
words  are  capable  of  two  interpretations : 
either  Paul  had  been  granted  a  sjiecial  com- 
munication direct  from  the  risen  I^ord,  or 
else  he  had  received  the  account  from  the 
Lord  through  the  Lord's  apostles,  participants 
in  the  fir,st  su])i)er.  Matthew  an  eyewitness 
and  Mark,  the  comiianioii  of  Peter  who  was 
present  at  the  institution  of  the  sujiper,  also 
i-ecord  the  circumstances  ;  and  so  does  Paul's 
companion,  Luke.  Wishing  to  fulfill  all  right- 
eousness and  to  honor  the  ceremonial  law 
Avhilst  yet  it  continued.  Jesus  made  arrange- 
ments to  eat  the  passover  with  his  disciides 
(Mat.  xxvi.  17-19).  As  the  paschal  lamb  was 
killed  in  the  evening,  and  its  fiesh  eaten  the 
same  evening,  the  jiaschal  feast  necessarily 
took  place  in  the  evening  (Mat.  xxvi.  20). 
Wine  mixed  with  water  had  come  into  use  on 
such  occasions,  because  that  was  regarded  as 
the  best  way  of  using  the  best  wine  (cj).  2  Mac. 
XV.  .39).  When,  therefore,  our  Lord  was 
about  to  follow  up  the  sujiper  by  the  com- 
munion, there  was  wine  mixed  with  water 
on  the  table.  So  also  was  there  unleavened 
bread.  He  and  his  discijdes  were  sitting 
(Mat.  xxvi.  20),  by  which  is  meant  that, 
after  the  custom  of  that  time,  they  half  sat, 
half  reclined  on  conches  (^lark  xiv.  18,  E.  V. 
margin).  When  the  ])aschal  feast  was  fin- 
ished, Jesus  took  bread  and  blessed  it.  at  the 
same  time  rendering  thanks  for  it,  and, 
giving  it  to  the  disci]iles.  said  :  "  Tliis  is  my 
body  which  is  given  for  you  :  this  do  in  re- 
menil)rance  of  me."  And  the  cui)  in  like  man- 
ner after  supjier.  saying  :  "  This  cnji  is  the  new 
covenant  in  my  blood,  even  that  wliich  is 
poured  out  for  you"  (Luke  xxii.  19,  20, 
R. v.),  "which  is  shed  for  many  unto  remis- 
sion of  sins"   (Mat.  xxvi.  28,' R.  V.).     The 


Lo-ruhamah 


439 


Love  Feasts 


object  for  which  the  Lord's  Siii)iier  was  in- 
stituted was  to  kci'i)  him  in  rciiioiiil>raiici; 
(Luke  xxii.  1!>).  It  was  to  show  I'orlh  liio 
Lord's  death  till  he  come  (1  Cor.  xi.  -J."),  -Mi}. 
The  feast  was  not  coiilined  to  the  apostles 
nor  to  the  Jewisii  Christians,  hut  was  cele- 
liratid  ill  till!  chuiriiesof  the  }j;entiles  also, 
r.ir  instance  at  Corinth  (1  Cor.  x.  l.')--..'l  I.  It 
was  understood  to  i)e  the  privilege  of  the 
chundi  for  all  time.  The  talde  on  which  tiie 
hread  was  jilaced  was  known  as  the  Lord's 
tahle  (x.  21)  ;  tin;  cup  of  wine  retained  the 
old  name  which  it  bore  at  the  .Jewish  |)ass- 
over,  cup  of  l)les.sing  (x.  Kii,  and  was  also 
■called  the  cup  of  the  Lord  (21  ;  xi.  27). 

Lo-ru'ha-mah  [not  haviuii  obtained 
mercy]. 

The  symholic  name  nf  the  i)rii|>liet  IIo.sea's 
<hiui;liti'r  l)y  his  wife  tiomer  (llos.  i.  (i,  ti). 

Lot,  L 

The  use  of  the  lot  to  determine  doubtful 
■questions  was  much  in  vogue  among  the  na- 
tions of  aiitiipiity  (Esth.  iii.  7;  Jon.  i.  7; 
Mat.  xxvii.  '.'>ry).  Stones  or  in.scribed  tablets 
or  tlie  like  were  put  into  a  vessel  and,  having 
been  shaken,  were  drawn  out  or  cast  forth. 
The  act  was  commonly  preceded  l)y  prayer, 
and  was  an  ai)]ieal  to  (iod  to  decide  the  mat- 
ter (Acts  i.  2:}  2(>;  Iliad  iii.  :il(i-:52.") ;  vii. 
17I-1-(I).  In  the  early  history  of  the  .Jewish 
peoi)le  (iod  was  pleased  to  use  the  lot  as  a 
method  of  making  known  his  will,  so  that 
the  weighty  statement  was  made  in  Prov. 
xvi.  IJI!,  "Tiie  lot  is  cast  into  the  laji ;  but  (be 
wiiole  disiiosing  thereof  is  of  the  Jjord.'' 
The  land  of  Canaan  was  divided  among  the 
twelve  tribes  by  lot  (Josh.  xiv.  2;  xviii.  (i)  ; 
for  the  method,  see  C.VN'.V.VN*.  On  one  occa- 
sion .Saul  anil  .lonathan  stood  on  one 
side  and  Jonathan  cast  lots  again.st  the 
])eople.  The  king  and  his  son  being  thus 
singled  out,  they  cast  lots  with  each  other, 
.Fon.ithan  being  finally  ])ointed  out  by  this 
mclluid  (if  in(|uiry  (1  .Sam.  xiv.  10- I.")).  The 
courses  of  the  jiriests,  etc.,  were  settled  by 
lot  (1  Chroii.  xxiv.  5,  anq.).  By  casting  lots 
after  prayer  the  question  was  decided 
whether  .Joseph  Rai-sahhas  or  Matthias  slumld 
be  .Judas  Iscariot's  successor  in  the  aiiostle- 
sliijil.Vcts  i.  l.")-2<ii.  This  method  of  .selec- 
tion was  not  repeated  by  the  apo.stles  after  the 
descent  of  the  Holy  Spirit. 

Lot,  II.  [covering,  or  myrrh]. 

Son  of  ilaran,  .\braham's  brother,  and 
conseqiKMitly  nephew  to  tlie  jtatrian-h  hini- 
•self,  whom  he  accompanied  from  .M(>so])o- 
tamia  to  Canaan  ((Jen.  xi.  ."'1  :  xii.  .">).  and  to 
and  fntm  l^gypt  (xiii.  1).  Like  his  uncle,  he 
becamtr  prosperous,  on  which  his  herdsmen 
anil  those  of  .Vbraham  began  to  quarrel  over 
the  pastur.'ige.  .\braham  |iroposed  that  he 
and  r.iit  separate,  and  with  characteristic 
generosity  invited  Lot  to  cliouse  lirsi.  Lot 
did  what  he  thought  ^xst  for  his  own  inter- 
est.    Seeing  that  the  hills  were  less  fertile 


than  the  vallej'  of  the  Jordan,  he  chose  the 
latter,  and  became  a  resident  in  .Sodom,  lie 
did  not  take  into  account  tlie  character  of 
the  iieoi)le  among  whom  he  was  going  to  set- 
tle, and  the  jirobable  elfect  of  their  evil 
example  on  his  family,  though  he  main- 
tained his  own  integrity  among  them  and 
was  distre.s.sed  at  .seeing  and  luaring  from 
day  to  day  lawless  deeds  (2  I'et.  ii.  S). 
During  the  invasion  of  Chedorlaoiner  and 
his  confederate  kings.  Lot  was  made  jiris- 
oner,  and  owed  his  release  to  the  courage 
and  skill  of  Abraham  ^(ieti.  xiii.  2-xiv.  Ifj). 
When  two  angels  were  sent  to  Sodom  to  warn 
him  of  its  apjiroaehing  destruction,  the  con- 
duct of  the  rullianly  mob  when  they  knew 
he  had  guests  was  such  as  to  show  how  ripe 
the  city  was  for  destruction.  Jle  was  siived 
from  its  overthrow  ;  but  his  wife,  looking 
back,  was  involved  iu  the  destruction  and 
became  a  pillar  of  salt,  and  his  married 
daughters,  deluded  liy  their  Sodomite  hus- 
bands, remained  behind,  and  pi'risbed  (xix. 
l-2!i;  Wisil.  X.  7).  A  cloud  rests  on  ].,ot's 
later  years.  Drink  on  two  consecutive  nights 
rendered  him  unconscious,  so  that  he  liecame 
a  ]>arlii-ipant  in  deeds  which  he  would  liave 
abhorred  had  he  been  sober.  The  ."\Ioabites 
«ind   Ammonites  were    his  descendants  (30- 

Lo'tan. 

A  tribe  of  Horites,  dwelling  in  mount  .Seir 
((ien.  XXX vi.  20)  and  governed  by  a  chieftain 

(2!)). 

Love'  Feasts. 

The  rendering  of  the  Greek  Aqapni  in  2 
Pet.  ii.  1.'5,  K.  V.  (ou  margin  and  in  A.  V. 
deceivings).  In  Jude  12  the  rendering  is 
feasts  of  charity.  They  were  entertainments 
held  in  churches  in  connection  with  the 
Lord's  Sujiper.  Chrysostom  states  that  after 
the  early  community  of  goods  had  ceased,  the 
wealthier  members  brought  conlril)Utioiis  of 
food  and  drink  to  the  church,  of  which,  at 
the  conclusion  of  the  services  and  after  the 
celebration  of  tiie  Lord's  Sup])er.  all  jiartook, 
the  jioorest  not  excejited.  by  this  means  help- 
ing to  ])romotc  the  i>rinci]ile  of  love  among 
Christians.  As  the  luirily  of  the  church  de- 
clined and  ceremony  increased,  scandals 
arose  in  connection  with  these  feasts.  The 
council  of  Laodicea,  .\.  D.  320,  and  that  of 
Carthage,  A.  n.  307,  forbade  them  to  be  held 
in  churches;  so  did  the  council  of  Orleans, 
A.  I).  "vIl,  tliat  of  Trullo  \.  D.  (;!12,  and  that 
of  Aix-la-chapelle  A.  D.  816  ;  but  all  these 
councils  together  did  not  quite  succeed  in 
extinguishing  the  love  feasts'  excessive 
tenacity  of  life  in  the  western  church, 
while  in  the  Greek  church  they  still 
continue  to  exist.  Of  more  modern  reli- 
gious denominations,  love  feasts  were  revived 
Jiv  the  ^foraviaiis.  John  Wesley  introduced 
them  into  the  great  organization  wliich  he 
founded.  They  exist  also  among  the  San- 
demanians. 


Lowland 


440 


Luke 


Low'land  or  Sheph'e-lah  ;  variously  rend- 
ered in  A.  V.  by  thu  vale,  the  valley,  the  low 
country,  the  i)hun. 

The  region  ol'  low  hills  between  the  plain 
of  I'hilistia  and  the  high  central  range  of 
Palestine.  It  is  described  by  Eusehius  (in 
his  OiiomasticoH  under  Sejthiin)  as  "  all  the  low 
country  about  Kli'MtlieroiJolis  [the  modern 
Beit  Jil^rin]  toward  the  north  and  west :  " 
but  in  O.  T.  times  the  term  comprehended 
the  low,  hilly  country  lying  to  the  east  and 
south  as  well.  The  hills  rise  to  a  height  of 
from  5U(»  t(i  MIO  feet,  with  a  few  higher  sum- 
mits. On  their  slopes  the  olive  riourishes. 
The  district  is  separated  from  the  central 
Juda'an  range  by  a  series  of  valleys  which 
run  north  and  south  from  Aijalou  to  near 
Beer-sheba  :  and  it  is  itself  cut  by  several 
wide,  fertile  valleys  which  lead  from  the 
Juda,'an  ridge  to  the  sea.  It  was  assigned,  as 
part  of  their  inheritance,  to  the  tribe  of 
Judah  ;  and  when  they  found  that  they  had 
too  much  territory,  a  small  portion  of  it  in 
the  north  was  allotted  to  Dan  (Josh.  sv.  33 
seq.  ;  xix.  40  seq.).  It  included  such  notable 
places  as  Adullam,  Beth-shemesh,  Gezer,  Eg- 
lon,  Lachish,  and  jiart  of  the  valleys  of 
Aijalou.  Sorek,  and  Elah  (33  seq.:  1  Sam. 
xvii.  1,2;  2  Chron.  xxviii.  18). 

Lu'bim. 

An  African  people  from  whom  Shishak, 
king  of  Egypt,  drew  i)art  of  his  army  for  the 
invasion  of  Palestine  (2  Chron.  xii.  3 ;  xvi. 
8:  cp.  Dan.  xi.  43;  Nah.  iii.  9),  doubtless  the 
primitive  Libyans. 

Lu'cas.     See  Luke. 

Lu'ci-fer  [the  light  bearer  or  bringer]. 

The  jilauet  Venus,  as  the  morning  star. 
With  the  exception  of  the  sun  and  moon, 
Venus  is  the  brightest  object  in  the  sky. 
It  appears  as  a  morning  or  an  evening 
star  according  as  it  is  we.st  or  east  of  the 
sun,  returning  to  the  same  position  about 
every  nineteen  months.  As  the  former, 
Venus  is  the  harbinger  of  daylight.  The 
prophet  likened  the  splendor  of  the  king  of 
Babylon  to  Lucifer,  son  of  the  morning  (Is. 
xiv.  12),  and  Jesus  calls  himself  the  bright, 
the  morning  star  (Rev.  xxii.  16).  The  appli- 
cation of  the  name  Lucifer  to  Satan,  the 
rebel  angel  hurled  from  heaven,  has  existed 
in  the  church  from  the  third  century, 
especially  among  poets.  It  is  based  on  the 
erroneous  suppositiDU  that  Luke  x.  18  is  an 
explanation  of  Is.  xiv.  12. 

Lu'ci-us. 

1.  A  Roman  oflicial  who  in  the  year  174  of 
the  Seleucidan  era,  13!l-8  B.  c,  issued  letters 
in  favor  of  the  Jews  to  various  kings  subject 
to  Rome  (1  Mac.  xv.  Ki).  He  is  entitled  a 
consul,  which  identifies  him  with  Lucius 
Calpurnius  Piso,  one  of  the  consuls  for  the 
year  139  B.  c.  It  is  possible,  however,  that 
he  was  the  pra'tor  Lucius  Valerius  who  con- 
ducted the  ]>roceedings  in  the  Roman  senate 
•vhich   led   to  their    making    a    league    of 


friendship  with  the  Jews,  to  the  issuance  of 
the  aforementioned  letters,  and  in  the  days 
of  Hyrcanus  II.  to  action  favorable  to  the 
Jews  (Autiq.  xiv.  8,  5). 

2.  A  Christian  from  Cyrene,  who  was  a 
teacher  in  the  church  at  Antioch  (Acts  xiii. 
1).  lie  is  commonly  su])])ose(l  to  have  been 
the  kinsman  of  Paul,  who  at  Corinth  joined 
with  the  apostle  in  sending  salutations  to  the 
brethren  at  Rome  (Rom.  xvi.  21). 

Lud. 

1.  A  people  classed  among  the  Semites 
(Gen.  X.  22)  ;  believed  to  be  the  Lydians 
(Antiq.  i.  6,  4  ;  com]iare  order  of  enumeration 
in  Gen.),  occupying,  however,  a  wider  terri- 
tory than  Lydia  in  western  Asia  Minor.  It 
is  not  yet  clear  in  what  manner  the  Lydians 
were  related  to  the  Semites.  According  to 
Herodotus  (i.  7),  their  first  king  was  a  son 
of  Jsinus  and  grandson  of  Belus,  that  is  he 
was  descended  from  the  Assyrians. 

2.  A  peoi>le  related  to  the  Egyptians  (Gen. 
X.  13),  also  the  country  which  they  inhabited. 
They  are  mentioned  as  bowmen  in  the 
armies  of  Egy]it  and  Tyre  (Jer.  xlvi.  9  ; 
Ezek.  xxvii.  10  ;  xxx.  5).  Libyans  is  too 
broad  a  translation  (Jer.  xlvi.  9,  A.  V.) ; 
though  the  Ludim  are  doubtless  to  be  sought 
in  northern  Africa,  west  of  the  Nile. 

Lu'dim  [plural  of  Lud] ;  see  Lud  2. 

Lu'hith  [perhaps,  made  of  planks]. 

A  Jloabitc  town  ajiproached  by  an  ascent 
(Is.  XV.  5  ;  Jer.  xlviii.  5) :  according  to  Eu- 
sehius and  Jerome,  Loueitha,  between  Are- 
opolis,  that  is  Rabbath  Moab,  and  Zoar. 

Luke,  in  A.  V.  once  Lucas  (Philem.  24) 
[N.  T.  Greek  Lonlas,  probably  an  abbrevi- 
ation of  I^atin  LncnnuH  or  perhaps  jLj(Ci7?H«]. 

A  friend  and  companion  of  St.  Paul,  who 
joined  him  in  sending  from  Rome  salutations 
to  the  Colossian  church  (Col.  iv.  14)  and  to 
Philemon  (Philem.  24).  In  the  former  jdace 
he  is  descrilied  as  "the  beloved  physician" 
and  in  the  latter  place  as  one  of  the  apos- 
tle''s  fellow-laborers.  He  was  also  with 
Paul  in  Rome  at  a  later  time  when  2  Timothy 
M'as  written  (2  Tim.  iv.  11),  and  then  the 
ajiostle  gives  a  touching  tribute  to  his  friend's 
fidelity  in  the  words  "Only  Luke  is  with 
me."  These  are  all  the  notices  of  Luke  by 
name  in  the  N.  T..  for  lie  must  not  be  iden- 
tified with  the  Lucius  of  Acts  xiii.  1  nor 
with  the  one  nientiotiid  in  Rom.  xvi.  21 ; 
see  Lucn  s.  We  tiiid.  however,  in  the  sec- 
ond century  the  tradition  already  estab- 
lished that  Luke  was  the  author  of  the  Third 
Gospel  and  of  The  Acts,  both  of  which  were 
certainly  written  by  the  same  hand  (Acts  i. 
1).  Accordingly  we  may  learn  more  of  him 
from  The  A<'ts.  in  which  he  intimates  his 
presence  with  Paul  during  certain  portions 
of  the  latter's  missionary  journeys  by  the 
use  of  "we"  or  "  u^i "  in  the  narrative  (Acts 
xvi.  10-17;  XX.  .'i-xxi.  18;  xxvii.  1-xxviii 
10  K  From  these  passages  it  appears  that 
Luke  joined  Paul  on  the  second  missionar;y 


Luke 


441 


Luke 


journey  at  Troas  and  went  with  liim  to 
I'liilippi.  A^ain  on  iIk-  tliird  juiirmy  Luke 
n')iiiiic<l  tho  aposik-  at  I'liilipiii  and  went 
witli  him  to  Jerusili'ni.  Jle  apiiears  to  have 
reiuaiiu'il  in  Palestine  dnriuf^  the  two  years 
in  \vlii(  li  Paul  was  iinjirisoned  at  Ca-siirea, 
!ur  lie  s;uled  with  theaiiostle  from  C'a'sarea  to 
Komc :  see  Airs.  In  dd.  iv.  M  Luke  is 
|)lainly  distin;iuished  from  PauTs  Jewish 
(•(Muininions  (ep.  ver.  111.  lie  was  therefore 
a  ;;cntile.  Larly  tradition  made  him  a 
native  of  .\ntioidi  in  Syria,  and  this  is  (juite 
proitahle.  At  any  rate,  his  interest  in  and 
familiarity  with  the  ehureh  of  Antiocli  is 
evident  (Acts  vi. .") ;  xi.  H»-'J7;  xiii.  l-;j ;  xiv. 
2(;--'8 ;  XV.  1,  '2.  .•!()-4() ;  xviii.  22,  2.5).  Kanisity, 
however,  eousiders  him  a  Phiiipi)ian  (St. 
I'anl  the  Tnirelfi.  ji.  202).  The  time  and 
nianiuT  of  his  death  are  unknown. 

The  (rospel  aceordiiiii  to  St.  Luke  is  the 
Third  (xosjjel  aceordint;  to  the  order  of  the 
hooks  of  the  N.  T.  as  usually  arranf;ed.  It 
is  aildres.sed  to  a  certain  Theoi)hihis,  ju'ohahly 
a  ji«"ntilc  Christian  ;  claims  to  he  based  upon 
careful  investij,'ation  of  the  apostolic  testi- 
mony :  and  was  intended  to  furnish  Tlie- 
ophilus,  as  well  as  other  readers,  with  a.ssured 
knowledjfe  of  the  truth  in  which  he  had 
hcen  instructe(L  Its  narrative  may  he 
divided  as  follows:  1.  Introductory  verses 
(i.  1-4).  2.  The  immediate  prejiaration  for 
the  api)earance  of  Jesus,  cousistinji  of  the 
anuunciations  and  births  of  John  the  Baptist 
and  .lesus.  with  some  si^niilicant  events  from 
the  hitter's  infancy  and  Itoyhood  li.  5-11.  .")2). 
;{.  The  inauguration  of  Christ's  ministry, 
including  («)  the  ministry  of  John  the  Baj)- 
tist,  (h)  the  bajitism  of  Jesus,  to  which  is 
appen<led  liis  genealogy,  and  (c)  tlie  tempta- 
tion of  Jesus  (iii.  1-iv!  i:j).  4.  The  Lord's 
ministry  in  (ialilce  liv.  14-ix.  ")(»).  In  this 
part  of  his  <iosi)el  Luke  often  follows  the 
same  order  as  Mark,  but  in)t  always.  He 
also  introduces  more  of  the  teaching  of  .Tesus 
th;in  Mark  docs,  in  this  often  covresiponding 
with  Matthew.  He  is.  however,  indeiieudent 
of  both  Mark  and  .Matthew  even  where  he 
covers  the  same  grou!ul,  and  he  has  some 
material  jieculiar  to  himself.  The  following 
analysis  will  bring  out  the  progress  of  this 
jiortion  of  his  narrative  :  (")  Introductory 
dcscrii)tion  (iv.  14,  1.")).  (I>)  ()i)ening  of  the 
(Jalila-an  work,  including  the  lirst  visit  to 
Xaz-ircth,  miracles  in  Capernaum  atid  tour 
through  (ialilce,  the  call  of  four  <lisci|iles 
and  the  healing  of  the  le]>er  (iv.  l(i-v.  1(>). 
((•)  Kise  of  o])position,  in  the  face  of  which 
Christ  vindicated  his  teaching,  including  the 
cure  of  the  ]iaralytic,  Levi's  call  and  feast, 
ilisconrse  al)out  fasting,  and  the  Sabbath  con- 
troversy IV.  17-vi.  12).  'it)  Organizatio!!  of 
the  disciples,  iiiiduding  the  appointment  of 
the  twelvi'  and  Christ's  discourse  on  the 
characteristics  of  true  disciiileshii>  (.sermon 
on  the  mount)  (vi.  l.'5-4!M.  ir)  Ineidonts 
ilhistrative  of  the  gracious  ministry  of  Jesus, 
including  the  healing'tjf  the  centurion's  ser- 


vant, the  raising  of  the  widow  of  Nain's  .son, 
the  in(iuiry  of  .lohn  the  Baptist,  and  Chri.st's 
reidy  and  discourse  conctTuing  .iolin,  the 
anointing  of  Jesus  by  a  sinful  woman  ivii.  1- 
50).  (/)  The  extensi(»n  of  Christ's  work,  in- 
eluding  his  tours  through  (ialilce  with  a  coni- 
jiany  of  disciples:  his  teaching  by  ]i:irables; 
the  visit  of  his  mtttlier  and  brethren  ;  the  four 
great  miracles  of  stilling  the  tein]iest.  healing 
the  (Jadarene  demoniac,  aiul  the  woman  with 
the  issue  of  blood,  and  raising  Jairus'  daugh- 
ter; the  sending  out  of  the  ajiostles;  Herod's 
desire  to  .see  Ji'susand  the  hitter's  subse(|Ueut 
retirement,  followed  by  the  feeding  of  the 
5U00(viii.  1-ix.  17).  Uj)  Christ's  instructions 
to  his  disciples  in  view  of  the  elo.se  of  the 
Galihean  ministry  and  his  coining  death,  iu- 
chidiug  Peter's  confession,  Christ's  jirediction 
of  his  death  and  n'surrection,  the  transtigu- 
ration  and  the  cure  of  thedeiuoniac  boy,  warn- 
ings against  pride  (.ix.  IH-oOj.  5.  Tlie  joiir- 
neyings  of  Jesus  to  Jeru.saleni  (ix.  51-xix. 
48).  This  part  of  Luke  contains  a  large 
amount  of  material  i)eculiar  to  him.  It  is 
probably  iu)t  arranged  in  exact  chronological 
(jrder,  but  rather  in  accordance  with  certain 
topics.  Some  of  the  material  given  here 
really  belongs  in  the  Galihean  ministry  (ix. 
57-GO  ;  xiii.  18-21;  jirobably  xi.  14-xiii.  5). 
But  the  secti(ui  describes  in  the  main  a  series 
of  journeys  toward  , Jerusalem,  ending  in  the 
final  ascent,  with  discourses  a])i)roin-iate  to 
the  situation.  It  may  be  subdi\i<led  as  fol- 
lows: ('()  The  departure  from  (ialilce  iuid  in- 
structions conctrning  the  tiiie  spirit  of  dis- 
ciples, including  Christ's  rejection  ))y  a  Sa- 
maritan village,  his  replies  to  three  imiuirers, 
the  mission  of  the  seventy,  and  their  return, 
the  lawyi'r's  «|Uesti<>n  and  the  jiarable  of  the 
good  .Samaritan,  Christ  in  the  house  of 
Martha  and  ^lary,  instructions  about  prayer 
(ix.  ol-xi.  13).  (ti)  Denunciation  of  the 
Pharisees  and  instructions  concerning  the 
duty  of  confessing  him.again.st  covetousness, 
and  concerning  watchfulness,  etc.  (xi.  14- 
xiii.  .^).  {(■)  Discourses  illustrative  of  the 
true  Israel  and  of  the  true  service;  the 
former  including  the  parable  of  the  barren 
fig  tree,  the  woman  with  the  sjiirit  of  in- 
firmity, the  ])arables  of  the  mustard  seed 
and  leaven,  the  warning  against  self-decep- 
tion and  the  lamentation  over  .lerusalem  ; 
the  latter  inclinling  the  healing  of  the  drop- 
sical man,  and  the  beautiful  jiarables  of  the 
wedding  feast,  the  great  sujiijcr,  the  lost 
shce]i,  the  lost  coin,  the  lost  son,  the  unjust 
steward,  the  rich  man  and  Lazarus,  the  im- 
jiortunate  widow,  intersjici-sed  with  incidents 
and  teachings  on  the  .siime  gi'Ueral  subject 
(xiii.  (!-xviii.  30).  (//)  The  final  ascent  to 
Jerusalem,  including  a  renewed  ]irediction 
of  death  and  resurrection,  the  healing  of 
Bartinuvus,  the  conversion  of  Zacchifus.  the 
parable  of  the  jiounds,  and  the  trinm)dial 
entry  (xviii.  31-xix.  48).  (i.  The  last  week 
in  Jernsjilem.  including  the  final  teachings 
of  Jesus  in  the  temple  and  to  his  disciples. 


Luke 


442 


Lycaonia 


his  arrest,  trials,  cnicitixioii,  and  burial 
(xx.-xxiii.  r>«>).  7.  Apjiearauces  of  Jesus 
after  his  resurrection,  his  last  directions  to 
his  discii)lcs  to  ])rcach  his  j^osjiel,  and  his 
linal  dei)arture  (ascension)  from  tluMi)  (xxiv.). 

St.  Lulve  states  (i.  ;{)  thai  his  narrative  is 
written  "in  order."  This  use  of  this  jjhrase 
cl.sewhere  (Acts  xi.  4  ;  xviii.  23  ;  and  Greek 
text  of  Luke  viii.  1  and  Acts  iii.  24) 
shows  that  he  does  not  necessarily  mean 
exact  chronolojiical  order.  While  chrono- 
logical in  general  outline,  his  arrangement  is 
often  topical.  The  book,  however,  is,  like  The 
Acts,  a  careful  and  systematic  presentation 
of  the  life  of  the  Founder  of  Christianity. 
Luke  also  expressly  dischums  personal  ac- 
quaintance with  Jesus,  and  l)ases  his  work 
on  the  testimony  of  eyewitnesses  (apostles) 
whose  reports  he  had  accurately  studied. 
His  Gosi)el  shows  a  truly  historical  spirit. 
This  appears  e.  <j.  in  the  personal  account  of  the 
origin  of  John  the  Baptist  and  of  Jestis,  in 
his  dating  by  secular  events  the  birth  of 
Jesus  and  the  public  ai)pearance  of  John 
(ii.  1,  2;  iii.  1,  2),  and  his  ])resentation  of  the 
ministry  of  Christ  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
bring  out  its  leading  religious  ideas,  its  tri- 
umph over  opjiosition,  and  the  historical 
foundation  which  it  laid  for  Christianity  (.see 
the  analysis  above).  It  shows  also  the  evan- 
gelist's fondness  for  those  aspects  of  the 
Lord's  teaching  and  work,  whereby  he  re- 
vealed himself  as  the  divine-human  Saviour 
of  men.  Christ's  gospel  is  here  described 
as  universal  in  its  mission  (ii.  32;  iii.  fj ;  iv. 
24-27;  xxiv.  47,  etc.),  a  gospel  for  the  lost 
and  the  lowly  (vii.  36-50;  xv. ;  xix.  1-!),  etc.), 
a  message  of  salvation  to  the  poor  and  dis- 
tressed (vi.  20-2«;  vii.  11-18;  ix.  56;  xii.  32, 
etc. ) .  It  delineates  the  graciousness  of  Clirist's 
personal  character — his  piety,  com]>assion, 
charity,  prayerfulncss,  holiness,  tenderness. 
In  recording  the  Lord's  utterances  about  the 
rich,  Luke  uses  more  unqualified  language 
than  the  other  evangelists  do  (i.  52,  53;  vi. 
24,  25;  xvi.  25,  etc.),  though  he  also  makes  it 
clear  that  he  did  not  understaiul  Christ  to 
denounce  rich  men  as  such,  but  only  so  far 
as  they  put  trust  in  riches  and  were  not  rich 
toward  (Tod  (xii.  21).  In  what  he  reports 
about  Samaritans  akso  (x.  33  ;  xvii.  16)  he 
iloubtless  wished  to  illustrate  the  destruction 
of  national  ))rejudices  by  the  gospel.  lu 
short  this  (Jospel  presents  Christ  as  establish- 
ing a  religion  whuh  seeks  to  uplift  and  save 
suirering  and  sinful  humanity.  The  writer's 
medical  vocabulary  also  occasionally  api)ea7-s 
and  confirms  tiie  belief  that  he  was  Luke. 
See  iv.  35,  "  when  tlie  devil  had  Ihromi  him  ;  " 
iv.  38,  "holden  with  a  (jreat  fever;"  v.  18, 
"  1(i\-en  irith  a  palsy  ;  "  vi.  19,  "  henJcd  them  ;  " 
viii.  44,  "the  issue  of  her  ))lood  stanched ;" 
X.  31,  "hound  up  his  wounds,  puunuij  in  oil 
and  wine"  (see  Hobart,  Medical  Language  of 
St.  Luke). 

The  date  of  the  composition  of  this  Gcspel 
•depends  on  that  of  The  Acts.     1  Tim.  v.  18, 


however,  .seems  to  contain  a  quotation  from 
it.  If  so,  it  was  certainly  written  before 
A.  D.  66.  It  may  have  been  conqxised  during 
the  two  years  (58-6(J)  during  which  Luke  was 
iu  Palestine  while  I'aul  was  im])risoned  iu 
Csesarea.  Or  the  materials  may  then  have 
been  gathered  and  the  book  written  after- 
wards in  Kome.  It  is  best  lo  assign  it.  some- 
what vaguely,  to  the  years  58-65.  The  author 
api)arently  intended  it  to  be  the  first  of  a 
serii's  of  works  on  the  origin  of  Christianity, 
for  the  preface  evidently  contem]>lated  the 
work  of  the  apostles  as  well  as  the  life  of 
Chri.st  (i.  1,  2),  and  the  brevity  of  the  report 
of  Christ's  parting  instructions  in  the  last 
chajiter  was  jiroliably  due  to  the  author's  in- 
tention to  resume  the  sulyect  as  he  does  in 
the  tirst  chapter  of  The  Acts.  There  is  al)un- 
dant  evidence  for  its  use  in  the  churches  of 
the  second  century  as  an  authoritative  gos])el ; 
see  Gospel.  It  A\as  mutilated  and  then 
used  by  the  Gnostic  Marcion,  in  the  second 
quarter  of  the  second  century,  as  the  only 
true  gospel,  which  at  least  shows  its  authority 
before  that  time.  The  first  formal  mention 
of  Ltike  as  its  author,  so  far  as  our  extant 
literature  shows,  occurs  about  A.  D.  170  (in  the 
Muratorian  Fragment!,  but  there  is  no  reason 
to  doubt  that  the  tradition  had  been  long  es- 
tablished and  rested  on  good  grounds. 

G.  T.  P. 

Lu'na-tiC  [insane,  with  lucid  intervals]. 

The  Greek  word  is  derived  from  self  tie, 
moon,  as  the  English  word  is  from  the  Latin 
lima,  moon,  for  it  was  believed  that  the  dis- 
ease is  afi'ected  by  the  light  or  by  the  i)eriodic 
changes  of  the  moon.  Lunacy  is  distinguished 
from  demcmiacal  possession  (Mat.  iv.  24),  for 
it  was  often  due  to  other  catiscs.  Yet  po.sses- 
sion  by  a  demon  might  give  rise  to  lunacy 
(Mat.  xvii.  15  with  Mark  ix.  17).  A  com- 
parison of  these  two  ])assages  has  led  to  the 
opinion  that  the  Greek  word  denotes  epilepsy. 
Hence  K.  V.  uses  epileptic  instead  of  lunatic. 

Luz  [almond  tree]. 

1.  A  Canaanite  town,  afterwards  Bethel 
(Gen.  xxviii.  19;  xxxv.  6;  xlviii.  3;  Josh, 
xviii.  13;  Judg.  i.  23).  In  Josh.  xvi.  2  it  is 
distinguished  from  Bethel  and  located  to  the 
west.     See  Bethel. 

2.  A  town  in  the  Hittite  country,  built  by 
an  inhabitant  of  I>uz  in  nujunt  E]iln-aim,  who 
betrayed  that  town  to  the  Israelites  and  was 
allowed  by  them  to  depart  with  his  family 
uninjured  (Judg.  i.  22-26).  Site  unknown. 
About  12  miles  southeast  by  east  of  Sidon  is 
the  town  IjUezeh.  and  4^  miles  west  by  north 
of  Banias  is  the  ruin  Luweiziyeh. 

Lyc-a-o'ni-a  [popularly  interpreted  as  ])er- 
taining  to  king  Lycaon  or  abounding  iu  were- 
wolves]. 

An  (^levated,  rugged,  inland  district  of 
Asia  Minor,  bounded  on  the  north  by  Gala- 
tia,  on  the  soutli  by  Cilicia  and  Lsauria.  on 
the  east  by  Cappadocia,  and  on  the  west  by 
Phrygia.     It  was  mainly  suitable  for  pastur- 


Lycia 


443 


Lysias 


age  only.  Its  luiculiar  dialect,  probably 
niinglc<l  (Jrcek  and  Syriac.  was  still  s])(jken 
when  I'aiil  visited  the  distri<'l  and  ju'eaela'd 
in  three  tjf  its  cities,  Icuiiiiini,  Derbu,  and 
Lystra  (Act«  xiii.  Til-xiv.  '^3,  espceially  11). 

Ly'cl-a  [exjiiained  as  pertaining  to  Lj'cus, 
son  of  I'andion  (Herod  i.  IT.'i)]. 

A  province  of  Asia  Minor,  jutting  south- 
ward into  tliu  Mediterranean  Sea,  and 
bounded  on  the  north  by  (.'aria,  IMirygia, 
and  l*aini)hylia.  I'aul  on  his  last  vityage  to 
Jeriis;il»;ni  passed  lihodes,  an  island  oil'  its 
western  eoast,  and  lan<le(l  at  I'atara,  within 
its  limits,  where  ho  took  ship  I'or  I'h(enieia 
(.\cts  xxi.  1,  2).  On  his  voyage  to  Kunie  he 
landed  at  Myra,  another  city  of  Lycia, 
whence  he  sailed  in  an  Alexandrian  vessel 
bound  for  Italy  (xxvii.  ."),  ti). 

Lyd'da. 

A  village  of  considerable  size  near  Joi)pa 
(Acts  ix.  :iS  ;  Antiq.  xx.  ti,  2),  pro))al)ly  tlio 
town  called  Lod  in  the  (J.  T.  The  g<)si)el 
early  took  root  in  it  (.Vets  ix.  :J2|.  Shortly 
before  153  B.  c.  the  town  with  the  district 
about  it  formed  a  distinct  government  in 
connection  with  Samaria,  but  in  145  B.  c.  it 
was  transferred  to  .luchea  (1  Mac.  xi.  34  ;  cp. 
2S;  X.  31),  3S).  Peter  visited  it,  and  his  cure 
of  /Eneas  through  the  name  of  ,Jesus  re- 
sulted in  a  large  increase  of  disciples  (.\cts  ix. 
33-35).  It  was  burnt  by  Cestius  in  the  time 
«jf  Nero,  but  was  soon  rebuilt  (War  ii.  19,  1). 
See  Lod. 

Lyd'i-a  [nominally  fmni  Ludns,  its  nimtcd 
founder  (Ilerod  i.  71]. 

1.  A  region  on  the  western  coast  of  Asia 
Minor,  with  Sardis  for  its  capital.  Tliyatira 
and  l'liiladel|)liia  were  witliin  its  limits.  It 
was  very  fertile  and  hail  a  mild  climate,  and 
consec|Uently  it  was  densely  p(i|)ulated.  The 
customs  of  its  inhahilanis  were  Semitic  in 
character,  and  their  religion  was  api)arently 
a  mingling  of  Syrian  and  Phrygian  worsliip 
(Duncker).  The  state  rose  to  power  about 
(W!)  u.  ('.,  under  (lyges,  when  the  (ireeks  on 
the  coast  and  tln'  tribes  of  .\sia  Minor  were 
subdued.  In  51!t  it.  f.  Crcesus,  the  last  king, 
was  defeated  by  t'yrus,  and  Lydia  became  a 
Persian  i>rovince.  It  never  regained  inde- 
pendence. .\ntiochus  III.,  of  Syria,  was 
forced  to  cede  it  to  the  Romans  (c]).  1  Mac. 
viii.  8).  Many  ,Iews  dwell  there  i.\nti(i.  xii. 
3,  4),  and  Christian  cliurches  were  founded 
(Rev.  i.  11). 

2.  .\  Woman  of  Tliyatira,  a  town  of  Lydia, 
tlioimli  it  is  not  known  whetlu'r  this  w:is  the 
origin  of  her  name.  Tliyatira  was  noted  for 
its  dyeing,  and  Lyilia  madt;  her  living  in 
Philii)|ii,  to  which  she  had  removed,  by  sell- 
ing purple  lives  or  dyed  goods.  She  wils  a 
Worshiper  of  (Jod  befon-  Paul  arrived  at 
I'hili])pi.  .She  received  the  gospel  of  Christ 
gladly,  and,  thougii  l)y  birth  an  .\siatic,  be- 
came Paul's  first  convert  in  Macedonia  and 
Kiirope.  When  Paul  and  Silas  were  released 
from  prison,  to  which  they  had  been  con- 


signed after  a  riot  of  which  they  were  the 
innocent  cause,  they  were  received  into  the 
hou.se  of  Lydia,  who  seems  to  have  been  a 
Woman  of  some  wealth,  and  who  doubtless 
showed  them  all  needed  care  (Acts  xvi.  14, 
1.5.  40 1. 

Ly-sa'ni-as  [ending  sadness]. 

A  tetrarcli  of  Abilene  in  the  fifteenth  year 
of  Tibi'rius  (  Luke  iii.  1).  .Some  critics  have 
thought  that  Lysanias,  sou  of  Ptolemy,  who 
ruled  Chalcis  in  Cielesyria  during  the  years 
40  to  34  H.  c.  (Antiij.'xiv.  i;{,  3:  xv.  4.  1), 
gave  name  to  this  telrarchy,  and  that  Luke 
is  in  error.  But  the  highest  authorities  ex- 
plain the  facts  in  a  very  dillereiit  manner. 
Lysanias  who  ruled  Chalcis  is  never  called 
tetrarcli,  and  .Miila  nowhere  ajijiears  in  his 
domiiiioiis.  From  Antiq.  .\v.  10,  1-:;,  it  ap- 
pears that  the  house  or  territory  of  Lysanias 
was  liired  by  Zenodorus  about  25  b.  c\,  be- 
came known  as  the  country  of  Zenodorus, 
lay  between  Traclionitis  and  Galilee,  chiefly 
about  Paneas  and  L'lallia.  and  hence  appar- 
ently did  not  include  Chalcis  in  Cielesyria, 
and  strictly  speaking  was  distinct  from  Ha- 
tanea,  Traclionitis,  and  Auranitis.  These 
districts  were  bestowed  on  Herod  the  (ireat 
and  jiassed  to  his  son  Philij)  the  tetrarch, 
.Viigustus  ciuifirining  to  him  Batanea,  Tra- 
clionitis, .Auranitis,  and  jiart  of  the  house  of 
Zenodorus  (xvii.  11,  1)  which  included  Paneas 
(S,  1).  In  A.  D.  L?7  th<'  emperor  Caligula  made 
Herod  Agripiia  king  of  the  tetranhy  of 
Philij)  ii'.iil  added  the  tetrarchy  of  Lysanias 
(xviii.  G,  20).  This  latter  tetnirchy  had  its 
cajiital  at  Abila,  some  eighteen  miles  north- 
west of  Damascus,  and  was  distinct  from  the 
kingdom  of  Chalcis  (xix.  .5.  1 ;  xx.  7,  1  :  War 
ii.  11,  5).  All  hough  far  north,  it  may  have 
been  the  remaining  part  of  the  country  of 
Zenodorus,  which  after  his  death  and  the 
division  of  his  land,  as  before  mentioned, 
had  been  formed  into  a  tetrarchy  or  kingdom 
under  a  younger  Lysanias.  perhajis  of  tl>e 
same  line  as  the  former  ruler  of  Chalcis. 

Ly'si-as. 

1.  .V  general  of  the  army  of  Syria  during 
the  reigns  of  Antioidius  K]ii]dianes  and  An- 
liochiis  Ku])ator.  When  .\ntiochus  Lpiphanes 
went  to  Persia  abniit  l(i5  i;.  r..  he  aiqioiiited 
Lysias,  who  was  of  royal  blood,  viceroy  dur- 
ing his  ab.seiice,  with  the  duty  of  quelling 
tlie  .Jewish  insurrection  under  the  Maccabees 
(1  Mac.  iii.  32-.37).  After  operating  through 
others,  Lysias  found  it  necessary  to  take  the 
field  liiliiself:  but  he  was  defeated  by.liidas 
with  great  lo.ss  (3S-10  :  iv.  1-22,  2S  :r>)".  When 
the  news  of  Antiochus'  death  arrived  in  Id"! 
B.  ('.,  I^ysias  seized  the  reins  of  government 
and  ruled  in  the  name  of  the  young  .\iilio- 
cliu-^.  althoimh  the  late  king  had  named 
Philip  for  regent  during  the  minority  of  the 
heir  to  the  thnme  (vi.  14  17).  In  this  cap.uiiy 
Lysias  undertook  another  campaign  against 
the  .lews.  He  gained  a  victory  over  .Judas 
and  laid  siege  to  .Jerusiilem ;  but  the  news 


Lystra 


444 


Maaseiah 


that  Philip  was  on  his  way  from  Persia  to 
chiim  the  refruncy,  com  pel  led  liim  to  make 
terms  of  peace  with  the  Jews  and  relnrn  to 
Antioch  (vi.  -JS-ti;}).  He  maintained  himself 
successfnlly  against  I'hilip,  Imt  was  imt  to 
death  in  lU'i  n.  v.  by  Demetrius  I.  (vii.  1-4). 
2.  Konian  connnandant  at  Jerusalem,  who 
rescued  Paul  from  the  mob  of  Jews  (Acts 
xxii.  -Jl).    See  Claudius  Lysias. 

Lys'tra. 

A  city  of  Lycaonia,  where  Paul  cured  an 
impotent  man,  and  would  have  been  wor- 
shiped as  a  g<id  had  he  not  refused.  It  was 
there  also  that  he  was  stoned  and  left  for 
dead  (Acts  xiv.  6-21 ;  2  Tim.  iii.  11).  Either 
at  Lystra  or  I)erl)e  he  first  met  Timothy 
(Acts  xvi.  1.  2).  The  site  is  Khatyn  Serai, 
S.  W.  of  Iconium.  as  proven  bj'  an  inscription 
(Wolfe's  Expedition,  142;  Ramsay,  Historical 
Geography,  332). 


M. 


Ma'a-cah,  in  A.  V.  often  Maachah,  and  in 
R.  V.  of  Josh.  xiii.  13  Maacath,  the  archaic 
(Canaauite)  spelling  [compression,  oppres- 
sion]. 

1.  A  place  in  Syria  (2  Sam.  x.  fi,  8),  some- 
times called  Aram-maacah  or  Syria-maachah 
(1  Chron.  xix.  6,  7) ;  see  Aram  2  (4).  Its 
inhabitants  were  descended  from  Nahor  (Gen. 
xxii.  24). 

2.  Wife  of  Machir,  the  son  of  Manasseh  (1 
Chron.  vii.  15,  16). 

3.  A  concubine  of  Caleb,  the  son  of  Hezron 
(1  Chron.  ii.  48). 

4.  Wife  of  Jehiel  and  ancestress  of  king 
Saul  (1  Chron.  viii.  29  ;  ix.  35). 

5.  Daughter  of  Talmai,  king  of  Geshur. 
She  became  one  of  David's  wives  and  mother 
of  Absalom  (2  Sam.  iii.  3). 

6.  Father  of  Hanan,  one  of  David's  mighty 
men  (1  Chron.  xi.  43). 

7.  Father  of  the  ruler  of  the  Simeonites  in 
David's  reign  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  16). 

8.  Father  of  Solomon's  royal  contemporary 
Achish  of  Gath   (1   Kin.  ii.  39) ;  see  Achish. 

9.  Wife  of  Rehoboam,  and  daughter,  or  in 
view  of  2  Chron.  xiii.  2  perhaps,  the  grand- 
daughter, of  Absalom  (1  Kin.  xv.  2  :  2  Chron. 
xi.  20-22),  and  mother  of  king  Abijah.  After 
the  death  of  the  latter,  she  remained  queen- 
mother  {(I'tjxriih)  ;  hut  her  grandson  Asa  took 
this  position  from  her  because  she  had  made 
an  abominable  image  for  an  Asherah  (2  Chron. 
XV.  16  R.  v.).  She  is  called  Michaiah  in  2 
Chron.  xiii.  2  ;  but  this  is  prol)alily  a  textual 
corruption,  for  in  the  seven  other  jilaces 
where  her  name  occurs  it  is  Maacah. 

Ma-ac'a-thite  in  A.  V.  MaachatMte,  but 
in  Dent.  iii.  14  Maachathi,  tlie  Hebrew  form 
instead  of  the  lOnudish. 

A  descendant  of  a  person  named  Maacah, 
or  a  native  or  inhabitant  of  the  Syrian  king- 


dom of  Maacah  or  of  the  town  of  Beth-maa- 
cah  in  Naphtali  (Josh.  xii.  5;  2  Sam.  xxiii. 
34). 

Ma'a-chah.     See  Maacah. 

Ma-acfa-thi.     See  Maacathite. 

Ma'a-dai  [perliajis,  wavering]. 

A  sou  of  Hani,  induced  b;,  Ezra  to  put 
away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  34). 

Ma-a-di'ah  fornament  of  Jehovah]. 

A  cliief  of  the  priests  who  returned  from 
the  Babylonian  captivity  (Neh.  xii.  5,  7).  In 
the  next  generation,  a  father's  house  among 
the  priests,  which  occujiics  the  same  position 
in  the  corresponding  catalogue,  bears  the 
name  Moadiah  (ver.  17).  The  reason  for  this 
traditional  variation  is  not  yet  clear.  Per- 
haps the  name  should  alwavs  be  pronounced 
Moadiah. 

Ma'ai. 

A  jiriest  who  Vdew  a  trumpet  at  the  dedi- 
cation of  the  second  temple  (Is'eh.  xii.  36). 

Ma'a-leh-a-crab'bim.    See  Akrabbim. 

Ma'a-rath  [a  place  bare  of  trees]. 

A  town  in  the  hill  country  of  Judah  (Josh. 
XV.  59),  doubtless  north  of  Hebron  and  near 
Halhul. 

Ma'a-reli-ge'ba  [place  destitute  of  trees 
at  Geba]. 

A  place  adjacent  to  Geba  (Judg.  xx.  33, 
R.  v.).  On  the  margin  it  is  translated  the 
meadow  of  Geba  or  Gibeah  ;  in  the  text  of 
A.  v.,  the  meadows  of  Gibeah. 

Ma-a-se'iah  [work  of  Jehovah]. 

1.  A  Levite  of  the  second  degree,  who 
acted  as  porter  in  the  reign  of  David  (1  Chron. 
XV.  18),  and  played  a  psaltery  (ver.  20). 

2.  One  of  the  captains  of  hundreds,  who 
cooperated  with  the  high  priest  Jehoiada  in 
overthrowing  Athaliah  and  placing  Joash  on 
the  throne  of  Judah  (2  Chron.  xxiii.  1). 

3.  An  officer  who  seems  to  have  acted  with 
Jeiel  the  Levite  in  keeping  a  list  of  the  mili- 
tary men  in  Uzziah's  reign  (2  Chron.  xxvi. 

11). 

4.  A  prince  of  the  royal  house,  a  son  of 
Jotham  more  probably  than  of  Ahaz,  since 
the  latter  was  too  young  to  have  adult  chil- 
dren. He  was  slain  during  Pekah's  invasion 
of  Judah  (2  Chron.  xxviii.  7). 

5.  The  governor  of  Jerusalem  in  Josiah's 
reign  (2  Chron.  xxxiv.  8). 

6.  Ancestor  of  Seraiah  and  Baruch  (Jer. 
xxxii.  12;  Ii.  59,  A.  V.).  Tlie  name  is  radi- 
cally different  from  that  which  is  elsewhere 
represented  by  Maaseiah.     Sec  M.\hseiah. 

7.  Father  of  the  false  prophet  Zedekiah 
(Jer.  xxix.  21). 

8.  A  priest,  father  of  the  temple  official 
Zcphaniah  (Jer.  xxi.  1  ;  xxix.  25). 

9.  Son  of  Shallum  and  doorkeei>er  of  the 
temple  (Jer.  xxxv.  4).  He  was  doubtless  a 
Levite  (1  Chron.  xxvi.  1).     See  Shali.um. 

10.  A  man  of  Judah,  family  of  Shelah. 
He  lived  at  Jerusalem  after  the  captivity 
(Neh.  xi.  5). 


Maasai 


445 


Maccabee 


11.  A  Beiijaiiiitc,  whose  descendants  lived 
at  Jenisaluui  after  tlie  eajdivitj'  (Neh.  xi.  7). 

12-15.  .\  man  of  tlic  house  of  I'aliath- 
Tiioab  and  tliree  priests,  one  a  iiicinbcr  of  the 
house  of  the  lii;;ii  iniest  .Icshiia,  oni-  of  the 
house  of  llarini,  and  the  tiiinl  of  tlu'  liouse 
of  I'ashliur,  each  of  whom  put  away  liis  for- 
ei;,Mi  wife  (Kzra  x.  1«,  21,  22,  30). 

1().  Father  of  tliat  Azariah  who  re])aircd 
the  wall  of  Jerusalem  beside  his  hou.se  (Neh. 
iii.  231. 

17.  A  ehief  of  the  people  who  sifjned  the 
covenant  witli  Nehemiali  (Neh.  x.  2.5). 

18.  A  i)riest  wlio  marciied  in  tlie  pro- 
ce.ssion  at  the  dedication  of  tiie  wall  of  Jeru- 
salem (Nell.  xii.  11),  perhaps  one  of  the  six 
who  stood  by  Ezra  when  he  nsad  the  law  to 
the  people  (viii.  4). 

1!>.  A  Levite,  ])rol)ably,  who  marched  in 
the  jtrocession  at  the  dedication  of  tiie  wall 
(Neh.  xii.  -12),  j)erliaps  one  of  the  thirteen 
who  exi)ounded  the  law  as  it  was  read  to  the 
people  (viii.  7). 

Ma'a-sai,  in  A.  V.  Ma-as'i-ai  [perhaps, 
Work  of  .Jehovah]. 

A  j)riest  of  the  family  of  Imnier  (1  Cliron. 
ix.  12).  The  name  may  be  an  abl)reviatiou 
of  Maaseiah  by  curtailment  or  ])ossibly 
another  form  of  that  word  ;  or  perhaps  it 
is  an  accidental  trauspositiou  of  the  letters 
of  .\masai. 

Ma'ath. 

An  ancestor  of  Christ,  who  lived  after  the 
tinu'  of  Zerubbabel  (Luke  iii.  26). 

Ma'az  [anjrer]. 

A  descendant  of  Judah  through  Jerahmeel 
(1  Chron.  ii.  27). 

Ma-a-zi'ah  [consolation  of  Jehovah]. 

1.  A  desceiKhiiit  of  Aiiron.  His  family 
had  grown  to  a  father's  house  by  tlie  time 
of  David  and  was  made  the  last  of  the 
twenty-four  courses  into  which  the  jiriests 
were  divided  (1  Chron.  xxiv.  1,  (J,   18). 


2.  A  priest  who,  doubtless  in  behalf  of  a 
father's  house,  sealed  the  covenant  in  the 
days  of  Nehemiah  (Neh.  x.  8). 

Mac'ca-bee. 

A  family,  also  called  Asmoniean  fr(jm  one 
of  its  ancestors,  which  ruled  Judiea  from 
l(i(i  K.  c.  to  37  B.  c. ;  .see  Asmox.e.\x.  The 
title  Maccabivus,  in  A.  V.  Maccabeus,  was 
lirst  given  to  Judas,  third  son  of  Matta- 
thias  11  Mac.  ii.  4),  but  at  an  early  date  it 
vvas  transferred  to  the  entire  family  and  to 
others  who  had  a  part  in  the  same  events. 
The  origin  and  meaning  of  tlie  term  have 
eluded  research.  It  is  usually  derived  from 
makkabah,  a  hammer,  in  allusion  to  the 
crushing  blows  inflicted  by  Judas  and  his 
successors  upon  their  enemies.  It  has  also 
been  explained  as  comjiosed  of  the  initials 
of  the  Hebrew  words  in  the  sentence,  "Who 
is  like  to  thee  among  the  gods,  Jehovah  '.'", 
or  in  the  sentence,  '"  What  is  like  my 
father?",  or  as  being  the  Hebrew  word 
mukbi,  extinguisher.  None  of  these  inter- 
I)retations  is,  however,  more  than  a  cc  n- 
jecture.  The  first  of  the  family  mentiontd 
is  Mattathias,  an  aged  i>riest,  who,  driveu 
to  desperation  l)y  the  outrages  of  Anti- 
ochus  Kpiphanes.  raised  a  revolt  against  him 
and  fled  to  the  mountains,  followed  by  those 
who  were  zealous  for  the  faith  of  Israel. 
Mattathias  died  aliout  two  years  afterwards, 
but  the  revolt  was  carried  on  by  his  five 
sons.  Judas,  the  third  sou,  was  the  finst 
military  leader,  l(j()  b.  c.  By  avoiding 
])itclied  battles,  and  harassing  the  Syrians  by 
vigorous  and  persistent  guerilla  warfare,  lie 
and  his  devoted  band  defeated  and  routed 
every  detachment  of  the  Syrian  army  sent 
against  them.  He  retook  Jerusalem,  ])urified 
the  tem])le,  and  restored  the  daily  .sacritice. 
A  feast  to  celebrate  tliis  restoration  was  in- 
stituted and  was  kept  annually  thereafter. 
This  was  the  winter  feast  of  dedicaliou  al- 


*The  M.vccab.ean  Family. 
Mattathias. 


John. 


Judas. 


Simon, 

143-135. 

I 


Aristobulus, 
104. 


I 
Antigonus. 


Judas, 
166-160. 


John  Hyrcanus, 

135-105. 

I 


Eleazar. 


Jonathan, 
160-143. 


Mattathias. 


Daughter. 


Alexander  Jannoeus  married  Alexandra.       Son.        Son. 
104-78.  I  78-69. 


Hyrcanus, 
6.S-»0. 


Aristobulus, 
69-63. 


Alexandra  married  Alexander. 

I 


Mariamne,  wife  of  Ilcrod  the  Great. 


Antigonus, 
40-37. 


Aristobulus. 


Macedonia 


446 


Machir 


hided  to  in  John  x.  •22.  Judas  fell  in  battle 
KJO  B.  c,  whereupon  liis  younger  brother 
Jonatlian,  who  was  already  high  i)riest,  as- 
sumed conuiiaiid  of  the  army.  Almnt  this  time 
Jolm  till'  ehUst  brdtliiT  was  caiiturcd  and 
killed  by  the  ehildren  of  Jambri  (1  .Mae.  xi. 
36)  ;  and  shortly  before  this  another  l)rother, 
Eleazar.  had  been  erushed  to  deatli  under- 
neath an  elephant  whieh  he  had  wounded  in 
battle.  During  the  leadership  of  Jonathan 
the  Syrians  were  oceupied  with  eivil  war,  so 
that  not  only  was  Judsea  left  in  peace,  but  tlie 
favor  of  the  Jews  was  sued  for,  and  Jonathan 
was  able  to  strengthen  his  position.  He 
made  a  treaty  with  the  Romans  and  also 
with  the  Spartans.  He  was  treacherously 
slain  by  Tryphon,  a  Syrian  general,  in  143 
B.  c.  On  his  death  the  leadershi])  fell  to 
Simon,  the  last  remaining  son  of  Mattathias. 
The  most  important  event  that  fell  under 
his  rule  was  the  granting  of  Jewish  in- 
dependence by  the  Syrian  king  Demetrius 
II.  Coins  were  struck  bearing  the  name  of 
Simon,  and  contracts  were  dated  "  in  the 
first  year  of  Simon  high  priest  and  gover- 
nor." Simon  and  two  of  his  sons  were 
ti'eacherously  slain  by  his  son-in-law  Ptol- 
emy, in  Dok  near  Jericho  135  B.  c.  The 
one  son  who  escaped,  John,  assumed  the 
power  and  was  known  as  John  Hyrcanus. 
He  was  a  shrewd  and  vigorous  ruler  and 
enlarged  his  province.  He  conquered  the 
Edomites  and  merged  them  in  the  Jewish 
people.  After  a  long  and  prosperous  reign  he 
died  a  natural  death,  and  was  succeeded  by 
his  son  Aristobulus,  a  cruel  and  unjirincipled 
man  who  killed  his  mother  and  brother. 
He  changed  the  theocracy  into  a  kingdom, 
calling  himself  king,  but  retained  at  the 
same  time  the  high-prie.sthood.  After  a 
reign  of  one  year  he  was  succeeded  by  a 
brother,  Alexander  Jannseus,  during  whose 
reign  the  country  was  torn  by  the  dissen- 
sions of  the  Sadducees  and  Pharisees,  He 
had  a  troubled  reign  of  27  years,  and  was 
followed  by  his  widow  Alexandra,  who 
reigned  for  9  years.  She  left  two  sons,  Hyr- 
canus and  Aristobulus,  who  quarreled  about 
the  succession.  Hyrcanus  was  established  as 
high  priest  while  Aristobulus  seized  the  civil 
authority.  Civil  war  broke  out.  The  Romans 
interfered,  and  at  first  upheld  Aristobulus,  but 
later  deposed  him  and  carried  him  to  Rome, 
Hyrcanus  was  nominally  king,  but  the  real 
ruler  was  Antipas,  or  Antijiatc'r,  an  Idumiean. 
wlio  had  been  a|ipoiiit('d  procurator  of  ,Tudiea 
under  Ilynanus  by  tlu'  Romans.  A  jieriod 
of  (piarrils  and  dissensions  among  tlu'  mem- 
bers of  tlie  reigning  family  followed,  during 
which  time  Antipater  steadily  grew  in  inllu- 
ence  and  power  with  the  Romans,  until,  the 
Maccabieans  falling  into  disfavor,  the  crown 
of  ,ru(hea  was  given  to  Antipater's  son,  Herod. 

For  1 . 2.  '■'>.  and  t  Maccabees,  see  Apocrypha. 

Mac-e-do'ni-a, 

A  country  lying  immediately  to  the  north 
of  Greece.     Little  is  known  of  it  prior  to  560 


u.  c,  and  for  more  than  200  years  afterwards 
it  possessed  no  special  interest.  But  under 
Philip  of  Macedon  (359-33(i  B.  c. )  and  his 
yet  more  celebrated  son  Alexander  the  (ireat 
(33(j-323  B.  c),  it  ro.se  to  world-wide  power 
and  imi)erial  importance  ;  see  I'll  imp  1  and 
Alkxander  I.  Under  his  successors  the  em- 
pire was  divided,  and  the  country  declined, 
till  in  1(J«  B.  c.  it  was  conqiured  by  the 
Romans,  and  in  142  B.  c:.  became  a  Roman 
province.  Macedonia  is  not  mentioned  by 
name  in  the  ().  T.  ;  but  the  Macedonian  em- 
pire is  referred  to  in  Dan.  ii.  39  ;  vii.  G ;  viii. 
5,  8.  In  1  Mac.  i.  1  Chittim  is  Macedonia. 
Paul,  summoned  in  a  vision  by  a  man  of 
Macedonia,  (m  his  secoiul  journey,  passed 
from  Asia  into  Eurojje,  and  preached  the 
gospel  in  that  continent  first  on  ^Macedonian 
soil.  At  this  time  he  passed  through  the 
Macedonian  towns  of  Neaiiolis,  Phili]>i)i, 
Amphipolis,  Apollonia,  Thessalonica,  and 
Bercea  (Acts  xvi.  9-xvii.  14).  When  Paul  de- 
parted, Silas  and  Timothy  continued  the  work 
(xvii,  14,  15  ;  xviii,  5),  Paul  revisited  the 
region  (xix,  21,  22  ;  xx.  1-3 ;  cp.  2  Cor.  ii. 
13;  vii.  5;  1  Tim.  i.  3).  Gains  and  Aris- 
tarchus,  Macedonians,  were  Paul's  com- 
panions in  travel,  and  were  in  danger  on 
his  account  during  the  riot  at  Ephesus 
(Acts  xix.  29).  Secundus,  also  a  Mace- 
donian, was  one  of  those  who  waited  for 
him  at  Troas,  when  for  tlie  last  time  he 
was  to  leave  Philippi  on  his  way  to  Jeru.sa- 
lem  (xx.  4).  Paul's  converts  in  Macedonia 
made  a  collection  for  the  poor  Christians  of 
the  Jewish  capital  (Rom.  xv.  20).  They  also 
ministered  to  the  wants  of  the  apostle  him- 
self (2  Cor.  viii.  1-5),  the  Phili]ipians  being 
the  most  prominent  in  the  work  of  charity 
(Phil.  iv.  15). 

Mach-ban'nai,  in  A.  V.  Mach'ba-nai  [per- 
haps, clothed  with  a  cloak]. 

One  <pf  the  Gadite  heroes  who  joined 
David  at  Ziklag  (1  Chron.  xii.   13). 

Mach'be-na,  in  A.  V,  Machbenah  [a  bond 
or  cloak], 

A  town  of  .Tudah,  to  judge  from  the  con- 
text (1  Chron.  ii.  49).     See  Cabbon. 

Ma'cM. 

Father  of  the  spy  from  the  tribe  of  Gad 
(Num.  xiii.  15). 

Ma'chir  [sold]. 

1.  The  firstborn  and  only  son  of  Manasseh 
(Gen.  1.  23  ;  .Josh.  xvii.  1).  His  nmther  was 
an  Aramitess  (1  Chron.  vii.  14).  He  was  the 
founder  of  the  family  of  the  ]\Iachirites, 
which  would  have  been  the  sole  fiimily  of 
Manasseh,  But  as  posterity  increased,  new 
families  were  set  apart  from  the  main  line 
through  the  firstborn  ;  and  thus  INIachir  be- 
came one  among  the  families  of  Manasseh 
(Num.  xxvi.  29).  The  family,  calh'd  col- 
lectively Machir,  was  a  man  of  war,  and 
subjugated  Gilead,  This  district  wus  ac- 
cordingly assigned  to  the  family  for  its  in- 
heritance (Num.  xxxii.  39,  40  ;  Josh.  xvii.  1). 


Machmas 


447 


Magdaia 


and  was  given  hy  Moses.  The  name  of 
Miu-hir  w:is  once  used  jioetically  for  the 
whole  trihe  of  Manasseli,  west  as  well  as  east 
of  the  Jordan  (JudK.  v.  It). 

2.  A  son  (if  Aniiniel,  in  Lo-debar,  east  of 
the  Jordan  (2  Sam.  is.  1,  ">),  who  bron^ht  pro- 
visions to  David  <lurinji  the  rebellion  of  Ab- 
salom (xvii.  '27  I. 

Mach'mas.     See  Micii.m.vsh. 

Mach-na-de'bai. 

A  Sun  (if  IImiiI,  induced  by  Kzra  to  put 
away   Ills  ('(irciu'n  wife  ( ICzra  x.  40). 

Mach-pe'lah  [duplication,  donblinf;]. 

A  jilace  before  Manire,  where  was  a  field 
with  trees  and  a  cave  belonging  to  Epliron, 
a  llittite  (dvu.  xxiii.  9.  17,  19).  The  place 
was  i)iir<'lias('(l  by  .\braliani  for  400  shekels 
of  silver  in  order  to  use  the  cave  as  a  sepul- 
cher  for  .Sarah,  his  wife.  He  himself  was 
buried  there  by  his  sons,  Isaac  an<l  Ishmael 
(xxv.  9,  10).  There  also  Isaac  and  Uebekah 
were  buried,  so  likewi.se  were  Leah  and 
Jacob  (XXXV.  29;  xlvii.  28-31  ;  xlix.  2!)-33 ; 
1. 12,  13),  and  perhaps  others  of  whom  wc  have 
no  record.  The  cave  is  probal)ly  correctly 
identified  as  that  beneath  the  great  moscjue 
at  Ilcbriiu.  Christians  have  all  along  been 
excluded  from  the  moscjue  and  the  cavern 
beneath;  but  the  Prince  of  Wales  on  April 
7th,  18(52,  the  Crown  Trince  of  Pru.ssia  in 
Novend)er,  ls()9,  and  the  sons  of  tlie  Prince 
of  Wales  in  1SS2,  were  permitted  to  make  an 
imperfect  examination  of  the  sepulchral 
vault.  Not  everything  there  is  genuine,  for 
a  shrine  Siicred  to  Joseph  exists,  whereas  we 
learn  from  Scri])ture  that  he  was  buried  at 
Shechem  (Josh.  xxiv.  .32). 

Ma'dai. 

A  |)ec)ple  descended  from  Jajiheth  (Gen.  x. 
2;  1  Chron.  i.  5),  doubtless  the  inhabitants  of 
Media. 


(Josh.  XV.  31 ;  1  Cliron.  ii.  49) ;  perhaps  iden- 

ti<'al  with  Hcth-marcabofh  ((j.  v.). 

Mad'men  [dunghill]. 

A  town  in  Moab  (Jer.  xlviii.  2).  Not  iden- 
tified. 

Mad-me'nah  [dunghill]. 

A  town  near  .Jerusalem  and  on  tike  north 
(Is.  X.  31).     Not  identified. 

Mad'ness. 

1.  Weakness  or  disorder  of  the  intellect, 
rendering  a  person  void  of  right  reason 
(I)eut.  xxviii.2H).  l)avid.  when  feigningtobe 
mad,  made  marks  on  the  doors  of  the  gate 
and  let  the  .spittle  fall  down  upon  his  beard 
(1  Sam.  XXI.  13,  14,  where  the  two  princijtal 
Hel)revv  synonyms  are  used).  It  may  mani- 
fest itseif  in  hallucinations  (Acts  xii.  1.")),  or 
in  wild  raving  (1  Cor.  xiv.  23),  or  even  in 
violence,  such  as  hurling  about  firebrands 
and  arrows  (Prov.  xxvi.  18).  Its  symidoms 
are  temporarily  produced  bv  drink  (Jer.  xxv. 
IG;  li.  7). 

2.  A  state  of  uncontrollable  emotion,  as  in- 
fatuation (Jer.  1.  38)  or  fury  (Ps.  cii.  8  ;  Luke 
vi.  11  ;  Acts  xxvi.  11). 

Ma'don  [contention,  strife]. 

A  town  of  northern  Canaan,  whose  king 
was  in  confederacy  with  the  king  of  Hazor 
(Jcsh.  xi.  1-12;  xii.  19).  Site  unknown.  On 
the  survey  map  it  stands  with  a  iiuery  at 
Madin,  'i  njiles  west  by  north  of  Tiberias'. 

Mag'a-dan. 

A  locality  into  the  borders  of  which  .Jesus 
went  after  crossing  the  sea  of  Galilee  (Mat. 
XV.  39,  in  A.  V.  Magdaia).  It  seems  to  have 
been  on  the  western  shore  of  the  lake 
and  may  have  included  Magdaia  (cj).  Mark 
viii.  10).' 

Mag'bisli  [congregating]. 

A  person  or  town,  it  is  uncertain  which 
(Ezra  ii.  30).     If  a  jilace,  its  site  is  unknown. 


Ma'di-an.     Sic  Mn.i  \n. 

Mad-man'nah  [dunghill]. 

A   town    in   the  extreme  south 


.f   Judah 


I.  In.. king  North. 

Mag'da-la  [i-robably.  a  tower|. 
A  town  which,  according  to  the  Talmud, 
stood  on   the  western    shore  <)f  the    sea    of 


Magdalene 


44S 


Mahalath 


<3alilee,  near  Tiberias  and  Hamraath,  and 
within  less  tlian  a  Sal)bath  day's  jdiiniey  of 
the  water.  It  exists  in  tlie  wretched  village 
el-Mejdel,  scarcely  .'5  miles  nortli  of  Tiberias. 
lu  Mat.  XV.  :?9  tiie  K.  V.,  following  the  best 
mamiscrii»ts,  substitutes  Magadan  (q.  v.).  See 
also  Magdai.knk. 

Mag-da-le'ne  [of  Magdala].  Mag-da-le'nc 
is  the  Greek  ])roinniciation,  like;  Al)ilene; 
Mag'da-lenc  is  the  English  pronunciation, 
like  Damascene,  Gadarene.   Nazarene. 

A  designation  of  one  of  the  Marys,  inii)ly- 
ing  that  she  came  from  some  Magdala,  i)rob- 
ably  from  the  village  now  called  cl-Mejdel, 
on  the  western  shore  of  the  sea  of  Galilee, 
about  3  miles  north-northwest  of  Tiberias. 
The  word  Magdalene  makes  no  such  imputa- 
tion on  the  moral  character  of  Mary  as  is  now 
conveyed  by  the  term  Magdalen. 

Mag'di-el  [honor  of  God]. 

A  duke  descended  from  Esau  (Gen.  xxxvi. 
43;  1  Chron.  i.  54). 

Ma'gi  [Greek  Mniioi.  the  plural  of  Magos ; 
in  Behistun  inscription  Mofiiishu']. 

The  religious  caste  to  which  the  wise  men 
belonged,  as  their  title  indicates,  who  came 
from  the  east  to  worship  the  infant  Jesus 
(Mat.  ii.  1,  R.  V.  margin).  The  ISlEgi  were  a 
priestlj'  caste,  numerous  enough  to  be  re- 
garded as  one  of  the  six  tribes  of  Media 
(Herod,  i.  101).  When  the  Persians  con- 
quered the  Medes,  the  Magi  retained  their 
influence  in  the  new  emjtire.  An  attempt 
on  their  jjart  to  seize  the  crown  led  to  a 
•dreadful  slaughter  of  them,  notwithstanding 
which  their  power  soon  revived  (iii.  79). 
They -worshiped  the  elements,  fire,  air,  earth, 
and  water,  especially  the  fir.st.  The  only 
temples  they  had  were  fire  temples,  generally 
on  house  tops,  where  they  kept  the  sacred 
element  burning  night  and  day.  What  to  do 
with  the  dead  was  a  question  which,  with 
their  views,  involved  much  perplexity.  The 
<;orpse  could  not  be  burned,  buried,  cast  into 
water,  or  left  to  decay  in  the  air  without  de- 
filing an  element.  It  was  therefore  exposed 
to  be  devoured  by  carrion-loving  birds  or 
Tjeasts  (Herod,  i.  140,  who  probably  errs  in 
speaking  of  its  after-burial ;  Strabo  xv.  3,20). 
To  do  tlais  in  the  least  offensive  7nannerthey 
erected  towers  called  towers  of  silence,  with 
transverse  bars  at  the  to]),  on  which  vultures 
and  ravens  might  stand  while  they  did  their 
melancholy  work.  The  Magi  wore  as  sacer- 
dotal vestments  a  white  robe,  with  a  head- 
dress consisting  of  a  tall  felt  cap,  with  lap- 
pets at  the  side  which  concealed  the  jaws. 
They  claimed  to  be  mediators  between  (tod 
and  man,  intervening  in  all  sacrifices  (Herod, 
i.  132;  vii.  43).  They  interi)reted  dreams 
and  omens  and  claimed  the  gift  of  ])rophecy 
(i.  107.  1-20;  vii.  1!),  .37.  113).  They  were 
diligent  in  killing  such  animals  as  were  re- 
garded as  belonging  t<»  the  bad  creation  (i. 
140).  The  foreigner  was  apt  to  observe  the 
religious  doctrine  and  priestly  functions  of 


the  Magi  less  attentively  than  their  incanta- 
tions ;  and  in  process  of  time  the  Greeks  be- 
stowed the  ei)ithet  Magos  on  any  sorcerer 
who  employed  the  methods  and  cnchant- 
nu'uts  of  the  East.  The  Jew  Bar-jesus  was 
a  Magus  (Acts  xiii.  (>,  Greek  text  and  K.  V. 
margin),  and  so  was  Simon,  often  called 
Magus,  of  Samaria  (viii.  9). 

Ma-gi'cian  [remotely  from  Greek  3Iagoi, 
Magi]. 

A  man  who  ])retends  to  have  preternatural 
powers,  which  he  has  obtained  by  the  study 
of  an  occult  science  or  the  practice  of  a  black 
art  in  connivance  with  evil  spirits,  and  which 
he  calls  magic  (cp.  Acts  xix.  19) ;  see  SoR- 
CEKEK.  In  the  Bible  magician  is  the  render- 
ing of  hariom.  one  of  the  class  of  sacred 
scribes,  who  were  skilled  in  writing  and  ac- 
quired vast  information  (Dan.  i.  20),  and  who 
often  claimed  occult  knowledge,  practiced 
magic  (Ex.  vii.  11),  and  undertook  to  inter- 
pret dreams  (Gen.  xli.  8;  Dan.  ii.  10).  The 
Egyptian  magicians  who  withstood  Moses 
were  two  in  number,  and  their  names  were 
Jannes  and  Jambres  (2  Tim.  iii.  8). 

Ma'gog. 

A  people  descended  from  Japheth  (Gen.  x. 
2),  at  one  period  inhabiting  a  northern  land 
(Ezek.  xxxviii.  2,  15).  Josephus  identified 
them  with  the  Scythians  (Antiq.  i.  6,  1),  and 
his  identification  is  commonly  accepted.  The 
final  struggle  of  heathenism  with  the  king- 
dom of  God  is  pro])hetically  portrayed  by 
Ezekicl  under  the  figure  of  an  invasion  of 
the  land  of  Israel  by  the  hordes  of  the  king 
of  Magog  and  their  overthrow.  Ezekiel's 
descrijition  is  referred  to  and  its  imagery  is 
borrowed  by  John  (Rev.  xx.  8,  9).     See  GoG. 

Ma-gor-mis'sa-bit)  [fear  round  about]. 

A  i)rojihetic  name  given  to  Pashhur,  a 
priest  and  governor  of  the  temple  who  ill- 
treated  the  prophet  Jeremiah  (Jer.  xx.  3). 

Mag'pi-ash  [apparently  moth  slayer]. 

One  of  the  chiefs  of  the  people  who  with 
Nebeniiah  sealed  the  covenant  (Neh.  x.  20). 

Ma'ba-lali.     See  Mahl.\h  2. 

Ma-ha'la-lel,  in  A.  V.  and  in  N.  T.  of  R. 
V.  Ma-ha'la-le-el,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Ma-le'- 
le-el  [praise  of  (iod], 

1.  An  antediluvian  patriarch  in  the  line  of 
Seth  (Gen.  v.  12-17;  Luke  iii.  37). 

2.  Gne  of  the  tribe  of  Judah.  family  of 
Perez,  who  lived  in  Jerusalem  after  the  cap- 
tivity (Neh.  xi.  4). 

Ma'ha-latli  [sickness,  anxiety,  grief]. 

1.  A  musical  term  (Ps.  liii. ;  Ixxxviii. 
titles)  ;  which,  judged  by  Hebrew  etymology, 
j-efers  to  sadness.  The  words  al  m«U''laih 
I'diniofh  (Ps.  Ixxxviii.  title)  then  mean 
"mournfully  to  chant." 

2.  Daughter  of  Ishmael  and  a  wife  of 
Esau  (Gen.  xxviii.  9).  Called  also  Bashe- 
math  ((].  v.). 

3.  Daughter  of  Jerimoth  and  one  of  Re- 
hoboam's  wives  (2  Chron.  xi.  18). 


Maliali 


449 


Malachi 


Ma'ha-U.     See  Mahli. 

Ma-ha-na'lm  [two  ciimps]. 

The  ii;iinf  K'ven  by  Jiicob  tii  a  place  cast 
of  .Ionian  wlicrc  tlic  aii;,'<'ls  of'CJod  met  liiin, 
a])|)an'iitly  in  two  (Ictacluncnts,  Just  after  lie 
luul  liiially  jiarted  from  Labaii  and  before  be 
crossed  the  .Fabbok  (Gen.  xxxii.  2).  It  was 
on  the  boundary  line  between  the  tribes  of 
(iail  and  Manasseh  (Josh.  xiii.  2(),  :5()).  It 
was  afterwards  assij;ned  to  the  Merarite 
Levites  (xxi.  '.iS;  1  Chrou.  vi.  80).  Coni- 
iMenciiiK  as  a  .sacred  sjjot,  it  ultimately  be- 
came a  fortilied  city.  It  was  Ish-bosheth's 
cai>ital  CJ  Sam.  ii.  H,  V2,  29).  David  retired 
thither  while  his  rel)ellious  son  Absalom  was 
in  ])o.ssession  of  Jerusalem  (xvii.  21,  27; 
xviii.  24,  :»;  xix.  32;  1  Kin.  ii.  S).  Ahin- 
adab  the  son  of  Iddo  was  Solomon's  purveyor 
in  the  re^^ion  (iv.  11).  The  site,  has  not  been 
identified.  Ivol)inson  an<l  lonj;  before  him 
the  .Jewish  traveler  Moses  lia])-rarchi,  about 
l.'$l."),  suiiKcsted  Mabueh.  al)out  1  miles  east 
of  ed-l)eir.  Tristram  jirefers  Hirket  Mahneli, 
which  he  locates  about  21  miles  southeast  of 
Gadara  and  22  southwest  of  Edrei. 

Ma'ha-neh-dan  [camp  of  Dan]. 

A  place  belilnd,  that  is  west  of,  Kirjath- 
jearini  (.lud^;.  xviii.  12),  between  Zorah  and 
Eshtaol  (xiii.  25).  so  named  when  the  Danite 
sjjics  encamped  at  the  sjjot. 

Ma'ha-rai  [impetuous]. 

.\  Neto|)hathite,  one  of  David's  mighty 
men  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  28;  1  Cbron.  xi.  30).  He 
was  David's  captaiu  for  the  tenth  month 
(xxvii.  i:{). 

Ma'hath  [seizing  or  instrument  of  seizing]. 

1.  A  Kohathite  Levite,  descended  by  the 
line  of  Zeiihaniah,  Tahath,  and  Abiasaph  (1 
Cliron.  vi.  .'?.")). 

2.  Another  Levite,  one  of  the  overseers 
who  looked  after  the  tithes  and  freewill 
otlVrin^'s  in  Ilczekiah's  reign  (2  Chron.  xxxi. 
i:{). 

Ma'ha-vite. 

A  desJLMiation  of  unknown  meaning  ap- 
I)enileil  to  the  name  of  Kliel,  one  of  David's 
mighty  men  (1  (Jhron.  xi.  4()).  The  passage 
is  probably  corrujit.  for  the  word  is  plural 
anil  yet  Joined  to  the  singula/*. 

Ma-lia'zi-oth  [perhaps,  vision  of  signifi- 
cance]. 

A  Levite,  a  descendant  of  Hcnian  (1 
Chron.  XXV.  -I).  He  obtained  the  twenty- 
third   lot  among  the  singers  (.30). 

Ma'her-shal'al-hash'baz  [spoil  s]ieedeth, 
l>rey  hastelh]. 

The  words  which  Isaiah  was  directe<l  to 
display  on  a  jniblic  tablet  and  have  duly 
witnes.sed.  and  ;i  year  later  was  told  to  give 
as  a  name  to  his  second  son.  They  jiredicted 
I  hi!  s])ecdy  contiuest  of  Damascus  and 
Samaria  by  the  king  of  Assyria  (Is.  viii. 
1-1).  The  preliminary  formality  drew  i)ub- 
lic  attention  to  the  enigmatical  words  and 
2!> 


attested  that  God  was  preparing  and  reveal- 
ing the  event  a  year  before  its  occurrence. 

MaL'lah,  in  A.  V.  once  Mahalah  (1  Chron. 
vii.  l"^)  [disease]. 

1.  Daughter  of  Zelophehad  (Num.  xxvi. 
33;  xxvii.  1). 

2.  Another  Manassite,  whose  mother  was 
Hammoleketh  (1  Chron.  vii.  18). 

Mah'li,  in  A.  V.  once  Mahali  (Ex.  vi.  19) 
[sick,  weak]. 

1.  A  Levite,  son  of  Merari  and  brother  of 
Mushi.  He  founded  a  tribal  family  or 
hou.se  (  Exod.  vi.  19;  Num.  iii.  20,  33  ;  xxvi. 
5H). 

2.  A  Levite,  family  of  Merari,  liouse  of 
Mushi  (1  Chron.  vi.  47;  xxiii.  23;  xxiv.  30). 

Mah'lon  [sickly]. 

Elder  son  of  Elimelecli  and  Naomi,  and 
liusl)aud  of  Orpah,  a  Moabitess. 

Ma'hol  [dancing,  joy]. 

Father  of  Hemau,  Chalcol,  and  Darda, 
three  noted  wise  men  (1  Kin.  iv.  31). 

Mah-se'iah,  in  A.  V.  Maaseiah  [Jehovah 
is  a  refuge]. 

An  ancestor  of  .Jeremiah's  friend,  Baruch, 
and  of  the  chief  chamberlain,  Seraiah  (Jer. 
xxxii.  12;  Ii.  .59). 

Ma'kaz  [an  end]. 

A  town  whence  one  of  Solomon's  purve.v- 
ors  drew  sujiplies  (1  Kin.  iv.  9).  Site  un- 
known. 

Ma'ked,  in  A.  V.  once  Maged. 

A  tciwn  of  ({ilead.  in  which  .Tews  were 
shut  up  by  the  lieathen  (1  Mac.  v.  26).  It 
was  captured  by  Judas  Maccabaeus,  and  the 
Jews  were  released  (.3(5).  Hitzig  identifies  it 
W'ith  ^lakad,  a  town  which  he  locates  on  the 
border  of  the  Hauran,  near  Edrei. 

Ilak- lie 'loth  [as.semblies,  especially  for  the 
worshi])  of  God]. 

An  encam])nient  of  the  Israelites  in  the 
wilderness  (Num.  xxxiii.  2.5,  26).  Site  un- 
known. 

Mak-ke'dah  [perhaps,  a  place  of  shep- 
herds]. 

A  Canaanitc  town  in  the  lowland,  taken 
by  Joshua  (.losli.  xv.  41).  Near  it  was  a  cave 
(x.  16).  Tlie  site  has  not  been  identified.  Eu- 
sebius  located  it  S  Homan  miles  east  of  Eleu- 
therojtolis.  Hut  as  this  location  would  be  in 
the  mountains,  his  statement,  if  correct,  must 
be  interpreted  as  meaning  northca-st  or  south- 
east. 

Mak'tesh  [a  mortar,  a  trough,  a  hollow]. 

A  locality  at  .Terusalem  (Zeph.  i.  11).  The 
Tar.u'iim  identifies  it  with  tbeKidrou  valley; 
another  supposition  is  that  it  was  the  valley 
sejianiting  the  temple  from  the  city. 

Mal'a-chi  [my  messenger,  or  mes.senger 
(of  .lehovah  i]. 

A  ]irophet,  the  writer  of  the  last  book  of 
the  G.  T.  (.Mai.  i.  1).  Nothing  is  known  of 
his  history  except  what  may  l)e  learned  from 
his  book.     As  the  name  means  mv  messen- 


Malcam 


450 


Mallothi 


ger  (so  in  iii.  1),  some  have  supposed  it  to 
bo,  not  the  proper  nanu',  but  tlic  title  of  a 
I>ropliet,  perbaps  of  Kzra.  Hut  as  eacb  of  the 
eleven  ])roeediiig  minor  i)roplieeies  lias  its 
author's  name  prefixed,  there  is  a  strong 
presumption  that  it  is  so  in  the  present  case 
also,  and  that  Malaehi  was  the  actual  name 
of  the  jirophet  who  jx  lined  the  book.  It  may 
be  divided  into  the  following  sections:  1.  God's 
special  love  for  Israel,  shown  in  his  clioice  of 
Jacob  instead  of  Esau  (i.  2-5),  was  not  re- 
([uited:  a.  The  priests  and  people  ((),11)  dis- 
honored tiod  by  jiresenting  blemished  offer- 
ings (()-14)  ;  punishment  threatened  for  this 
departure  from  the  norm  established  by  God 
for  the  priesthood  and  once  realized  (ii.  1-9)  ; 
h.  The  people  dealt  treacherously  against 
their  brethren,  intermarrying  with  the 
heathen  (11)  and  putting  away  their  own 
wives  (14,  16)  and  doing  deeds  of  violence 
(ii.  10-17).  2.  Judgment  imminent.  God's 
messenger  is  about  to  prepare  the  way,  the 
Lord  himself  will  suddenly  come  to  his  tem- 
ple, the  messenger  of  the  covenant  shall  come 
as  .judge  and  purify  Levi  from  dross  and 
visit  evil  doers  (iii.  1-6;  cp.  E.x.  xxiii.  20- 
23;  Mat.  xi.  10).  3.  Call  to  repentance;  for 
then  the  Lord  will  come  in  blessing  and 
judgment,  y)iitting  to  nought  the  complaint 
that  he  makes  no  distinction  Itetween  the 
good  and  the  evil.  Those  who  have  turned 
from  sin  to  God  will  be  his  peculiar  treasure, 
but  the  wicked  shall  be  burned  as  stubble 
(iii.  7-iv.  3).  Exhortation  to  remember  the 
law  of  Moses,  and  announcement  of  the 
mission  of  Elijah  to  prepare  for  the  terrible 
dav  of  the  Lord  (iv.  4-6  ;  Mat.  xvii.  10-13  ; 
Luke  i.  17). 

When  the  proiihecy  was  delivered  the  Jew- 
ish people  were  not  under  a  king,  but 
under  a  governor  (Mai.  i.  ^),  doubtless  one 
appointed  by  the  Persian  emperor  (Neh.  v. 
14).  Zerubbabel's  temple  was  standing,  as 
was  the  altar,  and  .sacrifices  were  being  of- 
fered as  in  the  olden  time  (i.  7-10) :  hence 
Malachi  is  later  than  Haggai  and  Zechariah. 
But  the  outburst  of  religious  life  which  had 
immediately  followed  the  return  from  Baby- 
lon, and  had  resulted  in  the  rebuilding  first 
of  the  sanctuary  and  then  of  the  fortifica- 
tions of  Jerusalem,  had  had  time  to  ex])eud 
its  force.  Priests  and  people  were  corrupt. 
This  condition  suits  the  time  of  Nehemiah 
(Neh.  xiii.).  The  generally  accepted  date, 
which  originated  with  Vitringa,  is  420  B.  C. 
Davidson  ju'efers  460  to  450  B.  c. 

Mal'cam,  in  A.  V.  Malcliam  [regnant, 
rule]. 

1.  A  Ben.jamite,  son  of  Shaharaim  and 
Hodesh  (1  Chron.  viii.  0). 

2.  The  chief  deity  of  the  Ammonites  (Jer. 
xlix.  1,  3.  in  A.  V.  their  king  ;  Zejih.  i.  5  ; 
perhaps  Amos  i.  15,  where  it  is  rendered  their 
king).     See  Molech. 

Mal-chi'ah,  in  A.  V.  once  Melchiah  (Jer. 
xxi.  1)  [Jehovah  is  king]. 


A  royal  prince,  into  whose  dungeon  the 
projihct  Jeremiah  was  cast  (.Ter.  xxxviii.  6). 
It  is  natural  to  identify  him  with  the  father 
of  the  olUcial  Pashhur  mentioned  in  vcr.  1  and 
xxi.  1. 

For  others,  see  Malchijah. 

Mal'cM-el  [God  is  king]. 

A  son  of  Beriah  and  grandson  of  Aslier, 
and  founder  of  a  tri))al  family  (Gen.  xlvi. 
17;  Num.  xxvi.  45). 

Mal-chi'jah,  in  A.  X.  often  MalcMah 
[Jehovah  is  king]. 

1.  A  Levite,  familv  of  Gershom,  house  of 
Shimei  (1  Chron.  Yi.'40). 

2.  A  descendant  of  Aaron.  His  family 
had  grown  to  a  father's  house  in  the  time  of 
David,  and  became  the  fifth  course  when 
David  distributed  the  priests  into  divisions 
(1  Chron.  xxiv.  1,  6,  9).  Apparently  mem- 
bers of  a  subdivision  of  his  family,  viz.,  the 
house  of  Pashhur,  returned  with  Zerubbabel 
from  Babyhin  (Ezra  ii.  3S).  He  is  also  prob- 
ably referred  to  in  1  Chron.  ix.  12  and  Neh. 
xi.  12,  where  a  priestly  line  is  traced  back 
through  Pashhur  to  one  of  this  name.  The 
royal  prince  Malchiah  of  Jeremiah  xxxviii. 
6  (and  hence  probably  of  ver.  1)  is  a  different 
person. 

3.  A  royal  prince  (Jer.  xxxviii,  6).  See 
Malchiah. 

4.  5.  Two  sons  of  Parosh,  both  induced  by 
Ezra  to  put  away  their  foreign  wives  (Ezra 
X.  2.5). 

6.  A  son  of  Harim,  induced  by  Ezra  to  put 
away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  31).  He 
joined  with  another  Hebrew  in  repairing 
part  of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  and  the 
tower  of  the  furnaces  (Neh.  iii.  11). 

7.  A  sou  of  Eechab.  He  also  repaired 
part  of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  iii.  14). 

8.  A  goldsmith  wlio  repaired  jiart  of  the 
wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  iii.  31). 

9.  A  priest  wlio  with  others  officiated  at 
the  dedication  of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem 
(Neh.  xii.  42);  perhaps,  one  of  those  who 
assisted  Ezra  when  the  law  was  explained 
to  the  ])CO]ile  (Neh.  viii.  4). 

10.  A  ]>riest  who,  doubtless  in  behalf  of  a 
father's  house,  signed  the  covenant  (Neh.  x.3). 

Mal-cM'ram  [the  king,  I.  e.  God,  is  ex- 
alted]. 

A  son  of  king  Jchoiachin  (1  Chron.  iii.  18). 

Mal-chi-shu'a,  in  A.  V.  Melchi-shua  in 
1  Samuel    [the  king.   /.  c.  God.  is  >alvation]. 

A  son  of  king  Saul  (1  Sam.  xiv.  49;  1 
Chron.  viii.  33:'ix.  39).  He  was  killed  at 
the  battle  of  Gilboa  (1  Sam.  xxxi.  2). 

Mal'chus   [Greek  of  Semitic  malku,  king]. 

The  high  ])ricst's  servant  whose  ear  Peter 
cut  otr  (Jtihn  xviii.  10). 

Ma-le'le-el.     See  Mahalalel. 

Mal'lo-thi. 

A  son  of  Ilemaii  (1  Cliron.  xxv.  4).  He 
obt.'uned  liy  lot  the  leadership  of  the  nine- 
teenth course  of  singers  (26). 


Mallows 


451 


Manasseh 


Mai'lows. 

The  itudi'riiig  of  the  Hebrew  MaUutth, 
salt  iiliiiit  (Job  XXX.  4,  A.  V'.).  .Since  jiemiine 
mallows  arc  iinii-ilaKiiioiis  and  notsiilinc,  the 
1\.  V.  aU<Ts  till-  name  of  the  i)laut  to  salt- 
wort :  sec  Saltwort. 

Mal'luch  [reif;ninK  or  counselor]. 

1.  .\  l.ivile,  family  of  Merari,  house  of 
Mushi   (1  Cliron.  vi.  It). 

•J.  A  chief  of  the  priests,  who  returned  from 
Dahylon  with  Zeriilihahel  (Neh.  xii.  2,7).  A 
father's  house  hore  his  name  in  the  next  gen- 
eration (ver.  II,  R.  v.).  In  the  latter  ])ass;ige 
the  form  .Malliichi.  in  itself  an  Miiessenlial  va- 
riation, is  jirohalily  due  to  (Utto.nraiihy.  The 
final  letter  .if  .Maliuchi  is  the  initial  letter  of 
the  foUowin,!,' wiird,  and  moreover  is  not  found 
in  the  Septiiagint.  The  consonants  of  Mal- 
huhi  are  written  in  the  Hebrew  text,  but  were 
read  .Melicu  (.\.  V.  and  margin  of  R.  V.). 

;;.  t.  \  son  of  Hani  and  a  son  of  Harim, 
each  of  whom  was  induced  by  Ezra  to  put 
away  his  foreign  wife  (Kzra  .x.  29,  32). 

5,  I).  A  i>riest  and  a  chief  of  the  people 
who  signed  the  covenant  (Neh.  x.  4,  27). 

Mal'lu-cM.     See  Maliach  2. 

Mam'mon  [(ireek  from  Aramaic  nuunon, 
maiiHxia,  wealth,  riches]. 

A  pcrsonitication  of  wialth  (]SIatt.  vi.  24; 
Luke  xvi.  !i,  11,  i;{). 

Mam're  [fatness,  strength]. 

1.  The  town  or  more  i)robably  district  of 
Heliroii  ((ien.  xxiii.  19;  xxxv.  27),  to  the 
west  of  .Machjielah  (xxiii.  17).  \  grove  was 
there,  near  Hebron,  where  Abraham  several 
times  resided  (xiii.  18;  xiv.  13;  xviii.  1, 
etc.).  In  Josi'phus'  time  an  aged  terebinth 
was  iiointfd  out  as  Abraham's  tree,  (i  stades 
or  5  of  a  mile  from  Hebron  (War  iv.  9.  7)  ;  in 
the  fourth  century,  one  at  Ramet  el-Khulil, 
2  Roman  miles  north  of  Hebron,  which  Con- 
stant ine  enclosed  within  the  walls  of  a  l)asilica. 
The  remains  of  tiiis  building  are  called  tlic 
house  of  Abraham.  The  tree  which  now 
claims  the  honor  of  being  Abraham's  oak, 
and  which  was  already  celebrated  as  such 
in  the  sixteenth  century,  is  a  genuine  oak 
{QnriTiis  psritdocnriifcrit).  Its  trunk  has  ii 
girth  of  2(i  feet  at  tlu'  ground,  and  its  branches 
extend  over  an  area  of  93  feet  in  diameter 
(Thom.son).  It  stands  a  little  more  than  a 
jnile  iKU-thwest  of  Hebron,  near  the  head  of 
I  be  wady  Sebta. 

.'.  .\n  Amorite  chieftain  wlm  dwelt  at 
.Mamri^  and  who  with  his  brothers,  Eshcol 
and  Aner,  l»eli"d  Abraham  to  retake  tlic 
captives  ami  the  s|ioil  carried  otf  by  Chedor- 
laonier  Kieii.  xiv.  13,  21).  He  was  ju-obably 
ilesigiiat<<l  by  the  name  of  the  district  over 
which  he  ruleil. 

Man.     See  .\i>am. 

Man'a-en  [(ireek  form  of  .Menahcm,  con- 
soler, comforter].  Manahem  is  anotlur  ( Ireek 
form  of  the  Hebrew  name. 

.\  Christian  |irophi't  or  teacher  in  the 
church  at  Antioch.     He   liad   been   brought 


up  with  Herod  the  tetrarch  as  his  companion 
(Acts  xiii.  1,  A.  V.),  or  was  his  foster  brother, 
brought  up  at  the  same  mother's  brea.st  (R. 
v.).  He  may  have  been  a  descendant,  or  at 
least  a  relative  of  Manahem,  the  l'>sene,  who 
predicted  to  Herod  the  tireat,  when  yet  a 
schoolboy,  that  he  would  obtain  the  king- 
dom. When  the  prophecy  was  fuUilled, 
Herod  held  him  and  his  .sect  in  high  esteem 
(Anti(i.  XV.  10,  .")). 

Man'a-hath  [rest]. 

1.  .V  son  of  the  Horite,  Shobal  (Gen. 
xxxvi.  23)  ;  perhaps  even  a  i)lace  inhabited  by 
a  branch  of  the  tribe  of  Shobal  ( 1  Chron.  i.  40). 

2.  A  place  to  which  Henjamitcs  of  Geba 
were  carried  captive  by  their  fellow-tribes- 
men (1  Chron.  viii.  0).  Descendants  of  Sal- 
ma,  of  the  family  of  Caleb,  tribe  of  Judah, 
probably  formed  half  the  i)Opulatiou  of  it  or 
of  another  place  of  the  name  (ii.  54)  ;   see 

M.\NAllATIIITi;s. 

Ma-na'hath-ites,  in  A.  V.  Manahethites. 

The  inlial)itants  of  a  place  or  the  descend- 
ants of  a  man  Manahath  (1  Chron.  ii.  51).  To 
judge  by  thecontext,  a  place  is  intended.  For 
Manaluthites  iu  ver.  52,  A.V.,  see  Mknuhotii. 

Ma-nas'seh,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Manasses, 
the  Greek  form  [making  to  forget]. 

1.  The  elder  son  of  .loseiih.  He  was  horn 
in  Egyj)t,  his  mother  being  A.scnath,  daugh- 
ter of  Poti-phera,  jn-iest  of  On.  In  race, 
therefore,  he,  like  his  brother  Ephraim,  was 
half  Hebrew,  half  Egyptian  (Gen.  xli.  .^)0,  51). 
When  Jacob  desired  to  ble.ss  the  two  boy.s, 
Joseph  took  Ephraim  in  his  right  liand,  to- 
ward Jacob's  left,  and  Manasscb  in  his  left, 
toward  Jacob's  right ;  but  the  dying  i)atriarch 
cnjssed  his  arms,  so  as  to  lay  his  right  hand 
on  ICphraim's  head  and  his  left  on  that  of 
Manasseli,  intimating lu'ophetically  that  while 
both  sons  should  become  ancestors  of  great 
peoples,  Ephraim  should  excel  (xlviii.  8-21). 

2.  The  tribe  which  descended  from  Ma- 
nasseh.  It  consisted  of  seven  trilial  fa7nilies, 
of  which  one  was  founded  by  his  son  ]\Iachir 
and  the  remaining  six  sprang  from  hisgrand- 
son  (iilead  (Gen.  1.  23;  Num.  xxvi.  2>  .34  ; 
Josh.  xvii.  1,  2).  At  the  first  census  in  the 
wilderness  the  tribe  numbered  32,200  fighting 
men  (Num.  i.  31,  .'55) ;  at  tliesecoml,  which  was 
taken  thirty-eight  years  later.  52.700  (xxvi. 
34).  After  "Moses  liad  defeated  .Sihon  king 
of  Ileshbon,  and  Og  king  of  Hashan,  one- 
half  the  tribe  of  Manas,seh  joined  with  the 
tribes  of  Reuben  and  (Jad  in  re(|uesting  per- 
mi.ssion  to  settle  east  of  the  .Jordan,  and  ob- 
taine(l  the  leave  they  sought,  on  condition 
of  going  armed  before  their  brethren,  who 
Inid  not  yet  obtained  settlements,  aiul  aiding 
in  the  war  west  of  the  .Tordan  (xxxii.  33-42; 
(•]).  1  32 :  xxxiv.  1  1,  15;  Dent.  iii.  12,  1.3 ;  xxix. 
8;  .losh.  xii.4-(>;  xviii.  7).  They  observed  the 
conditions  laid  down  (Josh.  i.  12-18;  iv.  12); 
and  when  the  war  had  l)een  successfully 
f<iught  out,  were  honorably  ilismi^ed  to  the 
territory  they  had  chosen.    \  temporary  mis- 


Manasseh 


452 


Mandrake 


understanding  about  the  building  of  an  altar 
at  one  time  tlircatened  unpleasant  conse- 
quences; but  on  exi)lanation  being  given, 
matters  were  amicably  ananged  (xxii.  1-34). 
The  region  given  in  tlie  halt-tribe  of  Manas- 
scli  east  of  the  .Ionian  comjjreliended  ])art  of 
Gilead  and  all  Basban  (Deut.  iii.  13-15),  Ma- 
hanaim  in  one  direction  being  on  its  bound- 
ary line  (Josh.  xiii.  29-3:1).  It  is  between  G5 
and  7<>  miles  from  east  to  west,  by  4U  or  more 
from  nortli  to  soutli.  It  is  mostly  a  table-land 
of  2500  feet  elevation,  one  of  the  richest 
parts  of  Palestine,  and  to  this  day  the  gran- 
ary of  a  large  part  of  Syria.  It  is  studded 
with  ruined  towns.  Tlie  other  half  of  tbe 
tribe  crossed  the  Jordan  and  liad  tlieir  iu- 
heritiince  in  central  Palestine,  west  of  the 
river.  It  was  bounded  on  the  south  by  Ephra- 
im,  on  the  northwest  by  Asher,  and  on  the 
northeast  by  Issachar.  Its  southern  boundary 
ran  tlirougb  the  town  of  Asher,  near  Tap- 
puah,  and  along  the  northern  bank  of  the 
brook  Kanah  to  its  entrance  into  the  Medi- 
terranean (Josh.  xvii.  5-10).  But  the  children 
of  Epbraim  had  cities  in  the  midst  of  the  in- 
heritance of  the  children  of  Manasseh  (xvi. 
9),  and,  on  the  other  hand,  Manasseh  had 
various  towns,  viz.,  Betli-shcan,  Ibleam,  Dor, 
En-dor,  Taanach,  and  Megiddo,  within  the 
territories  of  Issachar  and  Asher  (xvii.  11  ; 
cp.  1  Chron.  vii.  29).  The  Manassites,  how- 
ever, failed  to  expel  the  Canaanite  inhabi- 
tants of  the  cities  just  named,  but  eventually 
put  thcra  to  tril)ute  (Josh.  xvii.  12,  13  ;  Judg. 
i.  27,  28).  Levitical  cities  were  allotted  from 
Manasseh  as  from  the  other  tribes,  including 
Golan  in  Bashan  in  the  region  east  of  the 
Jordan,  one  of  the  six  cities  of  refuge  (Josh. 
XX.  8  ;  xxi.  27).  The  hero  and  judge  Gideon 
was  a  Manassite,  and  the  most  eminent  man 
the  tribe  produced  (Judg.  vi.  15  ;  cp.  35  ;  vii. 
23).  Some  Manassites  joined  David  at  Zik- 
lag  (1  Chron.  xii.  19.  20).  No  fewer  than 
18,000  otfered  him  their  services  during  his 
reign  at  Hebron  (31  ;  cp.  37).  The  eastern 
Manassites,  in  conjunction  with  the  two 
tribes  east  of  tlie  Jordan,  waged  war  with 
tlie  Ilagarites  and  took  possession  of  their 
country.  They  were  themselves  carried  into 
exile  by  Tiglath-pileser  (v.  18-26).  Some 
Manassites  came  to  Asa  wlien  they  saw  that 
the  Lord  was  with  him  (2  riiion.  xv.  9)  ;  men 
of  the  same  tribe  also  attended  tlie  great  pass- 
over  in  Hezekiah's  reign  and  al.so  in  Josiah's 
reign  (xxx.  1, 10, 11,  18  ;  xxxi.  1 ;  xxxiv.  (i,  9). 

3.  An  intentional  modification  of  the  name 
Moses  (Judg.  xviii.  30,  A.  V.) ;  see  Jona- 
than 1. 

4.  Son  and  succes.sor  of  good  king  Heze- 
kiab.  He  ascended  the  throne  about  the 
year  fi98  R.  c,  when  he  was  only  twelve  years 
of  age.  He  undid  tli(>  work  of  reformation 
which  had  been  carried  out  in  the  former 
reign.  He  established  the  high  places,  built 
an  altar  to  Baal,  and  reared  an  Asherah  : 
made  altars  for  the  worship  of  the  host  of 
heaven  within  the  two  courts  of  the  temple, 


and  caused  one  of  his  sons  to  pass  through 
the  fire.  Proi)hets  warned  him,  but  he  jiaid 
no  attention  to  their  tlireatenings.  Instead 
of  listening,  he  slied  mucli  innocent  blood 
throughout  every  part  of  Jerusalem.  The 
victims  were  doubtless  chiefly  those  who,  re- 
taining their  fidelity  to  Jehovali,  oppo.sed 
Mana.sseli's  reactionary  religious  measures  (2 
Kin.  xxi.  l-l(i).  Tradition  makes  Isaiali  one  of 
these,  which  is  possible  but  dcnibtful.  As  a  ])en- 
alty  for  his  wickedness,  God  left  him  to  h  is  ene- 
mies. Two  kings  of  Assyria.  Esarhaddou  and 
Ashur])anipal,  report  receiving  tribute  from 
him.  The  Assyrian  king  by  whom  he  was 
carried  captive  to  Babylon  (2  Chron.  xxxiii. 
11)  was  probably  Ashurbanipal,  who  crushed 
his  rebellious  brother  Shamash-shumukin, 
king  of  Babylon,  about  647  B.  c.  and  placed 
the  forfeited  crown  on  his  own  head.  Ma- 
nasseh repented,  and  was  after  a  time  re- 
stored to  his  kingdom.  He  put  away  the 
idols  which  had  been  his  ruiu,  and  restored 
the  wnirship  of  Jehovah.  He  also  added  to 
the  fortifications  of  Jerusalem  (2  Chron. 
xxxiii.  12-19).  After  a  reign  of  fifty-five 
years,  a  longer  one  than  any  other  king  of 
Judah  had  enjoyed,  he  died  about  the  year 
642  B.  c,  leaving  his  son  Amon  to  ascend  the 
throne  (2  Kin.  xxi.  17,  18  ;  2  Chron.  xxxiii. 
20).  For  the  Prayer  of  Manasseh,  see  Apoc- 
RYPH.\  12. 

5  and  6.  A  son  of  Pahath-moab  and  a  son 
of  Hashum,  each  of  whom  was  induced 
by  Ezra  to  put  away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra 
x'  30,  33). 


Mandrake  (Mavdragora  officinalis). 

Man'drake. 

The   rendering    of   the    Hebrew    Duda'im, 


Maneh 


453 


Maon 


amatory  plants.  They  were  supposed  to  act 
as  a  love  pliilter  ((icn.  xxx.  14-H>;  on  mar- 
gin of  K.  V.  love  ai)iiles).  They  are  odorif- 
erous (Soiif;  vii.  l.'S).  'J'lie  mandrake  iMdinlid- 
(joia  iiljiiiiiiilis)  is  a  liamlsome  plant  ni  llie 
Sulaiiaccoiis  (night  sliade)  order.  It  lias  wavy 
leaves  and  i)ale  violet,  white,  or  deep  bine 
llowers.  Its  frnit  is  small  and  yellow.  Tlie 
forked  root  hears  a  sli;;lit  resemblanee  to  the 
hiiiiian  liody.  It  is  found  in  the  .Jordan 
valley  and  along  the  rivers  running  into  it, 
in  the  jdains  of  Moah  and  (Jilead,  and  in 
Galilee. 

Ma'neh.     See  Wkkihts. 

Manger. 

A  feeding  jilace  for  eattle,  a  erih  or  trough, 
in  tireek  I'hutnr  (Luke  ii.  7,  12;  in  .xiii.  15 
rendered  stall;  ep.  Is.  i.  3).  Mangers  are 
ancient  (Iliad  x.  o(j8  ;  xxiv.  280 ;  Herod,  ix. 
70).  In  Palestine  the  st^ilile  is  usually  in 
the  owner's  house,  a  portion  of  the  interior 
being  .set  ajtart  for  the  t'attle  and  furnislied 
with  mangers  built  of  small  stones  and  mor- 
tar in  the  sliape  of  a  box. 

Man'na  [what  is  it?  or  rather,  it  is  manna, 
sinee  an  article  called  manuti  was  already 
known  to  the  Egyi)tians  and  was  imported 
from  the  pi-ninsula  of  Sinai]. 

A  food  on  which  the  Israelites  mainly  sub- 
sisted during  the  forty  years'  .sojourn  in  the 
wilderness.  It  was  first  bestowed  in  the 
wilderness  of  Sin,  in  the  .second  half  of  the 
second  month,  when  the  i)eople  murmured, 
owing  to  the  deficiency  of  food.  The  descent 
of  manna  was  described  as  a  raining  of  Ijrcad 
from  heaven  (Ex.  xvi.  1-4,  12;  l*s.  Ixxviii. 
24  ;  ev.  40).  In  the  morning,  when  the  dew 
was  gone  up,  there  lay  upon  the  face  of  the 
wilderness  a  snjall  round  Hake,  small  as  the 
hoarfrost  on  tlie  ground.  When  the  children 
of  Israel  lirst  saw  it  theysjiid  one  to  another: 
"What  is  it?"  or  "It  is  manna,"  for  they 
wist  not  what  it  was.  And  Moses  .said  unto 
them  :  "  It  is  the  bread  which  the  Lord  hath 
given"  (Ex.  xvi.  l.'5-l.");  Nutu.  xi.  !)).  It  was 
white  like  coriander  seed,  with  a  yellowish 
tintce  and  resinous  ajipearance  like  bdellium, 
and  tasti'd  like  wafers  made  with  honey  or 
like  fresh  oil  (Ex.  xvi.  :{1  ;  N'um.  xi.  8).  It 
was  ground  in  mills,  beaten  in  mortars, 
l>iiilcd  in  ]iots,  and  made  into  cakes  (Num. 
xi.  H).  The  people  were  directed  to  gather 
an  omer  a  day  (al)out  'i.H  pints)  for  each 
member  of  their  hou.seholds,  and  not  to  at- 
tempt to  kee]!  any  till  the  morrow.  .Some 
of  the  ))c'o|)li>  disobeyed  this  in iuiicl ion,  but 
the  hoarded  manna  (lecayed  and  stank.  On 
the  sixth  day  two  oniers  were  gathered  for 
each  iitTson,  as  none  descended  on  the  .Sab- 
bath (Ex.  xvi.  22-liit).  .\n  omerful,  which 
evidently  was  jireserved  from  decay,  was 
kept  by  Aaron  and  his  succe.ssors  to  show 
future  generations  the  nature  of  the  foo<l  on 
which  the  Israelite's  had  sul)sisted  in  tlie 
wihlerness  CiS-.'M) ;  see  Hioii  1'kikst.  A  year 
after  it  was  first  given,  at  the  .siine  .season,  the 


people  are  mentioned  as  having  it,  and  again 
toward  the  end  of  the  forty  years.  It  is  re- 
ferred to  because  the  peoi>le  were  murmuring 
against  the  food  (Num.  xi.  4-!);  xxi.  .")!,  but 
the  boon  wliich  they  failed  to  appreciate  was 
not  witliilrawn.  It  was  e«utinued  during  the 
wimle  of  the  forty  yeai-s'  desert  wanderings 
(Ex.  xvi.  ;J5;  Deut.  viii.  3,  16;  Neh.  ix.  20 ; 
I's.  Ixxviii.  24),  and  did  not  cease  till  the 
day  alter  the  Israelites  had  crossed  the  Jor- 
dan, encamped  at  Gilgal,  and  begun  to  eat 
of  the  produce  of  Canaan  (Josh.  v.  10- 
12).  The  (luestion  has  been  mooted.  Was 
manna  a  substance  for  the  lirst  time  created 
in  the  wilderness,  or  was  it  a  natural  product 
miraculously  multiplied  '.'  N'arious  plants  ex- 
ude a  manna-like  substance,  either  emana- 
ting si)onlaneously  from  the  plant  it.self  or 
produced  by  the  puncture  of  an  in.sect.  The 
Tamini.r  nmuuifcra,  a  variety  of  the  Tnmarix 
galHi-it,  does  so,  and  grows  in  tlie  peninsula 
of  Sinai.  The  exudation  is  dirty  yellow  in 
color,  but  white  wlien  it  falls  on  stones.  It 
melts  in  the  heat  of  the  sun.  It  is  produced 
during  a  period  of  from  six  to  ten  weeks,  the 
height  of  the  .seas<jn  l)eing  June.  Alharii 
maiironim  and  .(.  dcufrliirHm,  two  species  of 
earners  thorn,  also  exude  a  manna-like  sub- 
stance, and  there  are  other  manna-bearing 
plants.  The  Arabs  u.se  ])laut  manna  of 
different  kinds  as  butter  and  honey.  But 
the  i)resent  yield  of  the  entire  iieninsula 
is  less  than  half  a  ton  in  the  best  years.  It 
is  never  made  into  bread.  Moreover,  if 
taken  in  more  than  the  most  limited  quanti- 
ties it  is  purgative.  So  that  even  if  it  were 
])roduced  abundantly,  there  would  be  great 
dilliciilty  in  identifying  it  with  the  manna 
of  Scripture. 

Ma-no'ah  [rest,  quiet]. 
A  nanite  belonging  to  the  village  of  Zorah, 
and  father  of  .Samson  (Judg.  xiii.  1-25). 

Man'slay-er.    Sec  Murder. 

Man'tle. 

The  large,  sleeveless,  outer  garment  or,  as 
a  rendering  of  tlie  Hel)rew  M"il.  an  occa- 
sional garinent  worn  between  the  tunic  and 
the  outer  garment.     See  CLOTHING. 

Ma'och  [oppression]. 

Father  of  Achisli.  king  of  Oath  (1  .Sam. 
xxvii.  2).     See  Aciiisii. 

Ma'on  [dwelling.  hal)itation,  ahode]. 

1.  .V  t<iwn  in  the  hill  country  of  .ludah 
(Josh.  XV.  .V)).  the  residence  of  Nabal  (1  Sam. 
XXV.  2),  now  .Ma'in,  aliout  a  mile  and  a  half 
sotith  from  Carmel  of  Jiidah.  and  Si  south 
of  Ilebrou.  In  the  wilderness  in  the  vicinity 
of  Maon  l)avid  and  liis  men  for  a  time  took 
refuge  (1  Sam.   xxiii.  24,  25). 

2.  Son  of  Shamiiiai,  of  the  trilie  of  Jiidah, 
and  ancestor  of  tlie  inhabitants  of  Heth-zur 
(1  Chron.  ii.  45).  Maon  may  indeed  in  this 
passage  jiossibly  be  used  collectively  for  the 
inhabitants  of  tlie  town  of  this  name  (cp. 
Hethlehem,  ver.  54),  and  that  Maon  isimmedi- 


Maonites 


454 


Mark 


atcly  (alloii  tlie  father  of  ]}ctli-ziir  may  be 
paiallek'd  by  1  Cliron.  i.  f^.  !t.  11,  1:5. 

3.  A  ju'Djile  that  opjiresrsed  Israel  (Judg.  x. 
12).  The  English  versions  translate  Maon- 
ites.    See  Mei  NIM. 

Ma'o-nites.     .See  Maon  3  and  Meunim. 

Ma'ra  [bitter,  sad  of  spirit]. 

The  iianie  chosen  by  Naomi  to  express  her 
bereavements  (Kuth  i.  20). 

Ma'rah  [bitter,  bitterness]. 

A  fountain  of  bitter  water  in  the  wilder- 
ness of  Sliur  on  the  route  to  Sinai,  at  which 
the  Israelites  halted  when  three  days  ora  little 
more  had  elapsed  after  their  passage  of  the  Red 
Sea.  The  badness  of  the  water,  and  pcrhai>s  its 
scantiness,  opened  tlieir  eyes  to  the  hardships 
which  they  might  expect ;  and  they  mur- 
mured. Moses  was  directed  by  God  to  cast  a 
certain  tree  into  the  waters,  whereby  they 
were  rendered  palatable,  either  miraculously 
or  through  the  chemical  and  medicinal 
properties  of  the  tree  (Exod.  xv.  23-26; 
Num.  xxxiii.  8, 9).  Since  the  days  of  Burck- 
hardt.  Marah  has  been  generally  located  at 
'Ain  Hawarah,  about  47  miles  from  Suez, 
and  a  few  miles  inland  from  the  Ked  Sea, 
from  which  it  is  separated  by  a  range  of 
hills.  The  well  measures  about  20  feet 
across,  but  is  much  wider  at  the  bottom. 
Its  depth  is  perhaps  2.5  feet.  The  soil  of  the 
region  abounds  in  soda,  and  the  water  of  the 
well  is  consequently  salty  and  bitter.  The 
principal  rival  claimant  to  Hawarah  has  been 
wady  Ghurundel,  which,  however,  is  gen- 
erally regarded  as  Elim.  The  recent  identi- 
fication of  the  site  of  Pithom  with  Tell  el- 
Maskhuta  leads  to  the  inference  that  Marah 
may  be  'Ayun  Musa,  the  wells  of  Moses,  a 
group  of  sjirings  7^  miles  south-southeast  of 
Suez  and  52  south-southeast  of  Pithom.  The 
water  of  some  of  these  springs  is  drinkable, 
but  of  others  very  l)itter  and  nauseous.  The 
Arabs  do  not  like  their  camels  to  partake 
of  it. 

Mar'a-lah  [treml)ling,  reeling]. 

A  frontier  village  of  Zebulun  toward  the 
sea  (Josli.  xix.  11).     Not  identified. 

Mar-an  ath'a,  in  A.  X.  Maran-atha.  See 
Anathema  Makan-atiia. 

Mar'ble. 

Limestone,  esjiecially  in  a  crystalline  con- 
dition, which  is  ('apable  of  taking  polish.  It 
was  called  in  Hebrew  nhayish  and  shesh, 
from  its  brightness,  and  in  (ireek  marmnrofs. 
It  was  used  for  columns  and  costly  pave- 
ments (Estli.  i.  6;  Song  v.  1.")),  and  was  em- 
ployed in  Solomon's  temi)le  (1  Chron.  xxix. 
2).  Josei)hus,  in  describing  the  walls  of  this 
edifice,  mentions  that  tliey  were  built  of 
white  stone,  but  does  not  sjjccify  the  kind 
of  stone  (.Xntic).  viii.  3,  2).  White,  yellow, 
and  red  marble  is  obtained  in  Lebanon,  but 
a  choicer  variety  came  from  Arabia.  Ked 
and  white  marble  was  em])loyed  in  the 
Greco-Roman  period  for  palatial  buildings  in 


Palestine,  botli  east  and  west  of  the  Jt)rdan. 
In  Herod's  temple  the  pillars  of  the  cloisters 
were  monoliths  of  white  marble,  twenty-five 
cubits  high  (War  v.  5,  2). 
Mar'cus.     See  Mark. 

Ma-re'shah  [at  the  head]. 

1.  A  town  in  the  lowland  of  Judah  (Josh. 
XV.  41;  cp.  1  Chron.  iv.  21).  Rehoboam 
strengthened  its  fortifications  {2  Chron.  xi. 
H).  The  great  battle  between  king  Asa  and 
Zerah  the  Ethiopian  was  fought  in  its  vicinity 
(xiv.  9,  10).  In  the  Grecian  period  it  was 
an  important  town,  inhabited  l)y  Edomites, 
and  known  as  ]\Iarissa  (Anti(i.  xiii.  il,  1  ;  xiv. 
1,  3, !)).  It  was  iilundered  by  Judas  Maccabteus 
(1  Mac.  v.  (if);  2  Mac.  xii.  35  ;  Antiq.  xii.  8, 
6).  John  Hyrcanus  planted  a  Jewish  colony 
there  (Antiq.  xiii.  9,  1;  10,  2)  ;  but  Pompey 
made  the  town  free  in  03  (xiv.  4,  4).  Gabinius 
fortified  it  (xiv.  5,  3).  It  was  finally  de- 
stroyed by  the  Parthians  in  40  B.  c.  (xiv.  13, 
9).  According  to  Eusebius,  its  ruins  ex- 
isted 2  Roman  miles  from  Eleutheropolis  ;  and 
Kobinson  located  them  at  Mer'ash,  on  a  hill 
about  a  mile  southwest  of  Beit  Jibrin. 

2.  The  father  of  Hebron  (1  Chron.  ii.  42). 
The  form  of  expression,  in  the  light  of  its 
context,  suggests  that  Mareshah  was  the 
progenitor  of  the  inhabitants  of  Hebron; 
but  the  mention  of  Hebron's  sons  in  the  fol- 
lowing verse  makes  it  probable  that  Hebron 
was  a  man.  If  so,  he  is  not  mentioned  else- 
where. 

Mark,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  thrice  Marcus 
(Col.  iv.  10;  Philem.  24;  1  Pet.  v.  13)  [Latin 
vutrcns,  a  large  hammer]. 

The  evangelist  to  whom  is  traditionally 
assigned  the  Second  Gospel.  Mark  was  his 
surname  (Acts  xii.  12,  25;  xv.  37);  his  first 
name  was  John,  by  which  alone  he  is  desig- 
nated in  Acts  xiii.  5,  13.  His  mother.  Mary, 
was  in  comfortable  circumstances,  and  her 
house  in  Jeru.salem  was  one  of  the  meeting 
places  of  the  Christians  (Acts  xii.  12-17) ; 
see  Marv.  There  are  several  instances  in 
the  N.  T.  of  Jews  with  Latin  surnames  (Acts 
i.  23  ;  xiii.  9),  so  that  the  addition  of  IMarcus 
to  John  does  not  imply  a  mixed  Jewish  and 
gentile  descent.  Mark  was  al.so  the  cousin 
of  Barnal)as  (Col.  iv.  10,  R.  V.,  in  A.  V.  .si.s- 
ter's  son).  He  accompanied  Barnabas  and 
Paul  from  Jerusalem  to  Antioch  of  Syria 
(Acts  xii.  25)  and  afterwards  on  their 
missionary  journey  (xiii.  5) ;  but.  for  .some 
unstated  reason,  he  left  them  at  Perga 
(13)  and  returned  to  Jerusalem.  Whatever 
was  the  reason  of  Mark's  conduct  on  that 
occasion,  Paul  disapju-oved  of  it  so  much 
that  he  refused  to  take  him  with  them  when 
a  second  .journey  was  proposed  (xv.  38). 
This  cau.sed  a  contention  between  the  two 
missionaries,  so  that  they  separated  and 
Barnal)as,  with  Mark,  sailed  to  Cypmis  to 
resume  his  evangelistic  work.  After  this 
Mark  disappears  from  the  history  for  about 
ten  years.     We  next  find  him  in  Rome  with 


Mark 


455 


Mark 


Paul  and  joining  with  the  apostle  in  seuding 
salutations  (t'ol.  iv.  10;  Phileni.  24).  It  thus 
appears  that  the  former  eause  of  varianee  be- 
tween the  two  men  liad  l>een  removed  ;  and, 
at  a  still  later  iicriod,  Paul  speaks  of  Mark  in 
hi;,'hly  eomniL-ndatory  terms  :  "Take  Mark, 
and  hrin.ij  him  with  thee:  for  he  is  useful  to 
me  fur  ministering"  {2  Tim.  iv.  11,  H.  V.). 
This  last  rcferenee  further  implies  that  'lark 
had  hfcn  in  the  east,  (•crlanily  in  Asia  Minor 
and  perhaps  still  further  east  With  this 
corresponds  1  Pet.  v.  I'.i,  according  to  which 
he  was  with  Peter  in  Babylon,  i)rovided 
that  Babylon  is  there  to  be  understood  lit- 
erally. Peter  calls  .Mark  his  son.  wliieh, 
if  not  a  mere  term  of  endearment,  may  mean 
that  Mark  had  been  one  of  Peter's  converts. 
The  fact  tliat  Peter,  when  released  by  the 
angel  from  ])rison,  went  to  the  house  of 
Mark's  mother  (.\cts  xii.  12)  may  indicate 
his  intimacy  with  the  family.  Tradition 
varies  on  the  jjoint  whether  Mark  had  been 
an  immediate  follower  of  Jesus.  Many 
think,  however,  that  the  young  man  who 
•was  3)resent  at  the  time  of  Christ's  arrest 
(Mark  .\iv.  .")1,  'y2)  was  Mark  himself.  The 
incident  is  mentioned  by  no  other  evangelist, 
and  there  would  .seem  to  be  no  motive  for 
recording  it  excejit  the  wish  to  give  a  per- 
sonal rennniscence.  Tlie  time  and  i)lace  of 
Mark's  death  are  unknown.  Early  tradition 
represented  hinj  as  "the  inter]>reter  of 
Peter."  which  may  mean  that  he  accom- 
panied Peter,  in  the  later  years  of  the  a])os- 
tle's  life,  on  his  missionary  journeys  and 
acted  as  his  s])okcsman  wlien  addressing 
gentile  audiences;  or  the  jihrase  may  merely 
descrilie  Mark's  worlc  in  writing  down  the 
preaching  of  Peter  in  the  (ios])el  which  goes 
by  his  name.  There  can  be  little  doubt  that 
>Iark  was  in  Home  with  both  Paul  and 
Peter.  Tradition  also  made  him  the  founder 
of  the  church  in  .Mexandria,  but  the  value 
of  the  tradition  is  uncertain.  Tlie  main 
pfiint  to  be  observed  is  that  Mark's  early  his- 
tory and  his  later  association  with  the  chief 
ajiosth's  fitted  him  to  become  the  writer  of  a 
gospel. 

The  Gospel  according  to  St.  Mark  is  the  sec- 
ond of  our  four  gosjiels.  though  not  neces- 
sarily the  seciind  in  order  of  composition.  It 
is  the  shortest  of  llie  four,  and  its  narrative 
moves  rajiiiUy  wilhuut  sjiecial  division  into 
sections.  It  may,  however,  be  divided  as 
follows:  1.  Beginning  of  the  gosjiel  of  .Tesiis 
Christ,  including  the  ministry  of  .Tcdiii  the 
Ba|)tist  and  the  l)Mi)lism  and  teniptatimi  of 
Jesus  (i.  l-i:!).  2.  Theo|ieningof  the  (iatihean 
ministry:  giving  the  place  and  the  mes.sage, 
the  call  of  the  first  four  apostles,  miracles  in 
Capernaum  and  (Jalilee  (i.  11-1.")).  .'i.  Christ's 
triumph  over  rising  opposition,  iiicluiling  the 
cure  of  till'  i)aralytic-,  Levi's  feast  and  the 
discourse  on  fasting,  and  the  Sabhatii  contro- 
versy (ii.  1-iii.  ()).  4.  K.xteiision  of  Christ's 
work  amid  increasing  opjKisition,  including 
the  de.scriptiini   of  the  multitudes  who    fol- 


lowed him  ;  the  appointment  of  the  twelve  ; 
replies  to  the  Pharisees;  the  visit  of  his 
mother  and  brethren ;  the  ]iarables  of  the 
sower,  the  seed  growing  secretly,  and  the 
mustard  seed,  with  remarks;  the  great  mira- 
cles of  stilling  the  waves,  the  (iadarene  de- 
moniacs, the  woman  with  a  bloody  issue, 
and  the  raising  of  .lairus'  daughter;  the 
(secoiul)  rejection  at  Nazareth;  the  sending 
out  of  the  twelve;  Herod's  iiKiuiry  about 
Jesus  together  with  an  account  of  the  death 
of  .Tolin  the  Bajitist;  the  feeding  of  tlie 
>')()00 ;  the  walking  (<n  the  sea;  and  Christ's 
denunciation  of  Phara.saic  traditionalism  (iii. 
7-vii.  "Jo).  '■>.  A  ](eriod  of  comparative  re- 
tirement, embracing  the  later  (Jalihvan  min- 
istry (see  Ctospkl)  :  including  the  healing 
of  the  Syroiduenieian's  daughter  in  the  bor- 
ders of  Tyre  and  Sidon  and  of  a  deaf-mute 
in  Decapolis;  the  feeding  of  the  4001);  the 
refusal  to  give  the  Pharisees  a  sign  and  the 
warning  of  the  discij)les  against  them  ;  heal- 
ing of  a  blind  man  near  Bethsaida,  followed 
by  incidents  near  Ciesarea  Phili]ipi,  in- 
cluding the  jirediction  by  Christ  of  his  death, 
Peter's  confession,  etc.,  the  transfiguration, 
the  cure  of  the  demoniac  boy,  a  renewed 
])rediction  of  Christ's  death  and,  on  return- 
ing to  Caiiernaiim,  special  instructions  to  the 
discijiles  (vii.  24-ix.  ')()}.  This  period  is 
specially  comjilete  in  Mark.  (i.  Christ's 
closing  ministry  in  Penea  :  including  the 
question  of  the  Phari.sees  about  divorce;  the 
blessing  of  the  children ;  the  rich  young 
ruler;  and  exjdanations  to  the  disci])h"s;  the 
ascent  to  .li'msalem,  including  a  third  ])re- 
(lictiini  of  his  death,  the  re(piest  of  .lames  and 
John,  the  healing  of  Bartinueus  (x.).  7. 
The  last  week,  including  the  triumphal 
entry;  the  blasting  of  the  barren  fig  tree; 
the  (second)  cleansing  of  the  temi>le  ;  the 
visit  of  the  deputation  from  the  sauhe<iriii  ; 
the  iiarable  of  the  wicked  liusban<lmen  ;  the 
(juestions  of  the  Pharisees  and  Herodians, 
of  the  Sadducees.  and  of  the  scribe  (la^\7'er) ; 
Christ's  (luestion  about  the  son  of  David  :  a 
brief  re])ort  of  his  denunciations  of  the 
Pharisees  and  scribes  (cj).  .Mat.  xxiii)  ;  the 
widow's  gift :  the  (li.scour.se  on  the  mount  of 
Olives;  Judas' treachery  and,  in  connection 
with  it.  the  sui>i)er  at  Betliany:  a  brief  ac- 
count of  the  lust  evening  with  the  dis<-iples 
and  the  institution  of  the  I.,ord's  Supjier; 
the  agony  in  (lethsemane  ;  the  arrest :  the 
trial  of  Jesus  iit  ni.trht  before  the  .sanhedrin  ; 
Peter's  denials  ;  the  trial  l)efore  Pilate,  and 
the  crucifixion  ;  the  burial  ;  the  announce- 
ment of  Christ's  resurrection  to  certain 
women  by  an  angel  seated  in  his  empty 
tomb  (xi.  1-xvi.  8). 

The  last  twelve  verses  of  Mark's  (Jospol.  as 
found  in  \.  V..  are  believed  by  most  scliolars 
not  to  have  formed  the  original  close  of  the 
l>ook.  Hence  in  H.  V.  they  are  .sepanued 
by  a  space  from  the  preci>ding  verses.  They 
were  certainly  adde(l  at  a  very  early  time, 
perhaps  at  the  beginning  of  the  second  cen- 


Mark 


456 


Marriage 


tury.  They  seem  to  have  been  formed  iu 
part  out  of  the  other  gospels  and  they  truth- 
fully descrihe  the  beliefs  of  the  ajiostolic 
churches  ou  the  subjects  witli  which  they 
deal.  Chaji.  xvi.  8,  however,  is  too  al)ru]>t  an 
ending.  The  original  close  must  have  l)een 
lost  at  a  very  early  time,  soon  after  the  book 
was  finished.  Some  have  sup])osed  that  Mark 
was  prevented  from  finishing.  The  last 
twelve  verses  of  our  Mark,  when  regarded 
as  an  ancient  addition  to  and  completion  of 
the  book,  are  powerful  evidence  for  the  ex- 
istence and  circulation  of  the  other  gospels 
as  well  as  for  the  recei)tion  of  Mark's  own 
narrative. 

Ancient  and  trustworthy  tradition  repre- 
sents Mark's  Gosi)el  as  in  some  degree  con- 
nected with  Peter's  preaching  about  Christ. 
This  is  confirmed  by  the  many  vivid  x>articu- 
lars  which  it  contains,  which  seem  to  be 
due  to  the  reminiscences  of  an  eyewitness 
(e.  g.  i.  40 ;  ii.  1-4  ;  iii.  5 ;  v.  A-(i  ;  vi.  39,  40  ; 
vii.  34;  viii.  33;  x.  21  ;  xi.  20).  This  must 
not  be  ])ressed,  however,  to  the  exclusion  of 
other  sources  of  information.  Its  narrative 
consists  of  a  series  of  descriptive  scenes,  and 
these  proceed  in  a  more  chronological  order 
than  in  Matthew  or  lAike.  The  story  moves 
forward  rapidly  and  with  much  pictorial 
power.  While  ^Mark's  is  the  shortest  gospel, 
this  is  not  usually  due  to  condensation  of 
material.  What  he  does  give,  is  generally 
described  with  much  detail.  He  lays  espe- 
cial stress  on  the  deeds  of  Christ  rather  than 
on  his  teaching.  He  relates  only  four  para- 
bles, but  eigliteen  miracles.  He  de])icts  Christ 
as  the  mighty  Son  of  God.  the  conquering 
Saviour.  Unlike  Matthew,  he  says  nothing 
of  Christ's  relation  to  the  Mosaic  law,  and 
but  few  allusions  to  the  fulfillment  of  proph- 
ecy are  noted.  Tradition  states  that  Mark 
wrote  his  Cos])el  at  Rome  either  shortly  be- 
fore or  shortly  after  Peter's  death.  If  so,  it 
must  be  dated  A.  D.  (i.^-(i8.  f)n  other  grounds 
also  most  scholars  now  as.sign  it  to  about  that 
period.  In  the  ancient  church  Mark  was 
supposed  by  some  to  have  alibreviated 
Matthew.  But  this  is  imjiossible  since  he 
adds  many  details  which  are  not  in  Matthew. 
Others  believe  that  Matthew  and  Luke  drew 
from  Mark,  and  so  make  Mark  the  oldest  of 
our  gospels.  The  most  probable  view  is  tliat 
all  three  of  the  synoptic  gosjjcls  were  inde- 
pendent of  one  another,  and  that  their  verbal 
agreements  are  to  be  ex]ilained  by  their  all 
using  very  largely  the  latiguage  in  which 
the  apostolic  rejiorts  of  Clirisfs  words  and 
deeds  were  circulated  among  the  churches. 
Mark's  Gospel  was  evidently  written  pri- 
marily for  gentiles.  This  appears  e.  g.  in 
his  explanations  of  places  and  customs  and 
terms  (i.  it;  iii.  17;  v.  41;  vii.  3,  4,  11,  .'U  ; 
xii.  4i;  xiv.  12;  xv.  22,  42,  etc.).  He  uses 
also  a  good  many  Latin  words  in  Greek 
form  which  n>ay  indicate  that  his  book  was 
originally  published,  as  tradition  states,  at 
Rome.  G.  T.  p. 


na'roth  [bitterness,  bitter  fountains]. 
A  town  of  .ludah   (Mic.  i.   12).     Site  un- 
known. 

■    Mar'riage. 

Marriage  is  a  divine  institution,  constituted 
at  the  beginning  before  the  origin  of  human 
society.  The  Creator  made  man  male  and 
female,  and  ordained  marriage  as  the  indis- 
pensable condition  of  the  continuance  of  the 
race  (Gen.  i.  27,  28).  He  imjilanted  social 
aifectious  and  desires  in  man's  nature.  He 
made  marriage  an  ennobling  influence,  pow- 
erfully contributing  to  the  development  of  a 
comi)lete  lite  in  n,iui  and  woman.  He  de- 
clared it  to  be  not  good  for  man  to  be  alone 
and  provided  a  helj)  meet  for  him  ((ien.  ii. 
18).  Abstinenc-e  from  marriage  is  commend- 
able at  the  call  of  duty  (Mat.  xis.  12 ;  1  Cor. 
vii.  8.  2U),  but  its  ascetic  prohibition  is  a  sign 
of  departure  from  the  faith  (1  Tim.  iv.  ."5). 

Monogamy  is  the  divine  ideal.  The  Crea- 
tor constituted  marriage  as  a  union  between 
one  man  and  one  woman  (Gen.  ii  18-24; 
Mat.  xix.  5;  1  Cor.  vi.  l(i).  He  preserves 
the  number  of  males  practically  equal  to  the 
number  of  females  in  a  nation. 

Marriage  is  a  permanent  relation  (Mat.  xix. 
6).  The  Creator  has  indicated  the  perma- 
nence of  the  relation  by  making  the  growth 
of  afiection  between  husband  and  wife,  as 
the  years  pass,  to  be  a  natural  process,  in- 
variable under  normal  conditions.  Moral 
ends  require  that  the  relation  be  permanent  r 
the  disciplining  of  husband  and  wife  in 
obedience  to  the  obligations  which  spring 
from  their  relations  to  each  other,  and  the 
adequate  training  of  children  to  obedience 
and  virtue.  It  cannot  be  dissolved  by  any 
legitimate  act  of  man.  It  is  dissolved  by 
death  (Rom.  vii.  2,  3).  It  may  be  dissolved 
on  account  of  adultery  (JIat.  xix.  3-9).  Prot- 
estants, following  Paul,  teach  that  it  may 
be  dissolved  by  willful,  deliberate,  final  de- 
sertion (1  Cor.  vii.  1.")).  It  is  probable, 
however,  that  in  those  times  desertion  was 
accompanied  by  adulterous  or  marital  con- 
sorting with  another  person.  The  marriage 
of  persons  divorced  ou  improper  grounds  is 
forbidden  (Mat.  v.  32;  xix.  9;  1  Cor.  vii.  10, 
11).  In  the  sight  of  God,  a  civil  tribunal 
cannot  annul  a  marriage  ;  it  declares  whether 
the  marriage  has  been  sinfully  annulled  by 
one  or  both  of  the  jiersons  concerned. 

Among  the  antediluvians,  Adam,  Cain, 
Noah,  and  his  three  sons  appear  each  as  the 
husband  of  one  wife.  But  polygamy  was 
already  ]>racticed,  Lamech  having  two  wives 
(Gen.  iv.  19);  and  the  purity  of  marriages 
was  impaired  by  men  allowing  themselves  to 
be  governed  by  low  motives  iu  the  choice  of 
wives  (vi.  2).  Polygamy  was  unwisely  adopted 
by  Abraham,  when  he  thoustht  that  he  must 
needs  help  (iod  to  fulfill  his  promise  ((len. 
xvi.  4).  Isaac  had  one  wife.  Jacob  took 
two  wives  and  their  maids.  Moses,  who  was 
correcting  abuses,   not  suddenly  abolishing 


Marriage 


457 


Marriage 


them,  prrmitted  the  Israolitcs,  on  actouiit  of 
theircliilliicss  of  Njiiritual  jnTii'|iti(Hi  and  lliiir 
enslavciiK-nt  to  the  customs  of  tlie  n'^a,  to 
put  away  tlu-ir  wives  for  a  less  fault  than 
the  Ki'avest  hreaeh  of  marital  fidelity;  and 
he  did  not  forliid  i)ol\-;,'amy.  hut  discouraged 
it.  Jle  rt'ijulated  wliat  he  found;  hut  the 
record  of  the  priniitive  period  showed  that 
the  state  of  things  among  the  Israelites  was 
not  the  ordination  of  the  Creator.  Moses' 
service  to  the  cause  of  matrimony  consisted 
in  setting  a  higiier  ideal  hy  establishing  the 
degrees  of  consanguinity  and  affinity  within 
which  marriage  is  jiroper  (Lev.  xviii.),  dis- 
couraging polygamy  (Lev.  xviii.  18;  Deut. 
xvii.  17 1,  securing  the  rights  of  inferior 
wives  (Kx.  xxi.  'J-ll  ;  Deut.  xxi.  10-17),  re- 
stricting divorce  (Deut.  xxii.  1!),  'M ;  xxiv. 
1),  and  requiring  jiurity  in  the  married  life 
(Ex.  XX.  11,  17;  Lev.  xx.  10;  Deut.  xxii.  22). 
Polygamy  continuiMl  to  be  practiced  more  or 
less  by  wealthy  individuals  after  the  time  of 
Moses,  as  by  (Jideon,  Elkanah,  Saul,  David, 
Solomon,  Kehoboarn,  and  others  (Judg.  viii. 
30;  1  Sam.  i.  2;  2  Sam.  v.  IIJ;  xii.  8;  xxi.  8; 
1  Kin.  xi.  3).  The  evils  of  polygamy  are 
exhibited  in  Scripture  by  the  record  of  the 
Jealousies  of  the  wives  of  Abraham  and 
Elkanah  ((Jen.  xvi.  G;  1  .Sam.  i.  (it,  and  beau- 
tiful pictures  are  [jreseuted  of  the  felicity  of 
marriage  itetween  one  man  and  one  woman 
(Ps.  cxxviii.  3;  Prov.  v.  18;  xxxi.  10-29; 
Ecc.  ix.  !»;    cp.    Ecdus.   xxvi.   1-27). 

In  the  family  to  which  Al)rahain  belonged 
marriage  was  iieriuittcd  with  a  half-sister 
and  witli  two  sisters  (<Jen.  xx.  12;  xxix.  26). 
-Marriage  with  a  full  sister  was  not  rare  in 
Egypt,  anti  was  allowed  in  I'ersia  (Herod, 
iii.  31).  Marriage  with  a  half-sister  by  the 
same  father  was  permitted  at  Athens,  and 
with  a  half-sister  by  the  same  mother  at 
Spartii.  The  Mosaic  law  prohibited  alliance 
with  persons  so  closely  related  by  blood  as 
these  and  with  others  less  near  of  kin  (Lev. 
xviii.  ()-lS)  ;  but  in  case  a  man  died  childless, 
his  brother  took  the  widow  (Deut.  xxv.  .">). 
Such  marriage  was  ordained,  but  it  was  not 
com]>ul.sory.  The  Uonian  law  was  not  unlike 
tJie  l[(d)rew.  It  declared  marriages  to  l>e 
incestuous,  "  when  the  ])arties  wen-  too  nearly 
related  by  con.sanguinity — that  is,  by  being 
of  th(^  same  blood,  as  brother  and  sister;  or 
by  atliuity  — that  is,  l>y  being  connected 
through  marriage,  as  father-in-law  and  daugh- 
ter-in-law." 

The  selection  of  a  wife  for  a  young  man 
devolveil  on  his  relations,  especiiilly  on  his 
father  ((Jen.  xxi.  21:  xxiv.;  xxxviii.  fi ;  2 
l^sd.  ix.  I7i,  thi>ui.'h  siiiiirtimes  the  son  made 
known  his  jircfercncc  and  the  father  merely 
conductc<l  tlie  negotiations  (Gen.  xxxiv.  -1,8; 
Judg.  xiv.  1-10).  OtiIv  under  extraordinary 
ciniunstanccs  di<l  the  young  man  make  the 
arrangements  ((Jen.  xxix.  l>i.  Likewise  it 
was  the  consent  of  the  maiil's  father  and 
eldest  lirother  that  was  sought,  it  not  being 
necessary    to    consult    her    (Gen.    xxiv.   .^1  ; 


xxxiv.  11).  Occasionally  a  parent  looked 
out  an  eligible  husband  for  a  daughter  or 
otlered  her  to  a  suit^ible  person  in  marriage 
(Ex.  ii.  21;  Josh.  xv.  17;  Kuth  iii.  1,  2 ;  1 
Sam.  xviii.  27).  Presents  were  given  to  the 
parents,  and  sometimes  to  the  maiden  ((ien. 
xxiv.  22,  53;  xxix.  18,27;  xxxiv.  12;  1  Sam. 
xviii.  2.")).  Jietween  betrothal  and  marriage 
all  conimunicatiou  between  the  athanced  jiar- 
ties  was  carried  on  through  a  friend  dejuited 
for  the  purpose  and  termed  the  friend  of  the 
bridegroom  (John  iii.  29). 

The  marriage  itself  was  a  purely  domestic 
atTair,  without  delinite  religious  services, 
though  prol>ably  the  esjKjusal  was  ratified  by 
an  oath  (Prov.  ii.  17;  Ezek.  xvi.  b;  ^hil.  ii. 
14).  After  the  exile  it  became  customary  to 
draw  up  aiul  seal  a  written  contract  (Tob. 
vii.  14).  When  the  day  ai>pointed  for  the 
wedding  arrived,  the  bride  bathed  (cp.  Judith 
X.  3;  Eph.  V.  2(),  27),  put  ou  white  robes, 
often  richly  embroidered  (IJev.  xix.  S;  Ps. 
xlv.  13,  14),  decked  herself  with  jewels  (Is. 
Ixi.  10;  Kev.  xxi.  2>,  fastened  the  indispen- 
sable bridal  girdle  about  her  waist  (Is.  iii.  24  ; 
xlix.  18 ;  Jer.  ii.  .32),  covered  herself  with  a 
veil  ((ien.  xxiv.  G.")l,  and  jilaced  a  garland  on 
her  head.  The  bridegroom,  arrayed  iu  his 
best  attire,  with  a  hand.some  headdress  and  a 
garland  on  his  head  (Song  iii.  11  ;  Is.  Ixi.  10), 
set  out  from  his  home  for  the  house  of  the 
bride's  parents,  attended  by  his  friends  (Judg. 
xiv.  11  ;  Mat.  ix.  1.')),  accompanied  by  musi- 
cians and  sin<»ers  and,  if  the  i)rocessiou  moved 
at  night,  by  jjcrsons  bearing  torches  (1  Mac. 
ix.  39;  Mat.  xxv.  7;  cp.  (Jen.  xxxi.  27;  Jer. 
vii.  34).  Having  received  liis  bride,  deejjly 
veiled,  from  her  ]iarents  with  their  blessing 
and  the  good  wishes  of  friends  ((Jen.  xxiv. 
.")9;  Ruth  iv.  11;  Tob.  vii.  13i.  he  conducted 
the  whole  party  liack  to  his  own  or  his 
father's  house  with  .song,  music,  and  dancing 
(Ps.  xlv.  1."):  .Song  iii.  (i-11  ;  1  Mac.  ix.  .37). 
On  the  way  back  they  were  joined  by  maid- 
ens, friends  of  the  liride  and  groom  (Mat. 
xxv.  (>).  A  feast  was  served  at  the  house  of 
the  groom  or  of  his  i)arents  (Mat.  xxii.  1-10; 
John  ii.  1.  9)  ;  but  if  he  lived  at  a  great  dis- 
tance the  feast  was  sjiread  in  the  liouse  of 
the  bride's  i)arents  (Mat.  xxv.  1),  cither  at 
their  exjiense  or  the  groom's  ((ien.  xxix.  22; 
Judg.  xiv.  10;  Tob.  viii.  19).  The  groom 
now  associated  with  his  bride  for  the  first 
time  (John  iii.  29).  In  the  evening  the  bride 
was  escorted  to  the  nuptial  chamber  by  her 
parents  (Gen.  xxix.  23  ;  .ludg.  xv.  1 ;  Tob. 
vii.  Ifi,  17),  and  the  groom  by  his  companions 
or  the  bride's  parents  (Tob.  viii.  1).  On  the 
morrow  the  festivities  were  resumed,  and 
continued  for  one  or  two  weeks  ((Jen.  xxix. 
27:  Judg.  xiv.  12:  Tob.  viii.  19,  20). 

The  spiritual  relation  between  Jehovah 
and  his  people  is  figuratively  sj^iken  of  as  a 
marriage  or  itetrothal  (Is.  Ixii.  1.  ."> :  Hos.  ii. 
191.  The  a|>ostasy  of  (Joil's  peoi)le  through 
idolatry  or  otlier  form  of  sin  is  accordingly 
likened  to  infidelity  ou  the  part  of  a  wife 


Marsena 


458 


Mary 


(Is.  i.  21;  Jcr.  iii.  1-20;  Ezek.  xvi.  ;  xxiii. ; 
Hos.  ii.).  iiii'l  leads  to  divorce  (Ps.  Ixxiii.  27; 
Jer.  ii.  20;  lios.  iv.  12).  Tlie  figure  is  con- 
timied  ill  the  N.  T. ;  Cliri.st  is  tbe  l)ridegroom 
(Mat.  ix.  15;  Jobu  iii.  29),  and  the  church  is 
the  liride  (2  Cor.  xi.  2;  Kev.  xix.  7;  xxi.  2, 
i) ;  xxii.  17).  The  love  of  Christ  for  the 
church,  his  solicitude  for  her  perfection,  and 
his  headshij)  are  iield  uj)  as  the  standard  for 
imitation  by  husbands  and  wives  (Eph.  v. 
23-32). 

Mar'se-na. 

One  of  the  seven  princes  of  Persia  who 
were  permitted  to  see  the  king's  face  (Esth. 
i.  11). 

Mars'  Hill.     See  Areopagus. 

Mar'tlia  [lady,  mistres.s]. 

Sister  of  Mary  and  Lazarus  of  Bethany 
(John  xi.  1,  2).  The  three  were  tenderly  at- 
tached to  Jesus.  Martha  loved  hiiu  and  de- 
sired to  make  him  comfortal)le  and  show  him 
resjiect  in  her  house.  Maiy  gave  evidence 
of  a  deeper  api)reciation  Ity  her  hunger  for 
the  words  of  truth  that  fell  from  his  lips; 
and  when  Martha  would  have  him  rebuke 
Mary  for  not  assisting  her  to  attend  to  bis 
external  wants,  Jesus  taught  that  be  himself 
regarded  the  inward  craving  of  his  followers 
for  spiritual  fellowship  with  him  as  more 
essential  than  their  concern  for  bis  external 
honor  (Luke  x.  38-42).  Both  sisters  were 
sincere  believers  (John  xi.  21-32).  The  bouse 
where  Jesus  was  received  is  called  Martha's 
(Luke  X.  38) ;  and  the  supper  which  was  given 
to  him  at  Bethany,  at  which  Lazarus  was 
present  and  Martha  again  served,  where 
Mary  anointed  his  feet  (John  xii.  1-3)  was  at 
the  house  of  Simon  tbe  leper  (Mat.  xxvi.  6 ; 
Mark  xiv.  3).  From  these  facts  it  has  been 
inferred  that  Martha  was  i)robably  the  Avife 
or  widow  of  Simon. 

Ma'ry  [N.  T.  Greek  Moria  and  Mariam, 
fnun  Hebrew  Miri/imi,  Miriam.  Also  Latin 
3Iiiriii]. 

Six  women  mentioned  in  the  N.  T. 

1.  Alary  tbe  (wife)  of  C'lopas  or  Cleophas, 
a  IMaiy  so  designated  in  John  xix.  25.  " ^Vife  " 
is  not  in  the  original  Greek,  but  is  properly 
su])]ilicd  both  by  A.  V.  and  R.  V.  Clopas  of 
the  Ii.  v.,  Cleo])has  of  the  A.  V.,  is  apparently 
to  be  identified  with  Al])bieus  (Mat.  x.  3; 
Mark  iii.  18;  Luke  vi.  15),  the  two  names 
being  variant  forms  of  the  same  Aramaic 
original.  He  and  Mary  were  thus  the  parents 
of  the  iipostle  James  the  Less,  who  had  also 
a  brother  Joses  (Mat.  xxvii.  5(i ;  Mark  xv. 
40;  Luke  xxiv.  10).  Those  who  understand 
the  Lord's  "brethren"  to  have  been  bis 
cousins  on  bis  mother's  side.  sui)pose  that 
this  Mary  was  a  .sister  of  the  Virgin,  and  that 
John  (xix.  25)  mentions  only  three  women 
at  the  cross.  Hut  it  is  unlikely  that  two 
sisters  sliould  liave  had  the  same  name,  and 
other  considerations  make  tbe  cousin  theory 
inijirohable;  see  Brktiikkn  of  the  Lord. 
In  that  case  John  mentions  four  women  at 


the  cross.  One  of  them  w;is  Mary  tbe  wife 
of  Clo])as ;  but,  Ijcyond  tbe  fact  that  her 
husband  and  sons  were,  like  herself,  disciples 
of  Jesus  and  that  probably  one  of  her  sons 
was  an  ai>ostle,  we  know  nothing  more  of 
her.  Besides  being  at  the  cross,  Mary  was 
one  of  the  women  who  followed  the  body  of 
Jesus  to  the  tomb  (Mat.  xxvii.  (jl),  and  on 
the  third  day  took  spices  to  the  sepulcher, 
and  to  whom  the  risen  Saviour  appeared 
(Mat.  xxviii.  1  ;  Mark  xv.  47;  xvi.  1 ;  Luke 
xxiv.  10).  See  No.  2  of  this  article;  also 
Alph^us,  Jajies. 

2.  Mary  the  Virgin  ;  the  Virgin  Mary.  All 
the  authentic  information  about  her  comes 
from  Scripture.  We  are  told  that,  in  the 
sixth  month  after  the  conception  of  John 
the  Baptist,  the  angel  Gabriel  was  sent  from 
God  to  Xazareth,  a  city  or  village  of  Gali- 
lee, to  a  virgin  named  Mary,  who  was  resid- 
ing there  and  who  was  betrothed  to  a  car- 
l)enter  named  Jose])h  (Luke  i.  2(i,  27).  Joseph 
is  exjilicitly  declared  to  have  been  a  de- 
scendant of  David.  Mary  is  not  so  described  ; 
but  many  believe  that  she  too  was  of  Davidic 
lineage,  because  she  was  told  that  her  child 
should  receive  "the  throne  of  his  father 
David,"  also  because  our  Lord  is  said  to  have 
been  of  "tbe  seed  of  David  according  to  the 
flesh"  (Rom.  i.  3 ;  2  Tim.ii.  8;  cp.  Acts  ii. 
30),  and  again  because,  in  the  opinion  of 
many  scholars,  the  genealogy  of  Christ  given 
by  Luke  (iii.  23-38)  is  through  his  mother, 
in  which  case  Jlary's  father  is  supposed  to 
have  been  Heli.  However  this  may  be, 
Gabriel  hailed  Mary  as  a  highly  favored 
one,  and  announced  to  her  that  she  should 
have  a  son  whose  name  she  should  call  Jesus. 
"He,"  said  tbe  angel,  "  shall  be  great,  and 
shall  be  called  the  Son  of  the  Most  High: 
and  the  Lord  God  shall  give  unto  him  the 
throne  of  his  father  David  :  and  he  shall 
reign  over  the  house  of  Jacob  forever :  and 
of  liis  kingdom  there  shall  be  no  end  ''  (Luke 
i.  32,  33,  R.  v.).  When  Mary  asked  how  this 
could  be,  since  she  was  a  virgin,  she  was  told 
that  it  would  be  wrought  by  the  power  of 
the  Holy  Ghost,  "  wherefore  also  that  which 
is  to  lie  born  shall  be  called  holy,  tbe  Son  of 
God  "  (Luke  i.  35,  R.  V.).  These  expressions 
revealed  to  Mary  that  she  was  chosen  to  be 
the  mother  of  Messiah,  and  with  humble 
]iiety  she  accepted  tbe  honor  which  God  was 
mysteriously  to  confer  njion  her.  For  her 
comfort  she  was  informed  by  the  angel  that 
her  kinswoman  Elisabeth  was  also  to  become 
a  mother,  whereu]Kin  Alary  hastened  to  the 
village  of  Judah  where  Zacharias  and  Elisa- 
betli  lived.  At  her  coming  Elisabeth  was 
made  aware  of  the  honor  intended  for  Alary, 
and  broke  out  into  an  ins])ired  song  of  praise. 
Thereu))on  Alary  also  gave  voice  to  a  hymn 
of  thanksgiving  ("  Tbe  Alagniticat,"  Luke  1. 
4()-.55).  We  learn  from  all  this  the  profound 
])iety  and  solemn  joy  with  which  these  holy 
women  contemi)lat('d  the  jiower  and  grace  of 
God   which   was  through   their   oll'spring  to 


Mary 


459 


Mary 


fulfill  the  ancient  i)roniises  to  Israel  and 
luiiiic  -salvation  to  tlie  wiirld.  Mary  rcmaiMi'il 
under  llie  iin)tccli(in  nf  Klisalntli  unlil  just 
l)efore  llie  ))irtli  of  .lolm,  when  slie  retnrni'd 
to  Na/.aretli.  Soon  after  tiie  cause  of  her 
condition  was  icvealcd  in  a  dream  to  . Joseph, 
who  at  fust  liad  tlioii;iiit  of  (luietiy  imtlinn 
"■her  away  from  him  (.Mat.  i.  ls-:il).  He  was 
directed  to  uuirry  her  and  to  call  the  name 
of  the  child  Jesus,  "  for  it  is  he  that  shall 
save  his  (leople  from  their  sins."  It  was 
pointed  out  also  to  him  that  Isaiah  liad  ])re- 
dicted  that  Messiah  would  he  i)orn  of  a  vir- 
fjin.  .Joseph  reverently  oheyeil.  Jle  "took 
unto  him  his  wife;  and  knew  her  not  till  slie 
had  hrouiiht  forth  a  son:  and  he  called  his 
name  .Jesus"  (Mat.  i.  -Jl.  2.".,  It.  \'.).  I'.y  this 
niarriat;e  .Mary  was  [trotected,  her  mysterious 
secret  was  jiiiarded,  and  her  <-hild  was  horn 
as  the  lef^al  son  of  .Joseph,  and  therefore 
throufjh  him  heir  of  David.  The  hirth,  how- 
evi'r.  took  |)lace  at  liethlehem.  A  decree  of 
Aujiustus  that  all  the  world  should  he  en- 
rolled was  heinj;  carried  out  in  i'alestine, 
and  comiielli'd  .Joseph,  heinj;  of  Davidic  de- 
.  scent,  to  rejiair  to  David's  city  to  lie  enrolled. 
JIary  accompanied  him.  Finding  no  room 
in  the  inn,  or  khan,  they  were  compelled  to 
lodue  in  a  stal)U',  perhaps,  however,  one  that 
was  then  not  heinj;  used  hy  cattle.  There 
.Jesus  was  liorn,  and  his  mother  "  wrajjped 
hin\  in  swaddlinj;  clothes,  and  laid  him  in  a 
manner"  (Luke  ii.  7).  Witii  reverent,  trust- 
ful awe  .Mary  heard  tiie  shepherds  relate  the 
vision  of  auKcls  whicii  they  liad  seen  and  the 
soiifi  of  peace  wiiich  they  had  heard  herald- 
ing the  Saviour's  hirth.  Of  course,  she  did 
not  know  that  her  child  was  (tod  made  flesii. 
."^lie  only  knew  that  he  was  to  Ik;  .Messiaii, 
and  with  true  jiiety  she  waited  for  (iod  to 
make  his  mission  clear.  On  the  fortieth  day 
after  the  liirtli  .Mary  went,  with  .Joseph  and 
.Jesus,  to  .Jerusalem  to  ju'esent  tiie  child  to 
the  Lord  and  to  oiler  in  the  temiile  the  otfer- 
iiiii  reipiired  hy  the  law  (Lev.  .\i.  2.  (i.  S) 
from  women  after  chiltlhirth.  The  fact  that 
hiT  offering;  is  siiid  to  iiave  heen  that  re<|nired 
of  poor  pi'ople — a  pair  of  turtle  doves  or  two 
youiii;  |)iLjeoris — indicates  tiie  humiile  cir- 
cumstances of  the  fannly.  W'iien,  iiowever, 
the  parents  l>roUf;lit  in  tiie  child,  they  were 
met  l)y  tlie  af^ed  Simeon  who  rejoiced  over 
till'  l)i'rth  of  Messi.ah.  hut  foretold  to  Mary 
tlial  she  siiould  liave  .1,'real  s(U'row  heeaiise  of 
what  Would  happen  to  him  ( I.,nke  ii.  .T)). 
After  tills  .Joseph  and  Mary  a))pear  to  have 
returned  to  l{ethleliem  ami  to  have  lived  in 
a  house  (Mat.  ii.  11).  There  Mary  received 
tlie  wise  men  from  the  east  who  came  to 
worship  .Jesus  (Mat.  ii.  1-11).  Soon  aft<'r  she 
(led  with  .losepli  and  the  (diild  to  K.iiyiit.  and 
.afterwards  hy  divine  directimi  flii'y  returned 
to  Na/areth.  TluTe  she  must  have  deVot<'d 
lierself  esjjceially  to  the  rearinjr  of  the  (diild 
of  promise  who  had  heen  committed  to  her 
care  and  of  whose  future  she  must  have 
thought  continually.    One  glimpse  of  Marys 


character  is  given  us  when  Jesus  was  twelve 
years  old.  .She  was  in  the  hahit  piously  of 
attending  witii  .loseph  the  yearly  passover 
(Luke  ii.  11),  though  this  was  not  specihcally 
re(juired  of  .Jewish  women  (K.v.  .\.\iii.  17). 
With  like  piety  .Joseph  and  .Mary  took  Jesus 
with  tiiem,  as  soon  as  lie  reached  tiie  age 
wlieii  it  was  customary  for  children  tci  attend, 
and  his  delay  in  the  temple  and  his  W(jrds 
when  his  parents  found  him  with  the  doctoi's, 
were  the  occasion  of  increased  awe  to  his 
l)arents.  ''  His  niothi'r  kept  all  tlu'se  sayings 
in  her  heart"  (Luke  ii.  .M).  .Mary  did  not 
understand  how  great  her  child  really  was 
nor  how  he  was  to  fulfill  his  mission.  It  was 
hers  reverently  and  trustfully  to  rear  him 
for  (lod's  service,  and  this  she  did  so  long  as 
he  was  under  her.  If  the  "  hrethren  of  the 
Lord  "  (see  Bkkthhkn  oi" thk  Lord)  were,  as 
is  prohat)le,  the  children  of  Joseph  and  Mary, 
horn  after  .lesus.  Mary  was  the  mother  of  a 
large  family.  We  read  also  of  Clirist's  sisters 
(Mark  vi.  '.i).  But  nothing  further  is  re- 
corded of  Mary  until  the  heginning  of  Christ's 
jiulilic  ministry.  She  then  appears  at  the 
marriage  in  ('ana  (.John  ii.  1-1(»).  .she  evi- 
<lently  rejoiced  in  her  son's  assumption  of 
Messianic  otlice  and  fully  helieved  in  him. 
But  she  ventured  imiirojierly  to  direct  bis 
actions,  and  thus  elicited  from  him  a  re- 
spectful hut  firni  rehuke.  Mary  must  under- 
stand that  in  his  worl-c  she  could  share  ctnly 
as  a  follower.  While  as  her  son  he  gave  her 
ri'vereiice,  as  the  !M(!Ssiah  and  Saviour  he 
could  only  regard  her  as  a  disciple,  needing 
as  much  as  otla^rs  the  salvation  he  eanie  to 
hring.  A  similar  truth  was  brought  out  on 
the  next  occasion  on  which  she  appears  (Mat. 
xii.  4()-."')0;  .Mark  iii.  ;jl-:5.-) ;  Luke  viii.  1»- 
21).  While  .Jesus  was  teaching  on  the  great 
day  of  parables,  Mary  with  his  brethren  de- 
sired to  see  him.  Perhai>s  they  wished  to 
restrain  him  from  a  course  which  seemed  to 
be  bringing  n)ioii  him  opposition  anil  ]ieril. 
His  reply  again  declared  tliat  the  sjijritnal 
bond  between  him  and  his  disciples  was  more 
iniiiortant  than  any  huniaii  tie.  "  For  whoso- 
ever shall  do  tlie  will  of  my  Father  whicli  is 
in  heaven,  he  is  mv  brother,  ami  sister,  and 
mother"  (Mat.  .\ i i .' ■',(',  K.  \.).  While  Christ 
jiursiU'd  his  ministry,  Mary  and  his  brethri'U 
apiiear  to  have  still  lived  in  Xaziireth.  As 
no  mention  is  made  of  .Joseph,  it  is  natural 
to  su]>]iose  that  he  had  ilied.  I'ul  at  the 
cruiilixion  Mary  apjiears  with  otiier  women 
at  the  cross.  Cnlike  his  brethren  (John  vii. 
.'))  she  had  always  believed  in  her  son's  Mes- 
siahship,  and  thend'ore  it  is  not  strange  to 
lind  that  sln'  followed  him  on  the  last  fatal 
journey  to  .li'rnsaleni.  With  a»mother's  love, 
as  well  as  with  a  disci])le's  sorrow,  she  beheld 
his  crucilixion.  and  to  her  .Jesus  sjioke  in  the 
hour  of  his  sulfi'ring.  He  g.ave  her  to  the 
care  of  his  beloved  disciple  .John,  and  "  from 
that  hour  that  disciple  look  her  unto  his  own 
home"  (.John  xix.  •-.'•") -27).  After  the  ascen- 
sion she  was  with  the  ai>ostles  in  the  upiwr 


Mary 


460 


MascMl 


room  in  Jcrusak-m  (Acts  i.  M),and  tliis  is  tlie 
last  iiolifc  (if  licr  in  Sciijitiirc  \N'c  do  not 
knoT\-  till'  tinif  (jr  manner  of  lior  drath.  Tlic 
toml)  of  llie  Virgin  is  sliown  in  tli(!  valley 
of  till'  Kidron,  but  tlicre  is  no  reason  to  be- 
lieve in  its  genuineness.  LatiT  leicends  were 
busy  witii  her  name,  but  none  contain  trust- 
worthy information.  As  |iresented  in  Scrip- 
ture, she  is  simply  a  })cautiful  example  of  a 
devoted  and  ]iious  mother. 

;5.  Mary  Magdiileiu'.  The  desij^nation  f;iven 
to  tiiis  Marv  (Mat.  xxvii.  f)!!,  (Jl :  xxviii.  1; 
Jlark  XV.  io,  47:  xvi.  1,  9;  Luke  viii.  2; 
xxiv.  10;  John  xix.  25;  xx.  1,  18)  doubtless 
indicates  tliat  she  was  a  resident  of  Magdala, 
on  the  soutli western  coast  of  the  sea  of  Gali- 
lee. Out  of  lier  Jesus  had  cast  seven  devils 
(Mark  xvi.  i) ;  Luke  viii.  2),  and  she  became 
one  of  his  most  devoted  disciples.  The  old 
belief  that  she  had  l)een  a  Avomau  of  bad 
chai-acter,  from  w'hich  the  current  use  of  the 
word  Jlagflalen  has  arisen,  rests  merely 
on  the  fact  that  the  first  mention  of  her 
(Luke  viii.  2)  follows  closely  upon  the  account 
of  the  sinful  womiin  who  anointed  the  Sav- 
iour's feet  in  a  city  of  Galilee  (Luke  vii.  3(i- 
•50).  This,  however,  is  hardly  stitlicient  proof. 
What  form  her  terrible  malady  had  taken 
we  do  not  know.  She  became  a  disciple 
during  the  early  Galihean  ministry,  and  was 
one  of  those  who  Joined  the  little  company 
of  Christ's  immediate  followers,  and  minis- 
tered to  him  of  her  substance  (Luke  viii.  1-3). 
She  was  one  of  the  women  at  the  cross  (Mat. 
xxvii.  5(j ;  Mark  xv.  40;  John  xix.  25)  and 
observed  the  Lord's  burial  (Mat.  xxvii.  61). 
Early  on  the  third  day  she,  with  Mary 
the  wife  of  Clopas  and  Salome,  went  to 
the  sepulcher  to  anoint  the  body  of  Jesus 
(ISIark  xvi.  1).  Finding  the  stone  rolled 
away  she  quickly  returned  to  the  city  and 
told  Peter  and  .John  that  the  body  of  Jesus 
had  been  taken  away  (John  xx.  1,2).  Then, 
following  the  apostles,  she  returned  again  to 
the  garden  and  lingered  there  after  they  had 
gone.  To  her  first  Jesus  appeared  (Mark 
xvi.  9;  John  xx.  11-17),  and  she  reported 
his  resurrection  to  the  other  disciples  (xx. 
18).  Nothing  further  is  known  of  her  his- 
tory. 

4.  Mary  of  Bethany.  A  woman  who,  with 
her  sister  Martha,  lived  in  "a  certain  vil- 
lage" (Luke  x.  38)  which  John  reveals  to 
have  been  Bethany  (John  xi.  1 :  xii.  1),  about 
a  mile  east  of  the  summit  of  the  mount  of 
Olives.  On  tlie  first  occasion  when  Jesus  is 
recorded  to  have  visited  their  house  (Luke 
x.  38-42),  Marj'  ai)pears  as  eager  to  i-eceive 
his  instruction.  Martha  requested  Jesus  to 
bid  Mary  help  her  in  serving  the  entertain- 
ment, but  he  replied  :  "  But  one  thing  is 
needful  :  for  Mary  hath  chosen  the  good 
jiart,  which  shall  not  be  taken  awav  from 
her"  (Luke  x.  42,  R.  V.).  John(xi.)  further 
relates  that  Mary  had  a  brother  named  Laza- 
rus whom  the  Lord  raised  from  the  dead. 
When  Jesus  reached  the  house,  after  Lazarus 


had  been  four  days  dead,  Mary  at  first  "still 
sat  in  the  house"  (John  xi.  20.  i;.  \'.),  but 
afterwards  was  sumnioiud  by  ^Martha  to  meet 
the  Lord  who  had  called  for  her  (ver.  28). 
As  Martha  had  done,  Mary  exclaimed,  "  Lord, 
if  thou  liadst  been  here,  my  brother  had  not 
died,"  and  the  grief  of  the  sisters  deeply 
moved  the  symi>athetic  Saviour.  Afterwards, 
six  days  before  his  last  passover  (John  xii.  1), 
Jesus  came  to  Bethany,  and  a  sujipcr  was 
made  in  his  honor  in  the  house  of  Simon  the 
leper  (Mark  xiv.  3).  While  it  was  in  progress 
Mary  brought  an  alabaster  box  of  pure  oint- 
ment, very  costly,  and,  breaking  the  box, 
jioured  the  ointment  on  the  head  of  Jesus 
(ibid.),  and  anointed  his  feet,  wiping  them 
with  her  hair  (John  xii.  3).  It  was  an  act 
of  rare  devotion,  testifying  both  to  her 
gratitude  and  to  her  sense  of  the  high  dig- 
nity of  him  whom  she  honored.  Judas,  and 
some  other  of  the  disciples,  were  disposed  to 
find  fault  with  the  waste;  but  Jesus  com- 
mended the  act  and  declared  that  "whereso- 
ever the  gospel  shall  be  preached  through- 
out the  whole  world,  that  also  which  this 
woman  hath  done  shall  be  spoken  of  for  a 
memorial  of  her"  (Mat.  xxvi.  (3-13;  !Mark 
xiv.  3-9).  He  looked  upon  her  act  also  as  a 
loving,  though  doubtless  unintentional,  con- 
secration of  him  to  his  approaching  sacrifice 
(John  xii.  7,  8). 

5.  Mary  the  mother  of  Mark.  The  Chris- 
tian woman  in  whose  house  the  disciples  had 
met  to  pray  for  the  release  of  Peter,  when 
he  was  imprisoned  bj-  Herod  Agrippa,  and  to 
which  Peter  at  once  went  when  delivered  by 
the  angel  (Acts  xii.  12).  Her  son  was  the 
author  of  our  Second  Gosi)el ;  see  Mark.  She 
was  evidently  in  comfortable  circuuLstances, 
and  her  house  is  supposed  to  have  been  one 
of  the  principal  meeting  places  of  the  early 
Jerusalem  Christians.  According  to  A.  V.  in 
Col.  iv.  10  she  was  the  sister  of  Barnabas; 
but  E.  V.  correctly  translates  "cousin"  in- 
stead of  "  sister's  son,"  and  it  does  not  appear 
whether  Mark's  relationshi])  to  Barnabas  was 
on  his  father's  or  his  mother's  side.  Nothing 
is  told  us  of  Mary's  husband. 

().  ISIary  of  Home.  A  Christian  woman  at 
Rome  to  whom  Paul  sent  his  salutation  (Rom. 
xvi.  fi).  The  A.  V.  reads  "'who  bestowed 
much  labor  on  vn"  implying  that  Mary  at  one 
time  had  greatly  assisted  the  apostle.  The 
E.  v..  however,  pro]ierly  reads  "  who  be- 
stowed much  labor  on  yon."  Mary  had  thus 
been  an  active  worker  in  the  Cliristiau  cause 
at  Rome.  Beyond  this  reference  we  know 
nothing  of  her. 

G.  T.  p. 

Mas'a-loth.    See  Mes.\lotii. 

Mas'chil  [attentive,  intelligent,  or  render- 
ing intelligent]. 

A  Hebrew  word  occurring  in  the  titles  of 
Ps.  xxxii.,  xlii.,  xliv.,  xiv.,  lii.,  liii.,  liv.,  ly., 
Ixxiv.,  Ixxviii,.  ixxxviii.,  Ixxxix.,  and  cxlii. 
It  doubtless  means  either  a  didactic  poem 


Mash 


461 


Mattattah 


(cp.  Ps.  xxxii.  8,   "I  will    instruct,"    same 
word  radically),  or  else  a  reflective  poem. 

Mash. 

A  hraiich  of  the  Aranireans  (Geu.  x.  2.'{). 
Called  in  1  C'liron.  i.  17  Me.shech,  and  essen- 
tially so  in  tlic  SeptnaKint  of  Gen.  x.  2:{.  This 
is  dilc  ti)  its  confusion  hy  copyists  with  the 
more  familiar  name  ;  oi- else,  if  the  original 
text,  it  points  to  an  intermingling  <>f  Jaiiiictic 
and  Semitic  peoi)le  in  Mcshech. 

Ma'shal.    See  Misheal. 

Ma'son. 

A  workman  skilled  to  hew  and  saw  stones 
into  shape  fur  huildint;  juirposes  and  erect 
walls  (2  Sam.  v.  11  ;  1  Kin.  vii.  it;  1  C'hron. 
xxii.  2;  2  Chron.  xxiv.  12).  The  art  made 
great  pro^iress  among  the  ancient  E<;yi)tians; 
as   the   pyramids,    built    under    the    fourth 


Masons  at  Work  in  Ancient  Egypt. 

dynasty,  and  numerous  temi>les  show.  The 
Hebrews  served  in  brick  and  mortar  while 
they  were  in  l)ondat;e  in  E^ypt  (Ex.  i.  11, 
14)  ;  but  there  is  no  njention  of  their  being 
emjiloycd  in  shaping  and  laying  stones.  In 
Solomon's  time  the  rinenicians  liad  more 
skill  in  tlie  art  than  tlic  Hebrews,  who  as 
yet  had  not  had  occasion  to  erect  great  struc- 
tures of  stone,  and  I'luenician  masons  were 
accordingly  hired  to  l)uild  the  temple  and 
Solomon's  palace.  They  managed  blocks  of 
stone  12  and  1")  feet  in  lengtli  and  even 
longer,  and  pro]>ortionately  broad  and  high 
(1  Kin.  vii.  10).  But  they  were  doubtless 
Hebrew  workmen  who  afterwards  en-cted 
walls  and  fortresses,  built  aque<lucts  and 
reservoirs,  arches  and  bridges,  and  fashioned 
columns  (2  Chron.  xxxiii.  1  I  ;  I'zra  iii  10  ; 
Song  v.  1.") ;  Antiq.  xv.  11.  2).  They  also  un- 
derstood the  use  of  the  j)lummet  (.\nios  vii. 
7;  Z.ch.  iv.  10  ;  Is.  xxviii.  17). 
Mas'o-retes  and  Masorites.   See  Old  Tes- 

TAMKNT. 

Mas'pha.     .See  Mizrin  2  and  .'>. 


Mas're-kah  [a  vineyard]. 

An  Edomite  city  (Gen.  xxxvi.  36  ;  1  Chron. 
i.  47).     E.xact  site  unknown. 

Mas'sa  [carrying,  a  load,  a  burden]. 

.V  trilie  descended  from  Ishmael  ((ien.  xxv. 
14  ;  1  Chron.  i.  :50  ;  cj).  I'rov.  xxx.  1  and  xxxi. 
1,  K.  V.  margin)  ;  generally  identilied  with 
the  Masani,  a  tribe  of  the  Arabian  desert 
near  the  Persian  (iulf  (I'tol.  v.  1!»,  2).  north- 
east of  Dumah.  The  Assyrian  inscriptions 
mention  Mas'u,  as  the  name  may  be  read, 
with  Tem'n  and  Xiba'atu,  cp.  Gen.  xxv.  13, 
1.")  (Delitzsch,  J'aiddieii,  301  seq.). 

Mas'sah  [testing,   temi)tation]. 

A  namt!  given  by  Moses  to  the  i)lace  at 
lloreb  wliere  the  smitten  rock  yielded  water, 
because  the  Israelites  there  in  unbelief  put 
.lehovah  to  a  test  (  Ex.  xvii.  7  ;  Deut.  vi.  16  ; 
ix.  22;  xxxiii.  H).  Called  also  Meribah  (q.v.). 

Ma-thu'sa-la.     Sec  ^Methuselah. 

Ma'tred  [driving  forward]. 

The  mother-in-law  of  Hadar,  king  of  Edom 
((4en.  xxxvi.  .'Jit;  1  Chron.  i.  50). 

Ma'tri  [rainy]. 

.\  Henjamite  family,  from  which  sprang 
Kisli  and  liis  son  king  Saul  (1  Sam.  x.  21). 

Mat 'tan  [a  gift]. 

1.  A  jn-iest  of  Baal  slain  before  the  altar 
of  that  god  during  the  revolution  which  led 
to  the  death  of  Athaliah  and  the  elevation  of 
Joash  to  the  throne  of  Judah  (2  Kin.  xi.  18  ; 
2  Chron.  xxiii.  17). 

2.  Father  of  She])hatiah  (Jer.  xxxviii.  1). 
Mat'ta-nah  [a  gift]. 

One  ot'  tiie  stations  of  the  Israelites  in  or 
near  tlie  ]Moabite  territory  (Num.  xxi.  18, 19). 
Exact  situation  unknown. 

Mat-ta-ni'ali  [gift  of  Jehovah]. 

1.  A  singer,  son  of  Ileman.  in  David's  time 
(1  Chron.  xxv.  4,  16). 

2.  A  Lcvite,  of  the  sons  of  Asaph,  and 
founder  of  a  branch  of  the  family  (2  Chron. 
XX.  11).  Probabl.v  he  himself  is  mentioned  in 
1  Chron.  ix.  1."),  ami  Neh.  xiii.  13;  and  the 
representative  of  the  house  in  Xeh.  xii.  8; 
cp.  Ezra  ii.  41  ;  Neh.  xi.  17.  22;  xii.  2."). 

3.  A  L<'vile  descended  from  Asaiih.  He 
was  one  of  those  who  aided  king  Hezekiah 
in  his  work  of  religious  reformation  (2  Chron. 
xxix.  13). 

4.  A  son  of  king  Josiah.  He  was  ]daced 
on  the  throne  and  his  name  was  altered  to 
Zedekiali  by  Nebuchadnezzar  (2  Kin.  xxiv. 
17)  ;  see  Zi'.DEKl AH. 

.'S-S.  Four  Hebrews,  a  son  of  Elani.  a  son  of 
Zattu.  a  son  of  Pahath-moab,  and  a  son  of 
l?ani,  who  were  induced  by  Ezra  to  put  away 
their  foreign  wives  (Ezra'x.  26.  27,  30,  37K  " 

Mat'ta-tha  [gift  of  Jehovah]. 

A  son  of  Nathan  and  grand.son  of  king 
David  (Luke  iii.  .'il). 

Mat-tat'tah,  in  .\.  V.  Mat'ta-thah  [gift  of 
Jehovah]. 

A  son  of  Hashum,  induced  by  Ezra  to  put 
away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  33). 


Mattathias 


462 


Matthew 


Mat-ta-thi'as  [Greek  form  of  Mattitliiah, 
gift  of  Jehovah]. 

1  ami  2.  A  name  borne  bj*  two  ancestors  of 
Christ,  separated  from  each  other  by  five 
generations,  who  lived  after  the  time  of 
Zerubbabel  (Luke  iii.  25,  2G). 

3.  A  priest,  founder  of  the  Maccabee  family 
(1  Mac.  ii.  1-70).     See  ]S1accai5KK. 

4.  Son  of  Absalom,  and  a  captain  in  the 
army  of  Jonathan  Maccabieus.  He  distin- 
guished himself  at  the  battle  of  Hazor  by  re- 
maining at  the  side  of  Jonathan  when  all  the 
other  captains  save  one  had  lied  (1  Jlac.  xi. 
70).  He  was  perhaps  a  brother  of  Jonathan, 
son  of  Absalom  (xiii.  11). 

5.  Son  of  Simon  Maccaba?ns.  His  father, 
his  brother,  and  be  were  treacherously  mur- 
dei-ed  by  his  brother-in-law  in  the  castle  of 
Dok  (1  Mac.  xvi.  11).     See  Judas. 

Mat'te-nai  [bostowment]. 
1.    A    priest,   head  of   the  father's   house 
Joiarib  in  the  time  of  Joiakim  (Neh.  xii.  19). 

2  and  3.  Two  Hebrews,  a  son  of  Hashum 
and  a  son  of  Bani,  each  of  whom  was  in- 
duced to  put  away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x. 
33,  37). 

Mat'than  [gift]. 

A  near  ancestor  of  Joseph,  and  in  law  of 
Christ  (Mat.  i.  15). 

Mat'that  [gift]. 

A  name  borne  by  two  ancestors  of  Christ ; 
the  one  near,  the  other  quite  remote  (Luke 
iii.  24,  29). 

Mat'thew  [N.  T.  Greek  Mnihtluiios  or 
Matfhnlos,  fnmi  either  Aramaic  MnUny, 
manly,  or  Hebrew  iFnttilhi/ah.  gift  of  Jeho- 
vah]. 

A  publican  or  taxgatherer,  in  the  service 
either  of  the  Roman  or  Herodian  govern- 
ment, stationed  at  Ca]iernanni.  While  sitting 
at  "the  place  t)f  toll  "  (R.  V.)  he  was  called 
by  Jesus  to  become  his  follower  and,  leaving 
his  business,  he  immediately  obeyed  (Mat. 
ix.  9;  3Iark  ii.  11:  Luke  v.  27i.  He  was 
afterwards  ap])ointed  one  of  the  twelve  apos- 
tles (Mat.  X.  3;  Mark  iii.  18:  Luke  vi.  15). 
Mark  and  Luke  give  his  name  as  Levi  and 
state  that  his  father  was  named  Alphfeus. 
Either  be  had  originally  two  names,  as  was 
not  uncommon  among  the  Jews,  or  he  re- 
ceived the  name  Matthew  when  he  became  a 
Christian,  as  Simon  did  that  of  Peter.  He  is 
always  called  Matthew  in  the  lists  of  ajiostles 
and  as  the  author  of  our  First  Gospel.  The 
acceptance  by  .Tesus  of  a  jjublican  as  a  dis- 
ciple evidently  led  others  of  the  outcast 
classes  to  follow  him  and  increased  the  oppo- 
sition of  the  Pharisees.  This  appears  at  the 
feast  which  Matthew  gave  to  Jesus  soon  after 
his  conversion,  when  many  "publicans  and 
sinners"  were  present,  and  when,  in  answer 
to  the  criticism  of  the  Pharisees,  the  Lord 
made  the  famous  reply,  "  I  am  not  come  to  call 
the  righteous  but  sinners  to  repentance" 
(Mat.  ix.  10-13;  Mark  ii.  15-17;  Luke  v.  29- 
32).    Matthew  himself  does  not  say  that  the 


feast  was  in  his  house  (Mat.  ix.  10),  but  Mark 
(ii.  15)  and  Luke  (v.  29)  do,  and  Luke  adds 
that  it  was  a  great  feast.  Some  have  identi- 
fied Matthew's  father  Alplueus  with  the 
father  of  James  the  less;  but  Matthew  and 
James  are  not  joined  together  in  the  lists 
of  apostles  as  other  pairs  of  brothers  are. 
The  idci/tilication  is  therefore  to  lie  rejected. 
]\hittlu  \v  liiially  apjiears  among  the  ai)ostles 
after  Christ's  resurrection  (Acts  i.  13),  but  the 
N.  T.  gives  no  further  iiiformaticn  about 
him.  Tradition  states  that  he  first  iireached 
among  the  Jews,  and  from  tlic  character  of 
his  Go.sjiel,  this  is  not  improliable. 

The  Gos])el  according  to  St.  Matthew  is  the 
first  of  our  four  gospels.  It  was  from  the 
beginning  of  the  jiost-apostolic  age  univer- 
sally ascribed  to  this  apostle.  Its  contents 
may  be  arranged  as  follows : 

1.  The  descent,  birth,  and  infancy  of  the 
royal  Messiah  (i.  and  ii.).  The  special  object 
of  this  section  is  to  set  forth  Jesus  as  the  son 
of  David  and  the  Christ  of  prophecy. 

2.  Introduction  to  the  public  ministry  of 
Christ  (iii.  1-iv.  17),  relating  the  preparatorj' 
work  of  the  Ba]itist,  the  baptism  and  temp- 
tation of  Jesus,  and  the  latter's  settlement  in 
Capernaum  in  accordance  with  prophecy. 

3.  TheGalilfean  ministry  of  Christ  (iv.  18- 
ix.  35).  This  important  section  begins  with 
Christ's  call  of  the  four  leading  disciples  (iv. 
18-22),  and  a  summary  description  of  his 
teaching  and  healing,  and  of  his  fame 
throughout  Palestine  (iv.  19-25).  Then  fol- 
lows, as  an  example  of  his  teaching,  the  ser- 
mon on  the  mount  (v.-vii.),  to  which  is  ap- 
pended a  collection  of  incidents,  mostly 
miracles,  which  illustrated  his  teaching  (viii. 
1-ix.  34). 

4.  The  mission  of  the  apostles  (ix.  36-x.  42)  ; 
beginning  with  an  account  of  Christ's  com- 
passion on  the  shepherdless  people,  his  ap- 
pointment of  the  twelve,  and  his  instructions 
to  them. 

5.  Christ  in  conflict  with  increasing  oppo- 
sition (xi.  1-xv.  20),  comprising  the  inquiry 
of  the  Bajitistand  Christ's  discourse  concern- 
ing John,  together  with  other  remarks  occa- 
sioned by  popular  unbelief:  the  opposition 
of  the  Pharisees,  beginning  with  the  Sabbath 
controversy  and  culminating  in  the  charge 
that  Jesus  was  in  league  with  Beelzebub,  to- 
gether with  Christ's  reply  and  his  refusal  to 
give  them  a  sign  ;  the  visit  of  his  mother  and 
brethren :  a  collection  of  the  i)arables  of 
Jesus  spoken  at  this  time;  his  (second)  rejec- 
tion at  Nazai'oth  ;  Herod's  inquiry  and  the 
death  of  the  I'.aptist ;  the  feeding  of  the  5000 
and  walking  on  the  water:  Christ's  final  rup- 
ture with  tiie  Pharisees  in  Galilee  and  his  de- 
nunciation of  their  formalism. 

fi.  Christ's  retirement  from  Capernaum  and 
instruction  of  his  disciples  (xv.  21-xviii.  35) ; 
comprising  the  healing  of  the  daughter  of 
the  woman  of  Canaan,  the  feeding  of 
4000,  refusal  of  a  sign  and  warning  against 
the  leaven  of  the  Pharisees  and  Sadducees, 


Matthew 


463 


Matthias 


the  confession  and  rebuke  of  Peter,  Christ's 
first  prediction  of  Iiis  death,  tlie  transfifjiira- 
tiiiii  anil  tlic  ciiri'  of  tlie  dt'imniiai'  hoy  :  tiie 
rctinii  to  ('apcniaiiiii,  the  provision  uf  trihiite 
nioiiey,  and  instruction  of  tlie  discii)les  con- 
cerning the  huuihle,  self-denyiuj;.  loving, 
and  for^civiug  si>irit  of  true  iliscii)leship. 

7.  The  cliisiug  ministry  of  Ciirist  in 
I'era-a  and  Judaea  (xix.,  xx.l;  coniprisiug  in- 
structions about  divorce,  l)k'ssing  tlie  chil- 
dren, the  rich  young  ruh^r,  the  paral)le  of 
tlu'  lalnu'crs  in  tlie  vineyard,  the  ascent  to  Je- 
riisaicni,  with  audt  her  i)redictioii  of  his  death, 
the  request  of  ,Janies  anil  .lohn,  antl  the  heal- 
ing of  iJartiina-us  at  Jericho. 

8.  The  last  week  of  Christ's  ministry  (xxi. 
-xxviii.),  comiu-isiug  the  triunijihal  entry 
and  the  cleansing  of  the  temple  ;  tlu'  wither- 
ing of  the  barren  fig  tree;  tlu'  deputation 
from  the  sauhe(lriu;  the  jjaraldes  of  the  two 
sons,  the  wicked  husbandmen,  and  the  mar- 
riage of  the  king's  son  ;  the  ipiestions  of  the 
Pharisees,  Sadducees,  and  a  lawyer,  with 
Christ's  question  in  reply  concerning  the  son 
of  David;  woes  against  the  scribes  and 
Pharisees;  the  eschatologieal  discourse  on 
Olivet,  followed  by  the  parables  of  the  vir- 
gins and  of  the  talents  and  a  descriiitiou  of 
the  last  judgment.  Then  follow  the  treach- 
ery of  .Tudas,  the  last  passover,  the  agony  in 
(Tethsemane.  the  arrest  and  trial  of  .Jesus  be- 
fiire  the  sanhedriu,  Peter's  denials,  the  re- 
morse of  .Tudas,  the  trial  bi'fore  Pilate,  and 
the  crucilixiou  and  burial.  The  last  chapter 
relates  the  appearance  of  .Jesus  to  the 
women,  the  rejiort  of  tlie  Roman  watch,  and 
the  gathering  of  Christ  with  hisdisciples  on  a 
mountain  in  Calilee,  when  he  gave  them  the 
commission  to  preach  his  gitspel  to  the  world 
and  ]irc>mised  to  be  always  with  them. 

The  arrangement  of  this  ( lospel  is  chroiu)- 
logical  only  in  giMU'ral  outline.  In  the  sec- 
ond half,  indeed,  it  follows  what  is  probal)ly 
till-  true  order  of  events,  but  this  is  because 
that  iiriler  naturally  agreeil  with  the  evange- 
list's iilijt-ct.  His  ])riuiary  nnitivi;  was  to  ar- 
range his  matter  topically.  lie  wished  espe- 
cially to  jiresent  the  teaching  of  Christ  con- 
cerning tin'  nature  of  the  kingdon  of  heaven 
anil  the  character  of  its  disciples,  the  mira- 
cles by  which  he  illustrated  his  teaching  and 
revealed  his  authority,  and  the  fruitless  op- 
jiiisition  to  him  of  the  Pharisees,  represent- 
ing current  .ludaisin.  Hence  the  large  jilace 
which  he  ji'Vi'S  to  the  teaching  of  .Jesus. 
Hence,  too,  his  habit  of  grouping  together 
both  instructions  upon  certain  sulijects  and 
incidents  which  illustrated  th(>  teacliing.  He 
sets  forth  .Fesus  as  the  royal  Messiah,  who 
broui,dit  about  the  fiillillnient  of  law  and 
l>rophtcy.  and  established  in  tin-  church,  by 
his  redeeming  work  and  sjiiritual  teaching, 
the  true  kingdom  of  (iod,  which  is  meant  to 
embrace  all  nations.  The  fulfillment  of 
prophecv  is  fre(|nentlv  noted  (i.  •i".',  '2:$:  ii.  .">, 
♦i.  l.">.  17.  is,  •,>.■!:  iii!  :{ ;  iv.  1 1  l(i :  viii.  17; 
xi.  10;  xii.  17  Jl  :   xiii.  11.  1.'.,  :{.'>;  xxi.  4,  ."> ; 


xxvl.  24,  31,  56 ;  xxvii.  9,  3.'5),  and  there  aro 
about  a  hundred  (pujlations,  more  or  less  for- 
m.il,  from  theO.  T.  While  Matthew  wrote 
from  the  Hebrew  point  of  view,  he  l)rings 
out  the  destination  of  the  gospel  for  the  gen- 
tiles (e.  f/.  viii.  10-12;  x.  18;  xxi.  415;  xxii. 
9  ;  xxiv.  14  ;  xxviii.  19),  rei>resents  the  op- 
position to  Christ  of  current  .Iiuhiism  (c.  g. 
v.  20-48;  vi.  .5-18;  ix.  10-17;  xii.  l-i:5,  34; 
XV.  1-20  ;  xvi.  1-12 ;  xix.  3-9  ;  xxi.  12-16  ; 
xxiii.,  etc.),  and  shows  by  his  explanations 
of  terms  (i.  23  ;  xxvii.  33),  places  (ii.  23  ;  iv. 
1.3),  .Jewish  beliefs  (xxii.  23)  and  customs 
(xxvii.  l.")  ;  see  also  xxviii.  15),  that  he  wrote 
not  merely  for  Jews,  but  for  all  believers. 

That  the  authm-  of  this  Gospel  was  really 
th<'  apostle  ]\Iatthew  is  attested  by  the  unan- 
imous tradition  of  tbeaiu-ieiit  chureh.  It  is 
improbable  that  so  important  a  book  would 
have  been  attrilmted  to  so  obscure  an  apostle 
•without  good  reason.  It  has  J^ecn  observed 
also  that  a  publican  would  be  liki'ly  to  kee]) 
records;  while  the  modest  way  in  which  bo 
speaks  of  the  feast  given  by  him  to  Jesus 
(ix.  10;  cp.  Luke  v.  29)  is  thought  by  nuiny 
to  confirm  the  tradition  of  his  authorship. 
Ancient  tradition  also  affirmed  that  Matthew 
wrote  liis  (iospel  originally  in  Het)ri'W.  At 
the  .same  time  the  tradition  atlirnied  that  our 
Greek  Gospel  is  Matthew's.  Some  scholars  re- 
.j<'ct  the  traditi(ni  of  an  original  Hebrew  ; 
others  suppose  that  the  (ireek  is  a  translation, 
or  that  ^Matthew  issued  two  gospels,  one  in 
Hebrew  or  Aramaic,  the  other  in  (ireek. 
Some  think  that  Matthew  wrote  in  Hebrew 
merely  a  c<illection  of  the  sayings  of  Jesus, 
which  arc  iiworpcu'ated  in  our  Greek  Gospel 
together  with  historical  matter  taken  from 
]\Iark  ;  but  this  theory  is  confronted  by  the 
testimony  of  anti((uity  thai  our  Greek  Gos- 
jiel  is  by  Matthew,  and  the  dependence  of 
our  Matthew  on  Mark  is  an  unproved  hy- 
pothesis oiten  to  many  objections.  It  is 
utterly  imiu'obable  also  that  an  original  gos- 
jiel  did  not  contain  historical  matter.  What- 
ever therefore  may  be  thought  of  the  tradi- 
tion that  Matthew  wrote  in  Hebrew,  our 
Greek  (Jospel  must  certainly  be  attributed  to 
liim.  The  date  of  its  composition  is  ]iroba- 
hly  to  lu-  assiuned  to  a.  I>.  (!0-70.  The  mo.st 
ancient  tradition,  that  of  Iremeus  (about  A.  D. 
175),  as.signs  it  to  that  period,  and  internal 
considerations  confirm  the  tradition.  The 
l)lace  of  its  composition  is  unknown.  The 
ac(|uaintaiii'e  with  it  shown  by  ]iost-apostolic 
writers  in  widely  scattered  localities  ])roves 
that  it  obtained,  as  soon  as  it  was  i)ublished, 
general  circulation.  o.  T.  P. 

Mat-thl'as  [probably  a  variant  form  of 
Mattathias,  gift  of  Jeh<">vah]. 

One  of  two  Christians  regarded  by  the 
early  church  as  suitable  ]iersons  to  make  n]> 
the  number  of  the  ajiostles  diniini^hed  by  the 
ai>ostasy  and  death  of  .Judas  Iscariot.  The 
question  of  the  relative  litness  of  tlu^  two 
candidates  was  submitted  to  lot,  which  wae 


Mattithiah 


4G4 


Meals 


in  favor  of  Matthias,  -who  was  at  once  num- 
bered with  the  other  eleven  apostles  (Acts  i. 
21-26).  Nothing  more  is  known  of  his  his- 
tory. 

Mat-ti-thi'ah  [gift  of  Jehovah]. 

1.  A  Lcvite,  son  of  the  singer  Jcduthun 
(1  Chron.  xxv.  3),  and  himself  one  of  the 
musicians  of  the  sanctuary  who  played  the 
harp  (xv.  18,  21).  lie  was  afterwards  made 
head  of  the  foiirtoi'nth  of  the  courses  into 
which  the  musicians  were  divided  l)y  David 
(xxv.  21). 

2.  A  Levitc  of  the  sons  of  Korah,  family 
of  Kohath.  lie  was  the  eldest  son  of  Shal- 
lum,  and  was  i)laccd  in  charge  over  the 
things  that  were  baked  in  pans  (1  Chron. 
ix.  31). 

3.  A  son  of  Ncbo,  induced  by  Ezra  to  put 
away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  43). 

4.  A  priest  or  Levite  who  supported  Ezra 
when  he  addressed  the  returned  exiles  re- 
garding the  law  (Neh.  viii.  4). 

Mat'tock. 

An  instrument  for  loosening  the  soil, 
shaped  like  a  jtickaxe  or  hoe  with  two  blades 
in  different  planes,  the  cutting  edge  of  one 
resembling  that  of  an  axe,  and  the  other  that 
of  an  adze.  It  is  used  specially  for  grubbing 
up  the  roots  of  trees.  In  the  O.  T.  mattock 
is  the  rendering  of:  1.  The  Hebrew  Mnh'^re- 
shah,  cutting  instrument,  in  1  Sam.  xiii.  20, 
21.  Malfresheih,  a  similar  word  from  the 
same  root,  occurs  in  ver.  20,  and  is  believed 
to  denote  the  plowshare.  Both  of  these  im- 
l)lements  were  made  of  metal.  2.  The  He- 
brew 3Ia'f1er,  dressing  instrument.  It  was 
used  in  digging  and  dressing  vineyards  (Is. 
vii.  2.J). 

In  2  Chron.  xxxiv.  6  the  Hebrew  is  be- 
lieved to  be  corrupt,  and  for  mattock  of  the 
A.  ^'..  the  E.  V.  substitutes  ruins. 


versions  interprets  it  as  the  signs  of  the  zodiac, 
ecjuivalent  to  the  Hebrew  Muszaloth  (2  Kin. 
xxiii.  5,  nuirgin).  The  i)arallel  i)assage. 
Job  ix.  9,  suggests  that  the  Mazzaroth  are  a 
constellation  of  the  southern  sky,  a  cluster 
among  the  stars  that  are  chambered  in  the 
south.  Other  interpretations  have  also  been 
proposed. 
Mead'ow. 

1.  The  rendering  of  the  Egyptian  word 
Ahri,  in  A.  V.  of  Gen.  xli.  2,  IS.  The  word 
denotes  reed-gra.ss  or,  as  it  is  rendered  in  Job 
viii.  11,  flags. 

2.  Tlie  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Ma'''reh 
(Judg.  XX.  33,  A.  V.)  ;  see  Maareh-geba. 

Me 'ah  [a  hundred]. 

A  tower  at  Jerusalem  not  far  from  that  of 
Hananeel  and  the  sheep  gate  (Xeh.  iii.  I ; 
xii.  39)  ;  see  Jerusalem  II.  3. 

Meal  Of'fer-ing.     See  Offerings. 

Meals. 

The  Israelites  ate  in  the  morning  and  in 
the  evening  (Ex.  xvi.  12;  1  Kin.  xvii.  6; 
John  xxi.  4,  12).  This  custom  did  not  forbid 
a  morsel  at  other  hours.  Laborers  partook 
of  a  light  repast  at  noon  (Ruth  ii.  14).  Later 
Ihe  ascetic  Essenes  did  with  two  meals,  the 
first  at  the  fifth  hour  or  eleven  o'clock  in  the 
nun'niug,  and  the  other  in  the  evening  (War 
ii.  8,  5).  Among  the  stricter  Jews  of  the 
lime  of  Christ,  the  fast  of  the  night  was  not 
broken  by  a  meal  on  an  ordinary  day  before 
nine  o'clock,  which  was  the  hour  of  prayer 
(Acts  ii.  15)  ;  and  on  the  Sabbath  food  was 
not  served  before  twelve  o'clock,  when  the 
.service  in  the  .synagogue  was  over  (Life  54). 
The  chief  meal  of  the  day  took  place  in  the 
evening  (War  i.  17,  4  ;  Life  44 ;  cp.  Gen.  xix. 
1-3;  Ex.  xii.  18;  Euth  iii.  7).  Feasts  were 
sometimes  spread  at  noon  by  the  Egyptians 
and  Syrians  (Gen.  xliii.  16  ;  1  Kin.  xx.  16). 


Komans  at  Meal. 


Maul. 

The    rendering  of   the    Hebrew    Mephis, 
breaker,  a  weapon  of  war  (Prov.  xxv.  18). 

Maz'za-roth. 

A    feature    of   the    starry    heavens    (Job 
xxxviii.   32).     The  margin  of  both  English 


As  to  the  posture  at  meals,  the  ancient 
Hebrew.s,  like  the  ancient  Egyptians  and 
Greeks  (Iliad  x.  578 ;  Anab.  vi.  1,3)  and  modern 
Arabs,  were  in  the  habit  of  sitting,  probably 
on  mats  spread  on  the  floor  or  ground  (Gen. 
xxvii.  19  ;  Judg.  xix.  6  ;  1  Sam.  xx.  5,  24  ;  1 
Kin.  xiii.  20).     Eecliniug  on  couches  came 


Meals 


465 


Meals 


into  use  later  (Esth.  i.  6  ;  vii.  8  ;  Ezek.  xxiii. 
41  ;  John  xxi.  20),  and  i)r()l>iil)ly  inevailed 
in  tlie  CJroco-lvoiiiaii  poriixl  (Mark  vii.  4  ;  in 
A.  V.  tables).  Three  coiu'lu-.s  wciv  ordinarily 
plat'ed  atnuit  a  table,  beinj^  arranged  .so  as  to 
form  three  sides  of  a  s(|iiare  and  leave  the 
fourth  side  oi)en  for  the  admittance  of  serv- 
ants with  the  dislies.  The  couches  were 
desinnalcd  hifilu'st,  middle,  ami  lowest  re- 
spectively, the  highest  liciiiu;  to  the  right  of 
tlic  servants  as  they  apnniached  the  table, 
(lenerally.  only  three  persons  occupied  a 
couch,  but  occasiotuiUy  four  or  five.  The 
body  lay  diagonally  on  the  coucli,  the  head 
being  near  the  tatde  and  the  feet  stretched 
out  toward  the  back  of  the  couch.  The  left 
elbow  rested  on  a  cushion  and  sui>i)orted  the 
u]>iier  part  of  the  body.  The  right  arm  re- 
mained free.  The  head  of  tin-  i>erson  re- 
clining ill  front  of  anotlier  rested  on  or  near 
the  breast  of  him  who  lay  behind  (John  xiii. 
23  ;  xsi.  20).  The  three  positions  on  each 
couch  were  also  termed  highest,  middle,  and 
lowest,  the  highest  person  being  tlie  one  who 
had  nobddy  .'it  his  back.  The  i^isition  of 
honor  (Mat.  xxiii.  (j,  K.  V.)  was  the  highest 
])lace  on  the  liighest  couch.  Wonu'n  took 
their  meals  with  men,  occasionally  at  least 
(Uuth  ii.  14  ;  1  Sam.  i.  1  ;   Job  i.  4J." 


the  hollow  hand  into  a  dish.  Occasionally 
separate  portions  were  served  in  the  same 
manner  to  each  (Kuth  ii.  14;  1  Sam.  i.  4; 
John  xiii.  2fj).  Prayer  after  meal  developed 
out  of  Deut.  viii.  10  (War  ii.  8,  5j. 


I  iiids  before  or  after  a  Meal. 


The  Hebrews  and  (ireeks.  like  the  modern 
Arabs,  washed  their  hands  before  eating 
(Mat.  xxvi.  2."?;  lliail  x.  577;  Odys.  i.  l.Uii, 
since  generally  there  was  a  common  dish  into 
which  the  hand  of  each  was  (li])])ed.  This 
cleanly  custom  becanK-  a  ritual  observance 
with  the  I'harisees,  and  as  s\ieh  was  con- 
demned by  Ciirist  (Mark  vii.  \-V,i).  A  bless- 
ing was  asked  before  the  meal  hv  Samuel  (1 
Sam.  ix.  U).  by  Christ  (Mat.  xiv.'l!);  xv.  30; 
xxvi.  2(;),  and  by  the  early  Christians  (Acts 
xxvii.  ,3.")).  It  was  also  ciistom:iry  amongtlie 
.lews  in  the  time  of  Christ  (cp.  War  ii.  8,  'i). 
\  piece  of  bread  served  as  a  sjioon  and  was 
dipjied  into  the  bowl  of  grease  or  meat,  or 
the  thick  soup  or  pottage  was  ladled  with 
.30 


Modern  Orientals  at  a  Meal. 

At  iireteutious  meals  on  festive  occasions, 
when  a  large  company  of  guests  gathered 
about  the  tal)le,  greater  ceremony  was  ob- 
served. It  was  courteous  to  receive  the  guest 
with  a  kiss  (Luke  vii.  4")),  and  indispensable 
to  jirovide  water  for  him  to  wash  his  feet  and 
hands  with  ((4en.  xviii.  4  ;  xix.  2  ;  Luke  vii. 
44  ;  John  ii.  (>).  He  came  in  his  best  attire, 
of  course,  and  often  with  the  hair,  beard,  feet, 
and  sonietinu'S  clothes,  ])erfmned  (Amos  vi. 
6  ;  Wisd.  ii.  7).  Occasionally  he  was  anointed 
at  the  house  of  tlie  ho.st  (Luke  vii.  38;  John 
xii.  3).  The  participants  at  the  feast  .some- 
times wore  a  wreath  on  the  head  (Is.  xxviii. 
1;  Wisd.  ii.  7.  S;  Aiili(|.  xix.  9.  1).  They 
were  arranged  according  to  rank  (1  Sam.  ix. 
22;  Luke  xiv.  8  ;  and  so  in  Egypt,  (tcu.  xliii. 
33).  Portions  of  food  were  jilaced  before 
each  (1  Sam.  i.  1),  and  the  guest  of  honor  re- 
ceived a  larger  or  choicer  share  (."> :  ix.  24  ; 
so  in  Egypt,  (Jen.  xliii.  34).  A  ruler  was 
•sometimes  ajipointed  to  ]ireside  at  the  feast, 
taste  the  viands,  and  direct  the  jiroceediugs 
(Ecelus.  xxxii.  1.  2:  John  ii.  <),  10).  The 
ban(|Uet  was  rendered  merrier  by  music  (Is. 
V.  12;  Ecdns.  xxxii.  ,">.  (i),  singing  (2  .Sam. 
xix.  3."> ;  Amos  vi.  4-(>).  dancing  (Mat.  xiv.  6  ; 
Luke  XV.  2r>),  and  riddles  (Jiidg.  xiv.  12). 
These  customs  receive  illustration  from  the 
manner  of  feasts  among  the  (".reeks.  The 
guests  Were  ai)t  to  be  placed  according  to 
rank,  and  the  guest  of  honor  received  the 
choicest  food  (Herod,  vi.  ri7 :  Iliad  vii.  .321). 
At  the  conclusion  of  the  meal  garlands  and 
various  kinds  of  perfumes  were  given  to  the 


Mearah 


466 


Medeba 


guests,  and  wine  was  served.  Ordinarily  a 
governor,  chosen  from  among  the  coniiiany 
(Anal),  vi.  1,  30),  |iresided.  His  cdniiiiand 
was  law.  He  tasted  the  food  and  drink  be- 
fore they  were  placed  on  the  talde,  directed 
the  servants,  fixed  the  proportion  in  which 
the  wine  and  water  were  mixed,  and  deter- 
mined the  quantity  which  each  of  the  com- 
pany should  drink.  He  al.so  proposed  the 
amusements.  The  pleasure  was  heightened 
by  songs,  and  by  the  spectacle  of  dancing 
(Plato,  Sympos.  ii.,  Legg.  671;  Anab.  vi.  1, 
3-13). 

A  gruesome  custom  existed  among  the 
Egyptians,  according  to  Herodotus  (ii.  78). 
At  the  banquets  of  the  wealthy  the  image  of 
a  dead  body  in  a  coffin  was  carried  round 
and  shown  to  each  of  the  company  with  the 
remark:  ''Look  upon  this,  then  drink  and 
enjoy  yourself;  for  when  dead  you  will  be 
like  this." 

Me-a'rah  [a  cave]. 

A  place  near  Sidon  (Josh.  siii.  4)  ;  com- 
monly, but  without  certainty,  identified  with 
a  district  of  caves,  on  the  top  of  Lebanon, 
east  of  Sidon,  known  as  JIughar  Jezzim  or 
caves  of  Jezzim.  Conder  suggests  Moghei- 
riyeh,  6  miles  northeast  of  Sidon. 

Meas'ure. 

I.  Measures  of  Length. 

The  unit  was  the  cubit,  18  inches  or  more ; 
see  Cubit. 

4  fingers  =  1  handbreadth  ; 
3  handbreadths  =  1  span  ; 


2  spans  =  1  cubit. 


The  finger,  accordingly,  was  3  inch. 

In  the  Greco-Eoman  period  distance  was 
measured  by  miles  and  stades.  5000  Roman 
feet  =  1  Eoman  mile  =  1478.7  meters  = 
4851.43  English  feet.  Eight  stadia  (Luke 
xxiv.  13,  rendered  furlong)  were  loosely  reck- 
oned to  the  mile  ;  although  theoretically  the 
siadion  was  600  Greek  feet  or  625  Eoman 
feet,  the  length  of  the  race  course  at  Olympia. 

II.  Measure  of  Area. 

Acre  is  the  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Semed, 
yoke,  and  3[n'''vnh,  furrow  (1  Sam.  xiv.  14  ;. 
Is.  V.  10).  The  Eoman  acfun,  furrow,  was  120 
Eoman  feet  in  length,  and  the  JH.fler^m,  yoke, 
was  a  piece  of  land  two  actus  long  by  one 
actus  broad  or  less  than  f  of  an  acre.  Proba- 
bly the  Hebrew  acre  was  not  very  different. 

III.  Measures  of  Capacity. 

The  unit  was  the  ephah  for  dry  substances 
and  the  bath  for  liquids,  the  ephah  and  the 
bath  being  of  equal  cajtacity  (Ezek.  xlv.  11),. 
and  containing  a  trifle  more  than  3  ])ecks,  5 
quarts,  U.  S.  dry  measure,  or  8  gallons,  1 
quart,  I5  pints,  U.  S.  wine  measure.  See 
Ephah. 


Liquid  Pleasure. 

12  logs    =  1  hin  ; 
6  hins   =  1  bath  ; 

10  baths  =1  homer,  or  cor  (Ezek. 
xlv.  14). 

The  log,  accordingly,  contained  a  trifle 
over  .9  pint  or  about  3f  gills,  and  the  hin 
about  5  quarts,  1^  pints.  A  third  jiart,  He- 
])rew  shalish  (Ps.  Ixxx.  5;  Is.  xl.  12,  rendered 
measure)  was  probably  the  third  of  a  bath, 
and  hence  corresjjonded  toaseah.  The  Greek 
measure  metretrs  (John  ii.  6,  rendered  firkin) 
contained  in  Athens  39.39  liters  or  41.61  U. 
S.  liquid  quarts. 

Dri/  Measure. 

6  kabs  =  1  seah 

3  seahs  or  measures  \     1  ephah  (Ex.  xvi. 
or  >  =     36 ;  Num.  xv.  4, 

10  omcrs  or  tenth  parts  J  Septuagint). 

10  epliahs=  1  homer  (Ezek.  xlv.  11). 

The  kab  was  equivalent  to  about  3§  pints, 
and  the  seah  to  9§  quarts.  The  Greek  choiui.c 
(Eev.  vi.  6,  rendered  measure)  is  estimated 
at  1.094  liters  or  .99301  quart.  The  Eoman 
modius  (Mat.  v.  15,  rendered  bushel)  con- 
tained .948  imperial  peck,  or  7.82  U.  S.  dry- 
quarts. 

Meat   Of'fer-ing.     See  Offerings. 

Me-bun'nai  [l>uilt]. 

A  Hushathite.  one  of  David's  mighty  men 
(2  Sam.  xxiii.  27).  The  name  is  probably  to 
be  read  Sibbecai,  in  accordance  with  xxi.  18 
and  1  Chron.  xi.  29  ;  xxvii.  11. 

Me-che'rath-ite. 

A  person  related  by  birth  or  residence  to 
]\Iecherah  (1  Chron.  xi.  36).  No  person  or 
place  called  Mecherah  is  known.  The  pas- 
sage in  Chronicles  must  be  compared  with  2 
Sam.  xxiii.  34. 

Me-co'nah,  in  A.  V.  Mekonah  [foundation, 
place]. 

A  town  in  the  territory  of  Judah  (Xeh.  xi. 
28),  named  in  connection  with  Ziklag  and 
other  towns  of  the  extreme  south.  Not 
identified. 

Me'dad  [love]. 

A  man  who,  though  not  present  at  the 
tabernacle  when  the  Spirit  was  imparted  to 
the  elders,  vet  received  the  gift  (Num.  xi. 
26-29).     See'ELDAD. 

Me'dan. 

A  tribe  descended  from  Abraham  and 
Keturah  and  mentioned  in  connection  with 
Midian  (Gen.  xxv.  2;  1  Chnm.  i.  32).  Wetz- 
stein  observes  that  the  Arabian  geographer 
Yakut  mentions  a  wady  Medan  near  the 
ruined  town  of  Dedan  (cp.  Gen.  xxv.  3). 

Med'e-ba,  in  1  Mac.  Medaba  [water  of 
quietness]. 

An  old  IMoabite  town  numtioned  with 
Heshbon  and  Dibon  in  Num.  xxi.  30.     It  was 


Mede 


467 


Medicine 


allotted  to  the  tribe  of  Keuben  (Josh.  xiii.  9, 
l(j).  Diiriiif;  the  reign  of  David  it  was  held 
for  a  time  hy  the  Aiiiiiioiiites,  who  with  tlieir 
Ar.iiiiiean  allies  were  delV'ated  there  l>y  Juab 
(1  Cliron.  xix.  7).  It  reverted  to  the  Moab- 
ites  (Mdabile  Stone  .'50;  Is.  xv.  2).  Jolin 
.Maccaijieiis  was  .seized  and  slain  here  by  sous 
iif  Janibri  or  Anibri,  a  jjowerful  family  of 
the  town.  The  aet  was  revenged  by  liis 
brothers  Jonathan  and  Simon  tl  Mae.  ix.  3(i- 
4'J:  -\nti(j.  xiii.  1,  2  and  4).  John  Hyreanns 
took  tlie  town  after  a  siege  lasting  nearly  six 
months  (}l,  1).  The  rnins  are  still  ealled 
Madeba.  and  are  situated  about  lU  miles  east 
by  south  of  the  mouth  of  the  Jordan,  and 
(>  to  the  south  of  Heshbon.  They  are  on  an 
emiuenee,  from  whieli  the  eity  extended 
eastward  into  the  plain.  There  are  remains 
of  a  eity  wall,  and  of  temples  and  other 
buildings,  with  (Jreek,  lioman.  and  rh(e- 
nieian  inseriptions.  At  tlie  .southeast  angle 
of  the  eity  is  a  line  tjink  or  reservoir  l'.iO 
yards  siiiiare,  and  in  the  vieinity  are  many 
caves  which  have  been  used  as  cisterns. 

Mede,  in  A.  V.  once  Median  (Dan.  v.  31). 

A  person  belonging  to  the  .Median  nation- 
ality ;  a  native  or  an  inhabitant  of  Media  r2 
Kin",  xvii.  (i;  Esth.  i.  19;  Is.  xiii.  17;  Dan. 
v.  -JS.  :51). 

Me'di-a. 

A  country  in  A.sia  lying  east  of  the  Zagros 
mountains,  south  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  west 
of  I'arthia,  anil  north  of  Klain.  Its  length 
was  about  find  miles,  its  breadth  about  'SiQ. 
and  its  area  about  l.io.orx)  sipiare  miles.  But 
when  tile  em])!re  was  at  the  greatest  it  ex- 
tendeil  lieyond  tliese  limits,  especially  in  the 
northwest.  \  great  part  of  .Media  ]iroper 
was  a  table-land  ;joO(>  feet  high.  The  rest 
consisted  of  seven  i)arallel  mountain  eliains 
running  from  the  northwest  to  the  .southeast, 
with  fertile  and  well-watered  valleys  be- 
tween. The  i)asturage  w;is  excellent,  and 
the  country  was  noted  for  its  horses.  The 
early  inhabitants  were  in  all  jtrobability  a 
jmn-.Vry;in  and  non-.St-mitic  race,  who  were 
(•onqiKTfil  t>y  .\ryans,  tiie  .Madai  of  (Jen.  x. 
2  (ep.  Herod.  7.  U'J).  The  history  of  .Media 
begins  to  be  known  in  the  ninth  century 
7!.  c.  I'erosus  the  Babylonian,  it  is  true, 
makes  the  Medes.  ;ibout  "JL-jS  n.  f..  capture 
Babylon  and  establish  there  a  Median  king- 
dom, which  lasted  221  years;  but  it  is  not 
known  on  what  authority  his  statement  rests. 
.\bout  .''I!.')  the  country  was  ]iroba)ily  invaded 
by  Sbalmant'ser.kin^  of  .\s.syria.  and  later  by 
Shanisbi-Ii;tmman  his  son.  who  rcignetl  from 
H'2.'5-H10.  and  by  liiunmanniniri,  who  was 
king  from  810-7S1.  with  the  result  that 
the  Medes  became  tributaries  of  .\ssyria. 
Tiirlatb-pileser  coiKincred  and  annexed  dis- 
Iricts  of  Media.  When  .Sargon  captured 
.Sjimaria.  722  B.  c,  he  |)laeed  Israelites  in  the 
cities  of  tin-  .Medes  (2  Kin.  xvii.  (5;  xviii.  11). 
About  7Hi  the  .Medes  themscdves  were  more 
thoroughly   conquered    by  Sargon,   wiio  ex- 


acted from  them  a  tribute  of  the  fine  horses 
for  which  Media  was  celebrated.  Sennach- 
erib also  boasts  of  tribute  received  from 
Media,  and  Esjirhaddon  jilaccd  governors  in 
the  country.  In  all  this  there  is  no  trace  of 
the  Medes  forming  a  united  nation  under 
one  king  (contrary  to  Herod,  i.  9G  seq.). 
Under  I'hraortes,  (j'hy-ii'.y.i  ii.  c,  Media  became 
a  formidable  i)ower.  About  t'>'S>  his  son 
C'yaxares  joined  with  Nabojiolassar  of  Baliy- 
lon  in  besieging  and  cajjturing  Nineveli, 
thus  terminating  the  great  Assyrian  empire 
(cp.  Anti(i.  X  .5,  1).  The  victors  divided  the 
sjioil  between  them,  the  share  of  Cyaxares 
being  Assyria  jiroper  and  the  countries  de- 
]>endent  on  it  toward  the  north  and  north- 
west. The  marriage  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  son 
of  Nabopol;iss;ir,  with  Amyites  or  Amytis, 
diiughter  of  Cyaxares,  cementetl  the  alliance 
between  Babylonia  and  Media,  and  greatly 
strengthened  both  monarchies.  When  Cy- 
axares died,  in  593,  his  sou  Astyages  be- 
came king.  In  his  old  age,  about  .5.tO 
the  Persians,  whose  country  lay  south  and 
southeast  of  Media,  successfully  rebelled, 
and  Cyrus  their  leader  became  king  of  Media 
and  Persia.  The  conqnerors  and  the  con- 
quered were  both  of  the  fine  Aryan  race, 
and  they  became  a  dual  nation.  Medo-Persia. 
In  .3.')0  Ii.  c.  Jledia  be<ame  a  jiart  of  .Alexan- 
der's emjiire.  After  this  conijueror's  death  it 
was  united  to  Syria  (1  Mac.  vi.  oG),  and  later 
it  formed  a  iiart  of  the  Parthian  empire. 

In  till'  Hebrew  Scri])tures  the  Medes  are 
introduced  as  at  least  one  of  the  nationalities 
which  .should  take  part  in  the  capture  of 
Babylon  (Is.  xiii.  17.  IS;  cp.  also  Jer.  Ii.  11. 
28)  ;  and  Elain  and  Media  are  named  as  the 
two  countries  from  which  the  conquerors  of 
Babylon  should  come  (Is.  xxi.  2,  9).  On  the 
capture  of  the  great  city  by  the  ^ledo- 
Persiaus  under  Cyrus  in  ."):{9,  Darius  the 
Mede  took  the  kingdom  of  Babybni  (Dan.  v. 
31  ;  cp.  2S).  The  Medo-Pei-sian  empire  is  the 
second  kingdom  (Dan.  ii.  .'i9),  the  bear  (vii. 
.5).  and  the  two-honu'd  ram  (viii,  3-7,  20). 
One  horn  was  higher  than  the  other,  and 
the  higher  came  uj)  last  (ver.  3);  in  other 
words,  the  Median  power  came  first,  but 
the  Persian,  which  followed,  surjiassed  it  in 
strength. 

Me'di-an.    See  Mede. 

Med'i-clne. 

Kgyiit  was  early  renowned  for  medical 
kuowledgi-  and  skill.  Cyrus  of  Persia  sent 
to  Kgyiit  for  an  oculist,  and  Darius  had 
Egyjitian  idiysicL-ins  at  Su.sji  (Herod,  iii.  1, 
129).  For  each  disease  there  was  a  jiracti- 
tioner  (Herfnl.  ii.  St).  They  embalmed 
((Jen.  1.  2)  :  they  treated  diseases  of  the  eye 
and  feet  (Hi'rod.  iii.  1.  129):  women  jinic- 
ticed  midwifery  (Kx.  i.  Iii).  They  had  many 
medicines  (Jer.  xlvi.  11).  Even  the  word 
ehemi.stry  is  perhaiis  derived  from  Kom-t, 
the  ancient  name  of  Egypt.  In  Greece  the 
physicians  of  Crotona  enjoyed  the  liighest 


Mediterranean  Sea 


468 


Melchisedec 


reputation,  while  those  of  Cyrene  in  Africa 
stood  next  (Herod,  iii.  i:51). 

The  jiliysician  and  his  coadjutor  the 
apothecary  are  mentioned  in  the  writings 
of  the  Hebrews,  beginning  as  early  as  the 
exodus  Irom  Egypt  (Ex.  xv.  2(5;  2  Chron. 
xvi.  12 ;  Jer.  viii.  22 ;  Mat.  ix.  12 ;  Mark  v, 
26;  War  ii.  8,  6;  and  Ex.  x:  x.  35;  Neh.  iii. 
8;  Ecc.  X.  1  ;  Ecclus.  xxxviii.  8).  The  means 
and  medicines  which  they  employed  for 
etlecling  cures  were  bandages  (is.  i.  (j),  ap- 
]ilicalions  of  oil  and  of  oil  mingled  with 
wine,  and  baths  of  oil  (Is.  i.  6 ;  Luke  x.  34 ; 
Jas.  V.  14  ;  War  i.  33,  5),  salves  and  poultices 
(2  Kin.  XX.  7 ;  Jer.  viii.  22),  roots  and  leaves 
(Ezek.  xlvii.  12;  War  ii.  8,  (i),  and  wine  (1 
Tim.  V.  23).  "The  Lord  created  medicines 
out  of  the  earth ;  and  a  i)rudent  man  will 
have  no  disgust  at  them  "  (Ecclus.  xxxviii.  4). 

Med-i-ter-ra'ne-an  Sea  [midland  sea]. 

The  sea  which  lies  between  Europe  and 
Africa.  In  Scripture  it  is  referred  to  simply  as 
the  sea,  since  it  was  the  chief  one  in  the  cur- 
rent thought  of  the  Hebrews  (Num.  xiii.  29; 
Acts  X.  6) ;  or  it  is  called  the  great  sea  (Num. 
xxxiv.  6  :  Josh.  xv.  47),  or  the  hinder  or  west- 
ern sea  (Dent.  xi.  24  ;  Joel  ii.  20  ;  in  A.  V.  ut- 
most and  uttermost),  or  the  sea  of  the  Philis- 
tines (Ex.  xxiii.  31).  The  Greeks  and  Romans 
usually  spoke  of  it  as  the  sea  or  our  sea ;  after 
the  O.  T.  period  they  termed  it  the  sea  on 
this  side  of  the  pillars  of  Hercules  (Aristotle), 
or  the  internal  sea  (Pliny).  The  designa- 
tion Mediterranean  is  late.  Its  length  is 
2000  miles,  and  its  narrowest  part  is  between 
Sicily  and  the  African  coast,  where  it  is  only 
79  miles  in  width.  In  O.  T.  times  the  Pho'- 
nician  navigators  were  acquainted  with  it  in 
its  entire  extent  from  Syria  to  the  straits  of 
Gibraltar  or,  using  the  Greek  designation,  to 
the  pillars  of  Hercules. 

Me-gid'do,  once  Megiddon  (Zech.  xii.  11) 
[place  of  troops]. 

An  important  town  in  Palestine,  mentioned 
as  Mejedi  among  the  towns  captured  by 
Thothnu^s  III.  of  Egypt  in  the  twenty-second 
year  of  his  reign.  When  the  Israelites  en- 
tered Canaan,  Megiddo  had  a  native  king, 
who  was  slain  by  Joshua  (Josh.  xii.  21).  It 
was  within  the  limits  of  the  tribe  of  Issachar  ; 
but  was  assigned  to  the  IVLanassites,  who, 
however,  failed  to  drive  out  the  Canaanite 
inhabitants  (xvii.  11;  Judg.  i.  27;  1  t'hron. 
vii.  29).  It  had  waters,  doubtless  some 
stream,  in  its  vicinity  (Judg.  v.  19),  and  was 
not  far  from  Taanach  and  Beth-sheau  (i.  27  ; 
1  Kin.  iv.  12).  Solomon  strengthened  its 
fortifications  (ix.  15).  Aha/.iah,  king  of 
Judah,  wounded  by  the  partisans  of  Jehu, 
lied  to  Megiddo,  and  died  there  (2  Kin.  ix. 
27).  In  tlie  jilain  near  the  city  the  battle  was 
fought  lu'tween  Pharaoh-neclio  and  .losiah, 
in  which  the  latter  was  killed  (xxiii.  29  ;  2 
Chron.  xxxv.  22;  1  Esdras  i.  29).  A  great 
mourning  for  the  death  of  the  good  king 
took  place  (2  Chron.  xxxv.  25 ;  Zech.  xii.  11). 


The  name  Megiddo  enters  into  the  composi- 
tion of  Armageddon  (q.  v.).  Kobinson,  and 
500  years  before  him  Moses  hap-Parchi,  con- 
sidered Megiddo  to  have  been  at  el-Lejjun, 
about  9  miles  west  slightly  north  of  Jezreel. 
This  identilication  is  cimimouly  accepted. 
Thomson,  however,  locates  the  site  at  Tell  el- 
Mutasellim,  less  than  a  mile  north  of  Robin- 
son's site  ;  while  Conder  ]>laces  it  at  Khurbet 
el-Mujedda',  10  miles  southeast  of  Jezreel  and 
3J  southwest  of  Beth-shean.  The  similarity 
of  name  favors  the  last-named  identilication  ; 
while  its  remoteness  from  Taanach  and  the 
Kishon  (Judge  v.  19,  21)  are  against  it. 

Me-hefa-bel,  in  A.  V.  once  Melietabeel 

(Neh.  vi.  10)  [God  blesses]. 

1.  The  wife  of  Hadar,  king  of  Edom  (Gen. 
xxxvi.  39  ;  1  Chron.  1.  50). 

2.  Father  of  a  certain  Delaiah  (Neh.  vi. 
10). 

Me-hi'da  [conjunction,  union]. 

Founder  of  a  family  of  Nethinim,  members 
of  which  returned  from  cai)tivitv  (Ezra  ii. 
43,  52). 

Me'Mr  [price]. 

A  man  of  Judah  (1  Chron.  iv.  11). 

Me-ho'lath-ite. 

A  native  or  inhabitant  of  a  place  called 
Meholah  (1  Sam.  xviii.  19)  ;  perhaps  Abel- 
meholah,  Elisha's  native  village. 

Me-hu'ja-el. 

Son  of  Irad,  and  father  of  Methusael,  of 
the  race  of  Cain  (Gen.  iv.  18). 

Me-hu'man  [faithful,  a  eunuch ;  if  the 
name  is  related  to  Aramaic,  in'haiman]. 

One  of  the  seven  chamberlains  who  served 
in  the  i)resence  of  king  Ahasuerus  (Esth. 
i.  10). 

Me-hu'nim,  Mehunims.     See  Meunim. 

Me-jar'kon  [waters  of  the  yellow  color, 
yellow  waters]. 

A  town  in  the  territory  of  Dan  near  Joppa 
(Josh.  xix.  4(i).  A  place  on  the  river  'Aujah 
has  been  suggested  (Kiepert,  Conder).  The 
river  flows  from  a  swamp,  through  canes, 
willows,  rushes,  and  grass,  and  then  in  a 
deeply-hollowed  channel,  whence  it  carries 
away  vegetable  soil  enough  to  render  the 
water  yellow.  Thus  the  name  suits.  The 
stream  is  never  dry,  and  in  winter  is  unford- 
able.  It  falls  into  the  Mediterranean  3| 
miles  north  of  Joppa. 

Me-ko'nah.     See  Mecon.xh. 

Mel-a-ti'ah  [Jehovah  hath  set  free]. 

A  (Jilieonite  who  helped  to  rebuild  part  of 
the  wall  around  Jerusalem  (Neh.  iii.  7). 

Mel'chi  [iirol)ably  by  contraction  for  He- 
brew Molkh/!/i(h.  Jeliovah  is  king]. 

A  name  liorne  by  two  ancestors  of  Christ 
who  lived,  the  one  before,  the  other  after, 
the  time  of  Zerubbabel  (Luke  iii.  24,  28). 

Mel-cM'ah.     See  M.\lchiah. 

Mel-cMs'e-dec.     See  Melchizkdek. 


MelcMshua 


469 


Memphis 


Mel-cM-shu'a.    See  Malchi-shva. 

Mel-chiz'e-dek,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Melchis- 
edec  [kiii;^  of  rij^hteousm-ss  or  justice]. 

Kiiit;  of  Salem  and  jiriest  of  the  most  hi^h 
(iod  (Gen.  xiv.  18  se^.).  By  Siilem,  .Jeriisii- 
lem  is  jirobalily  meant  ;  for  1.  Tlie  eity  was 
in  existence,  Imre  the  name  of  Jerusalem, 
and  was  under  a  kin;;  before  the  con(incstof 
Canaan  by  the  Israelites.  2.  The  name  Je- 
rusalem means  eity  or,  to  the  Hebrew  ear, 
foundation  of  iieaee  or  safety,  so  that  Salem 
is  an  a]iiiro|iriate  al)breviation.  '.i.  Salem  is 
used  as  the  name  of  Jerusalem  in  Ps.  Ixxvi. 
2.  l.  The  eonii)arison  of  David's  Lord  with 
Melehizedek  in  Ps.  ex.  4  appears  most  apt  if 
Melchizedek  was  king  of  the  same  city  as 
David.  i).  Jerusalem  is  on  the  route  from 
Jlol)ah  and  Damascus  to  Hebron,  whither 
Abraham  was  going. 

Melchizedek,  as  described  in  Hebrews  v.  10  ; 
vi.  'iO ;  vii..  was  without  father,  without 
mother,  witliout  genealogy.  This  statement 
means  that  his  pedigree  is  not  recorded  (cp. 
Ezra  ii.  .^!>,  62).  This  mode  of  expression 
was  familiar  to  the  Assyrian  scribes,  was  used 
by  the  .fewish  rabbis,  and  is  known  to  Greek 
and  Latin  writers.  He  is  further  described 
as  having  neither  beginning  of  days  nor  end 
of  life,  of  whom  it  is  testified  that  he  lives. 
He  suddenly  emerges  from  the  unknown  and 
as  suddenly  disappears ;  it  is  not  known 
whence  he  came  or  whither  he  went,  neither 
birth  nor  death  is  assigned  to  him,  he  is  a 
type  of  undying  priesthood. 

Melchizedek  was  priest  of  God  Most  High. 
Kl  'eh/iin  ai)i)ears  late  among  the  Phfonicians 
as  a  title  of  ."^atnrn.  the  begetter  of  heaven 
and  earth  (Sanchoniathon  (juoted  by  Eusebius, 
Praep.  i.  10).  If  El  'diina  is  not  in  Melchize- 
dek's  conception  the  ai)solutely  only  (iod,  he 
is  the  highest,  the  God  of  the  gods  ;  a  lofty 
idea,  even  though  not  a  pure  monotheism. 
Melchizedek  came  fortli  from  his  royal  city 
to  Welcome  the  returning  l)eiiefactor  of  the 
l)eoi)les  of  Canaan;  and  Abraham  recognized 
iiim  as  a  i)riest  of  the  true  God  and  i)ublicly 
testifu'd  to  sharing  the  same  or  a  kindred 
laith  by  paying  tithes  to  him  who  was  repre- 
s<'ntative  of  God  .Most  High,  to  the  i)riest 
who  had  ascribed  the  victory  to  the  Creator 
of  heaven  and  earth  (cp.  Acts  x.  35). 

The  author  of  the  Epi.stle  to  the  Hebrews 
-hows  how  great  a  personage  Melchizedek 
was,  to  whom  even  Aliraham,  and  through 
him  virtually  Levi,  jiaid  fitiies,  thus  admit- 
ting their  inferiority,  Wiien  thus  our  Lord 
was  made  a  high  priest  after  the  order  of 
Melchizedek,  he  held  a  liigiier  ollice  than  the 
\:iniiiii-  priesthood, 

Me'le-a. 

.\n  ancest<tr  of  Christ,  wJio  lived  shortly 
after  David  (Luke  iii.  :il). 

Me'lech  [a  king]. 

.\  son  of  Micah,  a  de.scendant  of  .^aul  and 
Jonathan  (1  Chron,  viii.  .'J."> ;  ix.  11;. 

Mel'l-cu.     See  Mai.i.cc  lit. 


Mel'i-ta. 

The  island  where  Paul  was  shipwrecked 
(Acts  xxviii.  1).  Two  islands  bore  this  name 
in  ancient  times.  One,  now  called  Melida, 
lies  in  the  Adriatic  Sea  <iir  the  coast  of  Dal- 
matia,  the  other  is  now  known  as  Malta.  The 
latter  is  now  probably  universally  believed 
to  be  the  island  where  the  ship  of  Paul  was 
wrecked.  This  opinion  is  stronglv  confirmed 
by  the  fact  that  Mr.  Smith,  of 'jonlanhill, 
who  was  accustomed  to  sjiil  in  a  yacht  on 
the  Mediterranean,  investigated  first  the  di- 
rection from  which  the  wind  Euroclydon  or 
Eunuinilo  blew,  then  the  course  in  which 
the  ship  would  drift,  and  her  probable  rate 
of  progress  while  she  lay-to  under  storm 
sails.  The  result  was  that  he  found  she 
would  reach  Malta  just  about  the  time  which 
the  narrative  in  The  Acts  reciuires.  The  vessel 
had  been  driven  to  and  fro  in  the  (sea  of) 
Adria  (xxvii.  27);  see  Adkia.  The  tradi- 
tional site  of  the  shipwreck  is  St.  Paul's  Bay, 
on  the  northeast  coast  of  the  island.  In  The 
Acts  the  inhabitants  of  the  i.sland  are  called 
barl)arians  because  they  were  neither  Greeks 
nor  IJomans. 

Mel'on. 

A  succulent  plant  and  its  edible  fruit,  in 
Hebrew  '"baitiah,  which  the  Hebrews  ate  when 
in  Egypt  (Num,  xi.  5).  Melons  of  all  sorts 
were  cultivated  in  Egypt,  and  the  water- 
mehm  {Cnciimi.s  cifntJIiis)  is  still  called  baltili 
by  the  Egyptians,  and  is  grown  in  immense 
quantities. 

Mel'zar  [probably  from  a  Persian  word 
meaning  steward], 

A  man  whom  the  chief  of  the  eunuchs  set 
over  Daniel  and  his  companions  (Dan.  i.  11, 
H),  A,  V,).  But  in  Hebrew  it  has  the  article 
before  it;  the  R.  V,  and  the  margin  of  the 
A.  V.  therefore  translate  it  steward. 

Mem. 

The  thirteenth  letter  of  the  Hebrew  alpha- 
bet. English  M  comes  from  tlie  smie  source, 
and  represents  it  in  anglicized  Hebrew  names. 
It  stands  at  the  head  of  the  tliirteenth  .sec- 
tion of  Ps.  cxix.,  in  which  .section  each  verse 
of  the  original  begins  with  this  letter. 

For  Hebrew  letters,  whose  similarity  of 
form  to  mem  has  caused  dilticulty  to  copy- 
ists, see  c,  (J.  Bki'II. 

Mem'phls  [Egyjitian  Mru-uefrr,  place  of 
good,  or,  as  it  was  interpreted  to  Plutarch, 
haven  of  good]. 

.\n  important  Egy]itian  city.  .s;iid  by  Herod- 
otus to  have  been  built  by  Meiies,  the  lirst 
historical  king  of  Egyjit,  on  land  reclaimed 
by  liim  from  the  Nile.  It  stood  in  the  plain 
on  the  western  side  of  the  Nile,  about  10 
miles  above  the  aju'X  of  the  delta.  It  i)ecan»e 
the  metrojiolis  and  cai)ital  of  Lower  Egypt, 
and  th(>  third,  the  fourth,  the  fifth,  tiie  sev- 
enth, and  the  eightli  dynasties  were  consid- 
ered Memphite  liy  Mamtho.  The  deity  spe- 
cially worshiped  in  the  city  was  Ptah.  Mem- 
phis remained  a  (loiirishing  eity  even  after 


Memucan 


470 


Mephibosheth 


the  capital  was  transferred  to  Thebes,  and 
did  uot  lose  its  inipurtauce  until  Alexandria 
■was  founded.  To  the  Hebrews  Meniidiis  was 
known  a-s  Xojih,  from  the  demotic  Meti-nofi, 
and  Moph,  from  Menf  (Is.  xix.  13;  text  of 
Hos.  ix.  0;  ep.  Assyrian  Minpi).  After  the 
fall  of  Jerusalem  and  murder  of  Gedaliah. 
the  Jews  left  in  the  land  lied  to  Egypt,  and 
some  of  them  settled  at  Memphis  ( jer.  xliv. 
1).  Judgment  was  threatened  against  the 
city  by  Jeremiah  and  Ezekiel  (xlvi.  19  ;  cp. 
also  ii.  1()  and  xlvi.  14;  Ezek.  xxx.  13,  16; 
cp.  also  Is.  xix.  13  ;  Hos.  ix.  (J).  A  consider- 
able part  of  Memphis  existed  in  the  middle 
ages,  but  materials  from  it  were  continually 
carried  away  to  be  used  for  building  purpose:! 
in  Cairo.  Now  it  is  all  but  gone,  two  Arab 
villages  occupying  its  site.  But  twenty  pyr- 
amids, which  constituted  its  necropolis,  and 
the  celebrated  siihinx  i)resent  the  most  im- 
pressive memorials  of  its  former  greatness. 

Me-niu'can. 

One  of  the  seven  princes  of  Persia  and 
Media  at  the  court  of  Ahasuerus  who  saw 
the  king's  face.  Memucan's  counsel  was  ad- 
verse to  Yashti  (Esth.  i.  14,  15,  21). 

Men'a-liem  [comforter]. 

A  sou  of  Gadi  who,  when  the  news  reached 
Tirzah  that  Shallum  had  murdered  king 
Zechariah,  went  to  Samaria,  slew  Shallum, 
and  reigned  in  his  stead  (2  Kin.  xv.  14).  The 
town  of  Tiphsah  refused  to  admit  him  within 
its  gates,  so  he  captured  it,  and  perpetrated 
cruelties  on  the  inhabitants  (ver.  KJ).  His 
throne  was  unsteady;  and  when  Pul,  better 
known  as  Tiglath-pileser,  king  of  Assyria, 
invaded  the  land,  Menahem  purchased  ex- 
emption from  devastation  for  his  realm  and 
support  for  his  own  tottering  throne  by  the 
payment  of  1000  talents  of  silver,  nearly  two 
million  dollars,  which  represented  a  much 
greater  purchasing  value  then  than  now. 
The  money  was  raised  by  a  tax  on  the 
wealthiest  men  in  Israel,  who  had  to  pay 
50  shekels,  about  $32..50,  each.  There  must, 
therefore,  have  been  more  than  60,000  Isra- 
elites able  to  contribute  this  amount  under 
compulsion.  Tiglath-pileser,  as  recorded  in 
the  Assyrian  sculptures,  claims  Minihimmu 
(Menahem)  of  Samaria  as  one  of  his  tribu- 
taries. In  religion  the  Israelite  king  ad- 
hered to  the  calf  worship  of  Jeroboam  I. 
He  reigned  ten  years,  from  about  747  to  73S 
B.  c.  inclusive,  and  was  succeeded  on  the 
throne  of  Israel  bv  his  son  Pekahiah  (2  Kin. 
XV.  17,  22). 

Me'nan.     See  Mkxna. 

Me'ne. 

The  lirst  word  of  the  inscri])tion  written 
by  a  hand  on  the  wall  at  Helshazzar's  feast: 
Mexe.  Mene.  Tekel,  I'piiAusiN  (Dan.  v. 
25).  These  mysterious  words  are  Aramaic. 
They  are  rendered  on  the  margin  of  R.  V. 
"Numbered,  numbered,  weighed,  and  divis- 
ions; "  Pharsin  being  the  jilural  of  the  noun 
p'l'es,  Mene  being  the  regular  passive   par- 


ticiple of  its  verb  in  the  Peal  species,  and 
Tekel  being  regarded  as  likewise  a  passive 
participle,  with  the  vocalization  which  is  tra- 
ditionally given  to  it  changed  from  t'kil  to 
t'kel  to  conform  to  the  sound  of  m'ne'.  These 
letters  were  not  vocalized  as  written  on  the 
wall,  and  might  have  been  pronounced  in  a 
variety  of  ways.  Even  if  the  correct  pro- 
nunciation had  occurred  to  one  of  the  wise 
men  as  among  several  possibilities,  he  liad 
no  means  of  establishing  the  correctness  of 
his  reading  or  of  interpreting  the  words. 
Daniel  solved  the  enigma  (25-28).  How 
difficult  it  was  to  determine  the  true  pronun- 
ciation is  illustrated  by  the  proposal  which 
has  been  made  by  scholars  to  regard  ^leue  as 
the  absolute  state  of  the  noun  manya\  maneli. 
and  to  read  the  words  "A  maneh,  a  maneh. 
a  shekel  and  half  manehs,"  or  "  Numbered 
have  been  a  maneh,  a  .shekel,  and  half  ma- 
nehs." The  words  as  thus  read  have  been 
sometimes  understood  as  symbolizing  under 
the  figure  of  weights  that  a  worthy  person 
(Nebuchadnezzar,  the  virtual  founder  of  the 
em))ire)  had  been  succeeded  by  an  inferior 
ruler  (Belshazzar),  and  that  the  empire  was 
about  to  be  divided  into  halves. 

Me'ni  [fate,  destiny]. 

The  name  of  the  god  of  destiny,  whom 
idolatrous  Hebrews  worshiped  (Is.  Ixv.  11, 
margin).  In  the  text  the  English  versions 
prefer  the  alternative  interpretation  of  the 
word,  regarding  it  as  a  common  noun  and 
not  a  proper  name. 

Men'na,  in  A.  Y.  Menan. 

An  ancestor  of  Christ,  who  lived  shortly 
after  the  time  of  David  (Luke  iii.  31). 

Me -nu' both  [apparently,  the  resting 
places] . 

A  place,  if  the  present  Hebrew  text  is  cor- 
rect, of  which  half  the  inhabitants  were 
descended  through  Sholial  from  Caleb  of  the 
tribe  of  Judah  (l.Chron.  ii.  52,  E.  V.).  The 
name,  if  vocalized  as  in  the  present  Hebrew 
text,  would  not  give  rise  to  the  gentile  ad- 
jective of  ver.  54,  which  is  rendered  ^lana- 
iiathites.  Perhaps,  therefore.  Menuhoth 
should  be  read  Manahatli  (q.  v.). 

Me-on'e-nim  [augurs]. 

The  augurs'  oak  or  terebinth  stood  near 
Shechem  (Judg.  ix.  37;  not  plain,  as  in  A. 
\.).     See  remarks  under  Moreh. 

Me-on'o-tlial  [my  habitations]. 

A  man  of  Judah,  the  father  of  the  iu- 
habilauts  of  Ophrah  (1   Chrou.  iv.  14). 

Meph'a-ath  (l)eauty]. 

A  town  of  the  Reubenites  (Josh.  xiii.  18), 
given  to  the  Merarite  Levites  (xxi.  37;  1 
Chron.  vi.  70).  In  Jeremiah's  time  it  was  in 
the  hands  of  the  Moabites  (Jer.  xlviii.  21). 
Site  unknown. 

Me-pMto'o-slietli  [destroying  shame]. 

1.  Sou  of  king  .Saul  by  Rizpah,  the  daughter 
of  Aiah.  He  was  executed  at  the  instance 
of  the  Gibeonites  (2  Sam.  xxi.  8,  9). 


Merab 


471 


Mered 


2.  The  sou  of  Jonathan.  He  was  five 
years  old  wlion  the  tidings  came  of  his 
hitlu-r's  and  his  f^raMtUhllier's  (ii'ath  at  (iil- 
l)oa.  L'ndiT  {hv  inllm-nce  of  i)aiiic,  tiie 
niii-se  took  him  up  in  her  arms  and  Ik'd  witii 
liim  ;  hut  in  hv.v  lliglit  sIr-  let  him  fall,  so 
tiiat  he  l>etame  hime  in  hoth  his  I'cct  CJ  Sam. 
iv.  1).  For  a  hiuj;  time  he  lived  at  L()-del)ar, 
east  of  tiie  Jordan,  whence  David  ealled  him 
to  court  to  show  him  kindness  for  his  father 
Jonathan's  sake.  restorin;j;  to  him  the  estates 
ol  Saul  and  ai)i)ointing  him  a  place  at  the 
royal  tahle  (ix.  1-13).  During  the  rehellion 
of  .\l)salom  lie  remained  at  Jerusalem,  and 
was  accused  liy  his  servant  Ziba  of  dis- 
loyalty. David  helieved  the  accusation  and 
transferred  .Mei)hil)osheth's  estates  to  Ziba. 
After  the  return  of  David.  Mephibosheth  at- 
tempted to  clear  himself  of  tlu'  charge,  and 
]>a\id  restored  half  the  estates  to  him  ;  but 
lie  declared  that  he  did  not  wish  the  prop- 
erty, since  he  had  his  desire  iu  the  restora- 
tion of  the  king  (xvi.  1-4;  xix.  24-30).  He 
had  a  sou  .Micha  (ix.  12).  tlirough  whom  the 
race  of  Jonathan  was  jx'rpetuated.  In  1 
Clirou.  viii.  34;  ix.  40  Mephibosheth  is  called 
Merib-baal.  a  striver  is  the  Lord  or  perhaps, 
striver  against  Baal.  This  was  probably  his 
original  name,  hoshiih.  shame,  being  sulisti- 
tuted  for  /('(((/.  lord,  liy  later  writers  whiMi  the 
word  Haal  had  become  distasteful  through  as- 
scjciation  with  i<lolatry. 

Me'rab  [increase]. 

Saul's  elder  daughter  (1  Sam.  xiv.  49). 
Her  father  ])romiscd  her  in  marriage  to 
David,  and  then,  breaking  faith,  gave  her 
as  a  wife  to  Adriel  the  Meholathite  (xviii. 
17-10). 

Me-ra'iah  [contumacy,  stubbornness]. 

A  priest,  head  of  the  father's  house  Seraiah 
in  the  days  of  Joiakim,  a  generation  after 
the  exile  "(Nell.  xii.  12). 

Me-ra'iotli  [rebellions]. 

1.  A  jtriest,  son  of  Zerahiah  (1  Chron.  vi. 
(J,  7,  52).  He  lived  while  the  liouse  of  Eli 
had  charge  of  the  tabernacle. 

2.  A  priest,  sun  of  Ahitul)  and  father  of 
Zadok  (1  Chron.  ix.  11;  Nch.  xi.  11).  He 
seems  to  have  lived  about  half  a  century  be- 
fore tiie  exile. 

3.  A  fatiier's  linuse  among  the  priests  in 
the   ilays   of    .loiakim    (Neh.    xii.    15).     See 

MKUI'.MnTII. 

Me-ra'ri  [bitter,  unhappy]. 

Son  of  Levi,  and  foun<ler  of  one  of  the 
three  leading  Levitical  families  (Gen.  xlvi. 
11  ;   l''x.  vi.  Ki;  Xum.  xxvi.  ."i. 

Me-ra'rite8. 

One  of  the  three  great  Levitical  families. 
They  were  descended  from  Merari.  In  the 
wilderness  they  encam])ed  on  the  ucu'th  side 
of  the  tabernacle  (Num.  iii.  3.')).  and  had 
under  their  charge  its  hoards,  bars,  jtillars, 
sockets,  an<l  ves.sels  (36 ;  iv.  29-.'$3).  To  en- 
able them  to  carry  these  there  were  a.ssigued 


to  them  four  wagons  and  eight  oxen  (vii.  8). 
They  were  subdivided  into  the  Mahlites  and 
the  Mushites  (iii.  2(1,  33);  and  at  the  lirst 
census  in  the  wilderness  numliered  tj200 
males  from  a  month  old  and  upward  (33, 
34).  Of  these,  3200  were  fnjm  30  to  tJO  years 
old  (iv.  42-4.")).  The  cities  assigned  to  them 
nnml)ered  twelve,  of  which  four  were  in  the 
tribe  of  Zebulun,  four  in  that  of  lieubeu, 
and  four  in  that  of  Gad ;  one  of  them, 
lliimoth-gilead,  being  a  citv  of  refuge  (Josh, 
xxi.  34-40;  1  Chron.  vi.  (]3,  77-81).  They 
were  reorganized  by  David  (1  Chron.  xxiii. 
(i,  21-23). 

Mer-a-tha'im  [twofold  rebellion]. 

A  syml)olical  name  for  IJabylon  i  Jer.  1.  21). 

Mer'cu-ry,  in  A.  V.   Mer-cu'ri-us. 

A  deity  worshiped  l)y  the  ivomans  and, 
under  the  name  of  Hernies,  by  the  Greeks 
also.  He  was  the  herald  of  the  gods,  and 
specially  attended  upon  Jupiter.  He  was 
(luick  in  his  movements,  was  a  good  speaker, 
and  was  credited  with  having  been  the  in- 
ventor of  letters,  of  music,  and  of  other 
arts.  Paul  and  Bariuibas  were  looked  upon 
as  gods  by  the  i)eople  of  Lyslra.  when  the 
cripple  was  healed  at  the  apostle's  word  ; 
and  as  Paul  was  the  chief  speaker,  they  took 
him  for  Mercury  and  Barnabas,  whom  he  ac- 
companied, fur  Jupiter  (Acts  xiv.  12). 

Mer'cy  Seat. 

The  crivi-ringof  theark;  called  in  Hebrew 
Ki(i>i>())ith,  covering  (especially  if  not  exclu- 
sively in  the  sense  of  atonement),  ami  in 
(ireek  'Iliislrriiin,  iiropitiatory  (Ex.  xxvi.  34  ; 
Heb.  ix.  r>).  Its  name  did  not  suggest  a  mere 
lid,  but  brought  to  mind  the  act  and  i)lace  of 
atonement  an<l  the  accomiilished  atonement. 
It  was  made  of  ])ure  gold  :  its  length  was 
two  and  a  naif  cubits,  and  its  breadth  a  cubit 
and  a  lialf.  On  each  side  of  it  and  wrought 
as  one  i)iece  with  it  stood  a  (duTub  with  out- 
stretched wings,  so  that  a  wing  of  eacdi  ex- 
tended over  the  mercy  seat  and  met  that  of 
the  other  cherub.  Ik^tween  these  cherubim 
Jehovah's  glory  was  manifested,  and  there 
Jehovah  communed  with  his  people  (Ex. 
XXV.  17-22:  XXX.  (5;  Num.  vii.  SO).  There 
was  a  similar  arrangement  in  Solomon's 
temide  (1  Kin.  vi.  23-2S :  viii.  (J-11 ;  1  Chron. 
xxviii.  11).  Once  a  y«'ar.  on  the  great 
day  of  atonement,  tlie  high  priest,  after  he 
had  oH'ered  a  sin  offering,  entered  the  most 
holy  i)lace  and  l)iirnt  iucetise,  symbol  of 
accejited  worshij),  iu  the  presence  of  .le- 
hovah,  which  ro.se  and  envelo])ed  the  mercy 
s<'at  in  a  cloud.  He  then  sjuinkled  the  blood 
of  the  sacrificed  bullock  and  goat  on  and 
before  the  mercy  seat  an<l  made  atonement 
for  the  sins  of  himself  and  the  nation  in  the 
l)resence  of  the  covenant  law,  which  was 
written  on  the  tables  of  stone  and  was  lying 
in  the  ark,  and  of  ,T(diovaii,  who  dwelt  be- 
tween the  cherubim  (Lev.  xvi.  2,  13-17). 

Me'red  [rebellion]. 

Son  of   E/,raii,   who  was  reckoned  as  be 


Meremoth 


472 


Merom 


louging  to  the  tribe  of  Judah.  He  had  a 
daughter  of  Pharaoh  to  wife  aud  probably 
also  a  Jewess  (1  Chron.  iv.  17,  18,  K.  V.). 

Mer'e-motli  [elevations]. 

1.  A  chill'  of  the  juiests,  who  returued 
froui  Llaliyhiii  with  Zerubbabel  (Neb.  xii.  '.i, 
7).  Ill  the  next  generation  n-  father's  house 
among  the  priests,  eauuioraled  in  the  cor- 
responding position  in  the  catalogue,  bears 
the  name  Meraioth  (ver.  15).  One  of  the 
two  names  is  probably  a  misreading  of  mem 
or  jod. 

2.  A  priest,  son  of  Uriah.  He  was  em- 
ployed to  weigli  the  silver  and  gold  brought 
by  Ezra  from  liabylou  (Ezra  viii.  33).  He 
repaired  part  of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neb. 
iii.  4,  21),  and  is  probablj'  the  person  of  the 
dame  who  sealed  the  covenant  (x.  5). 

3.  A  son  of  Baiii,  induced  by  Ezra  to  put 
away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  30). 

Me'res. 

One  of  the  seven  princes  of  Persia  and 
Media  who  saw  the  king's  face,  in  the  reign 
of  Ahasuerus  (Esther  i.  14). 

Mer'i-bah  [contention,  strife]. 

1.  One  of  two  names  given  by  Moses  to 
the  locality  at  Horeb  and  near  Eephidim 
where  the  people  murmured  and  where 
water  was  miraculously  brought  from  the 
rock  (Ex.  xvii.  1-7). 

2.  A  second  locality,  namely,  Kadesh-bar- 
nea  in  the  wilderness  of  Zin,  where  also  the 
people  murmured  and  water  was  miraculously 
brought  from  the  rock  (Num.  xx.  13,  14; 
xxvii.  14;  Deut.  xxxii.  51;  xxxiii.  8:  Ps. 
Ixxxi.  7).  The  waters  of  this  Meribah  are 
the  waters  of  strife  of  Ps.  cvi.  32  and  Ezek. 
xlvii.  19.  The  R.  V.  in  the  text  of  the  first 
passage  substitutes  Jleribah,  aud  in  the  sec- 
ond Meriboth-kadesh.  It  is  to  be  noted  that 
there  is  nothing  surprising,  under  the  cir- 
cumstances, in  the  outbreak  of  discontent  at 
the  scarcity  of  water,  which  was  experienced 
more  than  twice  or  thrice.  The  localities 
are  dift'erent  and  quite  far  apart.  The  time 
is  dift'erent.  Tlie  conduct  of  Moses  is  very 
different  on  the  two  occasions. 

Mer-ib-ba'al.     See  Mephibosheth. 

Mer-i-tooth-ka'desh  [contentions  at  Ka- 
desh]. 

A  station  of  the  Israelites  in  the  wilder- 
ness (Ezek.  xlvii.  19,  R.  V.).  See  Mer- 
ibah 2. 

Mer'o-dach  [Assyrian  and  Babylonian 
Mardnk]. 

The  jiatron  deity  of  Babylon  (Jer.  1.  2). 
See  Bel. 

Mer'o-dach-bara-dan,  in  2  Kin.  xx.  12 
Berodach-baladan  [Merodach  has  given  a 
son].  Berodacli  may  be  a  cojiyist's  misspelling 
for  Merodach,  or  represent  the  ap])roximation 
of  sound  between  m  and  b  in  Babylonian. 

A  king  of  Babylon,  son  of  Baladan  (2  Kin. 
XX.  12),  of  the  dynasty  of  Bit-Yakin.     He 


was  a  man  of  great  ability,  courage,  and  en- 
terprise. The  dynasty  had  its  capital  at  Bit- 
Yakin,  in  tlie  marshes  near  the  mouth  <if  the 
Euphrates,  a  district  which  was  the  ancestral 
home  of  the  Chaldean  tribe.  Merodach- 
baladan  succeeded  to  this  jietty  throne. 
About  731  B.  c.  he  did  homage  to  Tiglath- 
pileser,  king  of  A.ssyria  ;  but  when,  in  722, 
the  Assyrian  army  was  absent  carrying  on 
the  siege  of  Samaria,  aud  news  reached 
Babylonia  that  the  king  of  Assyria  had  died 
or  been  murdered,  Merodach-'baladan  took 
the  opportunity  of  becoming  king  of  Baby- 
lon. Sargon,  king  of  A.ssyria,  recognized 
him  in  721.  He  reigned  eleven  years.  In 
712,  or  thereabouts,  Merodach-baladan  sent 
the  embassy  to  Hezekiah,  which,  traveling 
with  the  ostensible  object  of  congratulating 
Hezekiah  on  his  recovery  (2  Kin.  xx.  12-19  ; 
2  Chron.  xxxii.  31 :  Is.  xxxix.  1-8),  was 
really  designed  to  invite  him  to  join  in  a  con- 
federacy with  the  rulers  of  Babylon,  Susiana, 
Phoenicia,  Moab,  Edom,  Philistia,  and  Egypt 
for  a  grand  attack  on  the  Assyrian  empire. 
Sargon  suspected  what  was  going  on,  attacked 
his  enemies  individually  before  the.y  had  time 
to  unite,  and  vanquished  them  one  by  one. 
In  710  Sargon  took  Babylon,  and  in  709  Bit- 
Yakin,  capturing  ilerodach-baladan  at  the 
latter  place.  Some  time  after  Sargon's  death 
Merodach-baladan  was  again  free,  and  in  704 
or  703  he  reentered  Babylon,  aud  slew  the 
Assyrian  viceroy,  who  was  then  its  ruler. 
But  his  second  reign  lasted  only  from  six 
to  nine  months.  He  was  defeated  and 
driven  from  Babylon  to  Bit-Yakiu  by 
Sennacherib,  Sargon's  son  and  successor. 
In  700,  in  connection  with  the  revolt  of 
a  Chaldean  called  Nergal-ushezib  or  Shu- 
zub,  ^lerodach-baladan  raised  his  head  again. 
Sennacherib  took  the  road  to  Bit-Yakiu, 
but  Merodach-baladan  avoided  battle  and 
fled  to  a  town  in  the  midst  of  the  sea.  Sen- 
nacherib again  prevailed,  quelling  the  re- 
volt in  698.  In  ti97  he  attacked  the  last 
refuge  of  Merodach-baladan,  which  was  a 
fragment  of  territory  given  him  by  the  Elam- 
ites.  The  Assyrian  king  employed  Phoeni- 
cian ships  for  the  purpose.  Merodach's  small 
settlement,  whidi  he  had  abandoned,  was 
ca]itured  and  burnt,  and  he  was  not  able  to 
raise  his  head  again.  Though  he  may  have 
ultimately  failed  in  his  euterju'lses,  yet  he 
had  not  lived  in  vain.  The  Chaldeans,  whose 
chief  he  was,  and  who  sei'in  to  have  been  a 
Semitic  race,  became  from  his  days  the 
dominant  caste  in  Babylon. 

Me'rom  [a  height,  a  high  place]. 

A  lake  on  the  Jordan,  11  miles  north  of 
the  sea  of  tialilee.  By  it  Joshua  defeated 
the  northern  Canaanite  kings  (Josh.  xi.  5,  7). 
It  is  4  miles  long  by  3 J  broad,  and  is  12  miles 
from  the  Banias  source  of  the  .Jordan.  It  is 
270  feet  above  the  level  of  the  Mediterranean. 
It  occupies  the  southern  portion  of  a  very 
marshy  basin  about  15  miles  long  by  5  broad. 


Meronothite 


473 


Mesha 


Waters  of  Merom,  now  Lake  of  Huleh. 


The  basin  is  now  called  the  Iliileh  ami  'lie 
lake   {{aluiret  el-IIuleli  or  lake  of  Iliileh. 

Me-ron'o-thite. 

All  inlialiitaiit  nl'  Meronnth  (1  Chron.  xxvii. 
3<i;  Xeli.  iii.  7).  .Meronoth  has  not  ix'cu 
i(leiititie<l. 

Me'roz  [probalily,  a  place  of  refuge]. 

A  town  which  jjaA^e  no  as.sistanee  in  the 
ti;;ht  with  Sisera  (Jiifljfc.  v.  23).  Its  site  is 
unkiKiwii,  though  el-]Miiriissiis,  a  ruin  about 
ih  miles  northwest  of  Beth-sliean,  has  been 
suggested,  or  Kefr  Misr.  on  the  southern 
slojie  of  mount  Tabor,  (Ji  miles  northwist  of 
el-Sliiriissus. 

Mes'a-loth.  in  A.  V.  Masaloth  [jierhaps, 
froiii  Hclircw  iii'silloth.  ascciiis.  stairs]. 

A  plaei-  ill  tlie  district  of  Arbela  (1  Mac. 
ix.  "2).  .loseiilins  understood  it  to  be  the  re- 
gion of  fortified  caves  at  Arbela  in  (Talilee, 
wliich  were  only  to  be  reaihcd  by  steps 
(Aiiti(i.  xii.  11,  1). 

Me'sech.     See  Mkshixh. 

Me'sha,  I. 

Till-  limit  in  one  direction  of  the  region 
occupied  liy  the  dcsceiidants  of  .loktan  ((tcii. 
X.  3<l).  Not  iilentitied.  Mouza,  on  the  eastern 
coast  of  the  Red  Sea,  aliout  !<•()  miles  from 
the  straits  of  Bab  el-Man<leb.  Hischa  in 
northern  Veiiien.  the  district  Mesene  at  the 
iiortiiwestcrn  end  of  the  Persian  (iiilf  and 
Massji  ((•]).  Septiiagiiit  and  (Jen.  x.w.  II)  have 
been  suggested. 

Me'sha,  II.  [perlia]is.  retreat,  witbdnwal]. 
A    Meiijamite,  a   son   of  Shaharaim   l>y  his 
wife  llodesh  (1  Chron.  viii.  H,  {»). 


Me'sha,  III.  [salvation]. 

1.  A  man  of  .liiihih,  family  of  Hezron, 
house  of  (  aleli.  lie  was  ancestor  of  the  in- 
habitants of  Ziph  (1  Chrou.  ii.  42). 

2.  A  king  of  Moab,  son  of  C'hemosh-melech. 
He  reiidi'i-ed  to  king  Ahab  the  tribute  of 
100,()(H)  laml)s  and  as  many  rams,  namely 
their  wool  (2  Kin.  iii.  4).  Ahab  was  slain  at 
the  battle  of  Kanioth-gilead  about  853  B.  c, 
which  probably  took  jilace  in  the  early 
spring,  "the  time  when  kings  go  forth  to 
war,"  and  .Mia/.iali  thereby  became  sole  king. 
The  discomtiture  of  Israel  and  .Tudah  at 
Kauioth-gilead  and  the  death  of  Ahab  were 
the  signal  to  Mesha  to  refuse  the  tribute  of 
this  year,  the  second  of  Ahaziah  (Antiq.  ix. 
2,  1).  to  Israel  (2  Kin.  i.  1).  .Tehoshaidiat, 
king  of  .Tudah,  returned  from  Raiiioth-gilead 
to  Jerusalem,  say  in  May,  and  undertook  a 
religious  reformation  of  the  nation  (2  Chron. 
xix.).  After  this  work  of  refi(nii  had  begun 
(xx.  I),  the  Ammonites  and  Moal)ites.  in  alli- 
ance with  the  Edoniites,  who  had  been  per- 
suaded to  rev<dt,  invaded  .Tudah.  .lehosh- 
apliat  defeated  the  allies  and  reduced 
Edom  to  its  former  subjection,  and  a  time 
of  peace  ensued  (30).  Ahaziah  died  at  the 
end  of  this  year,  jierhajis  in  I)ec;'niber  oi 
January  or  later,  and  .lehoram  his  lirother 
succeeded  him  (2  Kin.  i.  17'.  The  next  year, 
8r)2  B.  c,  or  later,  Jehoram,  desiring  to  ren- 
der Moab  again  tributary,  asked  aid  of  Je- 
lioshaidiat  (iii.  7).  The  latt<-r  prol)ably 
wished  to  chastise  the  .Moabites  still  furtiier 
for  their  invasion  of  .Iiidali.  and.  therefore, 
although  he  had  betn  rebukeil  for  allying 
himself   with   ungodly   Ahab   and  Ahaziah, 


Meshach 


474 


Meshullam 


consented,  for  Jclionun  had  exhibited  signs 
of  tjodlinc'ss  t)y  a  (■onsi<kTat)le  reformation  (2). 
Jehorani  advanced  with  his  confederates,  Jo- 
hoshaphat  and  an  unnamed  Edomite  king, 
round  the  southern  end  of  tlie  Dead  Sea. 
The  allied  armies  were  almost  jierishing  with 
thirst  when  Elisha,  who  accomiiauii-d  them, 
jyredicted  that  water  would  he  divinely  sent, 
and  it  came.  As  the  roseate  hues  of  the 
morning  snn  fell  upon  it,  the  Moahite  king, 
doubtless  Mesha,  thought  it  was  blood,  aiid, 
rashly  iiifi'rriiig  that  the  three  invading 
armies  had  (juarreled  and  turned  their  swords 
against  each  other,  carelessly  advanced  with 
his  forces  to  take  the  prey.  He  was  routed, 
and  the  Israelites  entered  his  laud  and  beat 
down  his  cities  {2i,  'Jo).  At  Kir-hareseth, 
seeing  that  the  battle  was  too  sore  for  him 
and  failing  in  a  desperate  attempt  to  break 
through  the  lines  of  the  enemy,  he  took  his 
eldest  sou  and  heir  apparent  and  oliered  him 
as  a  burnt  ofieriug  to  Chemosh  on  the  city 
wall.  The  besiegers  apparently  felt  that  they 
were  in  part  responsible  for  occasioning  this 
human  .sacrifice  and  that  they  had  incurred 
the  wrath  of  God,  and  they  raised  the  siege 
and  returned  to  the  land  of  Israel  without 
resubjugating  Moab  (25-27).  The  Moabite 
stone  was  erected  partly  for  the  purjiose  of 
commemorating  this  revolt  and  its  successful 
issue  ;  see  Moabite  STOi'Tr. 

Me'shach. 

The  name  given  by  the  prir.ce  of  the 
eunuchs  at  Babylon  to  Mishael,  one  of  the 
three  faithful  Jews  afterwards  saved  from 
the  fiery  furnace  (Dan.  i.  7;  ii.  49;  iii.  13- 
30). 

Me'shech,  in  A.  V.  once  Mesech  ( Ps.  cxx.  5). 

A  jieojile  descended  from  .lapheth  (Gen.  x. 
2).  They  traded  in  the  Tyrian  markets  in 
slaves  and  vessels  of  brass  (Ezek.  xxvii.  13). 
They  were  allies  of  Tubal,  and  allies  or  sub- 
jects of  Gog,  the  prince  of  Eosh,  Meshech, 
and  Tubal  (Ezek.  xxxii.  26;  xxxviii.  2,  3; 
xxxix.  1,  R.  v.).  ]\Ieshech  and  Tubal  are 
associated  together  in  the  Assyrian  inscrip- 
tions as  they  are  in  the  Bible.  In  the  days 
of  Tiglath-pileser,  about  1120  b.  c,  and 
Shalmaneser,  859-825,  the  land  of  Musku, 
that  is  ]\Ieshech,  lay  in  the  mountains  to  the 
north  of  Assyria  and  bordered  on  Tabal,  that 
is  Tubal,  in  the  west.  They  were  gradually 
driven  northward  to  near  the  Black  Sea. 
Herodotus  calls  the  two  races  the  Moschoi 
and  Tibarenoi,  and  locates  them  in  the 
mountainssoutlu-nst  of  the  Black  Sea  (Herod, 
iii.  94  ;  vii.  7y).  Tlie  Moschoi  dwelt  between 
the  source  of  the  Phasis  and  Cvrus  rivers 
(Pliny  vi.  4). 

Me-shel-e-mi'ali  [Jehovah  recompenses]. 

A  Levite,  family  of  Kohath,  house  of  Izhar 
and  Korah.  He  and  his  sojiswere  doorkeep- 
ers of  the  sanctuary  (1  Chron.  ix.  21  ;  xxvi. 
1).     In  xxvi.  14  he  is  called  Slieleiniah. 

Me-shez'a-bel,  in  A.  V.  Meshezabeel  [God 
sets  free]. 


1.  Father  of  a  certain  Berechiah  (Neh. 
iii.  4). 

2.  One  of  those  who  sealed  the  covenant 
(Neh.  X.  21). 

3.  A  man  of  Judah,  family  of  Zerah  (Neh. 
xi.  21). 

Me-shil'le-mitli  [recompense,  retribution]. 
See  ]\Ii>iiii.LK.M()TH  2. 

Me-sMrie-moth  [recompenses]. 

1.  An  Ephraimite,  father  of  that  Berechiah 
who  urged  the  iclease  of  the  eai)tives  brought 
from  Judah  Ity  Pekah's  armj-  (2  Chron. 
xxviii.   12). 

2.  A  priest  descended  from  Immer  (Neh. 
xi.  13),  called  Meshillemith  in  1  Chron.  ix. 
12. 

Me-shul'lam  [a  friend]. 

1.  A  Benjamite,  descended  from  Shaharaim 
through  Elpaal  (1  Chron.  viii.  17). 

2.  A  leading  man  among  the  Gadites  in 
the  reign  of  Jotham  (1  Chron.  v.  13). 

3.  An  ancestor  of  Shaphau  the  scribe  (2 
Kin.  xxii.  3). 

4.  A  priest,  son  of  Zadok,  and  father  of 
the  high  priest  Hilkiah  who  lived  in  Josiah's 
reign  (1  Chron.  ix.  11 ;  Neh.  xi.  11).  See 
Sh.\llum  7. 

5.  A  Kohathite  Levite  who  with  others 
helped  faithfully  to  superintend  the  work- 
men who  repaired  the  temple  in  Josiah's 
reign  (2  Chron.  xxxiv.  12). 

6.  A  priest,  son  of  Meshillemith  of  the 
house  of  Immer  (1  Chron.  ix.  12). 

7.  A  son  of  Zerubbabel  (1  Chron.  iii.  19). 

8.  A  Benjamite,  father  of  Sallu  (1  Chron. 
ix.  7;  Neh.  xi.  7). 

9.  Another  Benjamite,  son  of  Shephatiah  (1 
Chron.  ix.  8). 

10.  A  chief  man  whom,  with  others,  Ezra 
sent  from  the  river  of  Ahava  to  secure  Le- 
vites  to  go  to  Jerusalem   (Ezra  viii.  16). 

11.  One  of  those  who  busied  themselves, 
probably  adversely,  in  the  matter  of  in- 
ducing the  Jews  who  had  married  foreign 
wives  to  put  them  away  (Ezra  x.  15). 

12.  A  son  of  Bani,  induced  by  Ezra  to  put 
away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  29). 

13.  A  son  of  Berechiah.  He  helped  to 
repair  two  portions  of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem, 
at  the  second  of  whieli  he  had  a  chamber 
(Neh.  iii.  4,  30).  Juhanan,  son  of  Tobiah 
the  Ammonite,  married  his  daughter  (vi.  IN). 

14.  Son  of  Besodeiah.  He  with  another 
returned  exile  repaired  the  old  gate  of  the 
wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  iii.  6). 

15.  One  of  those  who  stood  on  Ezra's  left 
hand  while  he  read  and  explained  the  law 
to  the  i)eople   (Neh.  viii.  4). 

16.  A  i)riest  who,  doubtless  in  behalf  of 
a  father's  house,  sealed  the  covenant  (Neh. 
X.  7). 

17.  A  chief  of  the  people  who  did  so  (Neh. 
X.  20). 

18.  One  of  the  princes  of  Judah  who 
marched  in  the  i)rocession  at  the  dedication 
of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  xii.  33). 


Meshullemeth 


475 


Mezobaite 


19.  A  priest,  head  of  the  father's  house 
Ezra  in  tlic  days  of  the  high  priest  Joiakim 
(Neh.  xii.  i;{). " 

20.  AnothcT  priest  at  the  same  date,  head 
of  the  father's  house  Giunethon  (Neh.  xii. 
16). 

21.  A  porter  whu  lived  at  the  same  date 
(Neh.  xii.  2")). 

Me-shul'le-meth  [a  female  friend]. 

Wil'f  (if  kiu^'  Manasseh,  and  mother  of 
kin;,'  AiMiin   (2  Kin.  xxi.  1!»). 

Me-so'ba-ite.     See  Mkzobaitk. 

Mes-o-po-ta'mi-a  [land  between  rivers]. 

The  nii(Uiinj,',  liui-iowi'd  from  the  Septna- 
ginl.  fur  tlie  Jlehrew  Arani-naharaini ;  see 
Aram  2.  (ll.  Itisa(ireek  name  which  appears 
after  tlu-  time  'tf  Alexander  the  (4reat.  The 
Greek  and  Koman  geo^raiiliers  used  the  term 
for  the  whole  country  between  the  Eujihrates 
and  Tijrris  rivers,  exchidin;;  the  mountainous 
rciiiun  where  the  rivers  take  their  rise  and 
ordinarily  also  the  low-lying  jilain  of  Baby- 
lonia in  the  other  direction.  Thus  limited, 
its  U]iper  portion  is  hilly  and  fertile  and  its 
lower  part,  esi>eeially  toward  the  Tigris,  is  a 
salt  desert.  Mesopotamia  is  now  called  by 
the  Arabs  Jezireh  or  the  island. 

.Some  of  its  inhabitants  were  present  on 
that  day  of  Pentecost  on  wliich  the  Holy 
.Spirit  descended  (Acts  ii.  Jt).  Stejjhen  in- 
cludes Ur  of  the  Chaldees  in  Mesopotamia 
(vii.  21. 

Mes-si'ah,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Messias  (.Jolin 
i.41  :  iv.  25).  the  Greek  form  [audinti'd  one]. 

A  Hebrew  word,  to  which  the  (ireek  word 
Chri.sld.s  answers.  It  was  ai)plicabu'  to  any 
person  anointed  with  the  holy  oil ;  as  the 
high  priest  (Lev.  iv.  'i,  '>,  l(i ;  1  Sam.  xii.  3,5, 
Hebrew  I  or  the  king  (2  Sam.  i.  11,  Ifi).  The 
title  is  given  to  the  ])atriarchs  Abraham  and 
Is;iac  and  to  the  Persian  king  ("yrus,  as 
chosen  ones  to  administer  the  kingdom  of 
(4<.d  (Ps.  cv.  ir>;  Is.  xlv.  1).  When  (Jod 
])romised  David  that  the  throne  and  .scepter 
should  remain  in  his  family  forever  (2  .Sam. 
vii.  V-i).  the  title  accjuired  a  s|iecial  reference 
and  (h'uoted  the  representative  of  the  royal 
line  uf  David  I  Ps.  ii.  2;  xviii.  50;  Ixxxiv.  9; 
Ixxxix.  :5s,  51 ;  cxxxii.  10,  17;  Lam.  iv.  20; 
Hah.  iii.  i;{i.  .\nd  when  jirophecy  began  to 
tell  of  a  king  who  should  ajipear  in  this  line 
and  be  the  great  deliverer  of  his  peo]ile  (.Tir. 
xxiii.  5.  (ii.whosegoings  forth  are  from  of  old, 
from  everlasting  (.Mic.  v.  2  5),  and  who  should 
u]diol<l  the  throne  aiul  kingdom  of  David 
forever  ( I.s.  ix.  tt.  7),  the  title  of  the  Messiah, 
piir  ej-cfllrnrc.  naturally  liecatne  attached  to 
him  (I)au.ix.25.  2<>:  Targnm  Oiikdos,  Num. 
xxiv.  IT  l!i).  and  ultimately  became  a  cus- 
tonuiry  dcsigiuition  of  liim.  being  as  common 
as  tlie  title  .son  of  I>avi(l  (.Tolm  i.  41  :  iv.  2'); 
and  in  the  form  Clirist,  Mat.  i.  1  et  yiassim). 

The  term  Mrs>iauic  prophecy  deiu)tes  all 
prr)|>hccy  which  treats  of  the  person,  work, 
or  kingtlom  of  Christ,  whether  it  does  so 
with  ex])ress  mention  of  Christ  or  si)eaks  of 


the  future  salvation,  glor.v,  and  consumma- 
tion of  (iod's  kingdom  without  mention  of 
the  mediator.  The  term  .Messianic  times 
does  not  refer  exclusively  to  the  period  when 
Christ  lived  on  earth.  It  generally  compre- 
lu'iids  the  dispensation  which  Clirist  in- 
augurated and  conducts  as  mediatorial  king, 
whether  viewed  in  its  entirety  or  in  some  of 
its  asjiects. 

Met'als. 

The  metals  used  in  ancient  times  were 
gold,  silver,  iron,  copper,  lead,  and  tin 
(Num.  xxxi.  22) ;  see  the  several  articles. 
Perhaj)s  antimon,v  was  employed  for  color- 
ing the  eyelids  aiul  eyebrows.     See  P.\INT. 

Me-theg-arn'mah  [i)robably,  bridle  of  the 
mother  citv,  /'.  c.  jurisdiction  of  the  metropo- 
li.s]. 

A  town  taken  by  David  from  the  Philis- 
tines (2  Sam.  viii.  1).  The  reference  is 
doubtless  to  (iath  and  its  suburbs  (1  Chron. 
xviii.  1). 

Me-thu'sa-el.    See  Methushaki,. 

Me-thu'se-lah,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Matliu- 
sala  [jierhaps,  man  of  a  weapon]. 

Son  of  Enoch  and  father  of  the  Sethite 
Lamech  ((^en.  v.  21-27).  If  the  number  of 
years  which  :ire  assigned  to  him  refer  to  his 
own  individual  life,  he  is  notable  for  having 
lived  to  a  greater  age  than  any  otlier  mau 
recorded  in  histoi'y.     See  ("uroxology. 

Me-thu'sha-el,  in  A.  V.  Me-thu'sael  [man 
of  (n)d]. 

Son  of  Mehujael,  and  father  of  Lamech, 
of  the  race  of  Cain  (Gen.  iv.  18). 

Me-u'nim,  in  A.  V.  also  Mehunim  and 
Mehunims  [plural  of  the  gentile  adjective 
from  Maou,  denoting  the  jieople  of  >Iaon]. 

A  jieople  whose  cajjital  was  probably  the 
city  of  Sla'an,  12  miles  southeast  of  Petra. 
They  inhabited  mount  Seir  (2  Chron.  xx.  1, 
emended  text,  with  10;  cj).  Sejjtuagint).  A 
body  of  them  were  smitten  l)y  the  Simeon- 
ites  near  Gedor,  where  they  dwelt  as 
strangers  (1  Chron.  iv.  39—11).  The.v  are 
mentioiu'd  in  connection  with  Philistines 
and  Arabians  (2  Chron.  xxvi.  7).  Some  of 
them,  probablv  cay)tives  of  war  and  tlieir 
descendants,  serveil  at  the  temple  in  .Teru.sa- 
1cm  as  Netbiiiim  (l'>,ra  ii.  50;  Neh.  vii.  .52). 
They  are  nu'Titioned  in  .Tudg.  x.  12.  accord- 
ing to  the  Hebrew  text,  where  the  Septuagint 
has  Midian.  The  Meunim  are  identified 
by  the  Sejituagint  with  the  Mina'ans.  If  the 
iibnt  ilieatioii  be  correct,  thev  are  only  a 
nortliern  settlement  of  that  ])eople. 

Mez'a-hab  [waters  of  gold]. 

.■\n  ancestress  of  the  wife  of  the  F.domite 
king  Iladar  (<;en.  xxxvi.  :'.It ;  1  Chron.  i. 
.50)  :  or  iierbajis  a  district,  of  which  Matred 
was  a   native. 

Me-zo'ba-ite,  in  .\.  V.  Mesobalte. 
.\  word  which  seems  to  represent  a  gentile 
adjective,  as  the  English  and  Greek  versions 


Miamin 


476 


Micaiah 


make  it  (1  Chron.  xi.  47) ;  but  the  Hebrew 
text  is  evidently  corrupt. 

Mi'a-min.     See  Mijamin. 

Mib'har  [eluiiee]. 

One  of  Diivid's  mighty  men,  son  of  Hagri 
or  better  a  Hagrite  (1  Chron.  xi.  38) ;  see  re- 
marks about  the  text  under  Baui. 

Mib'sam  [sweet  odor]. 

1.  A  tribe  descended  from  Ishuiael  (Gen. 
XXV.  lo;   1  Chron.  i.  29). 

•2.  A  yimeonite  (1  Chron.  iv.  25). 

Mib'zar  [a  fortification,  a  stronghold]. 

An  Edomite  chieftain  (Gen.  xxxvi.  4'2 ;  1 
Chron.  i.  53). 

Mi'ca,  in  A.  V.  Micha  once  Mieah  (1 
Chron.  ix.  15)  [evidently,  like  Micah,  an  ab- 
breviation of  ^licaiah,  who  is  like  Jehovah? 
(cp.  Mic.  i.  1  with  Jer.  xxvi.  IS  R.  V.,  and  2 
Chron.  xxxiv.  20  with  2  Kin.  xxii.  12)].  A 
variant  Hebrew  spelling  yields  the  English 
form  Micah,  cp.  2  Sam.  ix.  12  with  1  Chron. 
viii.  34. 

1.  A  sou  of  Mephibosheth  (2  Sam.  ix.  12). 
The  interchangeable  form  of  the  name, 
Micah,  is  given  him  in  1  Chron.  viii.  34,  35 ; 
ix.  40,  41. 

2.  A  Levite  who  sealed  the  covenant  (Neh. 
X.  11). 

3.  A  Levite  descended  from  Asaph  (1 
Chron.  ix.  15;  Neh.  xi.  17,  22;  and  xii.  35, 
where  the  form  Micaiah  is  used). 

Mi'cah,  in  A.  V.  thrice  Michah  (1  Chron. 
xxiv.  24,  25)  [who  is  like  Jehovah?].  See 
Mica. 

1.  A  Levite,  family  of  Kohath,  house  of 
Uzziel  (1  Chron.  xxiii.  20  ;  xxiv.  24,  25). 

2.  An  Ejjhraimite  who  stole  from  his 
mother  1100  shekels  of  silver,  about  725  dol- 
lars, but  afterwards  gave  tliem  back  again. 
His  mother  dedicated  200  of  them  to  the 
Lord  for  images.  A  graven  and  a  molten 
image  were  made  of  them  and  placed  in  the 
house  of  Micah,  and  Micah  consecrated  liis 
son  to  be  priest.  A  Levite  chanced  to  pass 
that  way,  and  Micah  embraced  the  oppor- 
tunity to  secure  an  accredited  minister  at 
the  sanctuary.  A  Levite,  tliough  not  a 
priest,  was  better  than  the  layman,  Micah's 
son.  The  Levite  consented  for  hire  to  minis- 
ter before  Jehovah  in  a  house  of  images, 
contrary  to  the  second  commandment.  Some- 
time afterwards,  migrating  Danites  passed 
that  way,  iillured  the  Levitt;  to  go  with 
them,  and  carried  olT  Micah's  images,  despite 
his  protestations  (Judg.  xvii.,  xviii.). 

3.  A  son  of  Merib-baal  (1  Chron.  viii.  34, 
35:  ix.  40,  41);  see  MicA  1. 

4.  A  Reubenite  who  lived  several  genera- 
tions before  730  K.  c.  (1  Chron.  v.  5). 

5.  Fatlier  of  Abdon.  He  was  born  before 
Josiali's  reign  (2  Chron.  xxxiv.  20  ;  2  Kin. 
xxii.  12,  wliere  the  form  Micaiah  is  used)  ; 

cp.    AtUROR  2. 

6.  A  descendant  of  Asaph  (1  Chron.  ix. 
15,  A.  V.) ;  see  Mica  3. 


7.  A  Morashtite,  a  native  apparently  of 
Moresheth-gath  (.Mic.  i.  14),  a  town  believed 
to  have  \>vvn  in  Judah,  near  the  Philistine 
country.  H(!  jirophe.sied  in  the  reigns  of 
Jothani,  Aliaz,  and  Hezekiah  (Mic.  i.  1  ;  and 
Jer.  xxvi.  IH,  wliere  the  form  Micaiah  is 
used).  He  was  a  younger  contemporary  of 
Isaiah  and  Hosea  (cp.  i.  1  with  Is.  i.  1  and 
Hos.  i.  1). 

The  book  of  Micah  is  the  sixth  of  the  minor 
prophets.  Itsauthor,  Micah  the  Morashtite  (i. 
1),  prophesied  under  Jotham,  Ahaz,  and  Heze- 
kiah. Its  contents  also  show  that  it  was 
written  after  the  reigns  of  Omri  and  Ahab 
(vi.  16),  at  the  time  when  Assyria  was  the 
power  which  the  Israelites  dreaded  (v.  5,  fi), 
and  in  part  at  least  while  Samaria  and  the 
northern  kingdom  werv.  still  in  existence  (i. 
6,  14).  Its  genuineness,  in  whole  or  greater 
part,  is  almost  universally  acknowledged. 
The  prophecy  refers  to  both  Judah  and  the 
northern  kingdom.  It  appears  to  be  a  sum- 
mary of  the  prophet's  utterances,  not  distinct 
discourses.  The  expression  "Hear  ye,"  re- 
peated three  times,  serves  to  mark  three 
divisions.  1.  Judgment,  first  on  Samaria, 
then  on  Judah  (i.,  ii.).  2.  Denunciation 
passes  into  prophecy  of  salvation  and  the 
glorious  reign  of  a  Davidic  king  in  Zion 
(iii.-v.).  3.  Description  of  the  true  religion 
required  by  God,  lament  over  the  general 
corruption,  confidence  in  better  times  founded 
on  God's  promises  (vi.,  vii.). 

Chap.  iv.  1-3  is  almost  identical  with  Is.  ii. 
2-4,  but  more  closely  connected  than  in  the 
corresponding  iiassage  in  Isaiah  with  the 
verses  which  immediately  follow.  ,Toel  ex- 
presses a  similar  thought  (Joel  iii.  10).  Isaiah 
certainly  quoted  his  words,  as  the  introduc- 
tion, ''And  it  shall  come  to  pass,"  shows; 
and  he  may  have  cited  them  from  Jlicali. 
But  the  verbal  variations  between  Isaiah  and 
Micah,  and  between  these  prophets  and  Joel, 
may  be  explained  by  su})])osing  that  each 
adopted  a  traditional  prediction  current  in 
his  day.  At  any  rate  God's  peo])le  of  old  had 
authoritative  prophecy  upon  which  tliey  re- 
lied, and  favorite  passages  which  they 
quoted,  just  as  Christians  of  to-day  have. 
Micah  iii.  12  is  expressly  quoted  by  Jeremiah 
(xxvi.  IcS),  who  dates  it  in  the  reign  of  Heze- 
kiah. Micah  V.  2  predicts  the  birth  of 
Israel's  great  ruler  at  Bethlehem  (Mat.  ii.  (i). 
The  prophet  refers  to  Nimrod  (^lic.  v.  (>; 
Gen.  X.  8-12),  to  the  covenant  with  the  pa- 
triarchs (Mic.  vii.  20).  to  the  exodus  and  to 
Moses,  Aaron,  and  Miriam  (vi.  4.  vii.  15), 
and  to  the  history  of  Balaam  (vi.  5). 

Mi-ca'iah,  in  A.  Y.  Michaiali  except  in  1 
Kin.  xxii.  8-28  ;  2  Chron.  xviii.  (5-27  [who 
is  like  Jehovah?]. 

1.  Daughter  of  Uriel  of  Gibcah,  wife  of 
Rehoboam.  and  mother  of  king  Abijah  (2 
Chron.  xiii.  2).  According  to  xi.20,  Al)ijah's 
mother  was  Maacah,  daughter  of  Absalom. 
Micaiah  is  probably  a  corruption  of  Maacah, 


Micha 


477 


Michmash 


for  so  Abijah's  mother  is  always  called  else- 
where, and  she  was  iirohiil)ly  jjramldiuifjliter 
of  Absalom  and  (laiit,'hter  of  Uriel  by  bis 
wife  Taiuar,  Absalom's  daughter.  .See  Maa- 
CAH  9. 

2.  A  prophet,  son  of  Imlah.  Being  desired 
by  Ahab  to coiR-ur  in  the  favorable  jirediitioii 
Riven  by  tin-  projibcts  of  llaai  rc^iardinj; 
Ahalt's  t.'X|)cditioM  a^jsainst  Kainoth-fiiiead,  he 
did  what  was  retjiiired  of  him,  but  with  sueh 
traiis|)arent  insincerity  that  he  was  adjured 
to  speak  the  truth,  on  which,  in  the  name  of 
.b'liovah,  he  jiredicted  the  deatli  of  Ahab  in 
the  (lomini;  iij;iit.  Tiie  order  was  t;iven  to 
make  liim  a  prisoner  till  the  event  should 
l)rove  his  unfavoral)le  vaticination  t«j  be  un- 
true ( I  Kin.  xxii.  H-2S  ;  2  (."hrou.  xviii.  0-27). 

[i.  One  of  .Jehoshaphat's  jirinces  sent  by 
him  to  teach  in  the  cities  of  Judah  (2  Chron. 
xvii.  7). 

4.  Father  of  Achbor.  He  lived  before 
Josiah's  reign  (2  Kin.  xxii.  12);  see  MiCAH  5. 

").  A  son  of  Gemariah,  who  comnninicated 
to  the  .Jewish  princes  in  tlie  reign  of  Jehoia- 
kim  the  contents  of  Jeremiah's  book  read  by 
Banuh  (.Fer.  xxxvi.   ll-]:5). 

f).  A  descendant  of  Asaph  (Neh.  xii.  35) ; 
see  Mica  .3. 

7.  A  jiriest,  one  of  those  who  blew  trump- 
ets wlien  the  wall  of  Jeru.salem  was  dedicated 
by  Xeheniiah  (Neh.  xii.  41). 

Ml'cha.     See  Mica. 

Mi'cha-el  [who  is  like  God?]. 

1.  A  man  of  Asher,  father  of  the  re])re- 
sentative  from  that  tribe  on  the  commission 
to  spy  out  Canaan  (Num.  xiii.  i:!). 

2.  A  Gadite.  descended  from  Buz  and  head 
of  a  father's  house  in  Gilead  (1  Chron.  v.  l.'j ; 
cp.  11,  14,  Ki). 

.'5.  Another  Gadite,  ancestor  of  the  preced- 
ing (1  Chron.  V.  14). 

4.  A  Levite.  family  of  Gershom  and  ances- 
tor of  Asa|)h  (1  Chron.  vi.  40). 

.").  A  chief  man  of  the  tribe  of  Issiichar, 
familv  of  Tola,  house  of  Uzzi  (1  Chron. 
vii.  3). 

6.  A  Benjamite,  family  of  Beriah  (1  Chron. 
viii.  IH). 

7.  A  Manassite  captain  wlio  joined  David 
at  Ziklag  (1  Chron.  xii.  20). 

H.  Father  of  Omri,  who  ruled  the  people 
of  Lssachar  in  David's  reign  (1  Chron.  xxvii. 
18). 

9.  A  .son  <if  king  .lehoshaphat  (2  Chron. 
xxi.  2). 

10.  Father  of  Zebadiah,  of  the  sons  of 
,Shei)hatiah  (R/.ra  viii.  M). 

11.  .\n  arcbanu'el  (.hide  !»,  one  of  the  cliief 
angelic  jirinees  who  helped  the  man  elothed 
in  linen  against  the  s])iritual  being  behind  the 
Tersian  empire,  called  the  ])rinceof  the  king- 
dom of  Persia  (Dan.  x.  i:?),  who  contended  for 
Israel  c.'l  ;  xii.  1),  and  who  witli  his  angels 
wars  victoriously  against  the  enemies  of  the 
lKioi)le  of  God  (iiov.  xii.  7).  When  the  doc- 
trine of  angels  was  wrought  out  by  the  Jews 


after  the  exile,  Michael  was  made  one  of 

seven  archangels  (Tob.  xii.  15),  Gabriel  being, 
of  course,  included  in  the  number  (Dan.  viii 
16;  ix.  21),  and  five  others  being  added  to 
make  up  seven,  namely,  Iiii])hael  (Tob.  iii.  17), 
Uriel  (2  Esd.  iv.  1),  Chaniuel,  Joiihiol,  and 
Zadkiel.  The  common  belietthat  Michael  dis- 
jiuted  with  S;itan  about  tlu-  body  of  Mo.ses.  to 
which  Jude  refers  and  upon  which  he  bases 
a  lesson  (Jude  9;  cp.  2  Pet.  ii.  11)  is  reliected 
in  the  Targum  of  Jonathan  on  Dent,  xxxiv. 
(),  which  ascribes  the  burial  of  Moses  to 
Michael  and  other  angels.  The  form  of  ex- 
jircssion  in  Zech.  iii.  1,  2  and  .ludc  9  may 
have  been  derived  from  the  current  account; 
but  inoi'e  jirobably  the  words  of  the  prophet 
Zediariah  determined  the  i)hraseology  of  the 
narrative. 

Mi'cliali.     See  Micah. 

Mi-cha'iah.    See  Micaiah. 

Mi'chal  [iierha]is.  a  brook]. 

The  younger  daughter  of  king  Saul  (1  Sam. 
xiv.  49).  After  Saul  had  failed  to  fulfill  his 
promise  to  give  his  elder  daughter  Mcrab  to 
David,  he  learned  that  Michal  was  in  love 
with  the  young  hero,  and  he  gladly  embraced 
the  ojiiJortuiiity  which  tins  aH'ection  atlorded 
him  to  cx]iose  David  to  the  risk  of  death. 
He  oil'ered  Jlichal  to  David  on  condition  that 
he  should  .slay  a  hundred  Philistines.  David 
accomjilished  the  assigru'd  task  and  received 
Michal  to  wife  (1  Sam.  xviii.  27,  2^).  She 
aided  David  in  e-scajiing  from  her  father's 
machinations,  ))Ut  after  the  former  became  a 
fugitive  Saul  married  her  to  another  man, 
regardless  of  the  obligations  she  wiis  under 
to  David  (xxv.  44).  \\'lu'n  Abner,  Ish-bo- 
sheth's  general,  sotight  to  make  uj)  matters 
with  David,  the  king  re(|uin'(l  that  his  wife 
IMichal  should  be  restore<l  to  him,  which  was 
done  (2  Sam.  iii.  15).  But  when  David  was 
bringing  the  ark  to  Jerusalem  and.  in  the 
intensity  of  his  religious  zeal,  danced  before 
the  Lord,  Michal  Ibdught  the  hero  and  king 
was  acting  in  an  iindignitied  manner,  and 
she  des])i>ed  him  in  her  heart,  and  rebuked 
him  with  scornful  and  untrue  words.  But 
David  re])lied  that  he  had  liumbh'd  himself 
before  the  Lord  and  would  continue  to  do  so, 
but  that  he  Would  be  held  in  honor  by  those 
in  whose  sight  she  falsely  insinuated  he  had 
acted  in  a  lewd  manner.  ,\fteratime  Michal 
died  (  hildless  (2  Sam.  vi.  1  I  2:1). 

Mich'mash,  and  twice  Michmas  (Ezra  ii. 
27;  Neh.  vii.  .'il),  aiwl  .so  in  A.  V.  (tf  1  Mac. 
ix.  73  [something  hidden  away]. 

A  town  near  the  mount  of  Bethel  (1  Sjiin. 
xiii.  2).  east  of  Betb-aven  (5),  and  noith  of 
Geba  (xiv.  .5.  in  A.  V.  Gibeah  ;  Is.  x.  2S.  29). 
The  Philistines  encam)>e(l  at  Michmash  to 
war  with  Saul ;  but  through  the  valor  of 
.lonathan  and  bis  :irmor  bearer  at  the  craggy 
pa.ss  nc;ir  by  a  slaughter  was  begun  among 
them  and  they  were  routed  by  the  army  of 
Isntel  ( 1  Sam.  xiii.  5-7,  15  .se(|. ;  xiv.  1-23). 
Exiles  from  Michmash  returned  from  the  cap- 


Michmethath 


478 


Migdol 


tivity  (Ezra  ii.  27  ;  Neh.  vii.  31).  They  were 
Benjiunites  (xi.  31).  Jonatlian  Maccabanis 
took  u\)  liis  residoiu'u  at  iSIirliiiiasli  and  I'xcr- 
cisedjuflsi'shii)  (1  Mac.  ix.  7o,  in  A.  V.  Mach- 
mas  ;  Antiq.  xiii.  1,  ii).  The  pass  of  Michnia«h, 
still  retaining  the  name  of  Mukhmas,  is  ~h 
miles  north  by  east  of  Jerns;ilem,  2  north- 
east of  (leba,  and  '-i  south  by  east  of  Bethel. 
The  village  of  Mukhmas  is  one  of  an  humble 
character  :  the  pa.ss  is  probably,  as  Robinson 
thought,  the  wady  cs-Suweinit,  and  the  two 
rocks  of  Bozez  and  Seneh  which  Hanked  the 
pass  (1  Sam.  xiv.  4)  are  described  by  him  as 
two  conical,  or  ratlier  spherical,  hills,  with 
rocky  sides. 

Mich'me-tliatli,  in  A.  V.  Michnletliali. 

A  town  on  the  boundary  line  between 
Ephraim  and  Manasseh.  It  lay  "  before 
Shechem "  (.Tosh.  xvi.  G ;  xvii.  7).  Site 
doubtful. 

Micli'ri  [valuable]. 

A  Beiijamite  (1  Chron.  ix.  8). 

Mich 'tarn  [engraving,  inscription]. 

A  word  occurring  iu  the  titles  of  Psalms 
xvi.  ;  Ivi.-lx.  It  has  been  understood  as 
meaning  :  1.  Concealed,  secret,  hence  a  mys- 
tery or  a  hitherto  unknown  composition.  2. 
Golden  psalm.  '4.  Epigram,  a  poem  intended, 
like  au  inscription,  to  record  memorable 
thoughts,  and  often  indulging  iu  refrains. 
The  last  opinion  has  most  support. 

Mld'din  [extensions]. 

A  village  in  the  wilderness  of  Judah  (Josh. 
XV.  61).     Site  unknown. 

Mid'i-an,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Madian  [strife, 
contention]. 

1.  A  son  of  A})raham  by  Keturah,  sent 
away  with  gifts  into  tlie  wilderness  (Gen. 
XXV.  1-6).  He  became  the  progenitor  of  the 
Midianites.  The  name  is  often  used  collec- 
tively for  the  tribe. 

2.  A  region  iu  the  Arabian  desert  near  the 
^Elanitic  gulf,  occupied  liy  the  Midiauites 
(Gen.  XXV.  6).  It  was  bordered  by  Edom  on 
the  northwest.  Its  boundaries  were  never 
demarked.  and  doubtless  shifted  considerably 
at  different  periods ;  but  all  the  region  re- 
ferred to  in  the  O.  T.  as  dominated  by  the 
Midianites  is  found  within  an  area  which 
measures  about  175  miles  from  north  to  south. 
About  the  time  of  the  exodus  Midian  con- 
trolled the  pasture  lands  east  of  Horeb  iu 
the  ])eniusula  of  Sinai  (Ex.  iii.  1).  A  dis- 
trict adjacent  to  Moab  and  near  the.  Amorite 
kingdom,  whose  cai>ital  was  Heshbon,  was 
occupied  by  .Midianites,  who  had  been  settled 
there  for  some  time  ((ten.  xxxvi.  '.i'>:  Num. 
xxii.  4  ;  xxv.  1,6;  Josh.  xiii.  21).  The  in- 
tervening region  east  of  Kdom  to  the  Red 
Sea  doubtless  belonged  to  Midian.  The  Mid- 
iauites who  were  routed  in  the  valley  of 
Je/.reel  fled  iu  this  dir<!ction,  and  Gidi'ou  in 
pursuing  them  iiassed  Succoth  and  the  (Saditi; 
town  of  Jogbehah  (Judg.  viii.  .">,  10,  11  ;  cp. 
Gen.  xxxvii.  25,  2b).  In  David's  time  a 
royal  refugee  from  Edom  found  temporary 


asylum    in    Midian,   probably   southeast  of 

Edom,  before  he  went  into  Egypt  (1  Kin.  xi. 
17,  IH).  The  center  of  pojiulation  was  east 
and  southeast  of  the  yElanitic  gulf  of  the 
Ked  Sea,  where  the  name  has  lived  from  age 
to  age  and  is  still  preserved  in  the  ruins 
called  Madyan. 

Mid'i-an-ites. 

A  peojile  of  the  desert  (Gen.  xxv.  2,  fi  ; 
Num.  X.  29-31 ;  Is.  Ix.  6  ;  Hab.  iii.  7  ;  Judith 
ii.  26).  Five  families  of  them  sprang  from 
Midian  (Gen.  xxv.  4).  Of  these  five,  the 
name  of  Ephah  has  been  identified  with 
much  i)robability  with  a  name  on  the  .As- 
syrian inscriiitions  of  the  8th  century  be- 
fore Christ,  which  denotes  a  tribe  of  northern 
Arabia.  Midianite  merchants,  who  were 
with  the  caravan  of  Ishmaelites  coming  from 
Gilead,  bought  Jo.seph  and  carried  him  to 
Egypt  (Gen.  xxxvii.  25,  28).  The  father-in- 
law  of  Moses  was  a  Midianite  (Ex.  iii.  1). 
Midianites  joined  with  Moabites  in  hiring 
Balaam  to  curse  the  Israelites  and  after- 
wards seduced  the  people  to  idolatry  aud 
licentiousness  (Num.  xxii.  4,6;  xxv.).  The 
Israelites  were  conseciuently  directed  to  make 
war  on  them.  They  did  so,  killing  the  five 
kings  of  Midian  with  all  the  male  popula- 
tion of  the  district  and  the  married  women 
(xxxi.).  These  kings  were  allies  or  va.ssals 
of  Sihon,  king  of  the  Amorites  (Josh.  xiii. 
21).  In  the  period  of  the  judges,  Midianites, 
in  conjunction  with  the  Amalekites  aud  the 
children  of  the  east,  entered  Canaan,  with 
their  cattle  and  their  tents,  like  locusts  for 
multitude,  everywhere  appropriating  the 
crops,  and  reducing  to  the  greatest  distress 
those  who  had  sown  them.  After  the  op- 
pression had  lasted  for  seven  years,  God 
raised  up  Jerubbaal,  or  Gideon,  to  deliver 
the  now  rejientant  people.  The  deci-sive 
battle  was  fought  in  the  plain  of  Jezreel.  It 
resulted  iu  the  complete  defeat  of  the  foreign 
oppressors.  Their  two  princes,  Oreb  and 
Zeeb,  were  taken  and  put  to  death  ;  and  later 
their  two  kings,  Zebah  and  Zalmunna,  shared 
the  same  fate.  The  land  had  rest,  then,  f(n- 
the  normal  period  of  forty  years  (,Tudg.  vi.- 
viii. ;  ix.  17;  Psalm  Ixxxiii.  9-12;  Is.  ix.4; 
X.  26). 

Mig'dal-el  [tower  of  God]. 

A  fortified  city  ofNuiihtali  (Josh.  xix.  .38). 
Its  identitication  with  el-Mejdel,  that  is  Mag- 
dala,  on  the  sea  of  Galilee,  is  contrary  to  the 
order  of  enumeration.  Its  site  is  probably 
Mujeidil,  12^  miles  northwest  of  Kades,  (.  e. 
Kedesh,  anil  11  miles  noi-th-uorthwest  of 
Yarini.    /.  r.   Iron. 

Mig'dal-gad  [tower  of  Gad  or  fortune]. 

A  town  in  or  near  the  lowland  of  .Judali 
(Josh.  XV.  37).  El-Mejdel  has  been  suggested, 
inland  2i  miles  east,  slightly  north,  from 
Ashkelon".  This  location  would  ho  iu  the 
cdiiiilry  of  the  Philistines. 

Mig'dol  [tower;  in  Egyptian  walthal, 
tower]. 


Migron 


479 


Mm 


An  encampment  of  the  Israelites  while 
they  wf>re  leaving  Egypt.  It  was  near  the 
sea  (the  Red  Sea  according  to  I-^x.  xv.  4.  'J'J  ; 
Dent.  xi.  4)  ;  was  hcforc  I'i-hahin»th  and  ho- 
fore  Haal-zeplion  (Kx.  xiv.  2;  Num.  xxxiii. 
7).  After  the  capture  of  Jeriisjilem  hy 
Nehnchadne/.zar,  Jews  fled  to  Egyi)t  and 
tf>ok  ni>  their  abode  in  a  ]ilace  called  Migdol 
(Jcr.  xliv.  1  ;  xlvi.  14).  If  the  marginal 
reading  of  Ezek.  xxix.  10;  xxx.  6  is  correct, 
Migdol  was  in  the  extreme  nortli  of  Egy|)t. 
.\n<-ii'nt  antiiors  nuMition  a  Migdol  or  ^lag- 
doloii  \2  miles  distant  from  IVliisiiim,  on  the 
nortlicasterii  frontier  of  Egyi)t,  and  the 
Makthal  most  frequently  mentioned  on  the 
Egyptian  monuments  was  situated  near  the 
Mediterranean  Sea  (Ehers).  Briigs(di  identi- 
fies this  jilace  with  Tell  es-Sanu"it,  and  re- 
gards it  as  the  site  of  the  encamiimeut  of 
the  Israelites.  But  this  situation  does  not 
harmonize  with  the  location  of  the  camp  on 
the  Red  Sea,  as  the  term  Red  Sea  is  under- 
stood. Other  fortresses  on  the  frontier,  how- 
ever, went  by  the  name  of  Migdol  (Ebers). 
Naville  has  expressed  the  opinion  that 
Migdol  was  at  the  present  station  of  the 
Sera|ieuni.  midway  between  lake  Timsah 
and  the  Hitt(>r  Lakes;  while  Ebers  locates  it 
at  the  southern  end  of  the  Bitter  Lakes, 
near  the  Persian  monument.  Here  the  gulf 
of  .Suez  at  the  time  of  the  exodus  was  nar- 
row and  iirobably  shallow.  It  was  also  liable 
to  l)e  driven  back  by  an  east  wind,  so  as 
temporarily  to  leave  a  dry  way  at  a  particu- 
lar spot. 

Mlg'ron  [possibly,  a  jirecipice]. 

A  village  of  Benjamin  near  (iibeah.  Saul 
once  encamped  in  its  vicinity  (1  Sam.  xiv. 
'2).  It  was  south  of  Aiath  and  north  of 
Michmash  (Is.  x.  28),  and  the  site  is  marked 
by  the  ruins  Makrun.  If  the  site  of 
<  iibeah  is  Tell  el-Ful,  as  is  commonly  be- 
lieved, and  if  the  text  of  1  Sam.  xiv.  2  is 
pure,  there  would  seem  to  have  been  two 
Migrons,  one  north  and  the  other  consider- 
al)ly  south  of  Michmash. 

MiJ'a-min,  in  A.  V.  sometimes  Miamin 
[from  or  on  the  right  hand]. 

1.  .V  descendant  of  .\aron.  His  family  had 
grown  to  a  father's  house  by  the  time  of 
David,  and  became  the  sixth  of  the  twentj'- 
four  courses  into  which  David  distributed 
the  jiriests  (1  f'hron.  xxiv.  1.  (i,  it). 

•J.  .\  chiefof  the  priests  who  returned  with 
Ziiiit>babel  from  Babylon  (Xeh.  xii.  o,  7). 
In  the  next  generation  a  father's  hou.se  among 
tlie  prie^^ts  bore  the  name  Miniamin  (ver.  17). 
The  ditference  between  these  names  is  unes- 
sential, being  wholly  external  ;  in  one  form 
the  letter  nun  is  assimilated,  in  the  other  it 
is  not. 

3.  A  son  of  Parnsh.  induced  by  Ezra  to 
put  away  his  foreign  wife  I  Ezra  x.  2.")l. 

4.  .\  ])riest  who,  doubth'ss  in  behalf  of  a 
father's  hous(>  (cp.  number  2),  sealed  the 
covenant  in  the  time  of  Xehemiah  (Neh.  x. 


7).     Perhaps  it  was  he  who  was  one  of  the 
trumpeters  at   the   dedication    of    the    wall 
(xii.   41)  ;   see  Ml.vi.\MiN  :{.  and  for  form   of 
the  name  see  under  2  of  this  article. 
Mik'loth  [rods]. 

1.  A  military  cai)taiu  in  David's  reign, 
who  was  on  duty  with  aimther  cajjtain  in  the 
second  month  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  4). 

2.  .V  Benjamite,  of  the  family  of  Jeiel  of 
Gilx'on  (1  Chron.  viii.  32  ;  ix.  37,  3s). 

Mik-ne'iah  [possession  of  Jehovah]. 

A  Levite  of  the  second  degree,  a  gate 
keejjer  of  the  ark,  who  jilayed  the  har])  in 
David's  reign  (1  Chron.  xv.  IH,  21). 

Mil'a-lal  [clocpient]. 

A  Levite  wh(j  played  anuisical  instrument 
at  the  dedication  of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem 
(Neh.  xii.  31!). 

Mil'cah  [counsel  or  counselor]. 

1.  A  daughter  of  Haran  and  sister  of  Lot. 
She  became  the  wife  of  Nahor  and  the 
mother  of  IIuz,  Buz,  Kenniel,  Chcsed,  Hazo, 
Pildash,  Jidlaph,  and  Bethuel  (Gen.  xi.  29; 
xxii.  20-23).  She  was  the  grandmother  of 
Eebekah  (xxii.  23:  xxiv.  l.">,  24). 

2.  A  daughter  of  Zelophehad  (Num.  xxvi. 
33). 

MU'com.     See  Moi.ech. 

Mile  [thousand  (paces)]. 

In  the  only  passage  of  the  Bible  in  which 
the  word  occurs  (Mat.  v.  41)  the  Roman  mile 
is  intended,  containing  10(10  paces  of  .")  Roman 
feet  each,  and  equivalent  to  l^.")!,!:?  Eng- 
lish feet,  or  about  {^  of  an  English  mile. 

Mi-le'tus,  in  A.  V.  once  Miletum. 

A  seajiort  to  which  Paul  came  a  day  after 
he  had  been  at  Trogyllium  (.\cts  xx.  1.5). 
Thither  he  summoned  the  elders  of  the 
church  at  Eiihesns,  togive  them  exhortations 
and  bid  them  farewell  (]7-3>^).  At  Miletus 
Trophimus  was  once  left  when  he  was  sick 
(2  Tim.  iv.  20,  in  A.  V.  Miletum).  The  city 
was  on  the  seacoast  of  Ionia,  about  3(>  miles 
south  of  E]>hesus,  and  near  the  boundary 
line  between  that  region  and  Caria.  It  had 
a  celebrated  temple  of  Ajiollo,  and  w;is  the 
birthplace  of  the  ])hiloso))hers  Thalcs  and 
Anaximander,  and  iierhajts  of  Democritus. 
Scarcely  any  relics  of  the  city  now  remain. 

Milk." 

An  important  article  of  diet,  especially  in 
the  East.  The  milk  of  cows  (2  Sam.  xvii!29; 
Is.  vii.  22),  sheej)  (Dent,  xxxii.  14),  goats 
(Prov.  xxvii.  27),  and  camels  (cp.  Gen.  xxxii. 
If))  was  and  is  still  used.  The  milk  of  the 
caTnel  is  excellent,  being  rich  and  strong,  but 
not  very  sweet.  Milk  was  n.sed  in  its  natural 
stateand  ascurdsand  as  cheese  I  Dent,  xxxii. 
14  ;  Jtidg.  V.  2.") ;  2  Sam.  xvii.  20).  It  was 
kept  in  skin  bottles,  and  sirved  in  dishes 
(Jtidg.  iv.  19;  v.  25). 

MUl. 

In  Palestine  and  neighboring  lands  the 
mill  was  a  simple  machine,  consisting  of  two 
round  millstones   (Dent.    xxiv.   6).     In    the 


Millet 


480 


Minister 


mill  in  use  among  the  people  to-rlny,  the  stones 
are  goiu'nilly  made  of  basalt,  about  a  foot  and 
a  half  in  diaiiicterand  from  two  to  four  IikIh'S 
thick.  The  nether  stone  is  slijilitly  convex 
on  the  top.  It  has  a  i)eg  in  tlie  center,  about 
which  the  niijicr  stone  re%'olves.  This  npjier 
stone  is  slightly  concave  on  the  under  side  in 
order  to  fit  on  the  nether  stoii(\  and  is  i)ierced 
by  a  hole  in  the  center  which  receives  the 
I)eg  and  into  which  the  grain  is  dropped  by 
liand.  It  is  turned  by  means  of  an  ni)right 
handle  near  the  circumference.  The  meal 
falls  over  the  edge  of  the  nether  stone  into  a 
cloth  spread  underneath  or  into  a  ]>latter. 
The    work    of    grinding    is    laborious    and 


Women  at  tlie  Mill. 

menial.  It  was  performed  by  the  women  (Ecc. 
xii.  3,  K.  V.  margin;  Mat.  xxiv.  41),  slave 
women  (Ex.  si.  5 ;  Is,  xlvii.  2),  and  ])risoners 
(Judg.  xvi.  21).  In  ordinary  Jewish  house- 
holds, however,  it  was  not  regarded  as  at  all 
degrading  for  the  female  portion  of  the 
family  to  grind  meal  every  morning  for  a 
day's  consumption,  rising  up  for  the  purpose, 
at  least  in  winter,  long  before  daybreak.  If 
the  millstone  was  taken  away,  the  family 
was  left  without  ground  grain  till  it  was  re- 
turned, on  which  account  it  was  forbidden 
by  the  Mosaic  law  to  take  the  mill  or  the 
upper  millstone  to  pledge,  for  he  taketh  (a 
man's)  life  to  pledge  {Deut,  xxiv.  6).  The 
ce.ssation  of  the  sound  of  grinding  betokens 
utter  desolation  (Jer.  xxv.  10  ;  Rev.  xviii. 
22). 

A  larger  mill,  constructed  on  the  same 
principle,  but  turned  by  an  ass,  was  also  in 
use  (Mat.  xviii,  6,  E.  V.  margin). 

Millet. 

A  cereal  (Paiiicum  milinceum),  in  Hebrew 
dohan,  in  Arabic  duhn.  Ezekiel  was  bidden 
to  use  it  as  an  ingredient  of  the  bread  which 
he  was  ordered  to  prepare  (Ezek.  iv.  9),  It  is 
extensively  used  in  western  and  southern 
Asia,  northern  Africa,  and  southern  Europe. 
The  stalks  make  an  excellent  fodder  for  cat- 
tle, while  the  grain  is  fed  to  poultry,  and  af- 
fords a  nutritious  and  palatable  food  fen-  man. 
It  is  possible  that  under  the  Hebrew  doliati 
other  allied  species  of  cereals  may  1)C  in- 
cluded, and  especially  Sorghum  rnUinre,  the 
Indian  millet,  a  taller  grass  much  cultivated 


in  India  and  southwestern  Asia,  and  known 
to  the  natives  as  doura. 
Mil'lo  [filling,  terrace]. 

1.  A  house,  i.  e.  probably  a  fortress,  at 
Shechem  (.Tudg.  ix.  fi,  20). 

2.  A  bastion  at  .Jerusalem,  in  existence  in 
the  time  of  David,  rebuilt  by  Solomon,  and 
strengthened  by  Hezekiah  as  a  precaution 
against  the  expected  siege  by  the  As.svrians 
(2  Sam,  V.  9  ;  1  Kin.  ix.  15,  24  ;  xi,'27 ;  2 
C'hron.  xxxii.  5).  Its  site  is  unknown.  It 
was  in  or  at  the  city  of  David,  apjiarently 
intended  to  cover  the  old  .Tebusite  strong- 
hold (2  Chron.  xxxii.  .5).  (4eneral  considera- 
tions lead  to  the  conjecture  that  it  may  have 
stood  on  the  southwestern  hill,  on  the  north- 
eastern corner,  on  the  spur  that  overlooked 
the  Tyropceon  valley  and  faced  the  temple. 

Mine. 

The  operation  of  mining,  by  which  gold, 
silver,  iron,  copper,  and  precious  stones  were 
obtained,  is  graphically  described  in  Job 
xxviii.  1-11.  The  Egyptians  carried  on 
mining  o])erations  from  an  early  period.  As 
early  as  the  fourth  dynasty  they  discovered 
copjier  in  wady  ^lagharah,  in  the  peninsula 
of  Sinai,  and  commenced  mining  and  smelt- 
ing operations,  which  continued  for  many 
years.  Work  was  suspended  during  the 
domination  of  the  Hyksos,  but  was  resumed 
under  Tliothmes  III.,  and  was  carried  on  un- 
der Eamses  II.,  who  is  commonly  believed  to 
have  been  the  Phai-aoh  of  the  oppression. 
The  miners  were  criminals,  prisoners  of  war, 
and  slaves,  working  under  the  whip  of  the 
taskmaster  and  often  in  fetters.  The  mines 
had  liroad,  low  openings.  The  .shaft  pene- 
trated to  a  considerable  depth.  The  roof  was 
su])ported  by  pillars  of  stone  which  the 
miners  left  and  by  timber  of  acacia  wood. 
The  gold  and  silver  mines  of  Spain  were 
celel)rated  (1  Mac.  viii.  .3).  Canaan  was  de- 
scribed to  the  expectant  Israelites  as  a  land 
whose  stones  are  iron,  and  out  of  whose  hills 
thou  mayest  dig  brass  (Deut.  viii.  9);  but 
there  is  no  account  of  their  having  carried 
on  mining  operations  in  Palestine.  That  the 
Hebrews  understood  how  to  drive  shafts  is 
shown  by  the  tunnel  which  they  cut  from  the 
fountain  of  tlie  Virgin  to  the  jiool  of  Siloam. 
Iron  mines  now  exist  on  Lebanon. 

Min'i-a-min  [from  or  on  the  right  hand]. 

1.  One  of  those  who,  under  the  direction 
of  a  I^evite,  Kore,  took  charge  of  the  free- 
will oflerings  in  the  temple  and  distributed 
them  to  the  Eevites  during  Hezekiah's  reign 
(2  Chron.  xxxi.  1,^)). 

2.  A  father's  house  among  the  priests  in 
the  days  of  the  high  priest  Joiakim  (Neh. 
xii.  17) ;  see  Mi.iAMiisr  2. 

;5.  A  ]iriest,  one  of  those  who  blew  trumpets 
at  the  dedication  of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem 
(Neh.  xii.  11);  see  Mi.i.\MiN  4. 

Min'is-ter. 

1.  \  jiersonal  attendant  and  helper,  not  a 
menial,     in     Hebrew    m'shareth,    in    Greek 


Minni 


481 


Miracle 


'uprrelrs.     Joseph,  the  slave,  when  raised  to 
a  jiosition  of  lioimr  and  trust  in  liis  master's 
houschiild,  ministcrcil  unto  liini  ((k-ii.  xxxix. 
4).     Ahisliaj;  was  jjivi'U  honorahle  and   intlu- 
eutial   place  hy  David,  and  slie  ministered 
unto  him  (1  Kin.  i.  4,  15).     .Toshua  attended 
Moses,  took  cliarfje  of  the  first  tent  of  meet- 
ing, and  siiceet'ded  Moses  in  otiice  {Ex.  xxiv. 
i:};  xxxiii.  11;  Josh.  i.  1).     Elisha  attended    > 
Elijah,  ]ioiiri-d  water  on  his  hands,  and  sue-   | 
ceeded   iiim  (1   Kin.   xix.  21;  2  Kin.  iii.  11).    j 
The  attendant  of  tlie  synagogue  aided  the   | 
otlieiating  teaeher  in  the  service  (Luke  iv.   j 
20).     Tile  disciples  attended  Jesus  and  were   | 
eyewitnesses  (i.   2 ;    Acts  xxvi.    l(i|.      John   ' 
Mark  attended  Paul  and  Barnabas  during  a   | 
part  of  the  lirst  missionary  journey  (xiii.  5).   i 

2.  A  public  functionary  in  the  .service  of  | 
the  state  or  of  (lod,  in  Hebrew  ni'.shnn'th.  in  ' 
(ireek  leitonnjos  :  as  the  jjriests  and  Levites 
in  the  i)erforniance  of  the  duties  of  the  .sanc- 
tuary (Ex.  xxviii.  43;  Num.  iii.  ."U  ;  Deut. 
xviii.  5  ;  Is.  Ixi.  (> :  cp.  Septuagint ;  Luke  i. 
2:{ :  Heb.  ix.  21),  Christ  as  high  jirii^st  in  the 
heavenly  sjinctuary  (Heb.  viii.  2),  Paul  in 
administering  the  gosjiel  unto  the  gentiles 
(Kom.  XV.  Hi}.  The  epithet  is  applied  to  the 
civil  magistrate  as  a  ])ublic  otHcial  (xiii.  C). 
It  designates  an  nftnrhr  of  the  royal  court 
(1  Kin.  X.  .'»).  often  a  person  of  higli  rank  (2 
Chron.  xxii.  8;  Ksth.  i.  10);  and  it  is  used  of 
the  angels  (Ps.  ciii.  21  ;  civ.  4). 

3.  One  engaged  in  the  service  of  another, 
and  regarded  jirimarily  as  the  master's  own 
represi-ntative  and  .servant,  and  not  as  acting 
in  behalf  of  others,  in  (ireek  dinkonos ;  for 
example,  a  magistrate  as  the  representative 
of  <tod,  an  avenger  for  wrath  to  liim  that 
doeth  evil  (Rom.  xiii.  4).  It  is  used  espe- 
ciallv  fiir  (iod's  minister  in  the  gosjiel  ;  as 
Timothy  (1  Thes.  iii.  2),  Paul  and  Apollos  (1 
Cor.  iii.  5),  Tychicus  (Eph.  vi.  21),  Epai)hras 
(Col.  i.  7).  The  term  diakoiio.-<  was  also  used 
in  a  restricted  sense  for  deacon,  a  cliurch 
officer  with  siiecitied  duties  distinguishing 
him   froiu  a  bishop. 

Min'ni. 

A  iici)|ile  of  .\rmenia  (Anti(|.  i.  3.  (i)  in- 
lialiilin^  the  district  near  lake  Van,  jirob- 
ably  between  that  and  lake  Urumiah,  and 
adjacent  to  the  kingdom  of  Ararat  on  the 
Araxes.  In  H'.H)  n.  c.  Shalmaneser,  king 
of  A.ssyria,  ])illage(l  tlu-  country  of  tlie 
Minni.  In  71<i  n.  c.  and  ajjain  in  71")  the 
kini;  of  Minni  revolted  against  .\ssyria,  but 
in  714  he  was  anew  subdued.  The  Minni 
continued  to  give  trouble  at  intervals,  es]ie- 
cially  during  the  reigu  of  the  Assyrian  king 
Ashurbaniiial  ((i()S  ti2<)) ;  till  at  length  about 
fiOd  jt.  c.  they  took  j>art  with  the  Medes, 
Cimmerians,  and  other  natinnalities  in  cap- 
turing Nineveh  and  ending  the  Assyrian 
emi)ire.  In  Jer.  li.  27  (K.  \'.)  the  kingdoms 
of  .Ararat,  Minni,  ami  Aslikenaz  are  de- 
scril)ed  as  uniting  for  the  destruction  of 
Babvlon. 
31 


Mln'nith. 

A  town  of  the  Ammonite  country  (.Tudg. 
xi.  33).  It  exported  wheat  to  Tyre  (Ezek. 
xxvii.  17).  According  to  Eusebius,  there  was 
a  village  called  .Manitli  4  lioman  mih's  froin 
Ileshbon  in  tlie  direction  of  Philadelphia. 

Min'streL 

.V  musician  (Rev.  xviii.  22,  in  A.  V.  musi- 
cian) ;  ojiecially  one  who  sings  to  the  accom- 
I)aninieiit  of  an  instrument. 

1.  Tile  Hi'hrew  word  M'na<i<i('n,  which  is 
rendered  minstrel  in  2  Kin.  iii.  1.^,  signifies  a 
l)layer  on  a  stringed  instrument,  as  liarj)  or 
lyre.  Music  was  employed  by  the  Hebrews 
to  still  excitement ;  and  when  Saul  was 
troubled  by  an  evil  spirit,  David  \\as  sum- 
moned to  the  court  to  act  as  minstrel  (1  Sara, 
xvi.  14-23).  Jliisic,  sometimes  at  least, 
formed  part  of  the  religious  exercises  of  the 
jirojjhets  (1  Sam.  x.  5-10) ;  and  Elisha  sum- 
moned a  minstrel  to  play  before  him  while 
he  waited  for  (rod  to  speak  to  him  (2  Kin. 
iii.  15).  The  music  calmed  the  ])rophet's 
mind,  recalled  bis  thoughts  from  the  outside 
world,  and  gladdened  his  spirit.  "  Projihecy," 
says  Maimonides,  "dwelleth  not  in  tlie  midst 
of  melancholy  nor  in  the  midst  of  apathy, 
but  in  the  midst  of  joy." 

2.  The  minstrels  hired  bv  Jairus  (^lat.  ix. 
23,  A.  V.)  were  llute  ])layers  (R.  V.),  who 
vnth  .singers  and  wailing  women  were  em- 
ployed as  ]n"ofessional  mourners  (2  Chron. 
XXXV.  25;  Jer.  ix.  17-20;  xlviii.  31  with  30). 

Mint. 

An  herb  of  the  genus  Mentha,  of  which 
there  are  several  S]ucies.  It  is  called  in 
C4reek  'rduosnuni.  sweet  smelling  (Mat.  xxiii. 
23).  Horseniint  (Mentha  .yt/lrestri.i)  is  the 
most  common  species  in  Syria,  and  grows 
wild  on  all  the  hills.  It  is  not  known  cer- 
tainly which  sort  the  ancient  Israelites  eul- 
tivatl'd. 

Miph'kad,  in  R.  V.  Hanuniplikad.  incor- 
])orating  the  Hebrew  article  [ai)pointed 
phice]. 

A  gate  at  Jerusiilem,  jirobably  of  the  tem- 
ple (Neh.  iii.  31) :  see  JKi{US.\LkM  II.  3. 

Mir'a-cle. 

Miracles  are  wonders,  signs,  types,  powers, 
works  of  (iod  (Deut.  xi.  3;  xxix.  3;  Ps. 
Ixxviii.  7.  11,  12,  43;  xcv.  fl ;  Mark  ix.  .39; 
Luke  xxiii.  H;  John  ii.  11,  23  ;  ix.3;  Actsii. 
22;  vi.  H\  viii.  13;  .see  R.  V.).  They  are  not 
merely  wonderful  events:  but  are  al.so  signs, 
types,  powers,  works  of  God.  They  are  not 
merely  suiiernatural  events,  like  the  creation 
of  the  world  ;  for  (iod  is  not  represented  as 
bringing  the  univei-se  into  existence  as  a 
sign  of  attestation.  Nor  are  they  merely 
extraordinary  providences,  which  men  sr)m(>- 
times  term  miracles  of  ]M-ovideMce.  and  which 
are  broii^jbt  about  by  secondary  means  and 
are  not  signs;  such  as  the  storm  which  dis- 
])(>rsed  the  S|)aiiish  .\rm:ida.  The  lucnsts 
which  were  blown  into  Egy])t  by  the  strong 
ea.st  wind  and  blown  away  again  by  the  we.st 


Miriam 


482 


Mirror 


wind    (Ex.  x.  13,    19),   and   the  arrival   of 

(jnails.  wliicli  niijirate  in  tlu'  sjn-inf;  and  siip- 
jilii'd  till'  laniii  of  Israel  with  moat  lor  an 
cveniii^i  (xvi.  115)  were  oxtraonlinary  ]irovi- 
dences,  hut  with  additional  clcnients.  Thoy 
were  foretold  and  were  intended  as  siyn.s. 
The  plague  of  locusts  was  one  of  the  si<;ns 
and  wonders  wrouf^ht  at  Zoan  (Ps.  Ixxviii. 
42.  Ifi),  and  the  quails  were  sent  that  Israel 
might  know  that  Jehovah  is  God  and  their 
God  (Ex.  xvi.  12).  In  the  striet  hihlical 
sense,  miracles  are  events  in  the  external 
world,  wrouiilit  by  the  immediate  power  of 
God  and  intended  as  a  sij;ii  or  attestation. 
They  are  possible  because  God  sustains,  con- 
trols, and  guides  all  things,  and  is  personal 
and  onnii])oteut.  Perhaps  the  manner  of 
working  these  dei'ds  in  the  realm  of  the 
physical  universe  is  illustrated  by  the  power 
of  the  human  will.  Man  wills,  and  mus- 
cular force  is  exerted  which  controls  or 
counteracts  nature's  laws;  as  when  one 
hurls  a  stone  into  the  air  again.st  the  law 
of  gravitation.  ]\Iiracks  are  not  to  be  credu- 
lously received,  but  their  genuineness  must 
be  tested.  The  tests  are :  1.  They  exhibit 
the  character  of  (iod  and  teach  truths  con- 
cerning (Tod.  2.  They  are  in  harmony  with 
the  established  truths  of  religion  (Deut.  xiii. 
l-'.i).  It  a  wonder  is  worked  which  contra- 
dicts the  doctrines  of  the  Bible,  it  is  a 
lying  wonder  (2  Thes.  ii.  9  ;  Eev.  xvi.  14). 
3.  There  is  an  adequate  occasion  for  them. 
God  does  not  work  them  except  for  great 
cause  and  for  a  religious  purpose.  They  be- 
long to  the  history  of  redemption  ;  and  there 
is  no  genuine  miracle  without  an  adequate 
occasion  for  it  in  God's  redemptive  revela- 
tion of  himself.  4.  They  are  established, 
not  by  the  number  of  witnesses,  hut  by  the 
character  and  qualifications  of  the  witnesses. 

The  miracles  of  the  Bible  are  confined 
almost  exclusively  to  four  periods,  separated 
from  each  other  hy  centuries ;  the  time  of 
1.  The  redemption  of  God's  peojile  from 
Egypt  and  their  establishment  in  Canaan 
under  Moses  and  Joshua.  2.  The  life  and 
death  struggle  of  the  true  religion  with 
heathenism  under  Elijah  and  Elisha.  3.  The 
exile,  wlieii  .lehovah  allonled  ju'oof  of  his 
power  and  su])remacy  over  the  gods  of  the 
heathen,  although  his  people  were  in  cap- 
tivity (Daniel  and  his  companions).  4.  The 
introduction  of  Christianity,  when  miracles 
attested  the  jierson  of  Christ  and  his  doc- 
trine. f)utside  of  these  jieriods  miracles  are 
rare  indeed  (Gen.  v.  24).  They  were  almo.st 
totally  uukiunvn  during  the  many  centuries 
from  the  creation  to  the  ex(jdus. 

The  working  of  miracles  in  the  apostolic 
age,  although  not  confined  to  the  apostles 
(Acts  vi.  8 ;  viii.  5-7),  were  the  signs  of  an 
apostle  (2  Cor.  xii.  12;  Heb.  ii.  4  ;  cp.  Acts  ii. 
43  ;  Gal.  iii.  .")). 

Mir'i-am  [ob.stinacy,  rebellion]. 

1.  Sister  of  Aaron  and  of  Moses  (Ex.  xv. 


20;  Num.  xxvi.  59).  It  was  probablj'  she 
who  watched  over  the  ark  which  contained 
the  infant  Mo.ses  (Ex.  ii.  4-«).  After  the 
jiassagf^  of  the  lied  Sea,  .she  took  a  tinilirel 
and  led  the  Israelite  women  with  timbrels 
and  with  dances,  saying:  "'Sing  ye  to  the 
Lord,  for  he  hath  triumi)lied  gloriously  ;  the 
horse  and  his  rider  hath  he  thrown  into  the 
sea"  (xv.  2U,  21).  She  was  a  i)rophetess 
(ibid.),  and  she  and  her  brothers  were  chosen 
by  God  to  be  leaders  of  the  Hebrew  people 
(iv.  1.5,  29,  30;  Mic.  vi.  4);  but  she  insti- 
gated Aaron,  and  they  made  Moses'  marriage 
with  a  Cushite  woman  the  occa.sion  of  mur- 
muring against  his  superior  position  and  in- 
fluence. They  claimed  that  God  had  si)oken 
hy  them  as  well  as  by  Moses.  For  this  in- 
subordination to  the  will  of  God,  .she  was 
made  a  leper  as  white  as  snow,  but  owing  to 
the  intercession  of  Moses  was  speedily  healed 
(Num.  xii.  1-16  ;  Deut.  xxiv.  9).  She  died, 
and  was  buried  in  Kadesh  (Num.  xx.  1). 

2.  A  man  of  Judah,  descended  from  Ezrah 
(1  Chron.  iv.  17). 

Mir'mah,  in  A.  V.  Mirma  [deceit]. 

A  I>eujamite,  son  of  Shaharaim  hy  his 
wife  Hodesh  (1  Chron.  viii.   10). 

Mir'ror. 

A  polished  surface  intended  to  reflect  ob- 
jects, esi)ecially  the  face  (Wisdom  vii.  2(5 ;  2 
Cor.  iii.  18  ;  Jas.  i.  23).  Ancient  mirrors  were 
made  of  molten  brass  (Ex.  xxxviii.  8  ;  Job 
xxxvii.  18),  and  were  provided  with  a 
handle.  If  they  accjuired  rust  spots,  they 
were  polished  anew  (Ecclus.  xii.  11).  They 
lacked  the  perfection  of  the  modern   glass, 


Ancient  Mirrors. 


and  the  image  in  them  was  less  clear  and 
true  (1  Cor.  xiii.  12).  As  the  material  was 
naetal,  E.  V.  substitutes  mirror  for  glass, 
which  is  the  rendering  of  A.  V.  Oi)inion  is 
divided  as  to  whether  mirrors  or  transjiarent 
garments  are  referred  to  in  Is.  iii.  23. 

Later,  in  the  West,  mirrors  were  .sometimes 
made  of  tin.  Praxiteles,  in  the  time  of 
Pompey,  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  to 
make  them  of  silver.  They  were  even  made 
of  gold. 


Misgab 


483 


Mizpah 


Mis 'gab  [hiftb  place,  the  high  fort]. 

All  miidiMitificd  Moahitc city  (Jer.  xlviii.  1). 

Mish'a-el  [who  is  IjodV]. 

1.  A  Levito,  fainilv  of  Kohath,  house  of 
Uzziel  (Ex.  vi.  2-2;    Lev.  x.   1). 

2.  OiUMif  Daniel's  three  companions,  called 
by  the  I5al>vlonians  Meshach  (Uau.  i.  6,  7,  11, 
lit;  ii.  17;   1  Mac.  ii.  59). 

:i.  One  of  tliose  wiio  stood  by  Ezra  when 
lie  jireached  to  the  people  (Neh.  viii.  4). 

Mi'shal,  in  A.  V.  once  Misheal  (Josh.  six. 
:j(ii  [prayer]. 

A  villajie  of  Asher  (Josh.  xix.  2(j),  given 
with  its  snhnrbs  to  the  Levites  of  the  Ger- 
shonite  family  (xxi.  30).  It  is  called  in  1 
Cliron.  vi.  71   Maslial.     Not  identified. 

Mi'aham  [swiftness]. 

A  son  of  Eljiaal.  who  with  his  brothers 
Imilt  Ono  and  Lod  (1  C'hrou.  viii.  12). 

Ml'she-al.     .See  MisuAi-. 

Mish'ma  [lu-arinfj]. 

1.  .V  tribe  descended  from  Ishniael  (Gen. 
XXV.  14  ;  1  C'hron.  i.  30).  The  name  perhaps 
lingers  either  in  Jebel  ]Misnia',  midway  be- 
tween Damascus  and  .lauf,  or  in  the  other 
Jebel  Jlisma',  about  liJO  miles  due  east  of 
Tainia. 

2.  \  di'sctiidaiit  of  Simeon  (1  Chron.  iv.  25). 
Mish-man'nah  [fatness]. 

One  of  the  Ga<lites  who  came  to  David  at 
Ziklag  (1  Chron.  xii.  10). 

Mish'ra-ites. 

.\  laiiiilv  or  the  inhabitants  of  a  town 
call.-d  Misiira  (1  Clin.ii.  ii.  5:5). 

Mis'par,  in  A.  V.  Mizpar  ;  Imt  the  oripual 
edition  of  A.  V.  had  the  correct  spelling, 
Mispar  [a  narrative,  a  number]. 

One  of  those  who  returned  with  Zcrub- 
babel  from  captivity  (Ezra  ii.  2).  In  Xeh. 
vii.  7  the  feminine  form  is  used,  !Mispereth. 

Mis'pe-reth.    See  Mispar. 

Mis-re-photh-ma'lm  [burnings  or  eleva- 
tions at   the  waters!. 

A  place  to  which  Joshua  pursued  the  kings 
defeated  at  the  waters  of  .Slerom  (.losh.  xi. 
8),  on  the  frontier  of  the  country  of  the 
Zidonians  (xiii.  t>).  It  is  now'  commonly, 
and  probably  correctly,  ideuliliiMl  with  the 
ruins  and  the  fountain  el-Musheirifeh,  11 
mill's  nortli  of  .\cre,  and  ^  mile  from  the  sea, 
at  the  foot  of  Has  en-Nakurah. 

Mite. 

A  small  coin,  worth  about  J  cent  (Mark 
xii.   l-.'i.     See  .Moxkv. 

Mi'ter. 

The  headdress  or  turban,  called  in  He- 
brew misiirjilictli,  wiiicb  was  worn  liy  the 
high  jiriest.  ll  was  made  of  liiLe  linen. 
Its  distinguishing  cbanicteristie  was  a  golden 
l)late  inscribed  with  the  words  Holiness 
to  the  Lord,  and  allixed  in  front  iiy  a  blue- 
colored  lace  (Ex.  xxviii.  4,  :}U-:5!);  Ezek. 
xxi.  2fi,  in  A.  V.  diadem)  ;  see  Hh;ii  I'iukst, 
and  for  Zech.  iii.  .5,  see  Dia1)i;m. 


Mith'kah,  in  A.  V.  Mlthcah  [sweetness]. 
An  encampment  of  the  Israelites  ia  the 
wilderness  (Num.  xxxiii.  28,  29). 

Mith'nite. 

Probably  an  inhabitant  of  a  town  called 
Metlien  (1  Chron.  xi.  43). 

Mith're-dath  [given  by  Mithra,  the  ani- 
mating spirit  of  fire]. 

1.  Treasurer  under  Cyrus,  king  of  Persia, 
through  whom  tlie  sacred  vessels  were  re- 
stored to  the  Jews  (Ezra  i.  H). 

2.  One  of  those  vv'ho  in  the  reign  of  .\rta- 
xcrxes  Longimaiuis  complained  that  the 
Jews  were  rebuilding  the  walls  of  Jeru- 
salem (Ezra  iv.  7). 

Mit-y-le'ne. 

A  city  between  Assos  and  Chios  visited  by 
Paul  (Acts  XX.  13-15).  It  was  the  cajiital  of 
the  island  of  Lesbos  in  the  Grecian  Archi- 
])elag(j,  and  was  noted  for  being  the  birth- 
place of  the  poet  Alcseus,  the  statesman 
Pittacus,  and  the  poetess  Sappho.  It  is  still 
called  Mitylen. 

Mi'zar  [smallness]. 

A  hill  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Jordan, 
probably  within  sight  of  the  peaks  of  Her- 
mon  (Ps.  xlii.  (i).     Exact  situatmu  unknown. 

Miz'pah  and  Mizpeh  [watchtower]. 

1.  Tlu!  name  given  to  the  cairn  north  of 
the  Jabbok,  called  Galeed  or  heai>of  witness, 
to  indicate  the  special  thing  to  which  it  bore 
witness,  namely,  that  God  is  the  watcher  be- 
tween the  covenanting  parties  (Gen.  xxxi. 
44-49)  ;  see  Galef;d. 

2.  A  town  in  Gilead,  east  of  tlie  .Jordan 
(Judg.  X.  17;  xi.  11);  jirobably  identical 
with  Mizpeh  of  Gilead  (xi.  29)  and  with 
Kanuitb-mizpeh  or  height  of  Mizpeh  (Josh, 
xiii.  ~;()),  otherwise  known  as  Ramoth  in 
Gilead  or  Kamoth-gilead  (Deut.  iv.  43;  1 
Kin.  iv.  13)  and  Kamah  (2  Kin.  viii.  2S.  29). 
It  was  situated  in  the  territory  of  (Jad,  on 
the  boundary  (Josh.  xiii.  2(i),  assigned  to  the 
Lovites  (xxi.  .'JiS),  and  appointed  a  city  of 
refuge  (Deut.  iv.  43;  Jt)sh.  xx.  S).  Je|)hthah 
dwelt  here  (.liulg.  xi.  31),  and  it  was  the  ri'si- 
dence  of  the  taxgatherer  for  one  of  the  twelve 
districts  into  which  Solomon  divided  the 
country  (I  Kin.  iv.  13).  To  gain  and  hold 
possession  of  it  battles  were  fought  between 
Israel  and  the  Syrians  (1  Kin.  xxii.  3  se(i.  ; 
2  Kin.  viii.  2H).  It  was  taken  and  burned 
by  Judas  Maccabfous  (1  Mac.  v.  35,  in  A.  V. 
^lasjiha).  .\ccording  to  Eusel)ius.  it  lay  15 
Roman  miles  west  of  Philad(l|iliia,  on  the 
.lablxik.  It  is  commonly  ideutilu'd  with  es- 
Salt,  about  10  miles  east  of  the  mouth  of  the 
.Tabliok  and  the  crossing  of  the  Jordan  at 
Damieh  ;  but  the  ruined  town  of  Jal'ud, 
about  (i  miles  north  of  es-Siilt,  Inis  strong 
claim  to  be  thi-  site. 

3.  A  ])lacc  at  the  foot  of  numnt  Ilermon 
(Josh.  xi.  .3),  not  identified.  The  land  of 
Mizpah  is  probably  the-  same  ns  the  vallevof 
Miz|ieh  (H|. 


Mizpar 


484 


Moab 


4.  A  village  in  or  near  the  lowland  of 
Judah  (Josh.  xv.  38),  conniiDiily  identified 
with  Tell  es-Sa(i,  7^  miles  uorth-uorthwest  of 
Beit  .Tibrin.  Etisebius  located  it  north  of  Eleu- 
theidiiolis,  that  is,  Beit  Jibriu,  in  the  direc- 
tion of  Jerusalem. 

5.  A  town  of  Benjamin  (Josh,  xviii.  26), 
not  far  from  Kamah  {2r>;  1  Kin.  xv.  22)  and 
over  against  Jerusalem  (1  Mac.  iii.  46,  in 
A.  V.  Maspha).  The  tribes  were  siinnnoned 
io  it  at  times  for  conferences  (1  Sam.  vii.  5- 
17;  X.  17;  Judg.  xx.  1-3;  xxi.  1,  5,8).  It 
was  fortified  by  Asa  as  a  defense  against  the 
northern  tribes  (1  Kin.  xv.  22;  2  Chron. 
xvi.  6).  After  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem, 
the  Babvlouian  governor  fixed  his  residence 
here  (2'Kin.  xxv.  23-25  ;  Jer.  xl.  6-16;  xli. 
1-16).  It  was  inhabited  after  the  captivity 
(Neh.  iii.  7,  15,  19).  Robinson  believed  its 
site  to  have  been  either  at  Neby  Samwil, 
which  means  ])roi)het  Samuel,  or  at  Tell  el- 
Ful,  conspicuous  eminences  north  of  Jerusa- 
lem ;  but  he  decides  in  favor  of  the  former. 
This  identification  has  received  cordial  ac- 
ceptance. The  place  is  2935  feet  above  the 
sea  level,  and  about  4  miles  north-northwest 
of  Jerusalem,  from  which  it  is  distinctly 
seen. 

6.  An  unidentified  place  in  Moab  (1  Sam. 
xxii.  3). 

Miz'par.    See  Mispar. 
Miz'peh.    See  Mizp.\h. 

Miz'ra-im  [dual  form  of  misrn,  probably, 
defense,  defeuscd  land]. 

Egypt,  the  dual  form  iiointing  to  the  two 
countries  of  Upper  and  Lower  Egypt,  settled 
by  descendants  of  Ham  (Gen.  x.  6)  ;  see 
Egypt. 

Miz'zah  [possibly,  fear]. 

The  chief  of  a  tribe  in  the  land  of  Edom, 
a  descendant  of  Esau,  and  also  of  Ishmael 
(Gen.  xxxvi.  3,  4,  13,  17;  1  Chron.  i.  37). 

Mna'son. 

An  early  disci])le  from  Cyprus,  who  accom- 
panied Paul  on  his  last  journey  from  Cfesarea 
to  Jerusalem,  and  with  whom  the  apostle 
was  to  lodge  (Acts  xxi.  16). 

Mo'ab  [scarcely,  water  of  a  father ;  prob- 
ably, desire]. 

1.  .Son  of  Lot  by  an  incestuous  union  with 
his  elder  daughter  (Gen.  xix.  37). 

2.  The  descendants  of  Moab,  Lot's  son, 
closely  related  to  the  Ammonites  (Gen.  xix. 
37,  38).  They  had  become  numerous  liefore 
the  time  that  the  Israelites  crossed  tlie  Red 
Sea  (Ex.  xv.  15) ;  had  taken  possession  of  the 
country  from  the  jilain  of  Heshbon  unto  the 
wady  Kurabi,  which  emerges  at  the  southern 
end  of  tlie  Dead  Sea,  and  formed  the  boundary 
of  Moab  toward  Edom  :  and  with  tlieir  kin- 
dred tlie  Ammonites  had  al)Sorbe(l  and  de- 
stroyed the  remnants  of  the  gigantic  race 
which  had  jireviously  occupied  the  country 
east  of  the  Jordan  (Deut.  ii.  10,  11,  19-21; 
op.  Gen.  xiv.  5).     Shortly  I)efore  the  arrival 


of  the  Israelites,  Sihon,  king  of  the  Amorites, 
had  wrested  from  them  tlie  pasture  land 
north  of  tlie  Anion,  tliough  the  country  was 
still  remembered  as  tlie  land  of  Moab,  con- 
fining .Moal)  for  a  time  to  the  country  south 
of  the  Anion  (Num.  xxi.  13-15.  26-30).  The 
Moabites  showed  a  commercial  friendliness  to 
the  migrating  Israi'Iites  (Deut.  ii.  28.  29),  but 
refused  them  permission  to  pass  through  their 
land  (Judfi.  xi.  17;  cp.  Deut.  xxiii.  4).  Be- 
cause, doubtless,  of  the  kinship  between  the 
Moabites  and  Israelites,  Moses  was  forbidden 
to  attack  them  (Deut.  ii.  9  :  ci>.  19).  Never- 
theless, the  king  of  Moab.  alarmed  when  the 
Israelites  encamped  in  his  vicinity,  sent  for 
Balaam  to  curse  them  (Num.  xxii.-xxiv. ; 
Josh.  sxiv.  9).  For  this  hostile  attitude  the 
Israelites  were  commanded  to  exclude  them 
from  the  congregation  to  the  tenth  genera- 
tion, and  to  maintain  a  coldness  and  indilier- 
ence  toward  them  forever  (Deut.  xxiii.  3-6; 
Neh.  xiii.  1).  The  last  encaniimient  of  the 
Israelites  liefore  they  crossed  the  Jordan  was 
at  Shittim  in  the  plains  of  I\Ioab  (Num.  xxii. 
1-Jo.sh.  iii.  1).  While  they  were  there,  Moab- 
ite  and  Midianite  women  seduced  them  to 
licentious  idolatry  (Num.  xxv. ;  Hos.  ix.  10). 
Early  in  the  time  of  the  judges  Eglon,  king 
of  Moab,  invaded  Canaan,  established  his 
seat  of  government  at  Jericho,  and  ojipressed 
Israel  18  years  until  he  was  assassinated  bv 
Ehud  (Judg.  iii.  12-30;  1  Sam.  xii.  9).  Elini- 
elech  sojourned  in  Moab,  and  thence  came 
his  two  daiighters-in-law,  Orpah  and  Ruth. 
Rnth  married  Boaz  and  became  the  ances- 
tress of  David  (Ruth  i.  22  ;  iv.  3.  5,  10,  13- 
17;  Mat.  i.  5-16).  Saul  warred  with  the 
Moabites  (1  Sam.  xiv.  47),  and  David,  when 
a  fugitive  from  Saul,  put  his  father  and 
mother  in  charge  of  the  king  of  Jloab  (xxii. 
3,  4).  After  David  became  king,  he  over- 
came the  Moabites,  and  doomed  a  large  pro- 
portion of  them  to  death  (2  Sam.  viii.  2-12  ; 
1  Chron.  xviii.  2-11).  The  Moabites  were 
subject  to  Omri  and  his  son  :  but  on  the 
death  of  Ahab  they  rebelled,  and  neither  of 
Omri's  grandsons,  Ahaziah,  who  was  inca- 
pacitated for  the  attempt  by  a  fall,  nor  Jeho- 
ram  was  able  to  subdue  them  (2  Kin.  i.  1; 
iii.  4-27:  Moabite  Stone).  Jehoshaphat  was 
king  of  Judah  at  that  time,  and  the  Jloabites 
formed  a  confederacy  with  the  Ammonites, 
Edomites,  and  others  for  the  invasion  of 
Judah,  but  the  allies  turned  their  weapons 
against  each  other,  and  Judah  did  not  need 
to  strike  a  blow  (2  Chron.  xx.  1-30;  cp.  Ps. 
Ix.  8;  Ixxxiii.  6;  cviii.  9).  The  year  that 
Elisha  died,  bands  of  Moabites  invaded  the 
kingdom  of  Israel  (2  Kin.  xiii.  20),  and  they 
entered  Judah  in  the  reign  of  Jehoiakim 
(2  Kin.  xxiv.  2).  ]\Iany  of  the  towns  north 
of  tlie  Anion  revertinl  to  ^loab  (cp.  Is.  xv.). 
The  jirojihets  denounced  the  Moabites  often  as 
typesof  the  enemiesof  the  kingdom  of  God  (Is. 
XV. ;  xvi. ;  xxv.  10  ;  Jer.  ix.  26;  xxv.  21;  xxvii. 
3;  xlviii. ;  Ezek.  xxv.  8-11;  Amos  ii.  1,  2; 
Zeph.  ii.  8-11).     Some  of  the  Jews,  who  fled 


Moabite  Stone 


485 


Moabite  Stone 


from  Jerusalem  when  Nebuchadnezzar  in- 
vaded Jud;ih.  took  refuse  in  Moiil),  but  re- 
turned when  (Jcthiliiili  was  ajipoiuted  jiov- 
ernor  (.ler.  xl.  11).  Nclmcliadnez/ar  suljju- 
Kiited  till-  Moabitcs  (Anti<i.  x.  it.  7).  They 
disiipjiear  hciK'etorth  I'roni  history  as  ii  nation, 
though  still  existing  as  a  race  (Ezra  ix.  1  ; 
Neh.  xiii.  1.  '23;  Antiq.  i.  11,  5).  Alexander 
.TannaMis  placed  theui  under  tributx;  (Antiq. 
xiii.  i;!.  r>). 

.'5.  The  country  occujiied  by  the  ^loahites. 
It  was  hounded  on  the  west  by  the  Dead 
Sea.  It  was  separated  from  Edoin  on  the 
south  by  the  wady  Kniahi,  known  in  its 
upjier  course  as  tlie  wady  el-'Ahsy.  This  fact 
is  learned  from  the  towns  which  are  men- 
tioned as  situated  in  Moabite  territory-.  On 
the  east  lay  the  desert  (Num.  xxi.  11).  The 
northern  boundary  which  the  Amorites  and 
Israelites  rccoiiuizcd  was  tlie  Arnou  (Num. 
xxi.  13;  Deut.  ii.  3(1;  iii.  TJ  ;  Josh.  xii.  1; 
Judg.  xi.  Iri),  but  the  Moabites  at  an  early 
date  possessed  (Num.  xxi.  2(i),  and  always 
regarded  as  theirs  and  freciuently  occui)ied,  a 
considerable  district  ncjrih  of  the  river. 
Moab  is  chiefly  a  rolling  jilatcau,  about  .3200 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  is  well 
adajjted  for  i>asturage.  The  western  edge 
descends  abruptly  to  the  Dead  .'^ea,  aiul  the 
faci'  of  the  bluff  is  cut  by  dei'p  valleys. 
The  shore  of  tlii'  Dead  Sea  is  conijjaratively 
fertile  from  the  great  abundance  of  springs. 

Mo'ab-ite  Stone. 

An  inscribed  stone  found  within  the  ter- 
ritory   of    Moab,    and     recording     Moabite 


liistory.  On  the  19th  of  August.  IHttS,  the 
liev.  F.  Klein,  a  (iirman  in  the  employ 
of  the  t'hurch   Missionary  Society,  was  en- 


camped at  Dhib&n,  the  ruins  of  the  ancient 
Moabite  town  of  Dibon,  when  he  was  in- 
formed by  a  sheik  that  within  ten  minutes' 
walk  from  his  tent  thi-re  lay  an  inscribed  stone. 
Proceeding  to  the  spot,  he  found  lying  on 
its  back  a  slab  of  i)lack  basalt,  three  feet  ten 
inches  high,  two  feet  l>road,  and  a  foot  and 
two  and  a  half  inches  thick,  rounded  at  the 
top  and  the  bottom  to  nearly  a  semicircle. 
The  inscription  consisted  of  thirty-four  lines 
of  writing  in  an  unknown  character,  run- 
ning across  the  stone,  about  an  inch  and  a 
quarter  ai)art.  He  at  once  set  on  foot  nego- 
tiations for  its  transfer  to  the  lUrlin  Museum. 
l'nha])]piiy,  M.  Clermont-*  ianneau,  of  the 
French  ('onsulat<',  also  attempted  to  obtain 
it  for  the  Paris  Museum.  This  ran  it  up  to  a 
nearly  ])rohibitory  price.  Then  the  Arabs 
fell  to  fighting  over  the  expected  money. 
The  (Hsiuite  settled  nothing,  so  kindlinga  fire 
under  the  stone,  and  pouring  water  on  it  when 
it  was  hot,  they  bnjke  it  into  fragments, 
which  they  distributed  among  the  several 
granaries,  to  act  as  blessings  to  the  gniin. 
Prior  to  the  destruction,  a  messenger  from 
M.  ('lermont-(ianneau  liad  ol)taineda  scjueeze 
of  the  inscription  ;  but  having  to  escape  pre- 
cipititely  im  horseback  and  crumpling  up 
the  ])aper  while  it  was  still  wet,  it  l)roke  into 
seven  pieces,  and  was  not  of  much  use. 
Better  squeezes  of  the  two  larger  portions  of 
the  broken  stone  were  afterwards  obtained  by 
a  messenger  from  Sir  Charles  Warren  and  by 
another  from  M.  Clermont-(4ainu'au  ;  and 
finall.v  a  number  of  fragments  of  the  stone 
itself  reache<l  .lerusalem.  and  are  now  some 
in  Paris  and  others  in  London.  With  the 
aid  of  the  squeezes  the  jjieces  were  put  to- 
gether. It  was  found  that  of  about  1100 
letters,  fiti!)  in  all.  or  less  than  two-thirds, 
had  been  recovered,  and  that  the  language 
was  akin  to  Hebrew.  The  inscription  is  as 
follows  : 
1.  I  nm  Mesba,  son  of  Chemoshmelech,  king  of 

M<ial.,  the  D- 
'J.  ihonite.     My  father  reigned  over  Moab  for 

tliirty  years,  and  reifzn  did 
o.  I  after'niy  fatlier.     And    I    liavc  made  this 
liigli  iilace   for  riieniosli  in  Krhh  on  ac- 
count of  tlie  deliviTance  of  .Me- 

4.  slia,  lieeause  lie  saved  uie  from  all  the  kings 

and  Ijecause  he  let  lue  see  my  iileasure  on 
all  tliat  hated  me.    Oinr- 

5.  i  was  kinir  of  Israel.  au<l  he  afflicted  Moab 

many  days,  because  Cliemosh  wu.s  angry 
witli"  liisltt- 

6.  nd.    And   Ids  son  succeeded  him;  and  he 

also  said:  "I  will  atlliet  Moab."  In  my 
days  lie  siiake  thus. 

7.  But  1  saw  my  pleasure  on   him  and  on  his 

liousc,  and"  Israel  perished  with  everlast- 
ing destruction.  Now  Oinri  liad  taken 
possession  of  all  the  [la-] 

8.  nd  of  Mi'deha,  an<l  dwelt   in  it  during  his 

days  and  half  the  days  of  liis  sous  (or  his 
soul,  forty  years:  hut"  resto- 
y.  re  it  dill  Cheninsh  in  my  days.  And  I  built 
Haiihiienn  ami  I  made  In  it  the  reservoir  (?) 
and  I  liuilt 
10.  Kiriaihen.  .\iid  the  men  of  (iad  had  dwelt 
in  the  land  of  Ataroth  from  of  old,  and 
built  for  himself  had  the  king  of  I- 


Moabite  Stone 


486 


Moladah 


11.  sraci  Ataroth.    And  I  fought  against  the  city 

and  took  it  and  .slew  all  the  (i>eoiile  of] 

12.  the  city,  a  siglu  tinto  Clunuisli  and  to  Mf)ab. 

Andl  bron>;ht  hack  from  there  the  altar 
hearth  of  Davidoh  (?)  and  drnt;- 

13.  gcd  it  before  Cheniosh  in  Kerioih.   And  I  set- 

tled the  men  of  Srn  in  it  and  the  men  of 

14.  Mhrth.    And  Cheniosli  said  tome  :  "(io.take 

Nebo  apiinst  Israel."     .\nd  I 

15.  went  by  ni^ht  and   foufrht  .nirainst  it  from 

break  r>f  dawn  until  noon,  and  to- 

16.  ok  it  and  slew  all  of  them,  seven  thousand 

men  and  boys  and  women  and  gir- 

17.  Is  and  maidservants  ;  for  I  had  devoted  it  to 

Ashtor-C'hemosh.    And  I  took  thence  the 
altar-hear- 

18.  tlis  of  Jehovah  and   dragged   them  before 

Chemosh.    Now  the  king   of   Israel    had 
built 

19.  Jahaz:  and  he  abode  in  it  while  he  fought 

against  me.    But  Chemosh  drove  him  out 
from  before  me.    And 

20.  I  took  two  hundred  men  of  Moab,  all  its 

chiefs;  and  led  them  against  Jahaz  and 
took  it 

21.  to  add  to  Dibon.    I  built  Krhh,  the  wall  of 

the  woods  and  the  wall  of 

22.  the  mound.    And  I  built  its  gates  and  I  built 

its  towers.     And 

23.  I  built  the  king's  palace,  and  made  the  en- 

closures of  the  [ for  the  wat]  ers 

in  the  midst  of 

24.  the  city.    .\nd  there  was  no  cistern  in  the 

midst  of  the  city,  in  Krhh.    And  I  said  to 
all  the  people  :  ""  Make  for 

25.  yourselves,  every  one  a  cistern  in  his  house." 

And  I  cut  out  the  cutting  for  Krhh  with 
the  help  of  prisoner- 

26.  s  of  Israel.    I  built  Aroer  and   made  the 

highway  on  the  Arnon. 

27.  I  built  Beth-bamoth,  for  it  was  pulled  down. 

I  built  Bezer.  for  ruins 

28 Dibon  fifty,  for  all  Dibon  was  obedient. 

And  I  reigned 

29.  over  one  hundred  in  the  cities  which  I  added 

to  the  land.    And  I  built 

30.  Medeba  and  Beth-diblathen  and  Beth-baal- 

meon,  and  took  thither  the  [herdsmen] 
31 the  sheep  of  the  land.    And  as 

for  Horonen,  there  dwelt  in  it  the  so[n] 

of  De[d]an.    And  De[dan]  said 
32 Chemosh    said   to  me :    "  Go 

down,  fight  against  Horonen  ; "  and  I  went 

down  and  .... 
33 and  Chemosh  [resto]red  it  in 

my  days.    And  I thence  ten  (?) 

34 

To  .judge  from  Mesha's  own  words,  the 
stele  was  a  nu'inorial  commemorative  not 
merely  of  his  recovery  of  independence  for 
Moab  from  Israel,  but  of  liis  glorious  and 
successful  reign  as  a  whole  (1.  4,  .'51) ;  erected 
late  in  his  reign,  after  the  death  of  Ahab,  after 
the  humiliation  of  that  house  also,  and  not  im- 
probably after  the  extinction  of  the  line  of 
Oniri  by  .Teliii,  and  the  entrance  of  Israel 
into  its  period  of  dire  distress  (1.  7). 

The  Hebrew  records  date  the  revolt  of 
Moab  after  the  death  of  Aliah  (2  Kin.  i.  1  ; 
iii.  ii) :  a  date  which  eonfliets  with  a  usual 
understanding  of  the  inscription,  to  tlie 
etfect  that  the  revolt  occurred  in  tlie  middle 
of  Ahab's  reign.  But  the  statements  of  the 
stone  may  be  readily  interpreted  in  liarmony 
w'ith  tlie  Hebrew  account,  and  that  in  one 
of  two  wavs: 


1.  The  two  accounts  may  be  combined. 
The  capture  of  the  frontier  town  of  Medeba 
was  effected  by  Mesha  about  the  middle  of 
Ahab's  reign  (1.  8);  but  the  Moabite  king 
did  not  atteni]it  actually  to  throw  olT  the 
Israelitisli  yoke  until  after  Ahab's  death. 

2.  Or,  better,  in  accordance  with  the  well- 
known  cu.stom  of  the  times,  whereby  tlie  royal 
descendants  of  Omri,  as  of  other  founders 
of  dynasties,  were  designated  sinij>ly  as  liis 
sous;  in  view  of  tlie  ascription  of  round 
forty  years  to  the  occupation  of  ]\Iedeba  by 
the  Israelites;  in  view  of  Moabite  grammar, 
wiiercby  the  collocation  beth  nun  he  in  line  8 
may  be  projierly  rendered  his  sons:  and  in 
view  of  the  jirobability  which  arises  from 
Mesha's  own  words  that  he  was  acquainted 
with  the  final  overthrow  of  Omri's  sons; 
lines  7  and  8  of  the  inscriiitioii  may  he  trans- 
lated :  "  Now  Omri  had  taken  possession  of 
all  the  land  of  Medeba,  and  [Israel]  dwelt 
therein  during  his  days  and  half  the  days  of 
his  sons,  forty  years."  This  is  the  same  story 
as  told  by  the  Hebrew  writers.  The  revolt 
of  Moab  did  actually  occur  midway  in  the 
reign  of  Omri's  sons,  as  it  were  dividing 
their  reign  in  twain,  and  lending  in  Moab- 
itish  eyes  an  aspect  to  the  latter  half  of  their 
rule  far  different  from  the  former.  See  Omei 
and  Mesh.\. 

Mo-a-di'ah  [perhaps,  host  of  Jehovah]. 

A  father's  house  among  the  priests  in  the 
time  of  the  high  priest  Joiakira  (Xeh.  xii. 
17) ;  see  M.\adiah. 

Mo'din  [informers  or  prognosticators,  prog- 
nostication (cp.  Is.  xlvii.  13)]. 

The  native  town  of  the  Maccabees  (I  Mac. 
ii.  1),  with  the  familj'  tomb  where  Mattathias 
and  two  of  his  sons,  Judas  and  Jonathan, 
were  buried  (ii.  70:  ix.  19;  siii.  2rt\  It 
stood  on  the  edge  of  the  plain  of  Philistia 
(xvi.  4,  5),  and  the  tomb  was  visible  from 
the  sea  (xiii.  29).  The  town  was  still  in  ex- 
istence in  the  time  of  Eusebius  and  Jerome, 
in  the  vicinity  of  Diospolis,  that  is  Lydda. 
The  Talmud  states  its  distance  from  Jerusa- 
lem at  Iii  Eoman  miles.  The  site  is  disputed. 
Hitzig  located  it  at  el-Burj,  2i  miles  south  of 
Midieh ;  and  IJobinson,  following  mediaeval 
pilgrims,  at  Latrun.  The  more  recent  sug- 
gestion of  Forner  has  been  favorably  re- 
ceived, that  the  site  is  IMidieh,  hard  by  the 
road  to  Jerusalem  via  Beth-horon,  anotit  G 
miles  from  Lydda  and  18  from  Jerusalem. 
One  lialf  mile  north  of  the  ruined  village  of 
Midieh,  and  about  the  same  distance  west  of 
the  modern  village  rises  a  hill,  from  the 
summit  of  whieli  vessels  on  the  sea  are 
visible  and  where  llie  foundationsof  a  stately 
tomb  have  been  found. 

Mol'a-dali  [birth,  origin]. 

A  town  in  the  extreme  south  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  2(1),  assigned  to  the  Simeouite- 
(xix.  2  ;  1  Chron.  W.  28).  It  was  inhabited 
after  the  captivity  (Neh.  xi.  26).  It  is  doubt- 
less the  town  known    in    the   Greek  period 


Mole 


487 


Money 


as  Malatbii,  in  Idiunrea,  to  which  Herod 
Ayrippa  I.,  (lining  thi-  earlier  and  less  pros- 
perous period  of  his  life,  retired  in  debt  and 
in  de|)ressii)n  of  si)irits  (Anti(|.  xviii.  <i,  2). 
The  <)n()iii:istic()M  locates  Malatha  4  Ivoinan 
miles  from  Arad  and  on  the  road  from 
Hehron  to  Aila,  that  is  Elath.  Kohinsoii  is 
commonly  followed  in  his  ident ideation  of 
it  with  Milh,  on  the  Roman  ruad  7i  miles 
southwest  of  Arad.  whiTe  there  are  vestiges 
of  an  extensive  town  with  imiiortant  wells. 
It  is  ahont  14  miles  east  l>y  south  from  Heer- 
sheba,  and  22  south  by  west  from  Hebron. 

Mole. 

1.  The  renderinfr  of  the  Hebrew  Tinshe- 
mi'th  (Lev.  xi.  HO,  A.  V.).     See  Ciiamki.kon. 

2.  The  renderiufi  of  the  Hebrew  words 
JJ'jihor  penith,  dijifiin;;  of  holes  or  digf^ing  of 
rats  ( Is.  ii.  20).  The  two  words  are  better  re- 
garded as  one,  Ipphnrixn-oih,  diggers.  These 
may  be  rats  or  moles.  It  is  believed  that  no 
species  of  Tallin,  the  genus  to  whieli  the 
common  mole  (  T.  eiirapicit)  belongs,  exists  in 
Palestine,  its  jilaee  bt'ing  taki-n  by  the  mole 
rat  {Spainx  ti/iihhix),  which  is  probably  the 
animal  intended  by  Isaiah.  This  animal  is 
very  common  in  the  Holy  Land,  living  un- 
derground in  small  societies.  It  resembles 
the  mole  in  a]ii)earance,  but  is  not  of  the 
.same  order,  being  a  rodent  feeding  on  vege- 
tables, chierty  bulbs,  whereas  the  mole  is 
insectivorous.  It  is  larger  than  the  mole, 
being  eiglit  or  more  inches  long.  It  is  silvery 
gray  in  color,  is  tailless,  and  has  only  minute 
or  rudimentary  eyes. 

Mo'lech,  in  A.  V.  twice  Molocli,  a  .spelling 
introduced  into  the  Knglish  version  througli 
the  (ireek  text  of  Amos  v.  2H  and  its  (|Uota- 
tion  by  Stephen  in  Acts  vii.  4:J.  The  Hebrew 
text  and  R.  \'.  have  "your  king"  in  i)lace 
of   .Moloch   [reigning  one,  king]. 

A  deity  worshiped  by  the  children  of  .\m- 
mon  il  Kin.  xi.  7).  The  article  is  prefixed 
to  his  name  where  it  occui-s  in  the  Hebrew, 
indicating  that  the  word  is  not  a  proper 
name,  but  an  ai)pellative  ])reserving  its 
nu'aning  of  reigning  one.  He  was  known 
also  as  Milcom  (1  Kin.  xi.  .">,  :i'.i)  and  Malcam 
(Jer.  xHx.  1.  :{.  K.  V. :  Ze])li.  i.  5).  i)roi)er 
names  formed  by  the  familiar  terminations 
om  and  am.  He  was  an  asjiect  of  I'aal  (.ler. 
xxxii.  :{.*)i,  whose  name  is  a  common  noun 
likewise  and  signilies  lord.  Baal  was  wor- 
shiped with  human  sjicritices  at  Tyre  under 
the  name  of  Melcarth,  king  of  "the  city  : 
anil  an  exceedingly  detestable  feature  of 
Molech's  worshij)  was  the  burning  of  chil- 
li ren  to  him  in  the  fire.  The  pr.ictice  was 
in  vogue  early;  and  wlien  the  Israelites  were 
at  Sinai  and  exiiected  soon  to  be  neighbors 
of  the  .\mmonites,  the  law  was  enacted  that 
if  any  man  madi.'  or  iiermitted  his  children 
to  "  pass  through  the  fire  to  Molech  ''  he  was 
to  be  i)ut  to  death  (Lev.  xviii.  21  :  xx.  1-5). 
Nevertheless  Solomon  in  his  old  age  erected 
an  altar  to  Milcom,  being  led  into  this  iilol- 


atry  by  the  Ammonite  wives  wliom  he  loved; 
and  in  the  following  centuries  children 
were  burnt  to  Molech  in  the  valley  of  Hin- 
nom  at  the  high  place  of  Topheth  (I's.  cvi. 
.■58:  Jer.  vii.  :i\  :  xix.  4,  5;  Ezck.  xvi.  21; 
xxiii.  37,  :$!•;  cp.  Is.  xxx.  3:!).  Ahaz  burnt 
children  of  his  there  (2  Chron.  xxviii.3),  and 
Manasseh  made  at  least  one  of  his  sons  to 
])ass  through  the  fire  (2  Kin.  xxi.  (j).  The 
northern  Israelites  were  also  guilty  of  this 
hideous  rite  (2  Kin.  xvii.  17;  Ezek.  xxiii. 
37).  Josiah  destroyed  the  altars  which  Solo- 
mon built  on  the  mount  of  ('orrui)tion  to 
this  false  divinity  and  other  heathen  gods, 
and  deliled  the  high  place  of  Tojiheth  (2  Kiu. 
xxiii.  10,  i:{). 

Mo'lid  [begetter]. 

A  man  of  .ludah,  family  of  Ilezron,  hou.se 
of  Jerahmeel  (1  Chron.  ii.  29). 

Mo'loch.     See  Molfxh. 

Mol'ten  Sea  or  Bra'zen  Sea. 

A  great  basin  made  by  Solomon  of  brass 
which  David  had  taken  as  booty  (1  Chron. 
xviii.  IS).  It  stood  in  the  inner  court  of  the 
temple  between  the  altar  of  l)urnt  ofl'ering 
and  the  sanctuary,  somewhat  toward  the 
south  ;  and  was  intended  for  the  priests  to 
wash  their  hands  and  feet  in  before  entering 
the  sanctuary  or  ajiiiroaching  the  altar  (1 
Kin.  vii.  39  ;  2  Chron.  iv.  (J  ;  Antii|.  viii.  /!,  (i : 
cp.  Kx.  xxx.  18-21).  It  was  round,  10  cubits 
in  diameter  and  5  in  height,  and  held  2000 
baths  (1  Kin.  vii.  23,  2(! ;  in  2  Chron.  iv.  .'>  in- 
correctly 30t)0).  The  brim  curved  outward 
like  a  ctij),  and  the  sides  were  ornamented 
with  two  rowsof  knops  underneath  the  brim 
(1  Kin.  vii.  24,  2(i).  It  was  not  an  exact  hem- 
isphere, but  its  sides  bulged  out  like  a  tulip, 
as  appears  from  the  statement  of  its  capacity 
and  from  the  comparison  of  it  to  a  lily.  It 
stood  U])on  twelve  brazen  oxen,  in  four 
groups  of  three  each,  facing  the  four  quarters. 
Aliaz  took  it  down  from  the  oxen  (2  Kin. 
xvi.  17)  ;  and  finally,  when  Nebuchadnezzar 
cai»tured  .lerusalem,  he  l)ioke  the  basin  in 
I)ieces  (xxv.  13,  10;  Jer.  xxvii.  19-22). 

Mon'ey. 

Money  was  early  coined  by  the  Greeks  and 
the  peojiles  of  .^sia  Minor  within  the  sphere 
of  Greek  iulhience.  Staters,  made  of  an  alloy 
of  gold  with  silver  called  electron,  were 
struck  in  Lydia  in  Asia  Minor  and  silver 
coins  at  iEgina  as  early  as  700  to  (ioO  n.  c. 
In  the  rest  of  western  Asia  and  in  Egyjtt 
])eople  weri'  content  to  use  gold  and  silver  in 
i>ars,  rings,  and  othei  forms,  ]U'obably 
stamped  with  the  value,  but  not  issued  by 
authority  (.Tosh.  vii.  21  :  and  cj).  name  of 
talent,  kikk-nr.  circle).  In  l)usinc.ss  transac- 
tions reliance  was  not  jilaccd  on  the  stamp, 
but  the  ipiantity  was  determined  by  weigh- 
ing ((Jen.  xxiii.  Hi;  xliii.  21);  cp.  Wimi.iits. 
Counting  was  rarely  resorted  to  (2  Kin.  xii. 
11),  and  then  only  to  form  a  general  estimate. 
Shekel  in  the  early  period  does  not  mean  a 
coin  bearing  an  authoritative  stamp,  but  a 


Money 


488 


Money 


certain  weight  (shekel)  of  silver.  The  weights 
formed  a  series  in  the  denomination  of  talent, 
maneh,  sliekol.  gerali,  and  bcka  or  half 
shekel;  see  Weights.  Darius  Hystasins, 
r)21-48()  B.  c,  is  credited  with  tlie  introduc- 
tion of  coinage  into  Persia  (Herod,  iv.  166), 
whereby  the  Jews  became  acquainted  with 


Gold  Daric. 

coins.  The  ordinary  daric  (Ezra  ii.  69  ;  in  A. 
V.  dram)  was  a  thick  gold  coin,  showing  on 
one  side  the  king,  kneeling  and  holding  a 
bow  and  a  javelin.  On  the  reverse  was  an 
irregular  square,  doubtless  the  mark  of  the 
punch  with  which  the  lump  of  metal  was 
driven  into  the  die.  It  was  worth  about  five 
dollars ;  see  Daric.  After  the  fall  of  the 
Persian  empire,  the  Greek  system  came  into 
vogue  in  Palestine,  and  money  was  reckoned 
by  talents  and  draclimas  (1  Mac.  xi.  28  ;  2 
Mac.  iv.  19). 


Silver  Half  Shekel  of  Year  1. 

In  the  year  141-140  B.  c,  Simon  Maccabseus 
obtained  the  right  to  coin  money  for  his  nation 
with  his  own  stamp  (1  Mac.  xv.  6),  and  issued 
silver  shekels  and  half  shekels  and  perhaps 


Shekel  of  Year  2. 

copper  half,  quarter,  and  sixth  .shekels.  The 
silver  coins  show  a  vase  on  the  obverse  with 
the  date  above  and  the  legend  "shekel  (or 
half  shekel)  of  Israel  ;"  and  on  the  reverse 
a  branch  bearing  flowers  encircled  by  the 
words  "  .Jerusalem  the  holy."  The  small 
copper  coin  of  .lohn  Hyrcanus,  which  is  rep- 
resented in  the  accompanying  cut,  bears  on 
the  obverse  within  a  wreath  of  olive  the  in- 
scription, "  Jehohanan  the  high  priest,  head 


and  friend  of  the  Jews."  The  reverse  has  a 
Greek  symbol,  the  united  cornucopias,  be- 
tween which  is  a  pomegranate.     Herod  the 


Copper  Coin  of  John  Hyrcanus. 

Great  and  his  successors  down  to  Herod 
Agrippa  II.  issued  copper  coins,  but  only  with 
Greek  legends. 


Copper  Coin  of  Herod  Antipas,  Tetrarch  of 
Galilee. 

The  money  of  the  Greeks,  however,  con- 
tinued to  circulate  along  with  the  Jewish 
coinage.  The  coins  consisted  of  drachmas 
and  tetradrachmas.  Thesilverdrachma  (Luke 
XV.  8,  R.  V.  margin)  in  the  time  of  the  Herods 
and  the  procurators  was  equivalent  to  the 
Roman  denariusand  worth  about  16 cents :  the 
silver  stater  or  tetradrachma  (Mat.  xvii.  27, 
margin),  struck  by  the  Greek  cities  of  Syria 
and  Phfenicia.  was  worth  about  66  cents,  but 
soon  afterwards  became  much  debased.  The 
lepton  was  a  small  copper  coin  (Luke  xii.  .59  ; 
xxi.  2,  rendered  mite),  not  the  lepton  of  the 
Greek  system,  but  the  smallest  copper  coin  in 
circulation,  worth  about  J  cent  and  equal  to 
half  the  quadrans  (^lark  xii.  42).  The  name 
denotes  small.  It  was  a  Jewish  coin,  for  only 
Jewish  money  was  allowed  to  be  ofiered  in 
the  temple ;  and  it  was  probably  a  copper 
coin  issued  by  ,Tohn  Hyrcanus  or  other  Mac- 
cabfean  prince.  The  didrachma,  which  corre- 
sponded to  the  half  shekel  (Mat.  xvii.  24,  mar- 
gin), was  probably  not  in  circulation  or  but  lit- 
tle used  in  Palestine.  The  talent  employed 
in  Palestine  (1  Mac.  xi.  28  :  IMat.  xviii.  24) 
was  the  Attic  talent,  which  Alexander  had 
made  the  lawful  standard  throughout  his 
empire  and  which  afterwards  maintaiTied  its 
supremacy.  It  was  not  a  coin,  but  money  of 
account ;  w'as  divided  into  miuas  (1  ]\Iac.  xiv. 
24;  Luke  xix.  1.3-2."),  rendered  pounds :  and 
it  consisted  of  60  minas  or  6000  drachmas. 
It  suffered  great  depreciation,  the  drachma 
falling  ofl'  from  about  (>7..5  grains  to  about  55 
grains  or  16  cents  under  the  early  Caesars. 

With  the  advent  of  the  Eoraans  in  Pales- 
tine, the  money  of  the  Romans  had  also  come 
into  circulation.  The  denarius  (Mat.  xviii. 
28 ;  rendered  penny)  was  a  silver  coin.  In 
the  time  of  the  emi)ire  its  obverse  almost  in- 
variably bore  the  head  of  the  reigning  sov- 
ereign or  of  some  member  of  the  imperial 


Money 


489 


Money 


family.  From  the  time  of  Augustus  to  that 
of  Noro,  its  standard  WLifjht  was  W)  {grains, 
equivalfut  to  alxput  17  tents.  It  was  the 
tributo  money  jiayablu    by  the  Jews  lo  the 


liLiiaiiiis  with  imiifii'  and  Superscriiitmn  nf  Ti- 
burius  Casur. 

imperial  treasury  (Mat.  xxii.  1!»).  The  assa- 
rion  (x.  "JSi ;  Luke  xii.  <i,  renden-d  farthiu};;), 
the  (ireek  name  <if  the  Roman  as.  was  a 
small  copiier  eoin,  the  value  of  which  was 
reduced  in  217  B.  c.  to  ^  of  a  denarius  or  to 
about  1  cent.  The  quadrans  (Mat.  v.  2(i ; 
Mark   xii.   42  ;  rendered   farthing)  was  the 


Procurator's  Copper  Coin. 

fourth  part  of  an  as,  or  \  cent.  The  pro- 
cunitoi-s  of  Judica  were  also  accustomed  to 
coin  money.  They  issued  copper  i)ieces  iu 
the  name  of  the  imperial  family  and  with  the 
legend  in  Greek  letters.  The  coin  which  is 
represented  in  the  acconi|ianyin^'  cut  bears 
the  name  of  Ti.  Claudius  Ca-sar  (iermanicus 
written  in  ({reek  on  the  marfjin,  and  in  the 
center  two  palm  branches  laid  crosswise  with 
the  date,  "year  14,"  between  them.  The 
reverse  contains  the  name  of  tlie  emperor's 
wife,  .lulia  .\;,'ripi)ina.  ll  was  struck  in  \. 
T>.  ^>\.  during;  tiie  iirocuratorship  of  Felix. 

The  gold  c<>in  which  was  current  in  Pales- 

•tine  during  the  N.  T.  jieriod  was  the  Konian 

denarius   aureus,    generally   termed    simply 

aureus   (Anti((.    xiv.   S,  .">,  rendered  i)ieces  of 

gold  I,  which  (lassed  for  2.")  silver  denarii. 

The  national  coinage  of  Israel  was  revived 


Shekel  of  Simon,  Prince  of  Israel. 

by  Kleazar,  the  priest,  and  Simon,  the  prince, 
during    the  first  revolt,  A.  D.  <i(>-70.     Silver. 


shekels  and  qtiarter  shekels  and  copper  coins 
with  various  devices  and  old  Hebrew  in- 
scriptions were  is>ued.  Thesiiekel  of  Simon, 
of  which  a  copy  is  here  given,  shows  on  the 
obverse  a  jialm  tree  and  the  legend  "Simou, 
prince  of  Israel,"  and  on  the  reverse  a  vine 
and  "  Year  one  of  tiie  redemption  of  Israel." 
On  the  suiipressioii  of  liiis  revolt  and  the 
cajiture  of  Jerusalem,  coins  were  struck  iu 
liome  with  the  image  and  name  of  the  em- 
peror Vespasian  on  the  obvei"se,  and  a  female 


Silver  Coin  uf  Vespasian,  comnienioratiug  the 
Cai)ture  of  Jerusalem. 

captive  under  a  palm  tree,  with  the  inscrip- 
tion ■■  Judtea  subdued"  or  "' Juda-a  cai>tive" 
on  the  reverse  ;  cj).  medal,  article. I  i:ius.vi.km. 
Herod  Agrippa  II.,  king  of  ])art  of  Galileo 
and  the  region  to  the  east,  continued  to  issue 


Copper  Coin  of  Herod  .\grippa  II. 

copper  coins  after  the  fall  of  Jerusalem.  The 
one  dejjicted  dates  from  the  reign  of  Titus. 
It  bears  the  head  of  the  emperor,  his  name 
and  titles,  on  the  oltverse  :  and  on  the  re- 
verse a  winged  victory  holding  a  wri'ath  and 
a  i>ahu  branch,  and  the  date,  "year  26  of 
king  Agrii)]ia."  During  the  second  revolt, 
which  was  headeil  by  Har-cocheba,  A.  u.  V,i2- 
13.5.  shekels  and  (|uarter  shekels  of  silver 
and  also  of  co])per,  with  old  Hebrew  inscrip- 


Shekd  of  llar-cochebn. 

tions,  were  again  coined.  The  shekel  shows 
a  tetrastyle  temple  on  the  obverse,  iirol)ably 
a  conventional  representation  of  the  beauti- 
ful gate  of  the  temple  at  Jerusjileni.     At  the 


Money  Changers 


490 


Moon 


sides  of  it  appears  the  word  Simon,  perhaps 
the  i)ersimiil  name  of  the  leader  of  the  re- 
volt ;  while  ahove  it  a  star  is  introduced, 
doubtless  in  allusion  to  the  surname  of  the 
leader,  Har-eocheba,  son  of  a  star.  To  obtain 
quarter  shekels  the  Roman  denarius  was  re- 
struck,  which  at  this  time  so  nearly  equaled 
the  quarter  shekel  in  value  that  il  could  be 
substituted  for  it  without  inconvenience. 

Mon'ey  Chan-gers. 

\\'hen  a  census  was  taken  every  Israelite, 
whether  rich  ur  poor,  who  had  reached  the 
ajie  of  twenty  years,  was  required  to  pay 
lialf  a  shekel  into  the  treasury  of  the  Lord 
as  an  olfering  to  make  atonement  (Ex.  xxx. 
13-15).  Later  it  was  customary,  according 
to  Maimonides,  to  pay  this  }>oll  tax  annually. 
Besides  this  tax,  pious  Lsraelites  made  free- 
will offerings,  which  they  cast  into  chests 
placed  in  the  court  of  the  women  (Mark  xii. 
41).  This  money  must  be  in  native  coin; 
and  as  several  currencies  circulated  in  Pales- 
tine in  the  time  of  Christ,  and  as  multitudes 
of  Jews  from  foreign  lands  visited  Jerusalem 
at  the  i)assover,  bringing  the  coin  of  their 
country  with  them,  need  iirose  of  facilities 
for  exchanging  foreign  for  native  money. 
The  business  of  the  inonej'  changer  sprang 
up.  They  had  stalls  in  the  city  ;  and  as  the 
feast  approached  they  were  admitted  to  the 
precincts  of  the  temjile  and  placed  their 
tables  in  the  court  of  the  gentiles.  The  pre- 
mium paid  for  half  a  shekel  was,  according 
to  the  Talmud,  a  lolIi(bos,  equal  to  twelve 
grains  of  silver  and  worth  about  three  cents. 
From  this  premium  the  money  changer  was 
called  a  loUiibixtrs  (Mat.  xxi.  12),  and  from 
the  table  at  which  he  sat  a  trapezites  (Mat. 
XXV.  27).  On  two  different  occasions  Jesus 
overturned  the  tables  of  the  money  changers 
and  drove  the  cattle  dealers  from  the  court, 
because  their  ]n'esence  and  too  often  their 
dishonesty  and  avarice  were  incompatible 
with  the  sanctity  of  the  place  and  with  the 
quiet  which  is  necessarvfor  worship  (John  ii. 
14-16;  Mat.  xxi.  12,  vX). 

Month. 

In  Egypt  the  Israelites  were  acquainted 
with  a  year  of  twelve  months  of  thirty  days 
each,  with  five  additional  days  to  produce 
conforniity  with  the  solar  year  of  365  days 
(Herod,  ii.  4),  and  in  the  account  of  the 
flood  the  months  are  reckoned  at  thirtv  days 
each  (den.  vii.  11,  24;  viii.  3,  4).  After- 
wards, however,  the  Hebrews  appear  to  have 
used  a  lunar  m<mth.  This  may  be  gathered 
(1)  from  tlie  two  words  IVir  month  which  de- 
note respectively  new  moon  and  lunation 
and  indicate  the  original  measurement;  (2) 
from  i)assages  like  (Jen.  i.  14:  Ps.  civ.  M); 
Ecclus.  xliii.  (i-H-,  (3)  from  the  observance  of 
the  dav  of  the  new  moon  by  s])ecial  offerings 
to  Jehovah  (Num.  x.  ]0;"xxviii.  11-14 ;  2 
Chron.  ii.  4) ;  and  (4)  from  the  coincidence 
between  the  passover,  which  was  always  (cele- 
brated on  the  evening  of  the  fourteenth  day 


of  the  month,  and  the  full  moon  (Ps.  Ixxxi. 
3-5) ;  see  further  Antiq.  iii.  10,  3  and  5 ;  iv. 
4,  (i.  and  aiticle  Yf;.\R.  A  lunatiini  requires 
a  little  more  than  twenty-nine  days  and  a 
half.  The  months  would  accordingly  aver- 
age twenty-nine  and  thirty  days  alternately. 
AVhen,  however,  a  month  is  spoken  of  gener- 
ally, thirty  days  are  meant  (cp.  Num.  xx.  29; 
Deut.  xxxiv.  «  with  xxi.  13).  The  months 
were  commonly  distinguished  by  number. 
The  names  of  only  four  Hebrew  months  are 
found  in  Bible  narratives  relating  to  the 
]ieriod  before  the  captivity.  They  are  the 
first  month,  Abib  (Ex.  xiii.  4.  etc.);  the  sec- 
ond month.  Zif  (1  Kin.  vi.  37);  the  seventh, 
Ethanim  (viii.  2)  ;  and  the  eighth.  Bui  (vi. 
3K).  After  the  captivity  the  names  in  com- 
mon use  among  the  Babylonians  and  other 
Semites  were  employed.     See  Yeak. 

Moon. 

The  i>rincipal  luminary  of  the  night  (Gen. 
i.  16  ;  Ps.  cxxxvi.  9),  relied  upon  to  measure 
time,  marking  off  moons  or  months,  and 
regulating  the  day  of  the  pa.ssover,  and  thus 
aiding  in  regulating  the  feasts  of  the  year 
(Gen.  i.  14;  Ps.  civ.  19;  Ecclus.  xliii.  6,7; 
Antiq.  iii.  10,  5).  Almost  all  the  nations 
with  which  the  ancient  Hebrews  came  into 
contact  worshiped  the  moon.  Ur  of  the 
C'haldees,  from  which  Abraham  emigrated, 
and  Harau,  where  he  settled  for  a  time  and 
where  Jacob  dwelt  for  twenty  years,  were 
noted  seats  of  the  moim's  worship.  When 
Abraham  removed  to  Canaan,  he  had  neigh- 
bors who  worshiped  the  two-horned  Ashto- 
rcth  (Gen.  xiv.  5).  The  Egyjitians  sacrificed 
to  the  moon  (Herod,  ii.  47),  and  the  goddess 
Isis  bore  the  lunar  disk  on  her  head.  In  the 
time  of  the  Assyrian  and  Babylonian  inva- 
sions of  I'alestine,  the  Hebrews  came  again 
into  contact  with  people  who  regarded  the 
moon  iis  one  of  the  great  gods.  At  this  time 
the  worshi])  of  the  moon  and  other  heavenly 
bodies  made  serious  inroads  on  the  religion 
of  Jehovah  (2  Kin.  xxi.  3;  xxiii.  4,  5;  Jer. 
vii.  18;  viii.  2).  The  moon  was  adored  by  a 
kiss  of  the  hand  (Job  xxxi.  26,  27).  with  the 
burning  of  incense  (2  Kin.  xxiii.  5).  In 
heathen  teni])les  the  moon  was  often  repre- 
sented by  the  crescent  as  a  symbol  and  by  an 
image  in  the  form  of  a  human  being.  This 
heathenism  had  its  check  in  the  sublime 
doctrine  of  Jehovah.  The  sun  and  moon 
were  made  by  the  God  of  Israel,  were  cre- 
ated for  the  useful  jmrjiose  of  giving  light, 
and  were  serviceable  to  man  in  afibrding  a 
convenient  measurement  of  time. 

Different  from  the  worship  of  the  moon 
was  the  childish  conce]>tiou  that  the  varying 
ajiiiearance  of  the  moon  from  night  to  night 
at  its  rising,  during  its  course  across  the  .sky, 
and  at  its  setting,  which  are  due  to  atmos- 
l)heric  and  astronomic  conditions,  presaged 
j)olitical  occurrences.  The  aspect  of  the  moon 
nuiy  indicate  weather  probabilities  ;  but  the 
folly  of  basing  predictions  of  national  events 


Mopli 


4yi 


Moreh 


on  such  pheuomeua  was  poiuted  out  by  the 
I)ro])hcts  (Is.  xlvii.  i:5).  Tlie  IU-Ihtws  seeiu 
to  have  sliarcd  in  the  wiilesprcatl  lirlii-t,  ap- 
])arfiilly  jiistilied  l)y  tlic  stateiiK-nts  of  trav- 
elers in  eiiuatorial  rc^icins,  that  the  moon 
may  allect  the  healtli  and  under  cireuni- 
stances  produce  evil  consecjuences  to  muscles 
and  nerves.  Hut  the  child  of  (iod  can  safely 
intrust  liimself  to  the  watchful  care  of  Je- 
hiivali  (I's.  cxxi.  (i). 

As  the  mouths  were  lunar,  the  new  moon 
marked  the  befiinniu};  of  the  month  ;  and  the 
day  of  the  new  moon,  heinj;  the  commence- 
ment of  a  natural  division  of  time,  was  oh- 
served  as  a  holy  day.  X()  set  convocation 
seems  to  have  been  prescribed  ;  but  additional 
sacrilices  were  ofl'ered  (Num.  xxviii.  11-14), 
trum|)ets  were  blown  (Xum.  x.  10;  Ps.  Ixxxi. 
3),  ordinary  labor  was  susjjendcd  (Amos  viii. 
5),  and  the  day  olfcred  favora))le  oi)i)ortunity 
for  religious  instructimi  (2  Kin.  iv.  :3:5 ;  Ezck. 
xlvi.  1,  3).  It  was  kept  with  joy  and  feasting 
(1  Siim.  XX.  o  ;  .Judith  viii.  li).  Tiie  lu'W  moon 
of  the  seventh  month  marked  the  bcjjinnint; 
of  the  seventh  recurrence  of  a  (IximI  ])ortiou 
of  time,  and  con.seciuently  fell  under  the 
Sabbath  law,  and  was  observed  as  such  in 
addition  t(j  the  usual  worship  on  the  day  of 
the  new  moon  (Lev.  xxiii.  24,  '2'i;  Xum. 
xxix.  1-6).  After  the  exile  this  celebration 
assumed  the  character  of  a  new  year's  fes- 
tival. 

The  advent  of  the  new  moon  was  calcu- 
lated at  an  early  period  (1  Sam.  xx.  5,  IfS). 
The  Habylonian  astrologers  watched  for  it 
on  the  eveniufi  when  it  was  expected  to  be 
seen,  in  order  to  take  note  of  its  aiii>earance. 
According  to  the  Talmud,  the  sanhedrin  as- 
sembled seven  times  a  year  early  in  the 
morning  of  the  thirtieth  day  of  the  month. 
Watchmen  were  stationed  on  the  heights 
about  . Jerusalem  t"  watch  for  tlie  new  moon 
and  report  it  as  soon  as  seen.  Wlien  tluM-vi- 
dence  of  its  ap]iearaiu'e  was  deemed  snfti- 
cient,  the  sanhedrin  ])ronounced  the  word 
M'kiiililitKh,  it  is  conscciati'd,  and  the  day  be- 
canu'  the  lirst  of  the  new  lunntli.  leaving 
twenty-nine  days  for  the  ])receding  month. 
If  fogs  or  clouds  prevented  tlie  moon  from 
being  discerned,  the  day  was  reckoned  as 
the  thirtieth  and  the  new  month  Ix'gan  on 
the  morrow.  The  announcement  of  the  new 
moon  was  made  lo  the  <'ountry  at  large  by 
lighting  a  beacon  tire  on  the  mount  of  Olives, 
which  was  reix-ated  by  similar  sigiuils  from 
other  mountain  tops.  The  Samaritans  are 
said  to  liavi-  thwarted  this  ]ilan  l)y  kindling 
tires  prematurely.  In  consei|in-nee  the  sig- 
nals were  discontiiuu'd,  and  the  announce- 
ment of  the  new  nn)on  was  made  by  mes- 
sengers. 

Mopb.     See  Mkmphis. 

Mo'ras-tliite. 

.\  native  or  inhabitant  of  Moresheth.  as 
was  tbi'  proi)het  Micah  (i.  1:  .Ter.  xxvi.  IX)  ; 
see  M(>UKsm:TU-(j.\TH. 


Mor'de-cai  [perhaps,  Persian,  signifying 
little  man,  m-  a  liabylonian  name,  meaning 
a  worshiper  of  MerodachJ. 

1.  A  Benjamite,  son  of  Jair,  son  of  .Shiniei, 
sou  of  Kisli  (Esth.  ii.  5).  His  grtat-gnmd- 
father  Kish,  to  whom  and  not  to  Mordecai 
ver.  (i  probably  refers,  was  carried  captive  to 
Babylon  with  king  Jeconiah  in  .")9!i  i!.  c.  He 
brought  up  lladassah  or  Esther,  his  uncle's 
daughter,  adoiiting  her  as  his  own  after  her 
father  and  mot  tier  had  died.  She  acted 
under  his  direction  in  the  series  of  events 
which  ended  l)y  making  her  queen  of  Persia 
as  wife  of  Ahasuerus  (Esth.  ii.  7-20).  This 
king  was  Xerxes,  who  reigned  from  A^d  to 
4()U  li.  ('.  Through  Estlier  M(jrdecai  informed 
the  king  of  a  plot  against  his  life,  ami  the 
two  conspirators  were  executed  (21-23).  When 
Ilaman  was  the  king's  favorite,  Mordecai  de- 
clined to  jn'ostrate  himself  ))i'fore  liini,  re- 
fusing to  i)ay  the  customary  civility  because 
of  Haman's  unprincipled  character  or  jierhaps 
because  llanian  was  an  Agagite.  The  in- 
sulted dignitary  determined  to  wreak  ven- 
geance not  on  Mordi'cai  alone,  but  on  the 
entire  Jewish  i)eople,  and  the  king  granted 
him  leave  (iii.  ij-ll).  One  night  Ahasuerus 
could  not  slet']),  and  to  relieve  the  tedium  of 
his  waking  hours,  he  desired  that  the  book 
rec<u-ding  the  chronicles  of  the  king<lom 
should  be  read  to  him  by  his  attendants. 
The  consiiiracy  came  up  in  the  part  read, 
and  the  king  remembered  that  he  had  done 
nothing  for  his  deliverer.  When  morning 
dawned  he  re(|uested  llaman,  who  had  come 
to  ask  ])ermission  to  hang  Mordecai,  to  take 
that  faithful  subject,  ai'ray  him  in  royal 
apjiarel,  and  conduct  him  through  the  streets 
of  the  city  (Susii)  mounted  on  a  horse  belong- 
ing to  the  sovereign,  and  to  ])roclaini  before 
him  as  he  went  along:  "Thus  shall  it  be 
done  to  the  man  whom  the  king  delighteth 
to  honor."  This  was  the  commencement  of 
Haman's  fall,  and  of  a  series  of  events 
which  resulted  in  the  death  of  Haman  and 
his  sons,  and  the  in-omofion  of  ^Mordecai  to 
be  the  .secoiul  7nan  in  the  empire  (Esth.  vi.- 
X.).  Some  interpreters  would  identify  Mor- 
decai with  the  eunuch  Matacas  or  Xata<'as, 
who.  according  to  t'tesias,  was  the  chief  fav- 
orite of  Xerxes. 

2.  .\  .Tew  who  returned  from  Babylon  wilii 
Zerubl):ibel  (Ezra  ii.  2;  Neh.  vii.  7)'. 

Mo'reh  [archer,  orthe  first  rain,  or  teacher]. 

1.  A  teri'binlh  or  oak  tree  and  grove  near 
Shechem  ((ieii.  xii.  (i  ;  Dent.  xi.  2!t,  30), 
which  most  j>robably  took  its  name  from  an 
archer  or  teacher  who  at  one  time  or  other 
dwelt  there,  .\braliam  encamped  by  it  when 
he  arrived  in  Canaan  fnun  Mesojiotamia.  and 
erected  an  altar  there  to  .Tehovali  who  ap- 
jieared  unto  him.  It  was  jirobably  the  tri'c 
under  which  .Tacob  buried  the  amulets  and 
idols  that  his  family  had  brought  with 
them  fnun  Hanin.and  wliere  .loshiia  erecleil 
a  stone  to  commemonite  the  covenant  which 


Moresheth-gath 


492 


Moses 


the  people  renewed  there,  and  whither  the 
men  of  Shecheni  went  to  make  Abimeloch 
king  (Gen.  xxxv.  4;  Josh.  xxiv.  26,  tliough 
slightly  (litl'iTent  words  are  used  for  tere- 
binth in  these  two  jiassages  from  that  em- 
ployed in  (ien.  xii.  (J ;  Judg.  ix.  (J).  The 
identity  of  tlie  tree  with  the  oak  or  terebinth 
of  the  augurs  near  Shecheni  is  not  so  obvious 
(Judg.  ix.  ;57). 

2.  A  hill  in  the  valley  of  Jezreel  to  the 
north  of  the  spring  of  Harod  (Judg.  vii.  1). 
Not  positively  identified.  Jebel  Duliy,  or 
Little  Ilerniou,  about  8  miles  northwest  of 
mount  Gilboa  and  1  mile  south  of  Nain,  has 
been  suggested. 

Mor'esh-eth-gatli  [possession  of  Gath  or 
of  a  wine  i)n'ss]. 

A  town  mentioned  in  connection  with 
places  in  Judah,  and  therefore  evidently 
situated  in  the  same  region  (Micah  i.  14). 
Jerome  located  it  in  the  vicinity  of  Eleu- 
thcropolis.  Gath  in  the  name  is  generally  sup- 
po!5ed  to  denote  the  Philistine  city  and  to 
indicate  that  ]\Ioresheth  was  near  it.  Per- 
haps the  town  was  the  home  of  the  prophet 
Micah  (i.  1). 

Mo-ri'ah  [the  meaning  is  unknown.  The 
definite  article  prefixed  to  the  word  shows 
that  it  is  not  a  proper  name  and  that  it  does 
not  contain  the  divine  name  Jehovah  ;  and 
the  orthography  further  shows  that  the  word 
does  not  mean  "  appearance  or  provision  of 
Jehovah '']. 

1.  A  district  of  country,  on  one  of  whose 
hills  Abraham  ]irepared  to  sacrifice  Isaac; 
l>robably  the  region  lying  round  about  the  hill 
of  the  same  name  on  which  the  temple  was 
afterwards  built,  and  taking  its  name  from 
that  hill  or  from  some  circumstance  common 
to  both  it  and  the  hill  (Gen.  xxii.  2;  Antiq. 
i.  13,  1  and  2).  The  Samaritans,  and  after 
them  a  fvw  nmdern  scholars  like  Bleek,  Tuch, 
Stanley,  identify  Moreh  near  Shechem  with 
Moriah  (see  Samaritan  text)  and  Gerizim 
with  the  scene  of  Abraham's  sacrifice.  The 
Samaritan  identification  doubtless  rests  on 
the  fact  that  Abraham  did  build  an  altar  at 
Moreh  (Gen.  xii.  (5,  7),  and  the  identification 
was  encouraged  by  the  desire  to  enhance  the 
religious  glory  of  their  country.  But  the 
etymology  of  ISIoreh  and  Moriah  is  difl'crent. 

2.  The  hill  on  M'hich  was  the  threshing 
floor  of  Oman  the  Jebusite.  David  pur- 
chased the  floor  and  erected  an  altar  on  it. 
and  Solomon  made  it  the  site  of  the  temple 
(2  i-lam.  xxiv.  IS  seq. ;  2  Chron.  iii.  1).  The 
original  hill  has  been  much  altered  artf- 
ficially  and  part  of  its  slojies  are  hidden 
beneath  accumulated  rubbish  and  embank- 
ments, l)ut  its  general  cdiitour  has  been 
determined.  Mount  Moriah  stood  between 
the  Kidron  and  Tyroiiieon  valleys,  and  lifted 
its  summit  directly  opposite  the  mouth  of 
that  ravine  which  forms  the  western  branch 
of  the  latter  valley.  On  the  north  a  slight 
depression  separated  it  from  the  narrow  neck 


of  land  which  connected  it  with  the  main 
plateau.  It  is  ditiicuit  to  state  exact  dimen- 
sions ;  to  call  its  original  area  fiOO  feet  from 
north  to  south  by  300  from  east  to  west  may 
be  not  far  from  the  truth.  Its  highest  point 
is  now,  according  to  Warren,  244H  feet  above 
the  ocean.  Other  platforms  are  2430  and 
2420  feet,  from  which  the  east  and  west 
slopes  very  rapidly  fall. 

Mor'tar  I. 

A  vessel  in  which  grain  and  spices  are 
pounded  with  a  pestle  (Num.  xi.  ^;  Prov. 
xxvii.  22).  The  Arabs  of  the  present  day 
use  stone  mortars  in  which  to  pound  wheat 
for  making  kibby,  their  national  food,  and 
the  sound  of  braying  the  grain  with  the 
pestle  may  be  heard  at  all  hours  in  the 
towns. 

Mor'tar  II. 

A  substance  used  to  bind  bricks  or  .stones 
together  in  a  wall,  ^'arious  materials  were 
used.  1.  Mud  or  clay  witliout  lime  (Nah. 
iii.  14),  frequently  employed  by  j>easants  in 
Palestine.  2.  Mortar  projjerly  so  called,  con- 
sisting of  sand  and  lime  mixed  with  water, 
which  was  emploj-ed  in  building  the  better 
cla.ss  of  houses  (cp.  Ezek.  xiii.  10).  Palestine 
is  a  limestone  country,  and  lime  is  easily  ob- 
tained (Is.  xxxiii.  12).  3.  Bitumen  in  regions 
like  Babylonia  where  clay  and  lime  are 
scarce  (Gen.  xi.  3,  E.  V.  margin).  The  walls 
of  houses  were  (Lev.  xiv.  42)  and  still  are 
daubed  or  plastered  with  mud  or  mortar, 
often  mixed  with  straw  and  pebbles,  to  pro- 
tect them  against  the  weather.  The  mortar 
used  for  this  purpose  in  Egypt  consists  of  one 
half  clay,  one  quarter  lime,  and  the  rest  ashes 
and  straw. 

Mo-se'rah,  in  A.  V.  Mosera  [bond,  fetter]. 

An  encampment  of  the  Israelites  in  the 
wilderness  near  Bene-jaakan  (Deut.  x.  fi).  In 
Num.  xxxiii.  30.  the  plural  form  ^loseroth  is 
nsed  as  the  name  of  the  place.  The  site  is  un- 
known; but  it  was  near  mount  Hor,  by  the 
border  of  Edom  (Num.  xx.  23;  xxxiii.  37; 
with  Deut.  x.  (i),  in  the  country  of  the  Hor- 
ites  (cp.  Gen.  xxxvi.  20,  27  with  1  Chron.  i.  42). 
.Tebel  Madara  sounds  much  like  Mosera  ;  but 
is  not  the  exact  equivalent,  if  the  Arabic 
spelling  has  been  correctly  reported  by  travel- 
ers.    See  HoK. 

Mo-se'roth.     See  preceding  article. 

Mo'ses  [fnmi  the  Egyptian  mes  or  mesu, 
extraction,  a  son]. 

The  great  Hebrew  leader  and  legislator. 
He  was  a  Levite,  family  of  Kohath,  house 
of  Amram  (Ex.  vi.  18,  20).  Jochebed  is  called 
the  mother  of  Moses  (ver.  20)  ;  but  this  ex- 
pression is  doubtless  to  be  understood  in  the 
sense  of  ancestress.  Amram  and  .Jochebed 
being  founders  of  the  tribal  house  into  which 
Moses  was  born  ;  see  Egypt.  The  edict  re- 
quiring the  Hebrew  male  children  to  be  cast 
into  the  Nile  brought  Moses  into  imminent 
peril  of  his  life.     But  his  mother  saw  that 


Moses 


493 


Moses 


he  was  a  goodly  child,  or,  as  Stephen  words 
it,  exceediii}^  fiiir  (Acts  vii.  20)  ;  and  she 
hid  hiiii  tliree  iiioiitlis  in  her  house.  When 
slu'  could  hide  liiiii  lui  loiiiicr,  she  plju'i'd  liini 
witliiii  ;iii  ark  ol'  liiilruslifs,  wliiili  had  Ixcn 
(hiiil)LMl  witli  hitiniieu  and  pitch  to  render  it 
water-tigiit;  i)nt  it  anionfjc  the  flags  on  the 
river's  hank  ;  and  i)ostt'd  Miriam,  then  a 
yming  girl,  to  watch  tiie  result.  Hy  and  hy 
I'liaraoli's  daughter,  attended  hy  lier  niaiil- 
eiis,  came  to  the  river  to  hatiie.  Her  name 
was  Tliernuithis.  according  to  Josephus 
(.\nti(i.  ii.  S».  .")).  PvUsehius  calls  her  Merris, 
whicli  sounds  like  Meri,  one  of  the  younger 
<laugliters  of  Kamses  II.  The  rahhins  iden- 
tify her  with  Hithiah  (1  Chron.  iv.  is).  She 
cs((ied  the  ark,  and  had  it  o])ened.  She  .sjiw 
hy  the  features  and  color  of  the  infant  that 
he  was  a  Hebrew.  He  wept  and  she  was 
toui-lied  with  pity.  At  this  critical  nniment 
Miriam  stei>ped  forward,  and  with  admirable 
tact  asked  :  "Sliall  I  go  and  call  thee  a  nurse 
of  the  Hebrew  women,  that  she  may  nurse 
the  child  lor  thee? ''  The  princess  hade  her 
go,  and  the  child's  niotiier  was  called  and 
the  infant  committed  to  her  care.  When  lie 
was  weaned  lie  was  taken  to  Pharaoh's 
daughter,  who  adojjted  him  and  called  him 
Moses.  Tlie  name  was  doubly  fitting,  the 
chilli  having  been  drawn  from  the  water  and 
being  ado]ited  as  a  son  (Ex.  ii.  1-10).  The 
adojited  son  of  a  iirincess  reciuired  a  i)rincely 
education,  and  Moses  became  instructed  in 
all  the  wi.sdom  of  the  Egyptians  (Acts  vii. 
2'2l,  who  were  then  unsur])assed  in  civiliza- 
tion by  any  peoi)le  in  tiie  world.  This  was 
designed  to  tit  him  for  high  otlice  under  the 
government,  if  not  even  for  the  Egyptian 
throne.  J5ut  in  God's  intention  it  was  to 
prei)are  him  for  the  leadership  of  the 
Helirews.  H<^  was  ]iossessed  of  great  natu- 
ral ability,  and  the  training  which  he  re- 
ceiveil  schooled  him  for  the  great  work  for 
which  he  was  destined.  He  became  familiar 
with  court  life  and  intercourse  with  jn-inces, 
with  the  grandeur  anil  ]ii>m]t  of  religious 
worshi])  and  with  ritualistic  conventionali- 
ties and  symbolism,  with  letters  and  the 
literary  ideas  of  the  time.  He  witnessed 
the  administration  of  justice,  and  he  ac- 
(piired  a  general  aci|iuiiiitaiice  with  the  arts 
which  were  i)racliceil  in  civilized  life.  He 
remeud>ered.  liowever,  his  origin,  believi'd 
the  promises  which  had  been  made  to  the 
Hebrew  peoi)hs  and  before  the  close  of  his 
sojourn  in  lCgyi)t  he  had  discovered  the  call 
of  (Jod  to  him  to  be  tlu'  judge  and  the  de- 
liverer of  the  Israelites.  (Joing  out  to  ob- 
serve the  state  of  his  countrymen,  he  siiw 
one  of  them  stnu-k  by  an  Egy]>tian.  Mo.ses 
killed  the  oppressor,  and  hid  his  body  in  the 
sind.  .\nother  day  he  tried  to  reconcile  two 
Hebrews  who  were  striving  together,  on 
which  the  one  who  was  in  the  wrong  inso- 
lently asked  :  "  Who  niiide  thee  a  jiriiu'c  and 
a  judge  over  us  ?  intendest  thou  to  kill  me.  as 
thou    killedst   the    Egyptian?"     Moses   was 


alarmed  to  find  that  his  deed  of  the  previous 
day  had  become  known,  and  on  learning 
that  it  had  reached  the  ears  of  Pharaoh, 
who  said  that  he  would  kill  him  for  it,  fled 
from  Egyi>t  to  the  land  of  .Midian.  He  had 
refused  to  he  called  the  son  of  Pharaoh's 
daughter,  had  cast  in  his  lot  with  the  people 
of  God,  and  had  assumed  the  position  of  de- 
liverer and  judge  (Ex.  ii.  11-1."):  .\cts  vii. 
24-28;  Hel).  xi.  21,  2.")).  He  was  now  forty 
years  old  (Acts  vii.  2:j).  On  arriving  in 
Midian,  Moses  aided  the  daughters  of  .lethro 
to  water  their  flocks.  This  act  introduced 
him  to  Jetliro,  who  was  a  ])riest.  Jetliro 
showed  him  hosjiitality,  furnished  him 
with  employment,  and  gave  him  one  of 
his  daughters  to  wife.  She  bore  Moses  two 
sons,  Gershom  and  Eliezer  (Ex.  ii.  22  ;  iv.  20  ; 
xviii.  3,  4j.  He  remained  in  Midian  forty 
years  (.\cts  vii.  30).  This  period  was  like- 
wise a  time  of  preparation.  He  enjoyed  in- 
timate as.sociatioii  with  a  leading  man  of  the 
Midianites,  a  man  of  sound  judgment  (Ex. 
xviii.).  and  a  jiriest,  although  not  of  the  reli- 
gion of  the  Israelites.  Here  Moses  widened  his 
aciiuaintance  with  religious  thought  and  forms 
of  worship.  He  learned  the  roads  of  the  wil- 
derness, its  resources,  its  climate,  and  the 
mode  of  life  of  its  inhabitants.  In  its  soli- 
tude he  had  opportunity  for  reflection.  At 
the  close  of  this  jieriod  he  was  astonished  to 
si'e  a  bush  burning  and  yet  remaining  un- 
consumed.  As  he  turned  aside  to  look  more 
narrowly  at  a  sight  so  unique,  he  received 
an  authenticated  call  from  Jehovah,  and  the 
objections  were  overcome  which  he  raised  on 
the  ground  of  insufficiency  for  the  work 
(Ex.  iii.  11),  inability  to  tell  the  peoi)le  in 
what  character  God  would  manifest  himself 
for  their  deliverance  (13),  lack  of  credentials 
to  secure  the  recognition  of  the  )ieo])le  (iv.  1), 
and  lack  of  eloiiueiice  to  jiersuade  (10).  These 
difficulties  were  removed ;  and  Moses  ac- 
quiesced, but  unwillingly.  God  was  dis- 
jileased,  and  promised  that  Aaron  should 
lielj)  Moses  (14).  Mos(>s  took  his  wife  Zip- 
])orah  and  his  sons  to  return  to  Egy])t  (20). 
Two  sons  liad  been  born  to  him.  One  of 
them,  doubtless  the  younger,  he  had  not 
circumcised,  because  Ziiiporah  regarded  the 
rite  as  bloody.  In  yielding  to  her  in  this 
matter  Moses  had  shown  himself  unl'aithful 
in  his  own  household  and  unfit  for  his  high 
commission.  God  was  displeased  with  this 
neglect  of  the  sign  of  the  covenant ;  and 
now,  as  Moses  was  returning  to  Egv))!  with 
his  family,  (Jod  brought  him  nigh  unto  death 
at  the  inn.  Hut  Ziiijiorah  discerned  the 
cause  and,  desirous  of  saving  her  liusband's 
life,  at  once  took  a  knifi'  and  jierformed  the 
ojienition,  saying,  "  A  bridegroom  of  blood  art 
thou  to  me"  (Ex.  iv.  24-2(i).  Arriving  in 
Egypt.  Moses  repeatedly,  in  conjunction  with 
.\aroii,  conveyed  to  Pharaoh  the  divine  com- 
mands, the  rejection  of  which  brought  on 
the  obstinati'  king  and  his  ])eoiile  the  suc- 
cession   of  judgments    known    as    the    ten 


Moses 


494 


Moses 


plagues  (v.-xiii.  16).  When  the  departure 
from  Egypt  took  jjlacc,  it  was  Moses  who, 
under  divine  guidance,  led  the  jicoiile.  At 
Sinai  he  was  admitted  to  intimate  relations 
with  Ciod.  Ciod  allowed  all  the  jifoiih'  to 
hear  his  voice  in  articulate  words:  hut  he 
permitted  Moses  to  see  him  numifested  and 
he  sjtake  unto  Moses  face  to  face,  as  a  man 
speaketh  unto  his  friend  (Ex.  xxiv.  9-11; 
xxxiii.  11.  17-'.'o;  xxxiv.  T>-2[)),  and  he  re- 
vealed liis  will  to  Closes  from  time  to  time 
for  the  instruction  of  his  people,  as  he  did 
afterwards  to  tlie  successive  prophets.  Moses 
received  from  (^od  tlie  two  tables  of  stone  ; 
but  (in  tindini;  that  in  liis  absence  the  people 
had  taken  to  worshijiing  a  golden  calf,  he 
dashed  the  tablets  to  the  ground  and  broke 
them  in  his  righteous  indignation  and  in 
token  of  the  fact  that  the  covenant,  of  which 
they  were  the  fundamental  law,  had  been 
annulled  by  the  sin  of  the  jieople.  Moses  in- 
terceded for  the  people,  and  God  promised 
that  his  angel  should  accompany  the  host. 
Moses  was  again  called  into  the  mountain, 
and  received  two  other  tables  inscribed  like 
the  first  (xix.,  XX. ;  xxxii. -xxxiv. ).  On  each 
of  these  occasions  he  fasted  forty  days  and 
nights  (Ex.  xxiv.  18;  xxxiv.  28;  Dent.  ix.  9, 
18),  as  Elijah  afterwards  did  (1  Kin.  xix.  8), 
both  in  this  respect  foreshadowing  the  simi- 
lar fast  of  our  Lord  (Mat.  iv.  2).  The  name 
of  Moses  is  forever  associated  with  the  laws 
given  at  Sinai  and  during  the  subsequent 
desert  wanderings.  When  Moses  came  down 
from  mount  Sinai  the  second  time,  with  the 
tables  of  the  law  in  his  hand,  the  skin  of  his 
face  shone,  sending  forth  beams  (Hebrew, 
horns),  and  the  people  were  afraid  to  come 
nigh  him  (Ex.  xxxiv.  29,  R.  V.  margin). 
Moses  called  to  them,  and  they  returned  to 
him ;  and  he  spake  with  them  and  gave  to 
them  all  that  the  Lord  had  spoken  with  him. 
"  And  till  Moses  had  done  speaking  with 
them,  he  put  a  veil  on  his  face.  But  when 
Moses  went  in  before  the  Lord  to  speak  with 
him,  he  took  the  veil  oil",  until  he  came  out" 
(33.  .'54,  A.  v.).  The  II.  V.,  following  the 
Septuagint  and  Vulgate  and  correctly  ren- 
dering the  Hebrew,  says  just  the  contrary: 
"  And  when  Moses  had  done  speaking  with 
them,  he  put  a  veil  on  his  face."  He  did 
not  wear  the  veil  while  speaking  either  with 
the  people  or  with  the  Lord.  He  wore  the 
veil,  not  to  hide  tlie  splendor  (A.  V.),  but  to 
conceal  the  vanishing  away  of  the  splendor 
(R.  v.) ;  and  he  wore  it  until  he  returned  to 
the  presence  of  the  Liml.  where  the  light  of 
his  countenance  was  rekindled.  !Moses  "  put 
a  veil  upon  his  face,  that  the  children  of 
Israel  should  not  look  steadfastly  on  the  end 
of  that  which  was  passing  away "  (2  Cor. 
iii.    13,    K.  v.,  cp.  7). 

In  the  second  ye:ir  of  the  sojourn  of  the 
Israelites  in  the  wilderness,  Moses  is  men- 
tioned as  having  married  a  Cushite  woman 
(Num.  xii.  1).  Zipporah  may  have  died  dur- 
ing the  preceding  year,  although  her  death 


is  not  recorded  (cp.  Ex.  xviii.  21.  Among 
the  later  Jews  the  story  ran  that  the  Cushite 
woman  was  an  Ethiopian  princess  named 
Tharbis,  who  had  fallen  in  love  with  Moses 
on  tile  (iccasion  of  his  leading  an  Egy])tian 
army  into  Ethiopia,  while  he  was  still  a 
member  of  Pharaoh's  household  (Antiq.  ii. 
10,  2).  The  tale  is  evidently  a  fabrication. 
The  marriage  took  place  in  the  wilderness, 
when  Miriam  and  Aaron  were  jealous  of 
jMoses'  sujieriority  in  jiublic  afl'airs.  They 
were  leadei's  of  the  host,  directors  of  the 
national  life,  and  in-oi)hets  as  well  as  Moses; 
and  on  this  ground  they  claimed  that  their 
o]iiiosition  to  Moses'  nuirriage  with  the  for- 
eigner should  have  been  heeded  by  him. 
The  Cushite  woman  was  probably  one  of  the 
mixed  multitude  which  accompanied  the 
Israelites  in  the  flight  from  Egvpt  (Ex.  xii. 
38). 

Shortly  after  leaving  Kadesh.  Korah  and 
other  princes  rebelled  against  the  authority 
of  Moses  and  Aaron,  but  were  signally  pun- 
ished by  God  (Num.  xvi.) ;  see  Korah.  At 
the  second  encampment  at  Kadesh,  Moses 
and  Aaron  grievously  sinned  (Num.  xx.). 
When  hidden  by  God  to  speak  unto  the  rock 
that  it  give  forth  its  water,  Moses  said  to  the 
assembled  people:  "Hear  now,  ye  rebels; 
shall  we  bring  you  forth  water  out  of  this 
rock  V  "  The  brothers  failed  to  observe  their 
subordinate  position.  They  claimed  to  be 
I  the  leaders  and  providers  of  the  people, 
whereas  it  was  God  who  had  led  the  Israel- 
ites from  Egypt  and  had  fed  them  for  forty 
years  in  the  wilderness.  They  took  to  them- 
selves the  honor  which  belonged  to  God  alone. 
When  called  upon  to  act  for  God,  they  acted 
in  their  own  name,  and  used  for  their  own 
glory  the  power  delegated  unto  them.  For 
this  sin  of  treason  they  were  denied  the 
privilege  of  conducting  the  jieople  into  the 
promised  land.  It  was  a  sore  chastisement 
to  !Moses,  but  it  made  no  change  in  the  fidelity 
of  this  great  servant  of  the  Lord.  After  the 
condemnation  he  was  faithful,  as  he  had  been 
before.  He  started  the  peo])le  once  more  on 
their  march  to  Canaan.  He  led  Aaron  up 
mount  Hor,  stripped  him  of  his  official  robes, 
and  transferred  his  office  to  Eleazar,  thus 
himself  aiding  in  carrying  out  the  death 
sentence.  When  the  people  were  bitten  by 
the  fiery  serpents,  he  interceded  with  God 
for  them,  and  at  God's  bidding  erected  the 
brazen  serpent  and  bade  his  dying  country- 
men look  and  live.  He  led  the  armies  of 
Israel  into  the  territory  of  Silmn  and  Og, 
and  conquered  it  for  Israel.  When  the  camp 
was  ])itched  in  a  valley  in  the  mountains  of 
Abarim,  and  glimpses  of  the  land  of  Abraham, 
Isaac,  and  Jacob  were  obtained,  the  pent-u]) 
emotionsof  Moses'  soul  again,  as  on  other  unre- 
corded occasions  since  his  transgression  found 
relief  in  prayer  :  "  O  Lord  God,  thou  hast  be- 
gun to  show  thy  servant  thy  greatness,  and  thy 
strong  hand  :  .  .  .  .  Let  me  go  over,  I  pray 
thee,  and  see  the  good  land  that  is  beyond 


Moses 


495 


Mourning 


Jordan,  thiitgoodly  mountain,  and  Tjcbanon." 
But  till'  answer  came  :  "  Let  it  suHice  thee  ; 
speak  no  more  unto  ine  of  tliis  matter  .... 
for  tliou  slialt  not  p)  over  Jordan"  (I)eut. 
iii.  '-'4-27).  Tlie  eani])  was  moved  and 
l)itfiHd  at  Shittini  in  t he  valley,  and  Moses 
l>ut  liis  liouse  in  order  that  he  nii^ht  die.  He 
delivered  a  i>aitiii.i;  address  to  the  people  ;  see 
DkI'TKUonomv.  He  led  Joshua,  whom  (iod 
liad  a|>pointed  to  succeed  him,  before  the 
hij^h  priest  in  the  i)resence  of  the  congrega- 
tion, placed  his  liantls  upon  him.  and,  giving 
him  a  ciiarge,  transferred  to  him  the  olHce 
which  lie  himself  had  .so  honorably  and 
etliciently  filled  for  forty  years.  He  after- 
wards led  .Joshua  to  the  door  (»f  the  taber- 
nacle to  receive  a  charge  from  Ood.  Then 
he  taught  the  jieoplc  a  song  that  they  might 
have  wonls  of  religiou.s  wiscbun  in  their 
meiiKiry  and  on  tlu'ir  tongues,  bestowed  liis 
fareweil  blessing  on  tlii'  several  tritx-s,  as- 
cended mount  Nebo  and  viewed  the  promised 
land  from  its  summit,  and  dii'(l.  He  was  1:J0 
years  <jld,  yet  was  his  eye  not  dim  nor  his 
natural  force  abated,  (iod  buried  him  near 
by  (I)eut.  x.Kxiv.). 

It  was  during  the  forty  years  in  the  wil- 
derness that  the  princi[>al  literary  work  of 
Moses  was  done.  He  kejit  a  recurd  of  the 
cncampuK'nts  (Num.  .vxxiii.).  maile  a  note  of 
event.s,  such  as  the  battle  with  Amalek  (Ex. 
xvii.  14),  c<mimitte(l  the  statutes  founded  on 
the  covenant  law  to  writing  (xxiv.  4-71,  pre- 
served a  coiiy  of  his  farewell  addres.s  (Deut. 
xxxi.  "ill.  lie  had  also  tlie  richness,  vivid- 
ness, and  depth  of  thought  retjuisite  for 
writing  Hebrew  poetry,  which  is  very  simple 
in  its  structure  and  a  ready  vehicle  for  fervid 
uttenmce.  The  most  spontaneous  of  his 
poems,  written  under  the  intense  feeling  of 
the  moment,  was  the  song  wlii(!li  he  uttered 
when  Pharaoh  wasoverthrown  in  the  Re<l  Sea 
(Kx.  XV.  1-18).  Moses  a.scribes  the  glory  to 
Jehovaii  (1-3),  describes  the  event  (4  Ir.'), 
aiilici|iates  its  effect  upon  the  eniunies  of  Is- 
rael (i:i-l.")i,  and  di.scerns  in  it  a  guarantee 
that  Jehovaii  will  bring  Israel  into  the  jirom- 
i.sed  land  (Kj-liS).  Tlu^  song  may  have  l)een 
composed  in  a  few  moments.  I's.  xc.  is  the 
product  of  a  (jiiieter  mood  and  of  retlcction. 
His  didactic  song,  eiiil)odyiiig  the  religious 
le.s.sous  of  tlu-  preceding  forty  years,  was 
prejiared  with  the  design  of  its  being  com- 
mitted to  memory  by  tlii^  people  (  Diuit.  xxxii. ; 
cj).  xxxi.  lit,  '-i'J).  His  farewell  blessing  of 
tiie  tribes,  likc^  the  farewell  words  of  ,Iacob 
to  his  .sons,  was  al.so  cast  in  |>oetic  form 
(Deut.  xxxiii.).  Moses  had  literary  ability  ; 
he  had  also  the  stimulus  afforded  liy  the 
lit<'rary  ideas  of  the  lviry])tians  iind  the  ex- 
am]ile  of  their  histories,  and  the  incentive 
of  the  awakened  national  life  of  the  He- 
brews, and  the  stirring  events  amid  which 
he  live<l  to  lead  him  to  write  a  connected 
history  of  his  people,  such  as  is  found  in  the 
Pent.at4'uch.    Kor  iiis  aiithoi-ship  of  that  work 

see  I'KNT.\TKl<  II. 


Moses  had  the  wisdtmi  of  a  statesman.  He 
observed  the  opposition  to  him  which  was 
manifested  in  his  own  family,  the  jealou.sy 
of  other  tribes,  the  worldly  considerations 
by  which  the  jieople  were  actuated,  their 
lack  of  faith  in  .lehovah  at  critical  moments, 
and  their  readiness  to  lapse  into  idolatry. 
He  meditated  on  these  weaknes.ses  which 
threatened  the  national  existence;  and  when 
he  came  to  prei)are  his  farewell  address  he 
insisted  ujion  the  law  of  the  one  altar  and 
upon  the  spirituality  of  religion  as  the  gnat 
means  under  (iod  of  ovenoniing  these  de- 
fects by  deepening  the  moral  life  on  the  one 
hand,  and  on  the  other  hand  by  preserving 
purity  of  worshii)  and  doctrine,  binding  the 
people  together  as  one  nation,  and  making 
their  own  religion  a  greater  sjiectacle  than 
theceremoniesat  heathen  shrines;  .see  Altar 
and  Deutkkoxomv.  After  his  death  the 
greatness  of  Mo.ses  was  universiilly  recog- 
nized, and  his  reputation  grew  as  the  cen- 
turies went  by.  He  had,  moreover,  the 
distinguished  honor  of  being  jterniitted  to 
reappear  as  the  representative  of  ().  T.  law, 
with  Elijah,  the  reiiresentative  of  (J.  T. 
prophecy,  to  hold  converse  with  Jesus  on  the 
mount  of  transfiguration  (Mat.  xvii.  3,  4). 

Moth. 

An  insect  proverbial  for  its  destruction  of 
clothing  (Job  xiii.  28  ;  Mat.  vi.  19  ;  Jas.  v.  2). 
Its  larva  feeds  u])on  wool  (Is.  li.  S),  and  out 
of  the  same  substance  builds  itself  a  house 
or  case,  in  which  it  lives  ( Jol)  xxvii.  18i,  i)ro- 
truding  its  head  while  eating.  The  clothes 
moth  (Tilled)  is  intended,  of  which  .several 
species,  as  T.  peMoneUa  and  vestianella,  feed 
on  fur  and  wool. 

Mount. 

1.  A  mountain.  The  word  is  now  used 
almost  <'xelusively  in  poetry  or  as  ]iart  of  a 
compound  name,  as  mount  Carmel.  mount 
Tabor,  mount  Zion,  mount  of  Olives  (1  Kin. 
xviii.  19:  P.s.  xlviii.  2;  Zech.  xiv.  4);  see 
Carmel,  Zion,  etc. 

2.  X  mound,  esjiecially  one  raised  against 
the  wall  of  a  besieged  city  by  the  assailing 
army  (.Fer.  vi.  (i ;  Dan.  xi.  1.") ;  and  K.  V.  of 
2  Sam.  XX.  1.") ;  2  Kin.  xix.  32),  and  on  which 
the  battering  ram  was  ]ilaced  (Ezek.  xxvi. 
H,  ») :  see  illustration  under  La<'Hish.  In 
Is.  xxix.  3  a  difreieiit  Hebrew  word  is  used, 
which  K.  \'.  renders  fort. 

Moun'tain. 

<  >f  the  mountains  in  or  near  Palestine  the 
loftiest  was  mount  Hernion.  Then  followed 
the  Lebanon  range,  (^)mpared  with  those 
towering  elevations  such  hills  as  mount  Zion, 
mount  Moriah.  nioiint  <':irmel.  mount  Tabor, 
etc..  were  very  inferior  eminenc«'s  (Deut. 
iii.  •.'.">i. 

Mourn 'Ing. 

The  nKiiirning  of  the  oriental  was  and  is 
ostentatious.  Public  expression  was  given  to 
grief  j>rincii>ally  by  removing  ornaments  and 
neglecting  the  person  (Ex.  xxxiii.  4  ;  2  Sam. 


Mouse 


496 


Mule 


xiv.  2 ;  xix.  24 ;  Mat.  vi.  lfi-18).  rending 
the  clothes  by  slitting  the  tunic  at  the  throat 
or  tearing  the  coat  or  the  outer  mantle  (Lev. 
X.  6;  2  Sam.  xiii.  :!1  ;  Joel  ii.  1:5),  shaving 
the  head  or  plucking  onL  tlie  hair  (Ezra  ix. 
3;  Jer.  vii.  211),  i)Utting  on  .sackcloth  (Joel  i. 
8),  sprinkling  ashes  or  dust  on  the  head  (2 
Sam.  XV.  32).  fasting  (Ps.  xxxv.  13),  weeping 
and  lamenting  (Joel  i.  H,  13).  Several  of 
these  modes  were  usually  combined  (Gen. 
xxxvii.  34  ;  2  Sam.  iii.  31,  32;  xiii.  19;  xv. 
32;  Ezra  ix.  3,  5;  Job  i.  20;  Jer.  xli.  5). 
P'riends  came  to  the  hou.se  of  mourning,  and 
flute  i)layers  and  jirofessioiial  mourners, 
chiefly  women,  were  also  employed,  who 
made  loud  lamentatiims  (Jer.  ix  17,  IH ; 
Mat.  ix.  23  ;  Acts  ix.  39) ;  see  Minstrel.  As 
at  the  present  day,  funeral  feasts  were  given 
to  the  crowds  that  assembled  at  the  funeral 
(Jer.  xvi.  7;  Karuch  vi.  32).  After  the 
funeral  women  came  forth  very  early  in  the 
morning  to  visit  the  grave,  as  they  are  still 
accustomed  to  do,  and  to  pray,  weep  and  sob  or 
chant  hymns  or  beat  their  breasts  (Mark  xvi. 
1,  2).  Many  of  them  are  professionals  ;  but 
others  are  sincere  mourners,  relatives  of  the 
deceased  and  their  sympathizing  friends 
(John  xi.  31).  Customs,  in  general  similar, 
prevailed  in  Egypt,  Persia,  and  Scytbia 
(Herod,  ii.  6(j,  8.")  ;*  iv.  71  ;  viii.  99  ;  ix.  24). 

The  period  of  mourning  varied.  It  was 
thirty  days  for  Aaron  and  Moses  (Num.  xx. 
29  :  beut.  xxxiv.  H),  and  seven  days  for  Saul 
(1  Sam.  xxxi.  13).  The  Egyptians  observed 
seventy  days  for  Jacob,  and  seven  more  days 
were  devoted  to  public  mourning  for  him  at 
the  threshing  floor  of  Atad  (Gen.  1.  3,  10). 

Mouse. 

A  small  rodent  quadruped,  3Ius  mnsculus 
and  other  allied  species  of  the  family  Muridx. 
It  was  an  unclean  animal  (Lev.  xi.  29),  but 
was  eaten  by  Israelites  in  Isaiah's  time,  Avho 
gave  themselves  up  to  heathenism  and  paid 
no  attention  to  the  Mosaic  law  (Is.  Ixvi.  17). 
The  (ield  mouse  (Arricola  m-ralis)  was  de- 
structive to  crops  (1  Sam.  vi.  5).  The  He- 
brew word  for  mouse,  'nkbnr,  is  a  compre- 
hensive one,  including  not  merely  the  genus 
Mi>s,  but  most  of  the  family  Minid.v,  with 
many  animals  from  other  families  having 
either  an  aflinity  or  an  analogy  to  the  typi- 
cal mice.  The  Arabs  iTiclude  the  jerboa 
under  the  designation  'nl-hnr,  and  they  eat 
it,  and  various  other  mouse-like  animals, 
such  as  sand  rats,  wliieli  belong  to  the  sub- 
family GerbilUnie,  and  dorniice,  of  the  related 
family  Myoxidse. 

Mo'za  [a  going  forth,  issue]. 

1.  A  man  of  Judah,  family  of  Hezrou, 
house  of  Caleb  (1  Chron.  ii.  4(i). 

2.  A  descendant  of  Jonathan  (1  Chron. 
viii.  3(),  37). 

Mo'zah. 

A  town  of  Benjamin  (Josh,  xviii.  26).  Not 
identified.     The  name  is  etymologically  dif- 


ferent from   Beit  Mizza,   a  ruined  village, 
about  .">  miles  west-northwest  of  Jerusalem. 

Mul'ber-ry  Tree. 

A  tree  of  the  same  order  as  the  fig.  It  is 
cultivated  in  Syria  for  the  sake  of  its  leaves, 
on  which  the  silkworm  feeds.  A  cooling 
drink  is  made  from  its  berries,  the  juice 
being  expressed,  sweetened  with  honey,  and 
flavored  with  spices.  The  juice  of  the  ber- 
ries was  shown  to  elephants  to  prepare  them 
for  battle  (1  JIac.  vi.  34  ;  cp.  3  Mac.  v.  2).  A 
nnilberry  is  mentioned  in  N.  T.  under  the 
name  of  sycamine. 

Mulberry  is  the  rendering  of  the  Hebrew 
Biikii',  weeping,  distilling  ;  a  tree  which  grew 
near  Jerusalem  and  of  which  the  leaves 
rustled  in  the  wind  (2  Sam.  v.  23,  24;  1 
Chron.  xiv.  14, 1.")).  In  these  passages  and  in 
Ps.  Ixxxiv.  6  the  margin  of  E.  V.  has  balsam 
tree.  Koyle  suggested  that  the  tree  intended 
is  that  called  hak  by  the  Arabs,  or  rather 
shnjnii  i(J-hiik,  the  gnat  ti-ee,  which  he  iden- 
tifies with  the  poplar.  Two  species  of  poplar 
are  common  along  the  banks  of  streams  and 
in  moist  soil  in  Palestine,  the  white  poplar 
and  the  Euphrates  pojilar ;  but  there  is  no 
etymological  connection  between  bak  and 
baka' . 

Mule. 

A  graminivorous  animal,  called  in  Hebrew 
pered  (1  Kin.  xviii.  .5).     The  mule  is  a  hybrid 


Mule  in  Ancient  Assyria. 

between  the  horse  and  the  ass.  It  is  often 
mentioned  with  horses  (Ps.  xxxii.  9),  and 
was  much  used  for  riding  and  for  carrying 
burdens  (2  Sam.  xiii.  29;  2  Kin.  v.  17;  1 
Chron.  xii.  40).  It  is  not  mentioned  before 
the  time  of  David,  but  was  in  connnon  use 
from  his  days  onward.  The  Tyrians  obtiiined 
mules  in  Armenia  (Ezek.  xxvii.  14). 

In   A.  V.  of  Gen.   xxxvi.  24  the  Hebrew 


Muppim 


497 


Music 


plural  yemiin  is  traiishiti'd  iiuilfs;  liiit  it 
siiDiiUl  ratluT  be  roiKU-iTtl  hot  s|iriiif(s,  as  it 
is  ill  the  Vul-iate  ami  in  li.  V.  In  A.  V.  of 
Esth.  viii.  10,  14  rehcsh  is  rendered  mule,  in 
1  Kin.  iv.  28  dromedary,  li.  V.  substitutes 
swift  steed. 

Mup'pim. 

A  sdii  of  Benjamin  ((.Jen.  xlvi.  21);  see 
SlIKI-lll  riiAM. 

Mur'der. 

Just  after  the  deluge  it  was  enacted  that 
whoso  sheddeth  man's  blood,  by  man  shall 
liis  blood  lie  shed  :  for  in  the  image  of  God 
made  he  man  ((Jen.  ix.  (J).  The  avenger  of 
blood  bad  the  right  to  jiut  the  murderer  to 
death  (Num.  xxxv.  10)  ;  but  if  the  mau- 
slayer  reached  a  city  of  refuge  he  was  tem- 
porarily safe.  The  cities  of  refuge  were  not 
instituted  for  the  benelit  ol'  the  deliberate 
murderer;  they  were  dc-signed  for  the  man 
who  had  accidentally  committed  manslaugh- 
ter (Num.  XXXV.).  Even  if  the  deliberate 
murderer  had  fled  for  asylum  to  the  altar, 
and  jirobalily  taken  hold  of  its  horns,  be  was 
to  be  taken  from  it  and  put  to  death  (Ex. 
xxi.  14  ;  cp.  1  Kin.  ii.  28-34).  At  the  city  of 
refuge  the  manslayer  was  given  a  trial.  The 
concurrent  testimony  of  at  least  two  wit- 
nesses was  required  to  convict  him  of  murder 
(Num.  xxxv.  30;  Deut.  xvii.  ti).  If  guilty 
of  deliberate  murder,  i>o  ransom  was  ac- 
cepted (Num.  xxxv.  31),  he  was  delivered  to 
the  avenger  of  blood  to  be  slain  (19;  Deut. 
xi.x.  12).  If  acfiuittcd,  he  was  granted  asy- 
lum in  the  city.     See  C'lTV  of  Kki'L'ui;. 

Mu'sM. 

A  Lcvite,  son  of  Mo-ari,  and  the  founder 
of  a  tribal  family  or  house  (Ex.  vi.  19;  Nun\. 
iii.  20:  xxvi.  .")8;  1  Chrou.  vi.  19,  47;  xxiii. 
21,  23:  xxiv.  2(>,  30). 

Mu'slc. 

Mu>ic  is  ancient  (Gen.  iv.  21).  .Vinong 
the  Hebrews,  ^Miriam  and  her  com]ninions 
took  timbrels  and  danced  and  sang  praises  to 


on  musical  instruments,  and  danced  (Jer. 
XXV.  10;  1  .Mac.  ix.  39;  Luke  xv.  2.')).  Mar- 
riage processions,  as  they  jia.ssed  through  the 
streets,  were  accomi)aiiied  with  music  and 
soug  (Jer.  vii.  34).  Women  and  maidens 
welcomed  the  victorious  warrior  on  bis  re- 
turn home  with  music,  .song,  and  dance 
(Judg.  xi.  34;  1  Sam.  .xviii.  (i).  Kings  had 
their  court  nmsicians  (2  Chron.  xxxv.  25; 
Ecc.  ii.  8).  The  accession  of  a  king  and  his 
marriage  and  his  feasts  were  made  joyous 
with  music  (2  Sam.  xix.  3.">;  1  Kin.  i.  40;  I's. 
-xlv.  8,  K.  v.).  The  shepherd  might  have  his 
harp  (1  .Sam.  xvi.  18).  The  mind  might  be 
quieted  and  refreshed  by  music  (1  Sam.  x.  ."> ; 
xvi.  It) ;  2  Kin.  iii.  15).  Psalms  might  be  sung 
to  the  accomiianiment  of  the  harp  (I's.  xcii. 
1-3;  cxxxvii.  2;  cp.  .\mos  vi.  5). 

The  musical  instruments  of  the  Hebrews 
were  of  three  classes :  stringed  instruments, 
wind  instruments,  and  instruments  of  per- 
cussion. Siringcd  instruments  consisted  of 
a  body  of  wood  with  strings  of  gut,  and 
were  played  with  the  tingei-s  of  one  or  both 
hands  or  were  struck  with  a  i)lectrum  of 
wood,  ivory,  or  metal.  They  were  chiefly 
the  harp  and  psaltery.  The  harp  was  in 
general  use  among  the  peo|)le  both  for  worldly 
and  .sacred  music;  the  psaltery  was  commonly, 
though  not  e.Kclusively,  reserved  for  religious 
purposes.  The  i)saltery  was  tuned  to  the 
sojirano  register,  the  barf)  an  octave  lower 
(1  Chron.  XV.  20,  21).  The  wind  instruments 
were  chiefly  flutes  or  i)i]ies  and  horns.  The 
pipe  was  often  played  with  other  instruments 
(1  Sam.  X.  5;  1  Kin.  i.  40;  Is.  v.  12;  xxx. 
29;  Ecclus.  xl.  21),  was  emi>loyed  to  lead 
dancing  (Mat.  xi.  17),  and  was  i)layed  at 
weddings  (1  Mac.  iii.  45;  Kev.  xviii.  22).  It 
was  specially  the  instrument  of  lamentation 
(Jer.  xlviii.  3(i ;  Mat.ix.23,  K.V.;  War  iii.  9, 5). 
The  Bible  does  not  mention  its  use  in  the 
temple  service,  not  even  in  1  ^fac.  iv.  .54  ;  but 
it  was  used  in  sicred  music  (1  Sam.  x.  5)  and 
was  heard  in  processions  of  worshipers  march- 


Huuil  of  Musicians  in  .\ssvria. 


the  Lonl  for  bis  deliverance  of  the  Israelites 
at  the  K<(1  Sea  (Ex.  xv.  2(l).  The  iieojile 
danced  and  siing  in  idolatrous  woi-shi])  about 
the  golden  calf  (Ex.  xxxii.  (i.  IS).  In  family 
feasts  and  religious  festivals  thev  siing,  played 
32 


ing  to  the  bouse  of  CJod  (Is.  xxx.  29).  and  in 
the  later  tciiii>le  it  had  an  assigned  ji'ace, 
csjiecially  at  the  jtassover  ami  feast  of  taber- 
nacles. The  ram's  horn,  or  an  imitation  of 
it,  was  sometimes  used  to  increa.sc  the  noise 


Music 


498 


Music 


of  other  instruments  (1  Chron.  xv.  28;  2 
Cliron.  x%-.  14  ;  I's.  xcviii.  (J,  rendered  trumpet), 
but  was  j^enerally  blown  by  itself.  Its  prin- 
cipal empluymeut  was  not  in  music,  but  for 
military  purposes  and  to  make  proclamations. 
Straight,  narrow,  silver  trunqiets,  about  a 
cubit  in  leiij;th,and  called  hasosu-uh,  were  u.sed 
by  the  ])riests  to  anuou  nee  festivals,  to  call  the 
couLcregatiou,  and  on  advanciu);  to  battle 
(Num.  .\.  1-10).  They  were  rarely  Ijlown  by 
laymen  (lios.  v.  b;  perhaps,  2  Kin.  xi.  14 
and  2  Chron.  xxiii.  13).  Of  the  instruments 
of  percussion  the  timbrel  or  tabret  was  the 
I)0])ular  instrument;  it  was  usually  jilayed 
by  women  and  was  employed  on  festive  occa- 
sions, especially  to  beat  time  at  the  dances 
and  for  singers  (Gen.  xxxi.  27;  Ex.  xv.  20; 
Judg.  xi.  34  ;  Ps.  Ixxxi.  2).  Cymbals  of  brass 
were  used  in  the  temple  service  (1  Chron. 
XV.  10). 

Music  was  cultivated  by   the   companies 
which  gathered  about  the  prophets  (1  Sam. 


288  were  trained  musicians,  who  were  de- 
pended upon  to  lead  the  less  skilled  body  of 
assistants  (1  Chron.  xxv.  7,  8).  They  were 
divided  into  twenty-four  courses,  containing 
twelve  trained  musicians  each.  Of  these 
courses  four  belonged  lo  the  family  of  Asajih, 
six  to  that  of  Jeduthun,and  fourteen  to  that 
of  Heman.  The  orchestra  which  accomjia- 
uied  the  singing  consisted  of  stringed  instru- 
ments, but  cymbals  were  also  u^ed,  beijig 
probably  struck  by  the  chief  musician  to 
beat  time  (1  Chron.  xv.  19-21).  It  appears 
from  this  passage  that  the  ])roportion  of 
psalteries  to  liarjis  was  eiglit  to  six.  lu 
Herod's  temple  there  were  ordinarily  two 
psalteries,  nine  harps,  and  one  cymbal,  and 
on  certain  days  pipes  were  added.  The  par- 
ticipation of  priests  with  trumpets  in  the 
orchestra  of  stringed  instruments  was  ex- 
ceptional (2  Chron.  v.  12,  13  ;  vii.  6).  In  the 
second  temple  tlie  trumi)ets,  when  blown  in 
connection  with  the  regular  orchestra,  were 


Band  of  Musicians  in  Ancient  Egypt  accompanying  the  Jlinistrations  of  a  Priest. 


X.  5),  various  instruments  being  employed  as 
an  orchestra.  It  is  not  mentioned  as  belong- 
ing to  the  service  of  the  tabernacle  in  the 
early  period.  David  introduced  it  into  the 
worshi]!  at  the  sanctuary,  and  Solomon  pro- 
moted it  (2  Sam.  vi.  .5,  14;  1  Kin.  x.  12;  1 
Chron.  XV.,  xvi.).  Hezekiah  and  .Tosiah  paid 
.special  attention  to  its  restoration  (2  Chron. 
xxix.  2.");  XXXV.  1.")).  David  was  assisted  in 
his  work  by  Asaph,  Heman,  and  Ethan  or 
Jeduthun,  three  masters  of  music.  A  choir 
of  singers  and  musicians,  with  Asaph  at  its 
head,  was  formed  of  Eevites,  and  stationed 
before  the  ark  at  the  tabernacle  on  Zion, 
while  Heman  and  .Jeduthun,  with  their 
choirs,  were  assigned  to  the  old  tabernacle  at 
Gibeon  (1  Chron.  xvi.  4-(),  39-42).  These 
three  choirs  were  afterwards  united  in  the 
temi)le.  In  David's  reign  they  nnmbered 
4000  members  (1  Chron.  xxiii.  5),  of  whom 


heard  only  in  the  pauses  or  as  responsive 
music  (Ezra  iii.  10, 11).  The  musicians  stood 
on  the  east  of  the  great  altar  (2  Chron.  v.  12). 
In  Herod's  tem]ile  tliey  occupied  a  broad 
staircase,  which  led  from  the  court  of  Israel 
to  the  court  of  the  priests.  In  this  later 
temple  a  choir  of  boys,  standing  at  the  foot 
of  the  stairs,  lent  their  higher  voices  to  the 
song  of  the  Levites. 

Little  is  known  of  the  character  of  the 
music.  The  Hebrews  had  a  scale  of  eight 
tones.  Their  sacred  choirs  iirobably  sang  in 
unison  the  same  simple  melody,  divided  into 
two  parts,  the  one  an  octave  higher  than  the 
other,  and  representing  the  male  and  female 
voices,  and  were  accomitanied  by  the  instru- 
ments in  the  same  tones  (1  Chron.  xv.  20,  21). 
Melodies  are  probably  named  in  the  titles  of 
Ps.  ix.,  xxii.,  xlv..  Ivi.,  Ivii.,  and  others. 
Antiphoual  and  responsive  singing  was  prac- 


Mustard 


499 


Mystery 


ticed  (Kx.  xv.  21  ;  Neh.  xii.  31-43)  and  was 
often  lioard  in  the  temple  service  (E/.ra  iii. 
10,  11  ;  .ler.  xxxiii.  11);  several  itsalnis  were 
arranj^ed  for  this  piiriiose.  c.  <i..  xxiv.  7-10; 
cxxxvi.  Tile  coMjirefiatiiiu  scldoin.  if  ever, 
Joined  in  the  siiiginj;  in  the  tirst  tenii)Ie,  but 
at  its  close  they  nnited  in  saying  anu-n  (1 
Chron.  xvi.  7,  3(i).  In  the  llerodian  tenijiie 
the  ]ieoi)le  sunictinits  imrticipated  by  .singing 
responses. 

Mus'tard. 

.\  garden  herb  (Luke  xiii.  19),  which  in 
comparison  with  other  lierbs  becomes  a  great 
tree  (.Mat.  xiii.  3-J ;  Mark  iv.  .j-J),  on  who.se 
liranches  the  l)irds  rest  for  the  Siike  of  obtain- 
ing its  seeds.  Its  seeds  arc,  hyiierbolicallj^ 
speaking,  less  than  all  .seeds  (Mat.  xiii.  .'52). 
Tile  largeness  of  the  plant  grown  from  .seeds 
so  small  illustrates  the  increase  of  the  king- 
dom of  heaven  from  a  very  small  beginning. 
Tile  mustard  seed  was  employed  proverbially 
by  the  Jews,  J  list  as  it  was  by  Jesus  I  Mat.  xvii. 
20;  Luke  xvii.  ()|,  to  denote  anything  very 
minute.  The  common  mustard  of  Palestine 
i»  SiiKipis  u'Kjni  or  black  mustard.  It  grows 
wild,  attaining  the  height  of  a  horse  and 
rider,  as  travelei's  have  noticed.  It  is  also 
cultivated  in  gardens  for  its  st'cd,  which  is 
used  as  a  coiidimi'iit.  'i'hose  who  seek  another 
identification  generally  consider  the  mustard 
of  .Scrijjture  to  have  been  Sdlvadord  persica, 
tlie  tyjte  of  the  natural  order  SaJvadoraceie 
or  Salvadorads.  Uoyle,  who  sujjported  this 
view,  says  that  it  lias  a  succulent  fruit,  tast- 
ing like  garden  cress.  It  is,  however,  small, 
and  a]iparently  confined  to  the  low  valley  of 
the  Jordan  ;  and  it  is  not  an  herb. 

Muth-lab'ben  [die  for  the  son]. 

An  expri'ssion  of  doubtful  meaning  in  the 
title  of  I's.  ix.  It  iirobably  indicates  a  famil- 
iar melody. 

Myn'dos,  in  .\.  V.  Myndus. 

.\  small  town  of  ('aria,  situated  on  the  sea- 
coast  (Herod,  v.  33).  It  was  not  far  from 
llalicarnassus,  for  Alexander  led  a  detach- 
ment of  troojjsacro.ss  the  intervening  cour.try 
in  one  night.  In  the  time  of  Simon  Macca- 
lia-us  it  was  subject  to  Rome  (1  .Mac.  xv.  23). 
Its  site  is  ])rol>ably  marked  by  the  small 
sheltered  |>r)rt  of  (Jumishlu. 

My'ra. 

.\  city  of  Lycia,  where  Paul,  when  a  pris- 
oner lUi  his  way  to  Home,  changed  shii>s 
(.\cts  xxvii.  .").  (i).  Myra  was  one  of  the 
])rincipal  cities  of  Lycia.  It  stood  somi'  two 
miles  from  the  scii,  and  was  built  on  and 
aboutadilf,  at  the  mouth  of  the  gorge  leading 
into  the  interior  moinilaiii  region.  It  is  now 
called  Dembra. 

Myrrh. 

1.  A  fi-.igrant  substance,  called  in  Hebrew 
"ik;-.  in  (Jreek  .<(»i»r)/rt.  It  was  an  ingredii'ut 
in  tlu'  oil  with  which  Aaron  and  his  succes- 


sors were  anointed  (Ex.  xxx.  23).  Beds  and 
garments  were  perfumed  with  it  (Fs.  xlv.  8; 
I'rov.  vii.  17 ;  Song  iii.  G),  and  an  oil  of 
myrrh  was  used  in  the  purification  of  women 
(Estli.  ii.  12).  The  magi  brouglit  it  from  the 
east  to  ])resent  to  the  infant  Jesus  (.Mat.  ii. 
11).  At  the  criK'ifixion  it  was  offered  to  hlra 
in  wine,  probably  to  deaden  pain  (Mark  xv. 
23),  and  was  an  ingredii'Ut  in*  the  spices  de- 
signed for  anointing  his  body  (John  xix.  39 1. 
It  was  used  for  embaluiing  the  dead  (Herod. 
ii.  hG).  The  tree  which  produced  it  grew 
in  Arabia  (iii.  107;  Pliny  xii.  IG).  The 
plant  which  produced  it  was  probably  liitl- 
saiiiodindvoH  mynha.  It  is  a  small  tree,  with 
odoriferous  wood  and  bark,  short  .spiny 
branches,  trifoliolate  leaves,  and  plum-like 
fruit.  It  grows  in  Arabia  Felix,  and  fur- 
nishes the  myrrh  of  commerce. 

2.  The  ri'uderiug  of  the  Hebrew  Lot  (Gen. 
xxxvii.  2.") ;  xliii.  11).  Myrrh  is  not  a  happy 
translation  ;  it  should  have  been  ladanum 
(R.  V".  margin),  called  by  the  tireeks  ledon 
and  Idditiioit,  and  by  the  Arabs /ri(?((«,  which 
is  cognate  with  the  IIel)rew  lot.  It  is  a 
highly  fragrant  resin,  containing  a  volatile 
oil.  and  is  jiroduced  by  Cistus  creth-ns  and 
various  other  species  of  rock  rose.  It  grows 
in  parts  of  Syria. 

Myr'tle. 

A  tree,  called  in  Hebrew  h"dn.<i.  It  grew 
in  the  mountains  near  Jerusalem,  and  booths 
were  made  of  its  branches  at  the  feast  of 
tabernacles  (Xeh.  viii.  1.")).  It  is  mentioned 
also  in  Is.  xii.  1<J  ;  Iv.  13;  Zech.  i.  8,  10.  11. 
The  tree  is  undoubtedly  the  common  myrtle 
(Myrtiis  commituis),  which  grows  in  Palestine. 

My'Bi-a. 

A  jn-ovince  iii  the  extreme  northwest  of 
Asia  Minor  ;  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Pro- 
jiontis,  now  sea  of  Marmora,  on  the  south  by 
Lydia,  on  the  east  by  Bitliynia,  and  on  the 
west  by  the  Hellespont.  The  Troad  lay 
within  its  limits.  Paul  and  Silas  pas.sed 
through  it  to  Troas,  one  of  its  cities  (Acts 
xvi.  7,  8).  Assos,  to  which  Paul  s;iiled  to 
meet  his  as.sociates,  was  another  (xx.  13).  A 
tliird  was  Pergamos,  one  of  the  seven  churches 
in  Asia  (Rev.  i.  11  ;  ii.  12-17). 

Mys'ter-y. 

A  word  l)orrowed  from  the  heathen  reli- 
gion, in  which  a  mystery  was  a  secret  and  pe- 
culiar doctrine,  which  distinguished  one  re- 
ligion from  another,  and  found  expression  in 
rites,  ceremonies,  and  jiuriticatioiis  to  which 
only  initiated  jiersons  were  admitt<(l.  Tlie 
word  does  not  iniiily  that  the  doctrine  is  in- 
oomj>rehensil>le.  In  the  X.  T.  it  denotes  a 
secret  hidden  from  tlie  world  till  the  ap- 
)iointed  time  (Rom.  xvi.  2.'")^  or  until  man 
bas  been  prepareil  by  the  Spirit  of  (iod  to  re- 
ceive and  aiijireciate  it  (.Mark  iv.  11),  which 
forms  a  chanicteristic  and  essential  do<'trine 
and  finds  expression  in  the  life  (1  Tim 
iii.  16). 


Naam 


500 


Nabal 


N. 


Na'am  [sweetness,  pleasantness]. 
A  sou  of  tlio  celebrated  Caleb  (1  C'hron.  iv. 
15). 
Na'a-mah  [sweet,  pleasant]. 

1.  Daughter  of  Lamecli,  and  sister  of  Tubal- 
cain  (Get),  iv.  ;22). 

2.  An  Auiniouitess,  mother  of  king  Reho- 
boani  (1  Kin.  xiv.  21,  31 ;  2  Chrou.  xii.  18). 

3.  A  town  in  the  lowland  of  Judah  (Josh. 
XV.  41).     Not  identified. 

Na'a-man  [i)leasautuess,  delight]. 

1.  A  grandson  of  Benjamin,  a  son  of  Bela 
and  founder  of  a  family  (Gen.  xlvi.  21 ;  Num. 
XX vi.  40). 

2.  A  Syrian  conimander-in-ehief  under 
king  Benhadad.  He  was  an  able  and  a  brave 
man,  and  a  lepei-.  In  Syria  leprosy  did  not 
exclude  from  human  society,  as  it  did  in 
Israel,  though  it  was  a  loathsome  disease.  In 
one  of  the  Syrian  raids  into  the  Israelite  ter- 
ritorj',  the  soldiers  had  brought  away  a  little 
maid,  who  became  a  slave  to  Naaman's  wife. 
This  girl  expressed  to  her  mistress  the  wish 
that  Naaman  were  with  Elisha  in  Samaria, 
as  the  prophet  would  heal  him  of  his  leprosy. 
The  speech  of  the  maiden  was  rei>orted  to 
her  master,  who  resolved  to  seek  a  cure  from 
Elisha.  His  sovereign,  the  king  of  Syria, 
■wrote  a  letter  of  introduction  for  him,  and 
sent  him  to  the  king  of  Israel  to  be  cured. 
When  the  Israelite  ruler  received  it  he 
thought  that  the  real  intention  of  his  corre- 
spondent was  to  pick  a  quarrel  and  declare 
war.  Elisha  reassured  the  king,  and  desired 
that  Naaman  should  be  sent  to  him,  when  he 
would  learn  that  there  was  a  ])rophet  in  Is- 
rael. When  he  came  with  his  horses  and 
chariot  to  Elisha's  door,  the  prophet  in  order 
to  humble  his  i)ride  'and  teach  him  that  he 
owed  his  cure  not  to  man,  but  solely  to  the 
power  of  God,  did  not  appear,  but  sent  out  a 
message  that  he  was  to  dip  seven  times  in 
Joi'dan,  and  he  should  be  cleansed.  Naaman, 
feeling  aflVonted,  declined  the  prescription, 
saying,  "Are  not  Abana  and  Pharpar,  rivers 
of  Damascus,  better  than  all  the  waters  of 
Israel?  may  I  not  wash  in  them  and  be 
clean?"  He  Ment  oft"  in  a  passion,  but  his 
servants  soothed  his  rutiled  temper,  and 
begged  him  to  dip  in  Jordan,  which  he  did, 
and  was  at  once  miraculously  cured.  Now 
thoroughly  softened  in  heart,  and  filled  with 
gratitude,  he  wished  to  reward  Elisha.  The 
prophet  desired  to  imjiress  upon  the  Syrian 
the  freeness  of  God's  blessings,  and  refused 
all  recompense  ;  but  Gehazi,  his  servant, 
acted  in  a  very  different  s])irit.  Naaman  re- 
nounced idohitry,  and  became  a  worshijH'r 
of  Jehovah  ;  and  he  carried  home  two  mules' 
burden  of  earth  to  build  an  altar  to  Jehovah. 
He  lived,  however,  in  a  lieathen  comnnmity 
and  could  not  altogether  escape  outward  par- 
ticipation in  heathen  customs.     His  king  was 


an  idolater,  a  worshiper  of  Eimmon  ;  and  it 
was  Naaman's  oflicial  duty  to  supi)ort  him 
when  he  entered  the  temple  and  bowed  be- 
fore the  god.  The  ]iroi>het  of  Jehovah  per- 
mitted Naaman  to  fulfill  his  secular  duties, 
even  though  to  do  so  involved  his  assisting  his 
king  to  i)eriorm  heathen  Avorship  (2  Kin.  v.). 

Na'a-ma-tliite. 

A  native  or  inhabitant  of  Naamah  ;  as 
Zojihar,  Job's  friend  (Job.  ii.  11  ;  xi.  1  ;  xx. 
1  ;  xlii.  1»).  The  place  was  probably  in 
Arabia. 

Na'a-rah  [a  girl]. 

1.  A  wife  of  Ashhur,  the  ancestor  of  the 
inhabitants  of  Tekoa  (1  C'hron.  iv.  5,  6). 

2.  A  town  on  the  boundary  line  of  E- 
phraim,  east  of  Bethel,  and  not  far  from  Jeri- 
cho (Josh.  xvi.  7).  In  A.  \'.  the  name  is 
written  Naarath.  The  final  th  is  archaic, 
and  is  probal)ly  due  in  the  text  to  the  pres- 
ence of  the  local  ending.  The  town  is  doubt- 
less one  with  Naaran  (1  Chron.  vii.  2b). 
Archelaus  diverted  half  the  water  sujiply  of 
Neara  to  irrigate  the  palms  of  his  palace  at 
Jericho  (Antiq.  xvii.  13,  1).  Eusebius  men- 
tions a  village  Noorrth,  5  Roman  miles  from 
Jericho.  A  j>lausible  conjecture  for  the  site 
is  on  the  Nahr  el-'Aujah,  with  its  plentiful 
water;  perhai>s  at  the  ruin  el-'Aujah. 

Na'a-rai. 

One  of  David's  valiant  men  (1  C'hron.  xi. 
37 ;  apparently  a  diverse  reading,  ])erhaps 
the  correction,  of  Paarai,  2  Sam.  xxiii.  35). 

Na'a-ran.     See  Naarah  2. 

Na'a-rath.     See  Naakah  2. 

Na'a-shon.     See  Nashon. 

Na-as'son.    See  Nashon. 

Na'bal  [foolish,  wicked]. 

A  slieepmaster,  resident  in  !Maon,  who  pas- 
tured his  flocks  around  the  village  Carmel  in 
Judah,  on  the  confines  of  the  wilderness. 
His  wife's  name  was  Abigail.  David  and  his 
followers  had  dwelt  for  some  time  in  the 
neighborhood,  and  had  used  their  might  to 
protect  the  pro]ierty  of  the  pco])le  from  ma- 
rauding bands  of  robbers.  When  Nal)al  was 
shearing  his  .shee]),  David  sent  ten  young 
men  to  solicit  assistance  for  himself  and  his 
followers.  Nabal  sent  back  a  churlish  re- 
fusal, which  so  irritated  David  that  he  put 
his  men  in  motion  with  the  intention  of  cut- 
ting oflT  Nabal  and  every  other  male  belong- 
ing to  the  household.  Abigail,  who  was  a 
clever  and  judicious  woman,  made  ready  a 
liresent  for  David,  and,  starting  promptly, 
apologized  for  herhnsband'sconduct,  allayed 
the  resentment  which  it  had  caused,  and 
prevented  the  gathering  storm  from  breaking 
on  her  honu>.  Returning  to  her  abode,  she 
found  a  great  feast  in  progress,  and  lu-r  lord 
completely  intoxicated.  Next  morning,  when 
he  was  sober,  she  told  him  how  narrowly  he 
had  escaped  destruction.  He  was  profoundly 
affected  by  the  intelligence,  and  never  recov- 
ered from  the  shock   which  it  caused,  but 


Nabathaeans 


501 


Nahash 


died  ill  tfu  days.  After  a  time,  Abigail  be- 
t-ame  oik;  of  David's  wives  (1  Saiii.  xxv. 
1-4-2). 

Nab-a-thse'ans,    in    A.    V.  Na'bath-ites. 

See   .\i;i:ai(>iii. 

Na'botli. 

An  iiilial)i(aiit  of  .lezreel,  who  liad  a  vine- 
yard at  Iliat  town  near  one  <)f  Allah's  palaces. 
The  kui'ri  wislied  to  l)iiy  it,  l)ut  its  owner 
would  not  sell  it  heeause  it  had  deseended  to 
him  from  his  ancestors.  At  the  instance  of 
Jezehi'l,  Nahoth's  life  was  sworn  away  by 
suborned  witnesses,  he  and  his  sons  {2  Kin. 
ix.  M).  to  whom  the  vineyard  would  have 
descended,  were  stoned  to  death,  their  bodies 
were  left  to  be  devoured  by  the  dogs,  and  the 
vineyard  was  seized  by  Ahab.  This  act  of 
violence  called  down  the  judgment  of  (lod  on 
the  guilty  king  and  his  yet  guiltier  wife 
(1  Kin.  xxi.   l-.;4  ;  xxii.  34-;5S  ;    2  Kin.    ix. 

3o-;i7). 

Na'chon.     See  X.vcox. 
Na'chor.     See  Naiiok. 

Na'con,  in  \.  V.  Nachon  [prepared,  ready]. 

'I'hc  designation  of  a  threshing  floor  at 
which  Uzzah  was  struck  dead  f(jr  touching 
the  ark  (2  Sam.  vi.  (i),  and  hence  called 
Perez-uzzah.  /.  e.  breach  of  Uzzah  (H).  It  is 
not  certain  that  Nacon  is  the  original  spelling 
of  the  name  ;  .see  ClliDON. 

Na'dab  [of  one's  freewill,  liberal]. 

1.  The  eldest  of  Aaron's  four  sons  (Ex.  vi. 
23:  Num.  iii.  2;  xxvi.  (iO :  1  Cliron.  vi.  3 ; 
xxiv.  1).  With  liis  brother  Ahihu,  he  was 
granted  the  i)rivilege  of  a  near  approach  to 
Jehovah  at  Sinai  lEx.  xxiv.  1),  and  was  sub- 
se()Ueiitl\  aiijiointed  to  the  jiriesthood  (xxviii. 
1),  but  botli  of  them  afterwards  oll'ered 
strange  fire  to  God,  and  as  a  penalty  were 
consumed  by  fire  (Le^'.  x.  1-7;  Num.  xxvi. 
(il  t.  From  the  fact  that  a  command  was  im- 
mediat<-ly  thertafter  given  to  Aaron  not  to 
drink  wine  or  strong  drink  wlien  he  entiTcd 
the  tab(  rnacle.  it  may  be  inferred  that  Xadab 
and  .\bihu  had  done  scj.  and  were  under  the 
influence  of  licjuor  when  they  committed  the 
sin  which  cost  them  their  lives  (Lev.  x.  9). 
They  both  died  childless  (Num.  iii.  4  :  1 
Chron.   xxiv.  2). 

2.  .\  man  of  .Ttidab.  family  of  Hczron, 
bouse  of  .Terahmeel  (1    t'hron."  ii.  2K,  30). 

3.  A  Renjamite,  a  son  of  Gibeon  and 
:\raacbah   (rchn.n.   viii.  3(»:  ix.  .'{til. 

1.  Son  of  .b'roboani  I.,  and  his  successor  on 
the  throne  of  Israel.  He  began  to  reign  about 
fim  It.  I'.  He  followed  the  evil  example  of 
his  father  with  respect  to  calf  worship.  He 
led  the  forces  of  liis  kingdom  t<i  besiege  (til)- 
betlion.  but  was  murdiTed  with  bis  ri-latives 
by  liaasba,  wlio  then  mounted  the  vacant 
throne  Tliis  nias.sacre  fulfilled  the  threaten- 
ings  of  .b-bovali  against  .lerobf)a)n  and  his 
house.  Nadab  reigned  le.ss  than  two  full 
years  (1  Kin.  xiv.  10,  11,  20;  xv.  2"),  30). 


Nad'a-bath,  in  A.  V.  Na-dab'a-tha. 
A   place,  probably  a    village,   in   or  uear 
Moab   (1   Mac.   ix.   37;    in  Autiq.    xiii.    1,  4 

(Tabatha). 

Nag'gai,  in  .\.  V.  Nagge. 

An  ancestor  of  Christ  (Ijuke  iii.  25). 

Na'ha-lal  and  Nahalol  (Judg.  i.  30),  iu  A. 
V.  once  Nahallal  (.Josh.  xix.  1."))  [pa.sture]. 

A  village  of  Zebulun  (Josh.  xix.  lo),  from 
which,  howevir,  that  tribe  failed  to  drive 
out  the  I'anaanite  inhabitants  (.Judg.  i.  30). 
It  was  assigned  to  the  Merarite  Levites  (.Josh. 
xxi.  3.")).  The  .Jerusalem  Talmud  says  that 
it  was  afterwards  called  Mahlul.  Schwarz 
and  Van  de  Velde  identify  this  with  the  vil- 
lage of  .Ma'lul,  3i  miles  west  of  Nazareth. 

Na-ha'li-el  [valley  and  brook  of  God]. 

An  encami)ment  of  the  Israelites,  between 
I5eer,  in  the  de.sert  east  of  Moab,  and  Bamoth, 
whicli  lay  between  Dibon  and  Baal-meon 
(Num.  xxi.  Ill),  and  hence  probably  on  one 
of  the  northern  tributaries  of  the  Arnon. 
Not  identified  ;  although  the  name  is  possi- 
bly preserved  in  Kncheileh,  the  valley  of  the 
Arnon  from  the  Balua  eastward  to  the  mouth 
of  the  8eil  Sa'ideh,  a  distance  of  about  2 
miles. 

Na-hal'lal.     See  N.\halal. 

Na'ha-lol.     .See  Nahalal. 

Na'ham  [solace,  consolation]. 

Ibother  of  Hodiah's  wife  (1  Chron.  iv.  19, 
R.  v.).  The  translation  of  A.  V.  is  impossi- 
ble. 

Na-ham'a-ni  [compassionate]. 

One  (jf  tliose  who  returned  with  Zerub- 
babel  from  Babylon  (Neb.  vii.  7). 

Na'ha-rai,  in  A.  Y.  once  Nahari  (2  Sam. 
xxiii.  .■)7).  a  misspelling  of  late  editions  from 
which  the  original  edition  of  IGll  was  free 
[snoring,  snorting]. 

A  Beerothite,  .Joab's  armorbearer  (2  Sam. 
xxiii.  .'m  :  1  t'hron.  xi.  39). 

Na'taash  [serjjcnt]. 

1.  Father  of  Abigail  and  Zeruiah,  David's 
sisters  12  Sam.  xvii.  2"> ;  cp.  1  Chron.  ii.  lU). 
Probably  his  widow,  the  mother  of  Abigail 
and  Zeruiah,  married  Jesse  and  became  the 
mother  of  David.  This  exidanation  is  better 
than  the  assum])tion  that  Nahash  was  the 
name  of  .Jesse's  wife;  or.  as  the  later  Jews 
interpreted  the  passage,  that  Nahash  was  an- 
other name  of  .Jesse. 

2.  .An  .\mmonite  king  who  besieged  Jabesh- 
gilead.  and  when  its  inhabitants  iplfered  to 
surrender  and  become  tributary,  would  not 
accept  the  jirojiosal  unless  every  man  in  the 
jdace  consented  to  lose  the  right  eye.  He 
determined  to  jiut  a  ri']iroach  u|)on  Israel. 
A  week's  time  was  given  in  which  to  seek 
help.  Before  it  I'Xjiired.  Saul.  Just  before 
elected  king,  ai>iH'ared  with  a  relieving  army, 
totally  defeated  the  Ammonit«s,  and  .saved 
Jabesh-gilead  and  its  defenders  (1  .Sjim.  xi. 
1-11).     Either  this  Nahash  or  a  son  of  his 


Nahath 


502 


Nain 


bearing  the  same  name  treated  David  kindly, 
perhaps  because  he  was  at  variance  with  Saul 
(2  Sam.  X.  2). 

3.  A  man  who  lived  in  Kalibah  of  the  Am- 
motiitcs  (2  Sam.  xvii.  27).  Ik'  may  liavc  been 
the  kins  al'urementioned,  or  an  Israelite  wlio 
had  settled  in  Kabbah  after  its  eai)tine  by 
David  (2  Sam.   xii.  29). 

Na'hath  [descent  or  quiet]. 

1.  A  descendant  of  Ksau  and  also  of  Ish- 
niael.  He  became  a  chieftain  of  Edoni  (Gen. 
xxxvi.  3,  4,  13,  17  ;  1  t'liron.  i.  37). 

2.  A  Kohathite  J.evite  (1  Chron.  vi.  26)  ; 
jiroliably  the  person  elsewhere  called  Tohu 
and  Toah  (1  Sam.  i.  1  ;  1  Chron.  vi.  34). 

3.  A  Levite,  one  of  those  who  had  charge 
of  the  tithes  and  otlerings  under  Hezekiah 
(2  Chron.  xxxi.  13). 

Nah'bi  [concealed]. 

The  representative  spy  from  the  tribe  of 
Naphtali  (Num.  xiii.  14). 

Na'hor,  in  A.  V.  twice  Nachor  (Josh.  xxiv. 
2;  Lukf.  iii.  34)  [breathin,?  hard,  snorting]. 

1.  A  son  of  Serug,  and  grandfather  of 
Abraham  (Gen.  xi.  24,  25). 

2.  A  son  of  Terah,  and  brother  of  Abraham 
(Gen.  xi.  27).  He  married  his  niece  Milcah, 
daughter  of  Haran  and  sister  of  Lot  (291. 
He  is  not  mentioned  as  emigrating  from  Ur 
with  Terah,  Abraham,  and  Lot ;  but  later  he 
is  found  in  Mesopotamia  at  Haran  (xxiv.  10 ; 
iixvii.  43).  Eight  sons  were  born  to  him  by 
Milcah,  from  whom  sprang  Aramsean  tribes. 
Four  others  traced  their  descent  from  his 
concubine  (xxii.  21-24).  One  of  his  sons  by 
Milcah  was  Bethuel,  who  became  the  father 
of  Rebekah  and  Laban  (xxiv.  l.o,  29). 

Nah'shon,  A.  V.  has  once  Naashon  (Ex.  vi. 
23),  and  in  N.  T.  Naasson  [enchanting, 
ominous]. 

A  prince  of  the  tribe  of  Judah  in  the 
early  period  of  the  wilderness  wanderings 
(Num.  i.  7:  ii.  3;  vii.  12,  17;  x.  14).  His 
sister  was  married  to  Aaron,  who  was  of  tlie 
tribe  of  Levi  (Exod.  vi.  23).  Nahshon  was 
the  grandfather  or  remoter  ancestor  of  Boa?, 
Ruth's  husband,  and  the  fifth  ])ackward  in 
the  genealogy  of  David  (Riith  iv.  20-22;  1 
Chron.  ii.  10-12).  This  placed  him  in  the 
ancestry  of  our  Lord  (Mat.  i.  4  ;  Luke  iii.  32, 
33). 

Na'hum  [com])assionate]. 

.\  i>ro]>liet  born  at  Elkosh,  doubtless  a  vil- 
lage of  Palestine.  He  prophesied  to  .Tudah 
(i.  15),  not  to  the  ten  tribes  in  caiitivity. 
The  position  of  the  book  among  the  minor 
prophets,  after  Micah  and  before  Habakkuk 
and  Zei>haniah,  is  evidence  that  it  was  writ- 
ten between  the  commencement  of  Heze- 
kiah's  and  the  close  of  .losiab's  reign  (Mic.  i. 
1;  Zeph.  i.  1);  and  that  the  ])ro])bet  cites 
the  destruction  of  No-anion  Iti  Egypt  (iii.  K- 
10),  which  was  overtlirown  by  tlie  Assyrians 
in  (jf>4  B.  ('.,  and  ])rediets  the  fall  of  Nineveh 
(7),  which  occurred  about  60(j  u.  c,  narrows 


the  limits  within  which  the  composition  of 
the  book  must  be  sought  to  the  fifty-eight 
years  intervening  l)etween  the.se  events.  It 
was  a  time  when  the  people  of  .Judah  were 
despondent  by  reason  of  tlie  jiersisteut  inva- 
sions of  the  Assyrians  and  the  captivitj- of 
their  king. 

'J'he  theme  of  the  prophecy  is  the  burden 
of  Nineveh  (i.  1).  The  pro])hct  insists  on 
the  familiar  truth  that  Jehovah  is  a  jealous 
God,  whose  vengeance  is  certain  to  fall  on 
his  adversaries,  hut  who  is  a  stronghold  to 
those  that  trust  in  him  (2-8),  urges  the 
peojilc  to  turn  a  deaf  ear  to  the  counsel  of 
those  who  were  s])takiug  against  Jeliovah's 
tardiness  and  advising  the  abandonment  of 
his  service  (9-11),  declares  the  unalterable 
purpose  of  the  Lord  to  deliver  his  people 
(12-14),  and  exhorts  them  to  unswerving 
loyalty  to  their  (tod  and  the  faithful  ob- 
servance of  his  worship  (15).  On  the  basis 
of  this  truth,  the  proi)het  i)roceeds  to  de.scribe 
the  overthrow  of  the  worldly  ])ower  which 
was  then  oppressing  the  kingdcmi  of  God. 
He  pictures  the  siege  of  the  city  (ii.  1-10),  and 
takes  occasion  to  taunt  the  city  which  had 
been  as  a  den  of  lions  (11-13).  Returning  to 
the  description  of  the  siege,  he  attributes 
the  judgment  which  befalls  the  city  to  its 
whoredoms  (iii.  1-4).  This  allusion  leads  to  a 
change  of  the  figure,  and  he  depicts  the  pun- 
ishment as  the  punishment  of  a  harlot  (5-7). 
He  draws  attention  to  the  fact  that  Nineveh 
is  not  better  than  No-amon,  which  went  into 
captivity  (8-10),  and  he  predicts  that  like 
No-amon  Nineveh  shall  be  destroyed  (11-19). 

2.  An  ancestor  of  Christ,  born  scarcely 
three  centuries  earlier  (Luke  iii.  25).  A.  V. 
uses  the  Greek  form  of  the  name,  Naum. 

Nail. 

1.  The  horny  scale  at  the  end  of  the  finger 
(Deut.  xxi.  12;  Dan.  iv.  33). 

2.  A  tent  pin  (Judg.  iv.  21),  which  was  of 
large  size  and  commonly  made  of  wood. 
Those  used  to  fasten  the  curtains  of  the 
tabernacle  were  of  brass  (Ex.  xxvii.  19). 

3.  A  pin,  commonly  of  metal,  used  for 
driving  into  wood  or  other  material  to  hold 
separate  pieces  together,  or  left  projecting 
for  hanging  things  on.  It  might  be  made  of 
iron  (1  Chron.  xxii.  3),  or  of  gold,  or  be  gilded 
(2  Chron.  iii.  9).  It  was  sometimes  driven 
between  the  .stones  of  a  wall  (Ecclus.  xxvii. 
2).  Idols  were  fastened  secundy  in  place  by 
nails  (Is.  xli.  7  ;  Jer.  x.  4),  and  victims  were 
oft(ni  affixed  to  the  cross  by  means  of  a  nail 
driven  through  each  hand  and  the  feet  (John 
XX.  25). 

Na'in. 

A  town  where  our  Lord  raised  to  life  the 
only  son  of  a  widow  woman  (Luke  vii.  11-17). 
It  is  still  called  Nain,  and  is  in  the  northwest 
corner  of  the  I'minence  called  Jebel  Duhy, 
or  I.,ittle  Hermon.  2  miles  west-southwest 
of  En-dor,  and  5  miles  south-southeast  of 
Nazareth.     It  is  a  small  hamlet,  little  more 


Naioth 


503 


Naphtali 


than  a  duster  of  ruins;  with  ancient  sejiul- 
chral  caverns  chiefly  on  the  east  of  the  vil- 
la^e. 

Na'loth  [hal)ilati()ns]. 

The  <|iiartcr  in  Kaniah  where  tlie  i)r()iiliet.s, 
who  ^atliered  aliout  Samuel  to  work  under 
liis  direction,  dwelt  as  a  community  (1  Sam. 
xix.  Irt-xx.  1). 

Name. 

l^iifilish  names,  such  as  James,  Robert, 
Anne,  have  a  meaning,  hut  it  is  known  only 
til  tliosc  Avliii  have  studied  the  etymolofiy. 
Ill  liililical  times  it  was  dilferent.  The  names 
»of  ])ers<)ns  were  not  only  signilieant,  hut  as  a 
rule  everyhody  knew  the  meaninj^  as  soon 
as  the  name  was  lieard.  Sarah,  Jacob,  Miriam, 
Jehdshaphat,  AFartha,  Khoda,  Dorcas  were 
intcUijiihlf  to  all. 

The  name  was  probalily  {ri^'*'"  '^.v'  the 
Helircws  on  the  eij;lith  dav  after  l)irth  (Gen. 
xvii.  I--':  xxi.  :5,  4  ;  I.uke  i.  .")!»;  ii.  21).  The 
child  mitrlit  hv  ^^iven  the  name  of  a  natural 
<tl)ject  ;  as  Terah,  wild  goat,  Leah,  wild  cow, 
Jonah,  dove.  Tamar,  palm  tree,  Tabitba, 
gazelle.  It  might  receive  a  name  exjiressive 
of  its  jihysical  condition;  for  e.\ami)le, 
Shiiihrali,  beauty;  or  of  the  parents'  hoiie 
n-garding  it,  as  Noah,  rest  ((xen.  v.  29). 
Some  names  were  given  jjrophetically,  as 
that  of  Jesus  because  he  should  be  a  saviour 
(Mat.  i.  21).  Many  names  testified  to  the 
]iiety  or  gratitude  of  the  parents,  as  Simeon, 
hi-ariug  ((Jen.  xxix.  '.'>'.{),  or  Nethaniah,  .Teho- 
vah  hath  given,  or  Elizur,  God  isa  rock.  Others 
were  connuemorative  of  national  events,  as 
Ichabod  (1  Sam.  iv.  21);  yet  others  were 
family  names  (Luke  i.  .")!)-()!;  cj).  iii.  23-38). 
When  character  had  developed,  a  new  name 
was  sometimes  given  as  exjjressive  of  it :  as 
Israel  and  Cephas.  In  the  later  i)eriod, 
when  several  languages  were  spoken  in  Pal- 
estine, a  name  was  often  translated  and  the 
licrsim  was  known  by  two  names,  asCejihas 
after  the  Aramaic,  and  I'eter  after  the  Greek, 
Tliiimas  and  Didymus.  both  names  meaning 
twin.  .Messiah  and  Christ,  both  meaning 
anointed.  At  this  time  also  names  were 
transformed,  the  Hebrew  .lehohanan  became 
in  Greek  .Joannes,  and  Joseiih  became  .loses. 

Surnames  were  lacking  among  the  He- 
brews; iiei-sons  were  designated  by  adding 
to  the  personal  name  the  name  of  their  city, 
as  Jesus  of  Nazareth.  Joseph  of  .Vrimatluea, 
Mary  Magdalene.  Nalium  the  Elkoshite  ;  or 
by  a  statement  of  their  descent,  as  Simon 
son  of  .Tonah  ;  by  their  disposition,  trade,  or 
otiier  characteristic,  as  Simon  I'eter,  Nathan 
the  prophet,  Joseph  the  carpenter.  Matthew 
the  pu  111  lean.  .Simon  the  zealot,  and  Dioiiysius 
the  .\reopagite.  Every  Konian  liail  three 
names;  a  pnrnomeii,  wh'n-h  was  liis  jiersonal 
name  and  stood  first,  a  uoiiifii.  whicli  was  that 

of  his  f/cH.v  or  house  and  st 1  second,  anil  a 

ci><l>i.)iiirii  or  surname  which  was  that  of  his 
family  and  came  last.  Thus  M.  .\ntonius 
Felix,    the    iirocurator,   was  .Marcus    of   the 


clan  .Antouia  and  the  family  called  Felix. 
Frequently  only  the  nomen  and  cognomen 
were  given,  the  personal  name  being  omit- 
ted ;  as  Julius  Ciesar,  I'ontius  I'ilate,  Claudius 
Lysias. 

Name  is  often  used  in  Hebrew  in  the  sense 
of  revealed  character  and  cs.sence.  God 
swears  by  his  great  mime  to  carry  out  his 
purjiose  (.Jer.  xliv.  2()),  that  is,  he  swears  by 
liis  attested  jiower  to  accomplish  liis  word. 
The  name  of  God  which  is  excellent  in  all 
the  earth  (Fs.  viii.  1).  is  that  exi)rc.ssion  of 
his  being  which  is  exhibited  in  creation  and 
re<lemj)tion.  The  name  of  the  (iod  of  .Tacob 
which  sets  the  king  on  high  (I's.  xx.  1)  is  the 
manifested  power  of  Israel's  God.  The  name 
of  (Jfid  was  in  the  angel  which  led  Israel 
through  the  wilderness  (Ex.  xxiii.  211.  be- 
cause in  him  the  revealed  might  and  majesty 
of  God  himself  dwelt.  The  name  of  God 
dwelt  in  bis  sanctuary  (2  Sam.  vii.  13),  the 
place  where  he  manifested  himself.  To 
know  the  name  of  God  is  to  witness  the 
manifestation  of  those  attributes  and  appre- 
hend that  character  which  the  name  denotes 
(Ex.  vi.  3,  with  7;  1  Kin.  viii.  43;  Ps.  xci. 
14  ;  Is.  Hi.  (!;  Ixiv.  2;  Jer.  xvi.  21). 

Na-o'mi  [pleasjint]. 

Wifeof  Elimelech,  Elimelech  went  with  her 
and  his  two  sotis  to  sojourn  in  Moab,  because 
famine  prevailed  in  .J  udah.  The  sons  married 
Moabite  women.  Elimelech  and  his  sons 
died,  and  Naomi  accompanied  by  her  daugh- 
ter-in-law Kutli  returned  to  Bethlehem  of 
Judah  ( Ruth  i.-iv.). 

Na'phish,  in  A.  V.  once  Nephish  (1  Chron. 
V.  1!M  [respiration]. 

Son  of  Islimael  (Gen.  xxv.  I.t  ;  1  Chron.  i. 
31).  and  founder  of  a  clan  with  which  the 
Israelite  tribes  east  of  the  Jordan  were  at 
one  time  in  conflict  (1  Chron.  v.  lS-221. 

Naph'ta-li,  in  A.  V.  twice  Nephthalim 
(^lat.  iv.  13,  1.")),  once  Nepthallm  (liev.  vii. 
())  [obtained  by  wri>stliiigj. 

1.  Sixth  son  of  .Jacob,  and  second  by  Bil- 
hah,  Kacliel's  maidservant.  Kachel  gave 
him  this  name  becau.se  she  liad  wrestled  in 
prayer  for  God's  favor  and  blessing  (Gen. 
XXX.  H). 

2.  The  tribe  descended  from  Xaphtali.  It 
was  subdivided  into  four  great  families  which 
sprang  from  the  four  sons  of  Naiditali  ((Jen. 
xlvi.  24  :  Num.  xxvi.  4n.  4!M.  The  ]irince  of 
the  Najihtalite  tribe  early  in  the  wilderness 
wanderings  was  Ahira,  son  of  Euan  (Num.  i. 
15 ;  ii.  29  ;  vii.  78,  83 ;  x.  27) :  at  a  later 
period  it  was  Pedahel,  .son  of  Ammihud 
(xxxiv.  28)  ;  its  reiuesi-iitative  spy  was  Naii- 
bi,  sou  of  Vophsi  (xiii.  14).  At  tlie  first  cen- 
sus in  the  wilderness  its  fighting  men  were 
.">3.4<X»  (ii.  29,  :{());  at  tlie  second  they  were 
4.-).4(»n  (xxvi.  .'lO).  The  trilie  of  Naphtali 
jiitched  oil  till'  north  side  of  the  tabernacle, 
beside  those  of  Dan  and  .\slier(ii.  29).  Ar- 
rived in  Canaan,  they  weri'  one  of  the  six 
tribes  which  stood   upon  mount  Ebal  to  pro- 


Naphtuhim 


504 


Nathanael 


Dounce  curses  on  transgressors  of  the  law 
(Dent,  xxvii.  I'.i ;  t']i.  Josh.  viii.  33).  The 
territory  allotted  to  them  was  in  northern 
Palestine.  It  was  bountleil  on  the  east  by 
the  upper  Jordan  and  the  sea  of  Galilee,  on 
the  south  by  Issachar  and  Zebiilun,  and  on 
the  west  by  Zebnlun  and  Asher  (Josh.  xix. 
34).  It  was  a  long,  narrow  strip  of  land, 
about  50  miles  from  north  to  soutli,  and  vary- 
ing from  about  10  to  15  from  east  to  west.  It 
is  mostly  mountainous  (Josh.  x.x.  7),  and  is 
quite  fertile.  Its  boundary  ran  by  mount 
Tabor  (xix.  31),  and  it  nnni))ered  Eamah, 
Hazor,  Kedesh,  Iron,  and  Ijeth-analh  among 
its  fortified  cities  (3G-38).  The  Gershonite 
Levites  had  three  cities  allotted  them  within 
its  limits ;  they  were  Kedesh,  Hammoth-dor, 
and  Kartan.  The  lirst  of  them  was  a  city 
of  refuge  (Jo.sh.  xx.  7;  xxi.  6,  32;  1  Chron. 
vi.  t)2,  76).  Up  to  the  early  period  of  the 
judges  the  Xaphtalites  had  not  succeeded  in 
expelling  the  Canaanites  fnim  Bcth-shemesh 
and  JJetli-anatli ;  they  had,  however,  made 
them  tributary.  The  Xaphtalites  took  a 
large  share  in  the  lighting  under  Deborah 
and  Barak,  being  mentioned  with  Zebulun 
as  having  jeopardized  their  lives  unto  death 
in  the  high  jilaeesof  the  field  (Judg.  iv.  6, 
10  :  V.  18).  They  also  responded  to  the  sum- 
mons to  arms  issued  by  Gideon  (vi.  35 ;  vii. 
23).  A  thousand  captains,  with  37,000  fight- 
ing men,  came  to  David  at  Hebron,  to  aid 
him  in  the  contest  with  Ish-bosheth  (1  Clirou. 
xii.  34  ;  cp.  40).  Their  ruler  some  time  after- 
wards was  Jerimoth,  son  of  Azriel  (xxvii.  19  ; 
cp.  Ps.  Ixviii.  27).  Ahimaaz  was  Solomon's 
purveyor  in  Xaphtali  (1  Kin.  iv.  15).  Hiram, 
not  the  Tyriau  king,  but  the  skillful  worker 
in  metal,  was  a  widow's  son  of  the  tribe  of 
Kaphtali  (vii.  14).  The  land  of  Naphtali  was 
ravaged  by  Benhadad,  king  of  Syria  (1  Kin. 
XV.  20  ;  2  Chron.  xvi.  4),  and  many  of  its  in- 
habitants were  subsequently  carried  into 
caj'tivity  by  Tiglath-pileser,  king  of  Assyria 
(2  Kin.  XV.  29).  To  these  calamities  Isaiah 
alludes,  and  comforts  the  afflicted  people  by 
intimating  in  the  name  of  the  Lord  that  the 
territory  now  ravaged  should  one  day  receive 
special  privilege,  so  that  they  who  walked  in 
darkness  .should  see  a  great  light  (Is.  ix.  1-7). 
This  prophecy  was  fullillcd  when  our  Lord 
made  the  region  on  which  the  invasion  had 
fallen  the  special  seat  of  his  ministry  (Mat. 
iv.  12-16).  Chorazin,  Capernaum,  and  Ti- 
berias were  within  the  limits  of  what  had  been 
Naphtali. 

Naph'tu-Mm  [iilural  of  nni>}itnhi]. 

A  tribe  of  Kgyi)tian  descent,  mentioned 
V)etween  the  Libyans  of  Lower  and  the  Path- 
rusim  of  Upi)er  Egyi)t  ((Jen.  x.  13;  1  Chron. 
i.  11).  Ebers  derives  the  name  from  iin-ptdh, 
the  [people]  of  Ptah,  or  inhabitants  of  Mid- 
dle Egypt,  in  the  district  about  Memphis,  the 
seat  of  Ptab's  worshij).  Najiata,  an  ancient 
capital  of  Etlii()i)ia,  on  the  Nile  near  the 
fourth  cataract,  has  also  been  suggested. 


Nap'kin.     See  Handkerchief. 

Nar-cis'sus  [the  narcissus  or  daffodil]. 

A  liiiiuan,  wlidse  Imusehold  was  in  the 
Lord  and  was  greeted  by  Paul  in  his  letter  to 
the  church  (Pom.  xvi.  11). 

Na'sor.     See  Hazok. 

Na'than  [he  has  given]. 

1.  Son  of  Attai,  and  father  of  Zabad,  be- 
longing to  the  house  of  Jerahmeel,  family  of 
Hezron,  tribe  of  Judah  (1  Chron.   ii.  36). 

2.  A  distinguished  prophet  in  the  reign  of 
David  and  Solomon.  The  proposal  to  build 
the  teni]>le  was  submitted  to  him  by  David. 
At  first  he  was  favorable  to  the  project,  but , 
afterwards  received  a  message  from  the  Lord 
directing  that  not  David,  but  his  successor 
was  to  have  the  honor  of  building  the  holy 
house  (2  Sam.  vii.  1-17 ;  1  Chron.  xvii.  1-15). 
Nathan  was  afterwards  sent  to  David  to 
bring  him  to  a  .sense  of  his  great  sin  in  the 
matter  of  Uriah  the  Hittite.  This  the 
prophet  did  by  the  parable  of  the  ewe  lamb 
(2  Sam.  xii.  1-15  ;  cp.  Ps.  li.  title).  In  his 
official  capacity  as  prophet  of  the  Lord  he 
named  the  young  Solomon  Jedidiah  (2  Sam. 
xii.  25).  With  his  and  Gad's  concurrence,  or 
possibly  at  their  instigation,  David  arranged 
the  musical  service  for  the  sanctuary  (2 
Chron.  xxix.  25).  When  Adonijah  aspired 
to  the  throne  in  lieu  of  Solomon,  he  sent  no 
intimation  of  his  intention  to  Nathan,  be- 
lieving probably  that  the  prophet  was  too 
loyal  to  David  to  he  seduced  from  his  alle- 
giance (1  Kin.  i.  8-10).  Nathan  advised  Bath- 
sheba  to  go  at  once  and  tell  David  what  had 
occurred,  arranging  that  he  would  come  in 
iind  confirm  her  words.  The  plan  was  car- 
ried out,  and  David  gave  orders  to  Zadok 
the  priest,  Nathan  the  prophet,  and  Benaiah, 
chief  of  the  bodyguard,  to  proclaim  Solomon 
(11-45).  Nathan  wrote  a  history  in  which  he 
described  the  reign  of  David  and  part  at  least 
of  that  of  Solomon  (1  Chron.  xxix.  29;  2 
Chron.  ix.  29). 

3.  The  father  of  one  and  brother  of  an- 
other of  David's  mighty  men  (2  Sam.  xxiii. 
36  ;  1  Chron.  xi.  3;^)  ;  see  Igal. 

4.  The  third  of  those  children  of  David 
who  were  born  in  Jerusalem  (2  Sam.  v.  14). 
He,  or  po.ssibly  the  ])roi)het,  was  father  of 
Solonum's  ofhcials,  Azariah  and  Zalnid  (1 
Kin.  iv.  5).  His  family  is  mentioned  in  Zech. 
xii.  12.  Through  him  David  and  Jesus  Christ 
are  connected  by  natural  lineage  (Luke  iii. 
31) ;  while  it  is  througli  Solomon  that  Joseph, 
the  hu.sband  of  Mary,  is  connected  with 
David  (Mat.  i.  6). 

5.  A  chief  man  with  Ezra  at  the  brook  of 
Ahava  (Ezra  viii.  16). 

fi.  A  son  of  Bani,  induced  by  Ezra  to  put 
away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  39). 

Na-than'a-el  [God  hath  given]. 

A  native  of  Cana  in  Galilee,  whom  Jesus 
declared  to  be  an  Israelite  indecil  in  whom 
was  no  guile.  His  attention  was  directed  by 
Philip  to  Jesus  as  the  Messiah  of  O.  T.  proph- 


Nathan-melech 


505 


Nazareth 


ecy.  But  as  Nazareth  is  not  mentioned  in 
O.  T.  proplu'ty  and  Iwsidos  had  a  (jiiestion- 
al>lt;  rc-i)Utalion.  lie  ttlt  dilliciilty  in  acci'iit- 
inji  thi'  .Messianic  claims  of  unc  who  had 
hcuii  Ijioii^ht  up  in  that  town ;  Imt  lie  at 
once  yielded  to  the  evidence  wliich  tlie  su- 
l>erhunian  know  lcdt;e  of  Jesus  furnislied 
(John  i.  l5-r«l).  ile  was  in  tlie  lioat  wi(h 
Simon  I'eter  wlien  the  miraculous  tli'au{{lit 
of  fishes  was  l)rou}iht  in  (xxi.  2).  The  name 
does  not  occur  in  tlie  lists  of  the  apostles  {jiven 
in  till-  first  three  j^ospels,  but  he  was  proh- 
al)ly  (lie  same  ])erson  as  Hartholomew. 

Other  jjcrsons  of  the  name  are  mentioiU'd 
in  ().  T.,  but  there  the  original  Hebrew  form 
is  used.     See  Nethanei,. 

Na-than-me'lech  [the  king  hath  given]. 

A  chainlu  ilaiii  who  lived  in  Josiah's  time 
within  the  precincts  of  the  temple  (2  Kin. 
xxiii.  11). 

Na'um.     See  N.vhi'.m  2. 

Naz-a-rene'  [belonging  to  Nazareth]. 

1.  One  born  or  resident  in  Nazareth  (Mat. 
ii.  -i.'i :  K.  V.  of  xxvi.  71  ;  Mark  xvi.  6).  In 
Is.  .\i.  1  the  Messiah  is  called  uexer  or  shoot 
out  of  the  roots  of  Jesse  ;  an  ofrsi)ring  of  the 
royal  faitnly  indeed,  but  of  tliat  family  shorn 
of  its  glory  and  reduced  to  its  original  hum- 
ble condition.  He  is  frequently  called  the 
Branch  also  ( Jer.  xxiii.  5  ;  xxxiii.  15  ;  Zech. 
iii.  W  :  vi.  121.  On  the  most  probable  inter- 
liretation  of  Mat.  ii.  'SI.  the  evangelist  sees  a 
fulfillment  of  Isaiah's  prophecy  in  the  provi- 
dence which  led  the  i)arents  of  Jesus  to  take 
up  their  residence  in  Nazareth  again  and  re- 
sulted in  Jesus  being  a  Nazarene.  If  Naz- 
areth meimsiirotectress  or  guardian.  Matthew 
hnils  the  fiiltillment  merely  in  the  similarity 
of  sound  and  in  tin-  low  esteem  in  which  the 
town  and  its  inhalntants  were  held  ;  but  if 
the  name  is  derived  from  the  same  root  as 
vexer  (see  NazauetiiI,  then  Matthew  finds 
the  fulfillment  in  the  meaning  chieMy  (Mat. 
xxvi.  71.  K.  V.  ;  .Mark  xvi.  (i,  K.  V.).  " 

2.  .\n  adherent  of  the  religion  founded  by 
Jesus;  a  Christian.  It  is  used  contemptuous- 
ly (.Vets  xxi  v.  ;")). 

Naz'a-reth  [verdant,  ofTshoot;  or  perhaps 

Jirolectres-^  l^ee  beloW  <]. 

A  town  of  (Jalilee  (Mat.  ii.  23),  where 
Josejih  and  Mary  lived  (Luko  ii.  :?9),  and 
where  Jesus  was  brought  nji  (iv.  l(i)  and 
sjient  the  greater  i>art  ot  thirty  years  (iii.  2'.i 
with  Mark  i.  !t).  lie  was  accorclingly  known 
as  Jesus  of  Nazjireth  (Mat.  xxi.  11:  Mark  i. 
24).  He  was  held  in  favor  there  (Luke  ii. 
52;  iv.  1(1)  ;  but  after  he  entered  on  his  mis- 
sion, he  was  twice  rejected  by  his  fellow 
townsmen  (iv.  2B-:51  ;  cj).  Mat.  iv.  l."{;  and 
xiii.  r)l-r)H:  Mark  vi.  l-(!).  Nazareth  stotid 
u|)f)n  a  hill  (Luke  iv.  2!l).  The  town  was 
either  small  anil  unimiiortant  or  of  recent 
origin  ;  for  it  is  not  mentioned  in  the  ().  T. 
or  in  the  .\pocryplia  or  by  .losephus.  It  is 
still  called  en-Xa^irah.  It  lies  in  a  secluded 
valley  in  Lower  (lalilee,  a  little  north  of  the 


great  plain  of  Esdraelon,  and  is  about  15 
miles  west-southwest  of  Tiberias,  20  south- 
west of  Tell  Hum,  the  reputed  site  of  Caper- 
naum, and  l!l  southeast  of  .\cre.  Tbe  valley  is 
about  a  mile  from  east  to  west  and,  on  an 
average,  a  (piarter  of  a  mile  from  north  to 
south.  The  hill  on  tlur  northwest  rises :ibout 
.")()0  feet  al)ove  tlie  valley,  and  is  cut  into 
ravines  on  its  eastein  slope.  On  that  eastern 
declivity  sUmds  the  village  of  Nazareth. 
The  houses  are  better  than  those  in  many 
other  villages  in  I'alestine,  being  made  of 
the  white  limestone  which  is  cons]>icuously 
dis|)layed  along  all  the  higher  jiarts  of  the 
investing  hills.  They  are  prettily  situated 
among  tig  trees,  olive  trees,  and  some  cy- 
presses, while  down  below  in  the  valley  are 
gardens  surrounded  by  hedges  of  i)rickly 
pear.  In  the  midst  of  the  gardens  is  the 
fountain  of  the  Virgin,  from  which  Nazareth 
derives  its  water,  and  whither  doubtless 
Mary  frequently  went  to  obtain  water  for 
her  household.  Nazareth  now  contains -KlOO 
or  more  inhabitants.  A  considerable  major- 
ity of  them  belong  to  the  (ireek  church  ;  a 
smaller  i>roi>ortion  are  Roman  Catholics ; 
about  one-fifth  of  all  the  inhabitants  are 
Mohamiuedans,  and  there  are  also  a  number 
of  Protestants.  There  is  a  fine  Franciscan 
convent.  The  monks  point  out  many  sacred 
sites  in  Nazareth,  but  only  the  fountain  of 
the  Virgin  rests  on  good  evidence.  The  site 
of  the  attempted  precipitation  was  ])robably 
near  the  Marouite  church,  where  there  are 
two  or  three  bare  scarps,  20,  30,  40,  or  50 
feet  high. 

The  name  Nazareth  is  written  in  several 
forms  in  the  manu.scripts  of  the  N.  T.  Naz- 
areth and  Nazaret  are  the  best  attested,  but 
the  -Vlexandrian  text  has  Nazarafh.  and  in 
Mat.  iv.  13  and  Luke  iv.  IG  the  Siuaitic  and 
Vatican  texts  have  Nazara.  The  diflerent 
forms  jn'obably  represent  popular  variatitms 
of  the  name  in  ralestine  itself:  the  town 
having  been  called  in  .Vramaic  Nas'i-a'.  or 
with  the  feminine  ending  t  (th)  retainetl,  as 
was  frequently  the  case  in  the  names  of 
towns  (Zarephath,  Daherath,  Bozkatli.  Tim- 
nath),  and  pronounced  under  Hebrew  influ- 
ence, Na.sereth  (c]).  .\ramaic  'iiiifni'  and 
'ifigereth,  a  letter).  .\s  thus  explained,  the 
word  is  a  feminine  participle.  It  is  rare  for 
the  Semitic  sound  s  to  be  represented  by  z  in 
Greek,  as  this  explanation  of  Nazareth 
reciuires ;  but  it  is  not  un|)ar.illeled  (cp. 
Zili>ah,  Hebrew  Ij^iljxih,  (ireek  Zclpha). 
The  Syriac  j>re.serves  s,  using  the  fV)rm 
X^s'rath.  The  Arabs  who  con(|Uered  the 
country  heard  tbe  emphatic  sibilant  and  ikt- 
petuated  the  name  in  tbe  form  eii-Nasinih. 
The  .\raliic  name  sigiiilies  heliier  or  victor. 
The  derivation  of  the  original  name  is  fre- 
quently sought  in  the  llelirew  root  iiiisnr. 
watch,  jirotect,  guard,  so  that  Naz;ireth 
means  iirotectress  or  guardian.  Hut  this  root 
in  .Xniniaic,  including  Syriac,  is  ii'lar.  Prob- 
a)>ly,   therefore,   the  name  Nazareth  is  de- 


Fouulaiu  of  tliL'  N'irgiu,  at  Nazurt'th. 


Nazirite 


507 


Nebo 


rived  from  the  root  which  appears  in  Hebrew 
neser  and  Aramaic  itisra',  siinuit  (Tarninii, 
Jol)  xxxi.  8),  Nazareth  acfonliii^lysignil'yinf; 
verdaiil  jilace  or  oll'shoDt. 

Naz'i-rite,  in  A.  V.  Nazarite  Iscparatcd, 
consecrated  (to  (i(»d)]. 

A  person,  male  or  female,  who  was  spe- 
cially consecrated  to  <Tod.  Xazirites probably 
existed  uf  old  amon;(  the  Ileiirews,  but  their 
mode  i)f  life  was  bronjiht  under  the  regula- 
tions of  the  law  at  Sinai.  The  Nazirite  vowed 
to  separate  himself  unto  the  Lord  lor  a  cer- 
tain si)eciticil  period.  He  did  not.  however, 
become  a  hermit  :  he  continued  to  live  in 
Jiuman  society.  Nor  was  he  necessarily  an 
ascetic.  Hy  the  law  he  must  not  drink  wine 
or  strong  drink  m)r  eat  any  i)roduct  of  the 
vine  during  the  days  of  his  separation  ;  for 
from  the  time  of  tiie  nomadic  patriarchs  the 
vine  was  the  syndiol  of  a  settled  life  and 
culture,  which  were  (juite  right  in  themselves, 
but  were  removed  from  the  ancient  simplicity 
of  life  and  mimners.  See  Jon'ADAH.  Nor 
must  the  NaziiiU-  shave  his  iiead.  The  long 
liair  was  the  visil)le  sign  of  his  consecration 
to  (_iod  ;  the  hair  was  the  glory  of  the  head 
and  the  i)roduct  of  the  body  he  had  devoted 
to  (iod  ;  and  the  cutting  of  the  hair,  which 
(iod  made  grow,  was  ]popularly  regarded  as 
rendering  the  hea<l  in  a  measure  conmion 
(cp.  Ex.  XX.  'io ;  Num.  xix.  2  ;  Dent.  xv.  W). 
Finally,  the  Nazirite  must  not  render  him- 
self ceremonially  unclean  Ity  touching  a  dead 
l)ody,  even  if  the  corpse  should  be  that  of  a 
near  relative.  When  the  time  ajjproached 
for  his  Vow  to  expire,  he  apj)eared  before  the 
priest,  made  certain  ])rescribed  oflerings, 
shaved  olf  his  hair  and  l)urned  it.  after 
which  he  might  again  drink  wine  (Num.  vi. 
1-21).  One  might  be  a  Nazirite  for  life  in- 
stead of  for  a  limited  i)eriod,  and  might  be 
dedicated  to  that  mode  of  existence  at  or 
even  before  his  birth.  This  was  the  case 
with  Samson  (.Tudg.  xiii.  -1,  5)  and  with 
SamiH-1  (1  Sam.  i.  11.  2rt).  .Samson,  however, 
])ermitteil  deviations  from  n(»t  only  the  law 
of  the  Nazirite,  but  at  the  .same  time  fnun 
other  laws  and  ancient  customs  and  the  dic- 
tiitos  of  refinement.  In  the  time  of  Amos 
profane  ]>eo]ile  tempte<l  the  Nazirites  to  break 
their  vow  of  total  abstinence  from  wine,  even 
offering  it  to  them  to  drink  (.\mos  ii.  11,  12). 
After  the  exile  Nazirites  became  com))arative- 
ly  numiToMs  (1  Mac.  iii.  lit;  War  ii.  1r>.  1).  .lohn 
the  I?ai>tist  was  cons<'crated  a  Nazirite  from 
Ins  birth  (  Luke  i.  1.")).  The  |)ro|ilietess  .\inia 
was  not  unlikely  a  Nazirite  (ii.  .'{(!,  ;!7).  It 
seems  to  have  been  the  Nazirite  vow  that 
Paul  was  induced  to  take  to  allay  the  storm 
which  his  friends  saw  to  be  gathering  against 
him  on  his  last  visit  to  .lerusjilem  (.\cls  xxi. 
20  2li).  Wealthy  i>ersons  often  bore  the  legal 
exi)enses  of  i)oor  Nazirites  (.\ntii|.  xix.  (!.  1). 

Ne'ah  [enmtion]. 

A  place  on  the  boundary  line  of  Zebulun 
(Josh,  xix.  1.3).     Site  unknown. 


Ne-ap'o-lis  [new  city]. 

The  seaport  of  IMiilippi,  and  the  first  place 
in  ICiirope  at  which  I'aul  touched  (Acts  xvi. 
11  ;  ini])lied  also  in  xx.  (i).  It  was  situated 
on  the  .Stryinonian  (Julf.  1(1  miles  east-south- 
east of  l'hilii)i>i.  It  is  now  called  Kavalla, 
and  is  a  Turkish  city  with  Greek  and  Koman 
ruins  in  its  vicinity. 

Ne-a-ri'ah  [perhaps,  Jehovah  hath  shaken 
out  (cp.  Neb.  V.  V.i:  Ex.  xiv.  27)]. 

1.  A  .Simeonite  cai)tain.  who  took  jiart  in  a 
successful  war  against  the  Amalekites  near 
mount  Seir  during  the  reign  of  Ilezekiah 
(1  Chron.  iv.  42). 

2.  A  descendant  of  Shecaniah  (1  Chron.  iii. 
22,  2:5). 

Ne'bai.     See  Nob.\i. 

Ne-ba'ioth,  in  A.  V.  of  Genesis  Nebajoth 
[to  the  Ibbrew  ear  ])robably  high  jdaces). 

A  tril)e  descended  from  Ishmael  ((Jen.  xxv. 
13.  Ki;  xxviii.  9;  xxxvi.  '.i\  1  Chron.  i.  29) 
and  rich  in  flocks  (Is.  Ix.  7).  They  are  be- 
lieved to  be  identical  with  the  Nabatluean 
Aral)s  who,  as  early  as  the  fourth  century 
before  Christ,  took  possession  of  mount  .Seir. 
and  S])read  thence  nortluastward  into  the 
country  east  of  the  Jordan  (1  Mac.  v.  2'-> ;  ix. 
3.5)  as  far  as  the  Hauran  and  Damascus 
(Antiq.  xiii.  1,5,  2).  The  entire  country  from 
the  Euphrates  to  tlie  .Elanitic  gulf  of  the 
Ked  Sea  became  known  as  Xabatene  iAnti(i. 
i.  12,  -1).  They  were  concjuered  by  I'oiupey 
in  ()2  B.  c,  and  in  a.  I).  10.")  Trajan  converted 
their  kingdom  into  a  Koman  i)rovince.  Their 
capital  was  Petra.  the  ancient  Sela.  One  of 
their  kings,  Aretas,  is  mentioned  in  2  Cor. 
xi.  :'.2. 

Ne-bal'lat. 

A  town  of  Benjamin  inhabited  after  the 
captivity  (Neh.  xi.  34),  now  Beit  Nebala, 
about  4  miles  northeast  of  Lydda  and  H 
north  of  el-lladitheh,  i.  e.  Hadid,  and  west 
by  north  of  Bethel. 

Ne'bat  [look,  aspect]. 

Father  of  Jeroboam  I.  (1  Kin.  xi.  26). 

Ne'bo  [as  name  of  a  deity,  is  Semitic  Biiby- 
lonian  Xnhi'i.  annoum-er;  as  a  geogra]d)ical 
name  it  may  indicate  that  the  i>lace  was  a 
seat  of  Nebo's  woi-sliii<.  or  correspond  to 
Ar.ibic  tiahii'.  nu(\  dem)te  elevation]. 

1.  A  Babylonian  god  (Is.  xlvi.  1),  who 
presided  over  knowledge  and  liteniture.  The 
s])ecial  seat  of  liis  worshij)  was  at  Borsi])pa, 
near  Babylon.  In  Issiiah's  time  images  of 
Nebo  were  used  as  objects  of  worship  (Is. 
xlvi.  1). 

2.  A  jieak  of  the  Abarim  nmnntains  over 
against  Jericho  (Num.  xxxiii.  47;  Dent, 
xxxii.  49),  and  the  summit,  ai)i)arently,  of 
Pisgali  (Dent,  xxxiv.  1 1.  Its  )>robaMe  site  is 
Jebel  Neba.  S  miles  east  of  the  mouth  of  the 
river  .Ionian.  l-'roni  its  summit,  especially 
from  the  elevation  called  lias  .Sjaghah,  there 
are  visible  in  the  clear  atmosi)here  of  spring 
Hernmn,  at  the  foot  of  which  lay  Dan  ;  and 


Nebuchadrezzar 


508 


Nebuzaradan 


the  mountains  of  Naphtali ;  and  the  hill 
country  of  Kphraini  and  Judali,  vvliich  are 
bounded,  an(l  at  Carniel  washed  hy,  the 
hinder  sea ;  and  the  depression  which  marks 
the  south  country  ;  and  the  Dead  Sea  and 
the  Jordan  valley. 

'.i.  A  Moahite  town  near  or  on  mount  Neho 
(Num.  xxxii.  3).  It  was  rebuilt  hy  the  Keu- 
benites  (xxxii.  37,  38;  xxxiii.  47;  cp.  1 
Chron.  V.  8).  but  came  again  into  i\Ioal)ite 
hands  (Moabite  Stone,  14;  Is.  xv.  2;  Jer. 
xlviii.  1,  2-2).  The  site  is  generally  believed 
to  be  marked  by  the  ruins  which  arc  called 
Nebbeh,  and  are  situated  6  miles  southwest 
of  Heshbon. 

4.  A  town  mentioned  just  after  Bethel 
and  Ai  (Ezra  ii.  29;  Neh.  vii.  33).  Not  iden- 
tified. Neither  Beit  Nuba,  13  miles  west- 
southwest  of  I'.etbel,  nor  Nuba,  about  7  miles 
northwest  by  north  of  Hebron,  is  etjTnologi- 
ciilly  identical  with  it. 

Neb-u-chad-rez'zar  and  Nebuchadnezzar 
[jXdhn-kiularri-nsnr,  Nebo,  defend  the  bound- 
ary]. The  two  forms  represent  different 
Hebrew  methods  of  reproducing  the  name. 

Sou  of  Nabopolassar  and  king  of  Babylon. 
His  father  headed  a  successful  revolt  of  the 
Babylonians  auaiust  Assyria  and  founded  the 
Baljylonian  fm]iircin  (^i.")  b.  c.  Pharaoh-necho, 
who  ascended  the  throne  of  Egypt  in  610  n.  c, 
finding  the  power  of  Assyria  weakened, 
marched  into  northern  Syria  about  608  b.  c, 
and  encroached  upon  Assyria  (2  Kin.  xxiii. 
29;  2  Chron.  xxxv.  20).  But  Nineveh,  the 
capital  of  Assyria,  was  taken  by  the  allied 
armies  of  Media  and  Babylon  about  606  B.  c, 
and  the  Egyptians  had  to  reckon  with  the 
new  claimants  of  the  Assyrian  dependencies. 
Nabopolassar  sent  his  son  Nebuchadnezzar  to 
meet  them.  The  ])rince  defeated  them  in 
605  B.  c.  with  great  slaughter  at  the  battle 
of  Carchemiali.  drove  them  back  to  their 
own  land,  and  .subjugated  the  intervening 
regions  (2  Kin.  xxiv.  7;  Jer.  xlvi.  2).  But 
news  arrived  that  his  father  was  dead.  Com- 
mitting affairs  in  the  west  to  his  generals,  he 
hastened  back  to  Babylon  and  ascended  the 
throne  in  60.1  B.  c.  (con.  Apion.  i.  19).  In- 
formation regarding  his  reign  is  derived 
chiefly  from  the  .Jewish  sacred  writers,  in- 
cluding Nebuchadnezzar's  contemporaries 
Jeremiah,  Ezekiel,  and  Daniel,  supplemented 
by  notices  on  inscribed  liricks.  and  the  state- 
ments of  the  Babylonian  historian  Berosus, 
who  lived  about  2.")0  years  after  Nebuchad- 
nezzar. After  its  subjection,  Judah  rendered 
tribute  to  him  for  three  years  and  then  re- 
volted (2  Kin.  xxiv.  1).  Nebuchadnezzar  re- 
turned to  Palestine  after  a  while,  sup])ressed 
the  revolt,  threw  one  king  in  fetters,  i>res- 
ently  ordered  the  new  king  to  be  carried 
captive  to  Babylon,  and  placed  yet  another 
king  on  the  throne  (2  Chron.  xxxvi.  6,  10)  ; 
see  Jehoiakim,  Jehoiachin,  Zedkkiah. 
Zedekiah  remained  professedly  loyal  for 
about  eight  years;    in   the  ninth   year  he 


struck  for  independence,  being  assisted  by 
the  advance  of  an  Egyptian  army  (Jer. 
xxxvii.  .")).  The  ultimate  result  was  that 
Jerusalem  was  besieged  and  taken,  ,'j67  B.  c, 
the  temple  burnt,  and  the  leading  inhabit- 
ants of  the  capital  and  the  country  carried 
into  captivity  (2  Kin.  xxiv. ;  xxv. ;  2  Cliron. 
xxxvi.  5-21 ;  Jer.  xxxix.  ;  Hi.).  About  this 
time,  in-o])al)ly  in  the  seventh  year  of  the 
Tyrian  king  Ithobalos  and  not  of  Nebu- 
chadnezzau,  XebLichadnezzar  began  the  siege 
of  Tyre,  which  lasted  thirteen  years  (Ezek. 
xxix.  18;  con.  Apion.  i.  21;  Antiq.  x.  11,  1). 
In  his  twenty-third  year,  582  B.  c,  he  warred 
against  Ccelesyria,  Moab,  and  Animon,  and 
depoi'ted  several  hundred  Jews  (Jer.  Hi.  30; 
Antiq.  x.  9,  7).  Afterwards  he  chastised 
Egypt  for  the  part  it  had  taken  in  the  Jewish 
war.  About  572  B.  c.  he  invaded  Egypt  (cp. 
Ezek.  xxix.  19),  and  in  his  thirty-seventh 
year,  569  or  568  B.  c,  he  again  led  his  army 
against  the  Egyptians.  It  is  probable  that 
Nebuchadnezzar  carried  on  other  mil i tar j' 
campaigns,  though  the  record  of  them  is 
lost.  He  acted  on  the  policy  of  transporting 
the  inhabitants  of  conquered  countries  to 
other  parts  of  the  empire,  aud  had  thus  at  com- 
mand much  servile  labor,  which  enabled  him 
to  carry  out  important  works.  He  built  the 
great  wall  of  Baliylon,  erected  a  magnificent 
palace  for  himself,  aud  repaired  the  great  tem- 
ple of  Merodach  at  Babylon,  the  temple  of 
Nebo  at  Borsippa,  and  many  other  sanctuaries. 
He  is  said  to  have  built  hanging  gardens  to 
remind  his  wife  Amuhia  of  her  native  Median 
hills  (con.  Apion.  i.  19;  Antiq.  x.  11,  Ij,  and 
to  have  constructed  near  Sippara  a  huge  res- 
ervoir for  irrigation,  reputed  to  have  been 
140  miles  in  circumference  and  ]>0  feet  in 
depth,  besides  canals  across  the  laud,  and 
quays  and  breakwaters  on  the  Persian  Gulf. 
The  form  of  madness  from  which  he  sufiered 
when  pride  overthrew  his  reason  was  that 
called  lycanthropy,  in  which  the  patient 
fancies  himself  one  of  the  inferior  animals, 
and  acts  as  such.  Nebuchadnezzar  imagined 
that  he  had  become  an  ox.  and  went  forth  to 
eat  grass  like  other  cattle  (Dan.  iv.).  He 
reigned  more  than  forty-three  years  aud  died 
after  a  brief  illness  in  the  year  562  B.  c, 
leaving  his  son  Evil-merodach  to  ascend  the 
throne. 

Neb-u-shaz'ban,  in  A.   V.  Nebushashan. 

[N<ibii-shir.ihin>ni,   Xebo,  save  me]. 

A  Babylonian  ]iriuce  who  held  the  office  of 
rab-saris  under  Nebuchadnezzar  (Jer.  xxxix. 
13). 

Neb-u-zar-a'dan  [yiihu-zir-hhlinn,  Nebo 
hath  given  oll'spriiig]. 

The  cajitaiu  of  tlie  guard  in  the  army  of 
Nebuchadnezzar,  which  cajitured  Jerusalem. 
He  was  chief  in  comniand  of  the  troops 
which  comi)leted  the  dist ruction  of  the  city 
and  burnt  the  temple  (2  Kin.  xxv.  8-11,  IH- 
21;  Jer.  xxxix.  9,  10;  Hi.  12-30;  cp.  xli.  10: 
xliii.  6).     To  the  prophet  Jeremiah,  who  had 


Neco 


509 


Nehemiah 


rec'omnieuded  his  countrj-meu  to  submit  to 
tlic  JSaliyloiiiiiiis,  lie,  by  ex])rfss  ordi-rs  from 
thi-  virl(jrioiis  sovcrei^;!!,  sliowed  all  kindness 
(Jer.  xxxix.  11    It:  xl.  1-5). 

Ne'co  and  Necoh,  in  A.  Y.  Necho  and 
Nechoh  [l^nyiUian  AVA-«,  Ncbiu,  NfLhao].  See 
1'h.\i;a<)II. 

Ned-a-bi'ah  [Jehovah  hath  impelled  or  is 
honntit'nlj. 

A  son  of  king  Jeconiah  (1  Chroi\.  iii.  18). 

Neg'i-nah  and  pinral  Neginoth  [playing 
on  a  slrinyed  instrument  ;  a  slrinjfed  instru- 
ment]. 

A  musical  term  occurring  in  the  title  of 
many  ji.salms,  where  it  denotes  a  stringed  in- 
strument, and  is  so  rendered  in  E.  V.  (Ps. 
ixi.).  Klsewhere  the  word  often  means  song, 
music. 

Ne-hel'a-mite. 

The  designation  of  the  false  i)rophet  She- 
maiah  (Jer.  xxix.  24).  It  may  be  derived 
from  his  native  place  or  from  an  ancestor,  it 
is  uncertain  which.  On  the  margin  of  the 
A.  V.  it  is  rendered  dreamer. 

Ne-he-mi'ah  [Jehovah  hath  consoled].  ' 

1.  One  of  the  chief  men  who  returned 
with  Zerubbabel  from  Babylon  (Ezraii.  2; 
Neh.  vii.  7). 

2.  Son  of  Azljuk  and  ruler  of  half  the  dis- 
trict of  Heth-zur.  He  rei)aired  part  of  the 
wall  of  Jerusjilem  (Neh.  iii.  Kii. 

'.i.  A  Jew  of  the  captivity,  son  of  Hacha- 
liah  (Neh.  i.  i).  lie  was  discharging  his 
duty  of  cupbearer  to  Artaxerxes  Longi- 
manus,  king  of  I'ersia,  when  the  king  ob- 
served that  he  looked  sad,  and  questioned 
him  as  to  the  cause  of  his  sorrow.  Nehemiah 
frankly  told  him  it  was  the  state  of  ruin  in 
which  the  v\  y  of  his  fathers'  sejuilchers. 
Jerus;ilem,  was  lying.  He  therefore  begged 
permission  to  go  and  build  again  the  wall  of 
the  city.  The  king  accorded  him  an  es- 
cort of  cavalry  for  the  journey,  gave  him 
letters  commending  him  to  the  ditferent 
Persian  govcrMors  by  the  way,  and  apjiointed 
him  governor  of  .ludah,  as  Zerubbal)cl  had 
been  (Neh.  i.  1-ii.  9;  v.  14).  He  arrived  at 
Jeru.sjilem  in  the  twentieth  year  of  Arta- 
xerxes' reign,  44r>  n.  c.  l'>.ra  the  jiriest  was 
then  at  the  Jewish  cajtital.  having  come 
from  P.abylonia  thirteen  years  previously. 
Nehemiah,  on  reaching  the  cajiital,  made  a 
jonrjiey  by  night  around  the  city  and  viewed 
the  ruiiK'd  walls.  He  now  intimated  to  the 
])eoplr  bis  intentiim  df  rebuildint;  the  walls, 
and  solicited  their  active  aid.  They  gave  it 
with  good  will,  each  notable  man  under- 
taking a  i)art  of  the  wall  (Neh.  iii.).  The 
neighboring  {.'entile  trilirs  did  not  like  to 
bear  that  .b-rnsjilcni  was  being  rebuilt,  and 
lhre<-  of  their  representatives,  .'^anballat.  the 
Horonile,  Tobiah,  an  .Ammonite,  and  (ieshem, 
an  .\rab,  jiut  forth  activ*-  etVorts  to  stop  the 
building.  Hut  they  could  neither  circum- 
vent   nor   intimidate    Nehemiah,    who   reso- 


lutely held  on  his  course.  The  builders  also 
guarded  against  sudden  attack  by  working 
with  one  hand  while  with  the  other  they 
carried  a  weapon  (ii.  10 ;  iv.-vi.  ;  Ecclus. 
xlix.  1:5).  The  wall  was  rebuilt  in  fifty-two 
days  (vi.  1.")),  in  the  year  44."»  r>.  t .,  T.j  years 
after  the  temjjle  had  been  comideted.  Atten- 
tion was  next  turned  to  the  instruction  of 
the  ]Kople  (viii.t,  and  a  religious  revival  fol- 
lowed, which  led  to  all  the  leading  men, 
both  of  ]iriests  and  peoi)le,  .sealing  with  Ne- 
hemiah a  covenant  to  worship  Jehovah  (ix., 
X.).  After  governing  Judah  for  twelve  years, 
Nehemiah,  in  4.'j."}  B.  C,  returned  to  ."-iu^a.  He 
asked  for  further  leave  of  absence  (xiii.  6), 
and,  returning  to  Jerusalem,  seems  to  have 
governed  it  for  the  remainder  of  his  life, 
tiying  to  enforce  the  law  of  Afo-ses  against 
all  who  in  any  way  dei)arted  from  its  pro- 
visions (xiii.  H-ol).  For  his  connection  with 
the  formation  of  the  canon,  see  C.vnon. 
Jose])hus  states  that  be  died  at  a  great  age 
(Antiq.  xi.  5,  b). 

The  Hook  of  Nehemiah  stands  ni  the 
Hagiographa,  or  third  division  of  the  He- 
brew Scriptures,  immediately  after  Ezra  and 
before  Chronicles.  In  counting  the  bor)ks  of 
Scripture,  the  Jews  reckoned  Ezra  and.  Ne- 
hemiah as  one  book  :  .sec  1-ZR.\. 

Nehemiah,  informe<l  of  the  wretched  con- 
dition of  Jerusalem  (i).  obtains  permission 
of  the  Persian  king  Artaxerxes  to  visit  Jeru- 
salem temporarily  as  a  royal  commissioner 
(ii. ;  cp.  G).  He  incites  the  people  to  rebuild 
the  walls  (IT).  The  names  of  the  builders 
(iii.).  He  finds  it  neccs-sary  to  ann  the 
builders  because  of  the  ojiposition  of  the  Sa- 
maritans (iv.).  While  the  wall  is  in  ])r()cess 
of  construction  he  corrects  abuses  among 
the  jieople  (v.).  The  wall  is  finished  not- 
withstanding all  attem])ts  of  Sanballat  and 
I'obiah  to  terrify  Nehemiah,  and  the  secret 
aid  furnished  these  fori'i{;ners  by  nobles  of 
Judah  (vi.).  The  city  being  large,  but  the 
population  scanty,  Nehemiah  desires  to  in- 
crease the  number  of  tlie  inhabitants  (vii.  4). 
To  this  euil  he  gathers  together  the  nobles, 
the  rulei"s.  and  the  jieople  with  the  view  first 
of  reckoning  them  by  genealogy  and  then  of 
drafting  some  to  dwell  in  Jeru.siilem.  The 
register  of  them  that  c'ame  up  at  the  first 
with  Zerubbabel  (vii.  (i-7:{|.  It  is  the  regis- 
ter of  Ezra  ii.  1-70.  ]?efore  the  reuistratiou 
was  accomplished,  the  seventh  month  ar- 
rived, which  brought  the  ]io])nlace  to  .lerusa- 
lem  to  the  feast.  The  peoj^-  ask  that  the 
law  of  Moses  be  read.  The  nadiui:  roults 
in,  first,  their  building  booths  in  which  to 
dwell  during  the  feast  (viii.),  and.  second, 
in  repentance  of  their  sins  and  of  their  guilt 
in  intermarriaire  with  furei^nei-s  (ix.).  They 
subscribe  or  seal  a  covenant  to  obey  (Jod's 
law  and  to  ab.^tain  from  inti'rmarriage  with 
the  heathen.  A  list  of  tho.se  who  seah-d  i  x.). 
These  religious  acts  having  been  jierformed, 
the  original  int4'ntion  of  making  a  registni- 
tion  of   the  peoi>le  ami    securing  additional 


Nehemiah 


510 


Nepheg 


inhabitants  for  the  city  is  can-ied  out.  Lots 
are  cast  to  draft  one  in  ten  from  the  conutry 
people  to  dwell  in  Jerusalem  in  addition  to 
those  already  inhaliitinK  tli(>  city  (xi.  1,  2). 
A  list  of  tlie  families  who  dwelt  at  Jerusalem 
(3-J4).  A  list  of  the  priests  and  Levites  who 
returned  at  the  first  with  Zerubbabel  (xii. 
1-9).  List  of  high  priests  from  Jeshua  to 
Jaddna  (10,  11).  A  list  of  the  heads  of  the 
priestly  houses  in  the  generation  after  the 
return"  (li-Jl).  A  list  of  the  heads  of  the 
Levites  at  the  same  time  and  shortly  after 
(22-26).  The  dedication  of  the  wall  (27  seq.). 
In  the  interval  durinji  which  Nehemiah  was 
absent  at  the  Persian  court  a))Uses  had  grown 
up :  the  Levites  had  l)een  illy  provided  for 
(xiii.  10),  the  law  of  the  Sabbath  was  observed 
with  laxity  (15),  and  intermarriages  with 
foreigners  had  not  entirely  ceased  (23).  These 
abuses  Xehemiah  corrected. 

Not  only  does  the  title  assign  the  author- 
ship of  the  book  to  Nehemiah  (i.  1),  but 
throughout  the  book  Nehemiah  speaks  in  the 
first  person,  except  (1)  when  state  documents 
and  their  dockets  are  inserted  (x.  1 ;  xii.  26) ; 
(2)  incidentally  in  the  midst  of  the  account 
of  Ezra's  religious  work,  where  the  presence 
of  Nehemiah  as  civil  governor  lending  his 
official  sanction,  with  other  persons  of  au- 
thority, is  briefly  recorded  (viii.  9  ;  and  (3) 
after  an  allusion  to  the  days  of  David  and 
Asaph  and  to  the  days  of  Zerubbabel,  the 
days  of  Nehemiah  ai'e  mentioned  (xii.  47). 
In  this  last-mentioned  passage  the  third  per- 
son was  in  better  taste  in  this  connection 
than  the  first  person  would  have  been  ;  and 
besides,  the  i>assage  is  a  retrospect,  taken  after 
Nehemiah's  return  from  the  Persian  court, 
and  refers  to  what  took  place  during  the 
twelve  years  of  his  former  administration. 

It  is  universally  admitted  that  Nehemiah 
wrote  the  main  ])ortion  of  the  book.  And 
the  prayer  of  ix.  6-3,'?,  which  in  the  Septua- 
gint  is  introduced  by  the  words,  "and  Ezra 
said."'  and  which  in  fact  bears  traces  of  be- 
ing an  utterance  of  Ezni  (cp.  10  with  Ezra 
ix.  7,  15  ;  30  with  Ezra  ix.  1,  2,  11  ;  and  8, 
36  with  Ezra  ix.  9,  15),  would  be  pi'operly  in- 
serted without  change  of  phraseology  by  Ne- 
hemiaii  in  his  historical  work.  But  the  nar- 
rative in  viii.  9  and  x.  1  gives  to  Nehemiah 
the  title  of  Tirshatlia.  Tirshatha  is  doubtless 
the  Persian  eciuivalent  of  prliah,  governor 
(Ezra  ii.  ()3  with  Hag.  i.  1).  The  use  of  the 
third  person  in  these  and  other  passages  is 
compatible  with  the  theory  of  Nehemiah's 
authorshij);  but  the  title  of  Tirshatha  given 
him  is  not  so  readily  explained  on  the  sujipo.si- 
tion  that  Nehemiah  wrote  the  passages,  for 
he  elsewhere  styles  himself  and  is  referred 
to  as,  the  peJmli  (v.  14.  IS;  xii.  26).  Mo.st 
modern  critics  believe  that  traces  of  another 
hand  are  discernible.  Still  the  use  of  the  first 
person  plural  in  x.  30,  32,  34,  a  part  of  the 
section  viii.-x.,  suggests  an  eyewitness  of  the 
events.  If  another  than  Nehemiah  had  a  hand 
in  compiling  the  book,  the  (juestion  whether 


this  writer  was  contemporary  with  Nehemiah 
or  later  dejiends  chiefly  upon  whether  the 
genealogies  (xii.  10,  11,  22)  are  l)rought  down 
to  the  reign  of  Darius  Codomannus,  king  of 
Persia  I'roni  .'536  to  .3.30  B.C.,  and  to  the  high- 
priesthood  of  Jaddua,  who  was  officiating 
when  Alexander  the  Great  visited  Jerusalem 
(Antiq.  xi.  8,  4).  If  they  are  brought  down 
to  this  date,  neither  Nehemiah  nor  a  con- 
temporary could  have  penned  the  words;  but 
if  the  references  to  Jaddua  merely  name  him 
as  a  youth,  and  include  him  because  he 
was  the  heir  to  the  office  of  high  priest,  the 
pas.sages  easily  fall  within  the  lifetime  of 
Nehcuiiah  and  llu'  reign  of  Darius  Notbus, 
king  of  I'ersia  from  421  to  405  B.  c.  It  will  be 
observed  that  the  enumeration  of  families 
is  assigned  to  the  time  of  Joiakim,  sou  of 
Jeshua  and  great-great-grandfather  of  Jaddua 
(xii.  12,  26 1,  and  the  latest  recorded  events 
occurred  in  the  generation  before  the  high- 
priesthood  of  Jaddua  (xii.  23;  xiii.  28).  The 
book  was  originally  reckoned  one  with  Ezra ; 
see  Ezra. 

Ne'hi-loth  [wind  instruments]  (Ps.  v. 
title). 

Ne'hum  [consolation]. 

One  of  those  who  returned  from  the  Baby- 
lonian captivity  (Neh.  vii.  7).  Called  in  Ezra 
ii.  2  Eehum  (cp.  3  Esdras  v.  8),  for  which 
Nehum  may  be  a  copyist's  error. 

Ne-hush'ta  [bronze]. 

Daughter  of  Elnathan  of  Jerusalem.  She 
became  the  wife  of  Jehoiakim  and  mother  of 
Jehoiachin  (2  Kin.  xxiv.  8). 

Ne-hush'tan  [piece  of  brass].  See  Br.\zen 
Serpent. 

Ne-i'el. 

A  frontier  village  of  Asher  (Josh.  xix.  27). 
Not  identified. 

Ne'keb  [a  hollow,  perhaps  a  pass  or  a  cav- 
ern] . 

A  frontier  village  of  Naphtali  (Josh.  xix. 
33).  The  R.  V.  joins  the  name  with  the  pre- 
ceding word,  calling  the  ])lace  Adnnii-nekeb. 
The  Jeru.salem  Talmud  calls  Nekeb  Siada- 
tha.  This  name  Conder  finds  lingering,  in  a 
corrupted  form,  in  Seiyadeh.  a  ruin  3"  miles 
west  by  north  of  the  exit  of  the  Jordan  fnmi 
the  sea  of  Galilee. 

Ne-ko'da  [perhaps,  distinguished,  a  herd- 
man]. 

Founder  of  a  family  of  Nethinira  (Ezra  ii. 
48,  60). 

Nem'u-el. 

1.  A  Reubenite,  brother  of  Dathan  and 
Abiram  (Num.  xxvi.  9). 

2.  A  son  of  Simeon  (Num.  xxvi.  12)  ;  see 
Jem  r  EL. 

Ne'pheg  [a  sprout,  an  offshoot]. 

1.  A  Levite,  family  of  Kohath,  house  of 
Izhar  (Ex.  vi.  21). 

2.  One  of  the  sons  born  to  David  in  Jerusa- 
lem (2  Sam.  V.  15 ;  1  Chron.  iii.  7 ;  xiv.  C). 


Nephish 


511 


Nethaniah 


Ne'phish.     See  Naphiph. 

Neph'i-sim,  or  Ne-phu'sim ;  wliile  in 
Nephishesim  m  Nephushesim,  two  sixllings, 
one  witli  sli,  tlie  oiiiiT  with  s,  arc  iiiii>areiitly 
i'uuil)iiu'<l  in  the  siinie  WDril  [cximndt'd  onos]. 

A  laniily  of  Nctliinini  (Ezra  ii.  50;  Is'eli. 
vii.  .")•.'),  pcrhajis  originally  captives  taken 
from  the  tril)o  Xaiihisli  (q.  v.)- 

Neph'tha-lim.    See  Xapiitali. 

Neph'to-ah  [an  opening]. 

A  fountain  on  the  b(jun(lary  line  between 
Jiidah  anil  15enjaniin,  to  the  west  oi'  Jernsa- 
U'ni  i.losli.  XV.  !) ;  xviii.  15).  It  is  generally 
localid  at  'Ain  Lifta,  2  miles  norlliwest  of 
.leriisaleni.  I'orter  jirefers  'Ain  Yalo,  '.i  miles 
southwest  of  Jerusalem,  fonder  i)oints  out 
that  the  JerusaU-m  Talmud  identified  Ne])li- 
toah  with  En  Etani,  which  he  identifies  witli 
'.\in  "Atan,  ;.'!  miles  southwest  ni'  ISethlehem  ; 
hut  his  sujiLCislion  has  not  found  i'avor. 

Ne-phu'she-sim    ami     Ne-phu'sim.      Sec 

NKl'liI>I.M. 

Nep'tha-lim.     See  NAniTALi. 

Ner  [a  l:iini>]. 

1.  A  lU'njamite,  son  of  Ahiel  and  father  of 
Al)ner  (1  Sam.  xiv.  51).  He  or  Al)ner  was 
Saul's  nnele  (.">0).  If  Aliner  was  Saul's  uncle, 
Ner  was  Saul'sgraudfather  and  identical  with 
the  following. 

2.  A  Benjamite,  son  of  Jeiel  and  father  or 
remoter  ancestor  of  Saul's  lather,  Kish  (1 
C'hron.  viii.  '.y.i  ;  ix.  ^5,  'Hi).     See  Kl.'^il  2. 

Ne're-US  [a  sea  god  who,  under  Poseidon 
or  Nejitune,  ruled  the  ^Mediterranean  Sea]. 

.\  IJoniau  Christian  to  whom  Paul  sent  a 
salutation  (Ivom.  xvi.  15). 

Ner'gal. 

A  heathen  deity  worshiind  hy  the  Baby- 
lonians {2  Kin.  xvii.  ISO).  The  cliief  seal  f>f 
his  worship  wasCuthah.  He  was  ruler  of  the 
nether  world,  and  god  of  war  and  pestilence  ; 
and  was  re])resi'nted  under  the  i'orni  of  a 
colossiil  winged  lion  with  a  human  face. 

Ner-gal-sha-re'zer  [Babylonian  Ninial- 
shiiriisiir.  Nergal,  jirotcct  the  king]. 

One  of  Nehuchadne/zar's  ]irinces,  ^vho 
held  the  ollice  of  rab-mag  (.Ter.  xxxix.  .1,  ir?). 
He  is  su))posed  to  be  Xergalsliarusiir,  known 
to  the  (Ireeks  as  Xeriglissar  or  Xerigasolasar, 
who  married  a  daughter  of  Xebuchadne/.zar, 
murdered  his  brother-in-law  I'vil-menidach, 
and  asceudeil  the  throne  as  the  hitter's  suc- 
cessor (c(>n.  .\pion.  i.  rJiii,  reigning  from  55!t 
to  55()  I!,  c. 

Ne'ri. 

An  ancestor  of  (hrist  and  somehow  gene- 
alogically the  fat  her  of  Sliealtiel  (Luke  iii. '27). 

Ne-ri'ah  [l;niii>  of  .Tehovah]. 

."<oM  of  Maasr'iah,  and  father  of  Barneh 
and  Seraiah  (.ler.  xxxii.  I'.'  ;  xxxvi.  I  ;  li.  .59). 

Net. 

The  net  was  used  by  tin-  Hebrews  in  fowl- 
ing (Prov.  i.  17).  Doubtless,  as  in  Egypt, 
the    claj)  net   was   used,  a   familiar  form  of 


which  consisted  of  two  half  hoops  or  frames 
covered  with  netting  and  attached  to  a  com- 
mon axis.  The  traj)  was  spread  open  flat, 
and  the  bait  placed  in  the  center.  The  mo- 
tion of  the  bird  at  the  bait  released  a  spring, 
the  two  sides  closed  .suddenly,  and  the  bird 
was  caught. 

The  net  was  also  used  in  hunting  (Is.  li. 
20).  It  was  cast  about  the  game  (Job  xix.  6) 
or  over  it  (Ezek.  xii.  Hi;  xix.  8),  or  laid  to 
catch  the  feet  (I's.  ix.  15:  xxv.  15:  Ivii.  (i ; 
Lam.  i.  13).  Thrfnigliout  the  ancient  world, 
as  sculpture  and  narrative  reveal,  it  was  usual 
to  extend  nets  on  stakes  so  as  to  inclose  a 
large  sjiace  as  by  a  fence,  a  single  opening 
being  left  as  an  entrance.  Through  this  gate- 
way varions'kinds  of  game  were  driven,  such 
as  hares,  boars,  deer:  and  once  within  the 
inclosure,  they  were  under  control  and  easily 
dispatched.  Small  nets  were  used  to  close 
gaps  between  bushes  or  to  bar  a  i)ath.  Purse 
nets  were  laid,  that  animals  might  run  into 
them  as  into  a  tunnel  and  find  no  exit. 

In  fishing  both  drag  nets  (Hab.  i.  15  ;  Mat. 
xiii.  47,  If:^)  and  casting  nets  (iv.  IS;  John 
xxi.  (j  ;  Herod,  i.  141)  were  used.  The  He- 
brews were  accjuaintcd  with  the  common 
drag  net  of  Egypt  (1:^.  xix.  8).  It  was  (juite 
large,  its  cords  were  made  of  flax,  the  lower 
edge  was  weighted  with  lead  and  sunk  to  the 
bottom  of  the  river  or  sea,  and  the  ujiper 
edge  was  floated  by  pieces  of  wocid  ;  see  illus- 
tration, article  FisHiNti.  This  form  of  net 
was  widely  used  throughout  the  world 
(Homer,  Ody.s.sey  xxii.  yb4-3S7  ;  Pliny,  Hist. 
Nat.  xvi.  8,  i;j). 

Neth'a-nel,  in  A.  V.  Ne-than'e-el  [(iod 
hath  given].     The  tireek  form  is  Xathanael. 

1.  Prince  of  the  tribe  of  Issachar  at  an 
early  jieriod  of  the  wilderness  wanderings 
(Num.  i.  8  ;  ii.  5  ;  vii.  18,  23  ;  x.   15). 

2.  Jesse's  fourth  son,  and  David's  brother 
(1  Chron.  ii.  14). 

;{.  One  of  the  priests  who  blew  trumpets 
when  the  ark  was  brought  uji  to  the  citv  of 
David  (1  Chron.  xv.  24). 

4.  A  Levite,  father  of  Sheniaiah  (1  t'liron. 
xxiv.  C). 

5.  A  son  of  Obe(l-e<lom  in  David's  reign  (1 
Chron.  xxvi.  4). 

().  One  of  the  i)rinccs  whom  Jehoshajihat 
sent  t<i  teach  in  the  cities  of  Judah  (2  Chron. 
xvii.  7). 

7.  A  chii'f  of  the  Levites  in  .losiah's  reign 
(2  Chron.  xxxv.  !)). 

8.  A  son  of  Pashhur.  induced  by  Ezra  to 
put  away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  22). 

!•.  A  ]iriest,  head  of  the  father's  house  of 
Jedaiah  in  thedavsof  the  high  luiest  Joiakim 
(Neh.  xii.  21). 

10.  A  priest's  .son  who  blew  a  truinixt  a  I 
the  dedication  of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  (Xeh. 
xii.  .'ifi). 

Neth-a-ni'ah  [.lehovah  has  given]. 
1.   .\   son  of  A.saph  (1    Chron.  xxv.  2),  the 
hea<l  of  the  liftli  course  of  singers  (12). 


Nethinim 


512 


New  Testament 


2.  A  Levite  sent  with  others  by  Jehosha- 
phat  to  teach  in  the  cities  of  Judah  (2  Chron. 
xvii.  M). 

3.  Father  of  Jehiuli  f.Tcr.  xxxvi.  14). 

4.  Fatlicr  of  tluit  Ishniael  who  assassinated 
Gedaliah  (•.'  Kin.  xxv.  S.i.  2.j). 

Neth'i-nim,  in  .\.  V.  Nethinims  [given]. 

T(iHi)k'  servants  or  slaves  given  by  David 
and  tlie  ])rinces  for  tlie  service  of  the  Levites 
(Ezra  viii.  20).  Prior  to  their  appointment, 
-similar  functions  seem  to  have  been  dis- 
charged by  the  Midianites,  whom  Moses  gave 
over  to  the  Levites  (Num.  xxxi.  47),  and  at 
a  subsequent  period  by  the  Gibeonites,  whom 
Joshua  assigned  as  liewers  of  wood  and 
drawers  of  water  for  tlie  house  of  God  (Josh. 
ix.  23).  Even  after  the  Nethinim  were  as- 
sociatiMl  with  them  or  superseded  them,  the 
nuinl)er  of  the  Netliinim  may  have  been  too 
small  for  the  elaborate  temple  services  insti- 
tuted by  David's  sou  and  successor,  and  been 
increased;  for  we  find  in  the  books  of  Ezra 
(ii.  oo-.^S)  and  Xehemiah  (vii.  .57-60)  the  chil- 
dren of  Solomon's  servants,  /.  e.  slaves,  men- 
tioned after  and  numbered  with  the  Neth- 
inim. Although  they  were  organized  ))y 
David,  it  was  probably  under  a  diflTereut  name ; 
for  the  word  Nethinim  occurs  only  in  the 
books  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah,  with  a  solitary 
passage  in  1  Chronicles  (ix.  2).  They  dis- 
charged the  more  menial  duties  reqnired  by 
the  temple  worship.  Of  the  Nethinim  and 
the  children  of  Solomon's  servants,  392  re- 
turned from  captivity  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra 
ii.  .58  ;  Neh.  vii.  60),  and  220  more  with  Ezra 
(Ezra  viii.  17-20).  The  Nethinim  seem  to 
have  been  naturalized  foreigners  rather  than 
people  of  true  Israelite  descent  (1  Chron.  ix. 
2;  Ezra  ii.  .5fl ;  Neh.  vii.  61),  and  several  of 
the  names  on  the  list  of  their  leading  men 
have  a  foreign  aspect  (Ezra  ii.  43-54;  Neh. 
vii.  46-56).  'They  were  probably  descendants 
of  the  Midianites  and  Gibeonites,  who  have 
been  already  mentioned,  and  of  various 
bands  of  captives  taken  in  war ;  they  con- 
tinued to  be  designated  by  the  name  of  the 
prince  or  tribe  from  whom  they  were  taken, 
as  the  children  of  Sisera,  of  Rezin,  of  Meu- 
nim,  and  of  Nephisim  (Ezra  ii.  48,  50,  53; 
with  1  Chron.  v.  lf)-21  ;  2  Chron.  xxvi.  7). 
The  children  of  Tahbaotli  and  Keros,  and  of 
Solomon's  servants  the  children  of  the  Soph- 
ereth  (Ezra  ii.  43,  44,  .55 ),  which  mean  the  chil- 
dren of  the  rings,  of  the  weaver's  comb,  and 
of  the  .scribal  office.  ap)iarently  denote  the 
official  duties  in  the  temjilc  which  the  men  of 
these  classes  discharged.  Gther  names  are 
those  of  ]irogenitors  ;  and  yet  others  seem  to 
be  the  names  of  the  native  places  of  the  cap- 
tives, as  perhaps  Nekoda,  Harhnr,  ITarsha 
(ver.48,  51,  52).  Some  of  thcni  lived  on  Ophel. 
a  southern  prolongation  of  the  tenqile  hill 
(Neh.  iii.  26,  31  ;  xi.  3,  21),  others  in  the  vil- 
lages round  about  Jerusalem  (Ezra  ii.  70  ; 
Neh.  vii.  73).  They  seem  to  have  adopted 
with  some  cordiality  the  covenant  made  at 


the  instance  of  Nehemiah  to  worship  Jehovah 

(x.  28,  29). 

Ne-to'phah  [dropping,  falling  in  drops]. 

A  town  of  Judah,  evidently  near  Bethle- 
hem (1  Chron.  ii.  54;  Ezra  ii.  21,  22;  Neh. 
vii.  26).  It  was  the  home  of  two  of  David's 
mighty  men  (2  .Sam.  xxiii.  28,  29).  Netopha- 
thites  with  Seraiah  at  their  head  were  among 
the  men  who  assembled  loyally  about  Geda- 
liah, whom  Nelnichadnezzar  had  made  gov- 
ernor of  Judah  on  the  fall  of  Jerusalem 
(2  Kin.  xxv.  23 ;  Jer.  xl.  8  seq.).  Fifty-.six 
of  the  town's  people  returned  after  the  exile 
(Ezra  ii.  22).  It  was  not  originally  as.signed 
to  the  Levites,  but  after  the  return  its  de- 
pendent villages  were  occupied  by  certain  of 
them,  including  singers  (1  Chron.'  ix.  16; 
Neh.  xii.  28).  On  the  survey  map  it  is  located, 
with  a  query,  at  the  ruin  Umm  Toba,  the 
Om  Tijba  of  Tobler,  and  the  Autubeh  of  Van 
de  Velde,  2  miles  northeast  of  Bethlehem. 

Ne-to'pha-thite,  in  A.V.  of  Neh.  xii.  28  Ne- 

tophathi,    the  Hebrew  form  being  preserved. 

An  inhabitant  of  Netophah  (2  Sam.  xxiii. 

28). 

Net'tle. 

1.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Horiif, 
burning  plant,  one  that  inflames.  Men  driven 
by  want  take  refuge  under  it  (Job  xxx.  7). 
Along  with  the  stinging  nettle,  Hebrew  lam- 
m'shon,  it  overspreads  the  sluggard's  nn- 
weeded  garden  (Prov.  xxiv.  31).  In  fact  it 
springs  up  everywhere  when  cultivation  of 
the  land  is  neglected  (Zeph.  ii.  9).  The 
plant  cannot  be  identified  R.  V.  places 
wild  vetches  on  the  margin. 

2.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Kimmosh 
in  Is.  xxxiv.  13  and  Hos.  ix.  6.  The  rab- 
binical idea  that  the  plant  is  a  nettle  has 
been  generally  adoiitcd.  The  Roman  or  pill 
nettle  (Vrticn  pibil'ifcvu)  is  found  everywhere 
in  Palestine.  The  Hebrew  word  itself  is 
probably  more  general  in  signification  and 
comprehends  a  large  class  of  weeds.  A  mod- 
ification of  the  word  is  Mmm'shon  (Prov. 
xxiv.  31),  which  the  English  versions  rendei 
thorns. 

New  Moon.     See  Moon. 

New  Tes'ta-ment. 

The  second  of  the  two  ]iortions  into  which 
the  Bible  is  naturally  divided.  Testament 
represents  the- Latin  word  iesiamenium.  which 
is  used  to  translate  the  Greek  word  diathrhr, 
covenant  (2  Cor.  iii.  14).  The  N.  T.  emliodies 
the  new  covenant  of  which  .Jesus  was  the 
Mediator  (Heb.  ix.  15;  cp.  x.  If!.  17  and  Jer. 
xxxi.  31-.34).  The  fir.st  covenant  was  dedi- 
cated with  blood  (Heb.  ix.  19,  20),  but  was  in 
no  sense  a  testament  :  the  second,  wliile 
]iriniarily  a  covenant  was  also  a  testament; 
that  is,  it  was  not  merely  dedicated  with 
blood,  but  it  required  the  death  of  the  testa- 
tor to  give  it  force.  It  would  not  have  had 
proper  efficacy  had  not  Jesus  its  Mediator 
died  an  atoning  death. 


New  Testament 


513 


New  Testament 


With  the  possible  exception  of  Matthew's 
Gttspol,  tlu'  hooks  of  till-  N.  T.  wen-  written 
in  (Jrofk.  'I'liis  lanjiiiagc  iiad  taken  deep 
I'oot  in  I'ak'slini-  (lurin;;  tlu-  more  tiian  three 
•centuries  which  had  ela]>sed  since  the  con- 
quest of  the  Holy  Land  l>y  Ah-xanck-r  the 
(ireat  ;  and  tlie  merits  of  the  ianf;ua)^e  itself 
and  tliat  of  tiie  literature  which  it  eiislirined, 
had  given  it  the  widest  currency  anionj;  edu- 
cated men  throughout  the  Konian  eniiiire, 
though  tireece  had  now  for  a  considerable 
time  lost  its  jiolitical  indei>endence. 

The  original  manuscripts  of  the  books  of 
the  N.  T.  and  the  copies  made  during  the 
tirst  three  centuries  have  disapi)eared.  I'apy- 
rus,  which  was  commonly  used  for  letters 
{2  John  1"J),  soon  wore  out,  and  in  the  time 
of  Diocletian,  A.  V.  M'-i,  it  was  customary  for 
the  jierseciitors  of  Christians  to  seek  for 
copies  of  tln'  Scriptures  and  destroy  tliem. 
The  art  of  jirinting  was  unknown,  hut  tran- 
scribers laboriously  multiplied  coi)ies.  The 
four  gosjjcls  were  most  frequently  transcribed, 
and  after  them  the  epistles  of  Paul.  The 
Kevelation  was  copied  least  often.  No  fewer 
than  37!ll  ancient  manuscript  copies  of  the 
N.  T.  iu  whole  or  in  part  exist,  their  abun- 
dance markedly  contrasting  with  the  small 
number  of  the  classical  writers  which  have 
come    down   to  (»Mr  own  day. 

C'orrui)tions  of  the  text  soon  crept  in. 
Copyists  were  lallible,  careless,  and  often 
imperfectly  acquainted  witli  Greek.  Men 
of  the  jiatristic  age  and  later  were  not  gov- 
erned by  the  mndern  dcmanil  for  scienlilic 
exactness,  and  they  handled  the  text  with 
considerable  license.  They  attempted  to  im- 
prove the  gramnuir  and  the  style,  to  correct 
supposed  errors  in  history  and  geograjjliy,  to 
adjust  the  (|Uotatioiis  from  the  ().  T.  to  the 
Greek  of  the  Septuagint,  and  to  harmonize 
the  gosi>els.  Tliey  incorporated  marginal 
notes,  and  they  added  to  the  go.s])el  nar- 
ratives incidents  obt;iined  from  authentic 
sources,  as  .John  vii.  ."):}-viii.  1  and  ^lark 
xvi.  9-20.  The  various  readings  which  thus 
originated  are  very  numerous.  They  number 
l.'jO.tHX).  Nineteen-twentictlis  of  these  are, 
however,  of  no  authority,  l)eing  evidently 
not  genuine,  and  only  the  merest  fraction  of 
the  remaiufler  are  of  any  con-seijuence  as 
alfccting  the  .sen.se.  Tlie  very  numlier  of 
these  readings,  and  the  fact  tliat  tliey  were 
made  originally  in  dilferent  i)arts  of  the 
World,  and  fmni  a  variety  of  manuscripts, 
enables  biblical  studiMits  to  detect  and  elimi- 
nate the  errors,  and  aiqiroximate  to  the 
original  text  nmre  closely  than  if  the  various 
readings  were  fewer.  This  tedi<»us  but  nec- 
es-sjirj"  work  has  been  carried  out  with  un- 
tiring energy  by  textual  critics.  It  is  ]><>ssible 
inilireetly  to  gain  access  to  the  readings  in 
manuscripis  which  have  i)erislu'd,  fur  then- 
were  early  versions  of  the  N.  '1'.  in  dilferent 
languages,  such  as  the  Syriac  and  Latin,  and 
quotations  from  the  N.  T.  are  found  in  the 
writings  of  the  early  Christians,  especially 
3a 


in  Clement  of  Alexandria  and  Origen.     In 

most  cases  these  versions  and  citations  were 
made  from  manuscripts  not  now  existing, 
l)Ut  the  translation  sliows  what  the  original 
must  have  lieen. 

The  X.  T.  manuscripts  fall  into  two  di- 
visions: Uncials,  in  (4reek  capitals;  at  first 
without  breatliings  or  accents  and  with  no 
separation  between  tlie  dilferent  w()rds,  ex- 
cept occasionally  to  indicate  the  beginning 
of  a  !iew  iiaragra]>h,  and  very  little  t'ven  be- 
tween the  dillerent  lines;  and  Cursives,  in 
small  running  hand,  and  with  divisions  of 
words  and  lines.  The  change  between  the 
two  kinds  of  (ireek  writing  took  ))lace  about 
the  tenth  century.  Only  five  manuscripts 
of  the  X.  T.  approaching  to  c()mpleteness  are 
more  ancient  than  this  dividing  date.  The 
first,  designated  by  biblical  critics  A,  is  the 
Alexandrian  inanuscri])t.  Though  taken 
to  Lngland  by  Cyril  Lucar,  patriarch  of 
Con.stantino])le,  as  a  present  to  Charles  I.,  it 
is  believed  that  it  was  written,  not  in  that 
capital,  but  in  .Vlexandria,  whence  its  title. 
Its  date  is  l)elieved  to  be  the  middle  of  the 
fifth  century.  In  addition  to  a  large  i>ortion 
of  theO.  T.'and  the  First  Ejiistle  of  Clement 
and  i)art  of  the  Second,  it  contains  the 
whole  of  the  X.  T.  except  Mat.  i.-xxv.  .t  ; 
.lohn  vi.  oO-viii.  o-2 :  2  Cor.  iv.  i:3-xii.  Ij. 
The  page  is  divided  into  two  columns, 
and  the  text  is  marked  off  into  chapters, 
Mark  containing  forty-eight.  The  second, 
known  as  15,  is  the  Vatican  manuscript.  It 
has  been  in  the  \'atican  library  at  Ki)me  from 
1473  or  an  earlier  iieriod,  l)ut  not  till  1>.')7  was 
an  edition  of  it  jjublished,  and  that  one,  by 
Cardinal  Mai,  wlien  issued,  was  uncritical 
and  of  little  value.  But  in  18.^9  00  a  facsimile 
of  it  came  forth,  so  that  now  it  is  fully  ac- 
cessible to  scholars.  The  Vatican  manu.script 
dates  from  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century, 
if  not  even  from  an  earlier  period.  Besides 
mo.st  of  the  ().  T.,  it  contains  all  the  X.  T.  ex- 
cei)t  Ileb.  ix.  II,  xiii.  2~y.  1  and  2  Tim.,  Titus, 
I'liilem.,  and  Kev.  It  has  three  columns  to 
the  jiagc,  and  is  divided  into  short  chapters, 
Matthew  having  170.  The  third.  C.  or  the 
Kphraem  manuscriiit,  is  a  iialimjisest.  In 
the  twelfth  century  the  original  writing  was 
washed  out  to  make  room  for  the  W\l  of  .sev- 
eral a.scetic  treatises  of  Li>liraem  the  .Syrian. 
Traces  of  the  older  writing  were,  however, 
discernible,  and  in  1s:m  the  original  text  was 
revived  by  an  ajiplication  of  i>russiate  of 
])otash.  It  is  believed  that  it  bi'longs  to  the 
iiflh  century,  and  ]ierhaps  a  slightly  earlier 
]>eriod  of  it  than  the  manu.scriiit  A.  It  con- 
tains portions  of  the  ().  T.  and  five-eighths 
of  Xhv  N.  T.  The  lines  r\in  across  the  ])age. 
The  fourth,  D,  is  the  manu.script  of  Beza,  to 
whom  it  belonged  after  it  was  taken  from 
the  abbey  of  .'^t.  Irena-us  in  Lyons  at  tlu'  sack 
of  the  city  in  l.")fi','.  It  is  connnonly  dated 
in  the  sixth  century.  It  contains  the  greater 
part  of  the  tireek  text  of  the  gospels  and  The 
Acts,  together  with  a  Latin  translation.   It  is 


New  Testament 


514 


Nicodemus 


written  stichometrically,  i.  e.,  in  sinjile  lines 
coutaininK  as  many  words  as  could  be  read 
at  a  breath,  fonsislciitiy  witb  the  sense.  Tlie 
fifth,  called  N  (the  llelirew  first  letter,  aleph), 
is  the  Sinaitic  nianiiscriiit,  obtained  in  1844 
and  1859  by  Tischendorf  from  the  monks  be- 
longing to  the  convent  of  St.  Catherine  on 
mount  Sinai.  Besides  the  major  part  of  the 
O.  T.,  it  contains  the  whole  N.  T.  without 
a  break,  together  with  the  epistle  of  Bar- 
nabas and  a  large  part  of  the  Shepherd  of 
Hernias.  The  last  twelve  verses  of  Mark 
are  lacking.  l)ut  it  is  suspicious  that  the  page 
where  they  occur  seems  to  be  a  cancel.  It 
was  made  in  the  fourth  century.  It  has  four 
columns  to  the  page. 

The  cursive  manuscripts,  though  numerous, 
are  of  too  late  date  to  stand  on  the  same  level 
for  critical  ]iurposcsas  the  uncials. 

The  tirst  printed  edition  of  the  Greek  N. 
T.  actually  ]iul)lished  was  that  of  Era.smus, 
who  issued  it  in  l.")l().  It  was  rei)rinted  in 
1518.  a  secrmd  and  more  correct  edition 
followed  in  151!l,  a  third  in  l.")2-J,  a  fourth  in 
1527.  Cardinal  Ximenes,  the  Koman  Catho- 
lic primate  of  Sjmin,  had  been  engaged  for 
some  years  in  preparing  an  edition  of  the 
Greek  N.  T.,  but  various  causes  of  delay 
kept  it  back  from  the  world  till  1521  or  1522. 
From  being  made  at  Alcala,  called  by  the 
Eomans  Comi)lutum,  it  is  known  as  the 
Complutensian  edition.  Among  other  edi- 
tions of  the  (ireek  N.  T.  which  followed, 
none  were  more  celebrated  than  those  of 
Robert  Stephens  of  Paris.  They  appeared 
in  1546.  1549,  15.50,  and  1551.  Then  Beza 
the  reformer  came  upon  the  scene,  and 
issued  several  editions  of  the  Greek  N.  T. 
between  151)5  and  lti()4.  based  on  Stephens' 
third  edition  (15.50),  which  in  turn  had  been 
founded  mainly  on  Erasmus'  fourth  or  fifth 
edition.  .Stephens'  edition  of  15.50  is  the 
tcrtiis  receptiis  in  England,  but  on  the  conti- 
nent of  Europe  this  designation  and  au- 
thority are  generally  given  to  the  flr.st 
Elzevir  edition,  printed  at  Leyden  in  1624. 
This  Elzevir  text  is  mainly  that  of  Stephens' 
edition  of  1550,  from  which  it  differs  in  278 
places,  including  merely  orthographic  varia- 
tions. It  was  mainly  from  Beza's  edition  of 
1.598  that  the  A.  V.  of  the  English  Bible  was 
made. 

The  division  of  the  O.  and  X.  T.  into  our 
present  chajiters  has  been  generally  ascribed 
to  Cardinal  Hugo,  who  died  in  1263,  a 
Dominican  monk,  who  used  it  for  his  con- 
cordance to  the  Vulgate.  Its  aiiplication  in 
this  concordance  certainly  brought  this  di- 
vision into  repute,  and  established  the  prac- 
tice; of  citing  by  chapt(n-s  instead  of  referring 
to  th(;  book  merely  or  to  some  prominent 
narrative  in  the  book  (cp.  Mark  ii.  26;  xii. 
26 ;  Rom.  xi.  2)  ;  but  there  is  reason  to  believe 
that  the  jiresent  division  antedates  Hugo, 
and  was  due  to  Stei)hen  Langton.  .archbishop 
of  Canterbury,  who  died  in  1228.  The  di- 
vision of  the  N.  T.  into  our  present  ver.ses 


was  made  by  Robert  Stephens  in  the  Greek 
N.  T.  which  he  published  in  1.551.  The  first 
English  N.  T.  to  be  so  divided  w:xs  Whitting- 
liani"s  tran.slation,  Geneva.  1557.  and  the  first 
English  Bible  so  divided  was  the  Geneva 
version  of  1560. 

Ne-zi'ah  [l)right.  ])ure,  illustrious]. 

Founder  of  a  family  of  Xethinim,  mem- 
bers of  which  returned  with  Zerubbabel  from, 
the  Babylonian  captivitv  (Ezra  ii.  .54  ;  Xeh. 
vii.  56). ' 

Ne'zib  [statue,  idol,  military  station]. 

A  town  in  the  lowland  of  .Judah  (.losh.  xv. 
43).  Beit  Xusib,  about  9  miles  west-north- 
west of  Hebron,  is  scarcely  the  site ;  for  it 
is  in  the  hill  country. 

Nib'haz. 

An  idol,  one  of  two  worshiped  by  the 
Avvites,  a  tribe  brought  with  others  from  the 
Assyrian  empire  to  colonize  Samaria  after 
the  captivity  of  the  ten  tribes  (2  Kin.  xvii. 
31).  The  .lewish  rabbins  derived  the  name 
from  the  Semitic  root  nabnh,  to  bark,  and 
considered  that  Xibhaz  had  the  figure  of  a 
dog;  but  there  is  no  reason  to  think  that 
they  were  correct. 

Nib'shan  [soft,  level  soil]. 

A  town  in  the  wilderness  of  Judah  (Josh. 
XV.  62).     Site  unknown. 

Ni-ca'nor  [victorious]. 

1.  Son  of  Patroclus  and  one  of  the  king's 
friends  whom  Lysias,  regent  in  western 
Syria  during  the  absence  of  Antiochus  Epiph- 
anes,  in  1()6  n.  c.  selected  to  lead  the  army 
tosujipress  the  Judjean  revolt  (1  Mac.  iii.  38  ; 
2  Mac.  viii.  9).  The  Syrians  were  defeated. 
Nicanor  stood  high  in  the  favor  of  Demetrius 
I.  also,  and  was  ai)itointed  governor  of  .ludsea 
by  him  (1  Mac.  vii.  26  ;  2  Mac.  xiv.  12).  He 
professed  friendship  for  Judas  Maccabseus, 
but  the  Jew  was  not  deceived.  Xicanor  en- 
gaged in  battle  with  Judas  at  Caphar.salama, 
and  was  slain  in  battle  with  him  near  Beth- 
horon,  160  B.  c.  (1  Mac.  vii.  27-49  ;  2  Mac.  xv. 
1-36). 

2.  One  of  the  seven  men  who  were  chosen 
in  the  church  at  Jerusalem  to  look  after  the 
Greek-speaking  widows,  and  apparently  the 
poor  in  general  (Acts  vi.  5). 

Nic-o-de'mus  [victor  over  the  peoi)le]. 

A  riiarisee  and  a  member  of  the  .sanhe- 
drin.  Being  convinced  by  the  miracles  which 
.Tesus  wrought  that  the  Sfazarene  teacher  had 
come  from  (4od.  he  sought  an  interview  with 
him  ;  but  by  night,  that  he  might  not  attract 
observation.  .Tesus  then  cxjilained  to  him 
the  nature  of  the  new  birth,  and  the  love  of 
God  for  the  world  which  prompted  him  to 
send  his  only  begotten  Son  to  give  eternal  life 
to  all  who  should  accept  him  in  faith  ( Jolin 
iii.  1-21).  When  afterwards  the  sanhedrin 
wished  to  arrest  Jesus,  Xicodemus  defended 
him  and  was  met  with  the  rejily,  "  Art  thou 
also  of  Galilee  ?  Search,  and  see  that  out  of 
Galilee    ariseth    no    prophet"    (vii.    50-52). 


Nicolaitans 


515 


Nile 


After  the   death  of  Christ  Nieodemiis  took 

about  a  iHindrcd  pounds  \vei);ht  of  inyrrh 
an<l  :tl>>i's,  and  aided  in  cnilialiMiii^  the  prc- 
cioiis  remains  ixix.  :!!»).  Tlie  time  and  man- 
ner of  his  own  deatli  are  unknown. 

Nlc-0-la'i-tans. 

A  iiarty  or  seet  in  tlie  cluirclies  of  ICidiesus 
and  I'erfiamos  wliose  praetice  and  doetrine 
are  severely  eensureil.  'I'liey  lield  the  doe- 
trine  of  IJahiam,  and  tau>;ht  that  Cliristians 
were  free  to  eat  tliinjis  oll'ered  to  idols  an<l 
eomniit  the  i-xcesses  of  lieathenisni  (Rev.  ii. 
(i,  M,  15).  Fresnniably  the  Nieohiitans  were 
the  followers  of  some  heresiareh  railed 
Nicolas.  There  is  no  jiroof  that  he  was  the 
man  of  that  name  elected  as  one  of  the  first 
seven  deacons:  althoufih  one  tradition  makes 
the  deacon  la])se  into  im])nrity  and  then  be- 
come the  hi'ad  of  an  immoral  sect  ;  and  an- 
other describes  him  as  nsinj;  nnj^uarded  lan- 
jrnaye,  which,  thonj;h  in  itself  inn(icent,  was 
cajialde  of  beiiiK  jierverted  to  evil  ends,  and 
thus  nnwittinjily  orijiinating  an  immoral 
]iarty  with  which  he  had  no  sympathy.  A  sect 
of  Nicolaitans  existed  anuinj;  the  Gnostics, 
which  may  have  yrown  out  of  these  corrupt 
t'bristians  of  the  apostolic  age. 

Nic'o-las  [victor  over  tlie  people]. 

A  i>roselyte  of  Antioch,  who  was  one  of 
the  seven  elected  at  the  instance  of  the  ajjos- 
tles  to  look  after  the  interests  of  the  Greek- 
s]ieaking  widows  and  apparently  the  Chris- 
tian  poor  in    general   (Acts  vi.  o). 

Ni-cop'o-lis  [city  of  victory]. 

A  idiice  at  which  Paul,  when  he  wrote  the 
Ejiistle  to  Titus,  lioi>ed  to  winter  (Titus  iii. 
12).  The  note  ;ii)pended  to  the  ei)istle  makes 
it  sent  from  Nieopolis  of  Mai'edonia,  but  it  is 
of  no  authority.  The  ])lace  referred  to  in 
this  postscri|)t  was  situated  on  botli  sides  of 
the  river  Xestus.  whicdi  was  the  boundary 
line  between  Thrace  and  ^Macedonia.  It  is 
tiow  called  Nikoi)i.  I'ut  tin-  ]irobability  is 
that  the  Nico|iolis  at  which  Paul  meant  to 
winter  was  the  town  in  Ejiirus.  1  miles  from 
Actitim,  wliicli  Augustus  founded  in  30  li.  v.  to 
commemorat<'  bis  victory.  Herod  the  (ircat 
l)uilt  a  nund)er  td"  its  ])nblic  edifices  (Antiij. 
xvi.  ."),  '.i\.     Its  ruins  remain  at  Prt've.sa. 

Ni'ger  [blackl. 

\  Latin  surname  of  Simeon,  a  jirophet 
and  teacher  in  the  cliurcli  of  Antioch  (Acts 
xiii.  n. 

Night. 

The  period  of  darkness  (Gen.  i.  .^).  It  was 
divided  into  three  watches:  sunset  to  niid- 
nigbt,  midnight  to  cock-crow,  cock-crow  to 
sunrise  (Lain.  ii.  lit;  .Fndg.  vii.  1!>:  Ex.  xiv. 
2(1.  The  (ireek  and  Koman  division  into 
four  watches  was  in  use  in  N.  T.  times  iLuke 
xii.  ."is  ;  .Mark  vi.  -18).  At  this  period  th<' 
night,  Iriim  sunset  to  sunrise,  was  divided 
into  t\\il\e   hours  (cj).   Acts  xxiii.  2;{i. 

Night  Hawk. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Tnhmns.  \\o- 


lent  one ;  an  unclean  bird  mentioned  in  Lev. 
xi.  l(i  ;  Deut.  xiv.  I,').  It  is  doubtful  what 
bird  is  meant.  The  English  versions  make 
it  the  night  hawk,  wliich  is  anothername  for 
the  night  jar,  better  known  as  the  goat- 
sucker {Ciiprimulgnii  europicus),  or  some  spe- 
cies akin  to  it.  The  Se])tuagint  and  Vulgate 
identify  it  with  the  owl. 

Night  Mon'ster. 

Tl'e  r(  iid(  ring  of  the  nel)rew  IJlith  (I.s. 
xxxiv.  IJ.  li.  \.  Margin  ;  in  A.  V.  screech 
owl).  The  word  in  Hebrew  means sim]dj- noc- 
turnal, and  may  denote  any  female  nocturnal 
liird  or  beast.  In  Assyrian,  it  was  applied  to 
a  nocturnal  demon.     See  under  Satyk. 

NUe. 

The  great  river  of  Egypt  (Is.  xxiii.  3,  in 
A.  V.  Sihor:  Jer.  ii.  1«,  margin  of  R.  V.); 
in  Hebrew  Shihor.  dark,  turbid,  and  Y'or, 
stream.  Its  waters  covered  so  vast  an  ex- 
panse, esjiecially  during  the  inundation,  that 
it  is  sometimes  called  a  sea  (Nab.  iii.  hi.  The 
ultimate  sources  of  the  river  are  the  streams 
which  feed  the  Victoria  Nyanza  in  equa- 
torial Africa.  Rut  the  Nile  in  a  narrower 
sense,  as  it  i>resents  those  peculiarities  which 
have  made  it  famous,  is  formed  by  the  con- 
fluence of  the  White  and  the  Plue  Nile  at 
the  town  of  Khartum  ;  from  whicli  i>oint  to 
its  principal  mouths  at  Damiettaand  Hosetta, 
a  distance  of  upwards  of  l^()(l  miles,  it  trav- 
erses an  absolutely  l)arreii  country  and  re- 
ceives one  tributary  only,  the  .Vtbara,  on  the 
east  side,  about  Iso  miles  below  Khartum. 
The  banks  rise  .several  hundred  feet  and  at 
])laces  to  upwards  of  100(1  feet,  resembling 
two  large  canal  embankments,  and  wall  the 
valley  all  the  way  to  Cairo,  where  they  di- 
verge abrui)tly  toward  the  <'ast  and  north- 
west and  face  the  jirotruded  delta.  A  short 
distance  above  Assuan.  the  ancient  Syene,  a 
ridge  of  granite,  extending  fori  HO  mill's  from 
east  to  west,  lies  athwart  the  river's  course. 
The  stream  breaks  tlirougb  this  barrier, 
l)lunges  down  thi'  rocks  of  the  last  or,  on  as- 
cending the  river,  first  cataract,  and  enters 
the  bounds  of  ancient  Egyjit.  All  above  that 
cataract  was  I'^thiojiia  :  all  below  was  Egyjtt. 
The  granite  of  this  transverse  ridge  is  col- 
ored :  it  is  the  wi'll-known  light-l)rown  stone 
of  wliich  so  many  of  the  jiolished  statues  of 
the  Pliaraobs  are  made.  Below  Cairo  the 
riviT  divides  and  seeks  the  si'a  by  several 
great  channels.  These  months  are  now  two, 
tlie  Damietta  and  the  Kosi'tta  :  l)Ut  formerly 
they  numliered  seven,  of  wliich  the  most 
imjiortant  were  the  eastern  or  Pelusiac,  the 
western  or  Caiio])ic,  and  the  middle  or  Seben- 
nytic  I  Herod,  ii.  IT). 

.\s  the  river  pursues  its  tortuous  course 
through  tbii-sty  lainl.  niucli  of  its  water  is 
consumeil  by  evaiionitioii  and  infiltration, 
and  still  more  by  the  extensive  system  of  ir- 
rigating canals.  The  loss  at  the  time  of  the 
inunilatioii  within  Egypt  jiroper  is  about  one- 
thir<l  of  the  total  volume. 


Nimrah 


jl6 


Nineveh 


This  annual  overflow  is  the  famous  feature 
of  the  Nile.  Its  occurrence  in  a  rainless  re- 
gion was  mysterious  to  the  ancients  (llerod. 
ii.  19-25).  It  is  explained  l)y  the  fact  tliat 
all  the  sources  of  the  Nile  lie  witliin  tlie  region 
of  abundaut  periodical  rains.  These  fall  co- 
piously on  the  sources  of  the  White  Nile 
about  the  time  of  the  equinoxes,  and  in 
Abyssinia  a  little  later.  The  Abyssinian 
rains,  being  nearer  the  mouth,  cause  a  first 
rise,  which  reaches  Egypt  a))()ut  the  middle 
of  June.  This  is  followed  in  the  course  of  a 
month  by  a  sudden  increase,  due  to  the  in- 
flux of  the  rising  waters  of  the  White  Nile, 
when  the  river  begins  to  swell  steadily  in 
volume  with  a  resulting  inundation  which 
commences  in  the  latter  i>art  of  August. 
Toward  the  end  of  September  the  water 
ceases  to  rise,  remaining  at  about  the  same 
height  for  a  fortiiiglit  or  more  ;  but  during 
the  first  half  of  October  it  rises  again  and 
attains  its  highest  levi^l.  During  a  good  in- 
undation it  reaches  a  height  of  40  feet  at  As- 
suau  and  of  23  to  27  at  Cairo.  About  the  end 
of  November  most  of  the  fields  are  left  dry 
and  covered  with  a  fresh  layer  of  rich  browu 
slime  ;  this  is  the  time  when  the  lands  are 
put  under  culture.  Occasionally  inundation 
does  nt)t  take  jdace.  Tradition  was  current 
and  found  record  in  an  inscri])tion  on  the 
rocks  at  Sahel,  an  island  of  the  first  cataract, 
that  in  the  reign  of  Toser  or  Toser-Sa,  a 
Pharaoh  of  the  third  dynasty,  the  inunda- 
tion failed  for  seven  years  and  a  sore  famine 
resulted.  It  failed  for  .seven  years  in  the 
time  of  Joseph  (Cieu.  xli.  54) ;  and  it  failed 
likewise  for  seven  years  in  the  reign  of  the 
caliph  el-Mustansir,  the  resulting  famine 
reaching  its  height  A.  D.  1070. 

In  the  time  of  the  Pharaohs  the  Egyptian 
agricultural  year  was  divided  into  three 
equal  parts  ;  the  period  of  the  inundation 
(from  the  end  of  June  to  the  end  of  October), 
that  of  the  growing  of  the  crops  (from  the  end 
of  October  to  the  end  of  February),  and  that 
♦»f  the  harvest  (from  the  end  of  February  to 
the  end  of  June). 

Niin'rah  [limpid  and  wholesome  water]. 

An  abbreviation  of  Beth-nimrah  (cp.  Num. 
xxxii.  :i  with  36)  ;  see  P>etii-niivirah. 

Nim'rim  [perhaps,  a  jilural  of  Nimrah, 
limpid  waters,  or  an  abnormal  plural  for 
leopards]. 

A  locality  in  Moab,  noted  for  its  waters 
(Is.  XV.  6  ;  Jer.  xlviii.  34).  Opinion  as  to  its 
identification  is  divided  between  Beth-nim- 
rah in  the  Jordan  valley  and  the  wady 
Nemeirah,  near  the  southern  end  of  the 
Dead  Sea,  whore  the  ruins  of  a  town  Nemei- 
rah, the  leo()ard,  exist.  Tristram  locates 
the  site  higher  ui)  the  valley,  where  it  is  said 
there  is  an  old  Moabite  city  with  the  name 
Si)rings  of  Nemeirah.  It  has  many  well- 
watered  gardens  still  in  cultivation. 

Nim'rod. 

A  Cushite,  a  mighty  hunter  and  a  potent 


monarch,  the  beginning  of  whose  original 
kingdom  embraced  Babel,  Erecb,  Accad,  and 
Calneli,  cities  in  the  land  of  .'^liinar  (Gen.  x. 
IS  10;  Mic.  v.  Oj.  The  only  ancient  king  of 
Babylonia  known,  wlio  fits  this  description, 
and  was  at  the  same  time  celebrated  in  tradi- 
tion and  song,  waslzduljaror.  as  there  is  reason 
to  pronounce  bis  naiiu,  (iilganu'sh.  He  freed 
Babylonia  from  the  opjtressive  rule  of  the 
Elamites  and  became  king  of  Erech.  He 
was  a  slayer  of  wild  beasts,  and  his  encoun- 
ters with  animals,  not  less  than  his  ex])loits 
in  war,  were  emlxidied  in  a  ])oeni,  and  foiMued 
a  favorite  subject  for  engraver  and  sculptor. 
His  life  became  embellished  with  legend,  and 
he  was  occasionally  addiessed  in  prayer  by 
men  of  after  ages;  but  through  all  the  attri- 
butes which  accumulated  about  him  the  fact 
remained  clearly  discerned  that  he  was  a 
mortal  man.  There  is,  however,  no  i)roof 
that  Nimrod  and  Gilgame.sh  are  identical, 
and  the  attempt  to  establish  a  relationship 
between  their  names  has  thus  far  proved 
fruitless. 

Nim'sM  [perhaps,  drawn  out.  or  active, 
lively]. 

An  ancestor  of  Jehu  (1  Kin.  xix.  Ifi;  2 
Kin.  ix.  2),  who  was  generally  designated 
the  son  of  Nimshi. 

Nin'e-veh. 

The  capital  of  the  Assyrian  empire.  The 
Hebrews  embraced  the  entire  ])opulation 
which  was  collected  al)out  the  cajutal,  and 
occupied  the  district  at  the  confluence  of  the 
Tigris  and  the  Upjier  Zab  under  the  designa- 
tion of  Nineveh  the  great  city  (Gen.  x.  11. 
12 ;  Jon.  i.  2 ;  iii.  3  ;  Judith  1.  1).  Nineveh 
in  the  narrower  sen.se  stood  on  the  eastern 
bank  of  tlu'  Tigris,  at  the  mouth  of  a  small 
tributary  which  is  now  known  as  the  Khosr, 
about  27  miles  above  the  confluence  of 
the  Zab  with  the  main  stream.  It  was 
built  by  a  people  of  Babylonian  origin 
(Gen.  X.  11).  Its  tutelary  deity  was  the  god- 
dess Lshtar,  to  whom  from  a  very  early 
period  a  temi)le  had  existed  in  the  place. 
This  sanctuary  engaged  the  attention  of 
Shamshiramman  al)out  l.'^OO  B.  v..  and  after 
falling  into  decay,  was  rebuilt  with  si)lcn(lor 
by  Ashuruballit  about  1400  n.  c.  Asshur,  (iO 
miles  south  of  Nineveh  and  on  the  opjiosite 
bank  of  the  river,  was  the  ancient  .seat  of 
government;  but  Sbalmaneser  erected  a  pal- 
ace at  Nineveh  about  1300  n.  c,  and  made  it 
liis  capital,  and  from  that  ])eriod  it  was 
looked  njion  as  the  chief  city  of  Assyria. 
Ashurnasirjial  and  his  successor  Sbalmaneser. 
who.se  united  reigns  extended  from  abouf 
885  to  825,  bad  i)alaces  in  both  Nineveh  and 
Calah,  and  resided  sometimes  in  one  i)lace, 
sonu'tinu'S  in  the  other.  Their  siu-cessors 
dwelt  in  Nineveh  in  the  broad  sense  ;  but 
the  j)alace  was  not  always  in  Nineveh  ])ro)ier, 
but  was  often  erected  in  one  of  the  suburbs, 
as  Calah  or  Dur-sharrukiu  or  Tarbisu.  The 
Assyrians  were  great  warriors,  and  the  si)oils 


Nineveh 


517 


Nlsan 


of  the  conciiUTed  i-itifs  ami  nations  were 
l>ioii;;lit  to  tlif  r:ii>ital  and  used  to  enilu-llish 
it.  It  was  also  the  i-entor  of  some  literary 
activity.  Alxnit  lir)0  u.  c.  Asliiirtianiiial  j.'atli- 
crcd  a  fiiH'at  lilirary,  roiisislin^i  of  (lociiinciits 
iiiscrilx'd  on  rlay  tal)lots,  wliii-li  rclalod  to 
history,  ritual,  incantation,  astronomy,  niath- 
ematics.  It  was  conijioscd  for  the  most  i)art 
of  copies  of  oldi'r  works,  wliicli  had  been 
liroiij;iit  from  Hahyhmia.  The  ]iroiilict  Na- 
hiim  calls  Nineveh  the  hloody  cit>'  I  iii.  1 ), 
both  hecaii.se  of  tlie  wars  whicli  it  had  \va};ed 
for  ci'ntiiries  with  the  siirroinidinj;  nations, 
and  because  of  the  cruelty  which  was  j)rac- 
tice<l  l;y  the  victors.  Ashurnasiriial.  for  ex- 
ani]>le.  was  accustomed  after  his  victories  to 
cut  oil'  the  hands  and  feet,  and  the  noses 
anil  ears,  ami  ])ut  out  the  eyes  of  his  cap- 
tives, and  to  raise  mounds  of  human  hi'ads. 
In  (i'i")  B.  c,  when  the  Assyrian  emjjire  heyan 
to  decline  in  vij^or,  Xabojiolassar,  u'overnor 
of  Uabyloii,  declared  himself  indcipeudeut, 
and  about  (i(l()  l!.  r.  the  Babylonians,  .Medes, 
Persians,  and  Armenians,  acting  in  confeder- 
ation, captured  and  destroyed  Nineveh.  They 
were  finally  aided  by  a  siulden  rise  of  tlie 
Ti^'ris,  whicli  carried  away  a  ijreat  ]Kirt  of 
the  city  wall  and   rendered   the  i)Iace  inde- 


fensilile.  So  complete  wa.s  the  desolation 
that  in  classic  times  the  departed  Nineveh 
becanu-  like  a  myth.  Yet  all  the  while  jiart 
of  the  city  lay  buried  iimhr  mounds  of  aj)- 
parenf  rubliish.  Uich.  Knudish  n-ident  at 
Ha^<lad,  ins|)ecte(l  the  mound  called  Kou- 
ynnjik,  on  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Ti^ri.s,  in 
IKJU,  and  became  convinceil  that  it  concealed 


the  ruins  of  Nineveh.  In  184:5  Bott;i,  French 
consul  at  Mosul,  on  the  western  bank  of  the 
Tif^ris,  be;;an  to  make  excavations.  He  was 
soon  diverti'd  Ut  Khorsabad.  10  miles  otf,  the 
siti-  of  Dur-sharrukin.  15et\\een  1H45  and 
1>.")0  Layard  comiuenced  ojierations  at  Nim- 
roud,  IS  miles  south  of  Kouyun.jik  ;  then 
he  made  excavations  at  the  latter  place  itself, 
which  proved  to  be  tlie  site  of  Nineveh. 
(ieor^e  .Siuith  conducted  further  excavations 
at  the  iilace  from  IsT:!  to  IsTiJ,  and  after  his 
death  the  work  was  taken  up  and  extended 
to  other  mounds  by  Ka.s.sani.  The  walls  of 
Nineveh  have  been  traced,  and  indicate  a 
city  3  miles  in  length  by  le.ss  than  a  mile 
.  anil  a  half  in  breadth,  coiitainiiif:  an  area  of 
about  1HH»  Kii;ilish  acres.  I'.iit.  as  already 
said,  the  Hebrews  and  ixrhajps  other  foreign- 
ers were  accustomed  to  include  under  the 
name  of  Nineveh  the  conijilex  of  cities 
which  included  besides  Nineveli  f'alah,  18 
miles  sonih.  Kcsen  between  Calahand  Nine- 
veh,and  llehobolh-lr,  broad  places  or  suburb 
of  the  city,  which  is  jierhaps  identical  with 
Rebit  Niiui,  suburb  of  Nineveh,  whicli  lay 
to  the  northeast  of  the  city.  These  are  the 
four  jilaces  w  hich  are  enumerated  in  (ien.  x. 
11,  12  as  composiiif,'  the  great  city.  But  they 
were  not  the  only  towns  which  sprang  up  in 
tlie  environs  of  Nineveh.  Yarim.ja,  on  the 
river  directly  south  of  Nineveh,  marks  an 
ancient  site,  and  near  the  Tigris,  3  miles 
above  Nineveli,  was  Tarbisu,  with  a  royal 
l)alace,  beginning  the  imi)osing  line  of  habi- 
tations and  walled  towns  which  extended 
along  the  river  soutliward  toCalah.  Back 
from  the  river,  northeast  of  Nineveh  and  be- 
yond Ivebit  Nina,  at  the  foot  of  tiie  eastern 
mountains,  was  Dur-sharrukin  or  Sargon's 
burg,  a  town  about  as  large  as  t'alah,  built 
about  707  H.  c\,  and  containing  a  great  i)alace. 
Seven  miles  southeast,  and  also  at  the  foot  of 
the  eastern  mountain,  was  another  town 
scarcely  inferior  in  size  to  Calah.  Its  ancient 
name  is  luikiiown,  but  it  is  situated  hard  by 
Baasheihah.  It  was  oiii'  of  a  series  of  towns 
AVJiich  extended  to  Calah.  Birtelleh,  6 
miles  south,  jirobably  marks  the  site  of  an 
ancicTit  town,  and  Keremlis,  3  miles  far- 
ther on,  is  known  to  do  so.  Imgurbel,  with 
its  palace  and  tenii)le  which  .\shurnasirpal 
adorned,  was  6  miles  .south  of  the  latter 
place,  and  was  !)  miles  from  ("alah.  Otiier 
towns  and  villages  dotted  the  jilain  within 
the  bounds  which  have  been  thus  defined. 
It  may  be  that  Diodorus  Siculus,  of  the  first 
century  n.  «'.,  is  citing  an  authentic  tradi- 
tion when  he  states  that  Nineveh  formed  a 
quadrangle  measuring  l.">(l  stadi;i  by  !M>,  or 
4S(»  in  circuil.  about  (iO  miles.  Strabo.  a  few 
years  later,  s;iys  that  it  was  much  larger 
than  Babylon. 

Ni'san  [.Assyrian  Xisdtitiii,  jirobably  ojien- 
ing.  beginning]. 

The  nanu-  given  after  the  captivity  to 
Abib,  the  lirst  month  of  the  year  (Neh.  ii.  1  ; 


Nisroch 


518 


Noah 


Estb.  iii.  7).  It  nearly  correspouds  to  March. 
Sei'  Yi:.\K. 

Nis'rocli. 

A  gdd  worshiped  by  SeniiiU'lierib.  It  was 
in  the  tenii)le  of  Xisrocb  at  Nineveh  that  he 
was  assassinated  (vJ  Kin.  xix.  ;57 ;  Is.  xxxvii. 
38).  Nisroch  is  the  Hebrew  i)ronuneiation 
of  the  name.  Perhaps  it  represents  the  As- 
syrian sod  Nuskii,  or  is  composite  and  con- 
tains the  name  of  the  god  A.shur. 

Ni'ter. 

Saltpeter,  potassium  nitrate ;  but  among 
the  ancients  sodium  carbonate  and  potassium 
carbonate.  It  is  an  alkali  (Prov.  xxv.  20), 
and  in  solution  was  used  in  washing  clothes 
(Jer.  ii.  22). 

No  and  in  E.  V.  once  No-amon  (Nah.  iii.  8) 
[Egyptian  nn-aa,  the  large  city,  or  nu-amen, 
Anion's  city]. 

The  Egyptian  city  of  Thebes,  often  called 
by  this  name  on  the  monuments.  Herodotus 
found  its  distance  from  On  to  be  a  voyage  of 
nine  days  up  the  river  (ii.  9).  After  the  ex- 
pulsion of  the  Hyksos  from  Egypt,  Aalimes 
I.,  the  founder  of  the  eighteenth  dynasty, 
turned  his  attention  to  the  reorganization 
and  improvement  of  the  kingdom,  and  among 
other  works  embellished  Thebes.  The  city 
at  once  rose  to  chief  importance  as  the  capi- 
tal of  the  new  empire,  and  became  large, 
splendid,  and  populous.  Homer  speaks  of 
its  hundred  gates  (Iliad  ix.  381).  Its  tutelary 
divinity  was  Anion,  and  the  high  priest  of 
Amon  was  second  only  to  the  king.  It  re- 
mained the  center  of  Egyptian  civilization 
and  power  until,  first,  Esarhaddon,  king  of 
Assyria,  conquered  Egypt,  in  672  B.  c,  and, 
afterwards,  Ashurbanipal,  his  sou  and  suc- 
cessor, subjugated  the  country  and  plundered 
the  city  in  (>64  B.  c.  (Nah.  iii.  8).  But  even 
after  that  disaster,  Thebes  long  remained  a 
place  of  importance  (Jer.  xlvi.  25 ;  Ezek. 
XXX.  14-16 ;  Herod,  ii.  3 ;  iii.  10).  It  was 
finally  destroyed  utterly  by  the  Eoman  pre- 
fect, Cornelius  Gallus,  for  its  participation  in 
the  revolt  of  Upper  Egypt  in  30-29  B.  c. 
against  oppressive  Eoman  taxation.  Splendid 
remains  of  the  city,  consisting  of  temples, 
obeli-sks,  sphinxes,  etc.,  still  exist  at  Luxor 
and  Karnak,  on  the  eastern,  and  Kurna  and 
Medinet-Habu,  on  the  western  side  of  the 
river.  West  of  what  was  the  site  of  the 
city  there  is  a  gorge  cut  into  the  lower  lime- 
stone which  contains  the  tombs  of  the  ancient 
Theban  kings. 

No-a-di'ah  [Jehovali  hath  met]. 

1.  Son  of  Binnui.  He  was  (me  of  those 
who  took  charge  of  the  gold  and  silver 
vessels  brought  by  Ezra  and  the  returned 
captives  from  Babylon  (Ezra  viii.  33). 

2.  A  prophetess  whose  evil  vaticinations 
were  intended  to  frighten  Nehemiah  (Neh. 
vi.  14). 

No'ah  I.,  in  A.  V.  of  Matthew  and  Luke 
Noe  [rest]. 

Son  of  Lamech  of  the  posterity  of  Seth 


((ien.  v.  28,  29).  The  reason  for  bestowing 
the  name  Noali  is  stated  in  words  wbicli 
bear  some  resemblance  to  the  name  in 
sound.  He  called  him  Noah,  saying:  "This 
same  shall  comfort  us  (y'nah''menH\  for  our 
Work  and  for  the  toil  of  our  hands,  because 
of  the  ground  which  the  Lord  hath  cursed." 
This  metlHKl  is  one  of  several  which  are  em- 
ployed by  the  Hebrew  writers.  The  refer- 
ences to  the  years  of  Noah's  life  are  capable 
of  several  explanations,  in  accordance  with 
ancient  methods  of  statenieul  and  of  con- 
structing genealogical  registers.  Several 
methods  are  mentioned  in  the  art'de  on 
Chronology.  The  application  of  the  first 
two  of  these  to  the  data  referring  to  Noah  is 
simple  and  needs  no  explanation.  The  third 
method  is  more  intricate,  but  is  also  api)li- 
cable.  According  to  it,  in  the  family  of  ■ 
Lamech,  182  years  after  it  succeeded  to  the 
position  of  prominence  among  the  children 
of  Seth  and  became  the  family  through 
which  the  church  descended,  a  son  was  born 
whom  his  father  called  Noah,  saying  :  "  This 
one  shall  comfort  us."  Long  afterwards, 
among  the  descendants  of  this  child  of  hope, 
who  are  collectively  called  Noah,  just  as  the 
descendants  of  Israel  were  frequently  called 
Israel,  appeared  one  in  whom  the  hopes  were 
realized,  who  proved  a  comforter,  whose  con- 
duct and  worship  were  rewarded  by  God's 
promise  not  to  curse  the  ground  again  for 
wicked  man's  sake  nor  to  smite  any  more 
everything  living,  who  built  the  ark  and 
who  was  the  family's  head  and  representa- 
tive. He  is  referred  to  by  the  tribal  name. 
His  eldest  son  was  about  100  years  old  when 
the  flood  came.  This  event  occurred  in  the 
six  hundredth  year  of  Noah,  that  is.  (iOO 
years  after  the  family  which  was  spoken  of 
as  Noah  had  attained  to  leadership.  If  the 
third  method  is  the  true  one,  such  is  its  ap- 
plication to  the  record  concerning  Noah. 

Noah  was  a  just  man  and,  like  Enoch, 
walked  with  God  (Gen.  vi.  9).  But  it  was  a 
time  of  almost  universal  apostasy.  It  was 
an  age  of  religious  indifference,  when  even 
the  sons  of  God  had  become  worldly  and  in 
contracting  marriage  chose  by  the  outward 
appearance  rather  than  by  the  disposition  of 
the  heart  (vi.  2),  and  when  men  generally 
were  living  for  the  present  moment,  eating 
and  drinking,  marrying  and  giving  in  mar- 
riage (Mat.  xxiv.  3S).  It  was  also  an  age 
that  was  defiant  of  God  :  there  was  secret 
hostility  of  the  heart ;  men  formed  their 
plans  without  regard  to  God,  every  imagina- 
tion and  device  of  man's  heart  was  evil 
(Gen.  vi.  .■));  there  was  o]ien  defiance  also: 
the  earth  was  filled  with  violence,  the  strong 
oppressed  the  weak  (11).  The  age  was  so 
cin-rupt  that  God  purposed  to  destroy  man- 
kind :  but  a  respite  apparently  of  120  years 
was  given  (3i.  By  his  {>xenii)lary  life  at 
least,  Noah  was  a  ]>reacbcr  of  righteousness 
(2  Pet.  ii.  5).  T(»  him  (4od.  the  creator  and 
judge  of  all,  revealed  his  purpose  to  destroy 


Noah 


519 


Nobah 


man,  and  comnianilwl  him  to  build  an  ark 
to  save  himself  and  liis  family  an<l  keep 
alive  the  various  kinds  of  animals,  for  a 
Hood  of  waters  was  to  ovei  wlieliii  the  laii<I. 
Noali  (lid  so.  When  the  aric  was  tiiiislied, 
Jehovah,  (iod  of  redi  iii])tiou,  hade  Noah 
enter  the  ark  with  his  family  and  i)rovide 
for  their  use  tlie  elean  animals  whieh  tiiey 
needed  for  food  and  saeritiee:  anil  he  who 
had  created  the  heasts  and  the  l>irds  had 
them  also  uo  by  i)airs  into  the  vessel  for  the 
l)reservation  of  their  sjieeies.  The  sjime  (Jod 
of  redemjition  shut  Noah  in.  Then  the  tlood 
liroke  in  all  its  violenee.  Si'i'  Fl.ool).  Wlien 
at  lenjjth  the  jiidfiment  ])iir|iosed  hy  the 
ereator  and  jioviriior  of  the  universe  was  ac- 
eomjilished  he  remembered  Noah  and  made 
the  waters  to  assuage,  .\fter  eatching  the 
first  glimpse  of  the  mountain  to])s.  Noah 
waited  till'  same  length  of  time  as  the  storm 
Lad  raged,  and  then  .sent  forth  birds  to 
discover  whether  the  waters  were  al)ated 
from  tlie  surface  of  tlie  earth.  When  he 
learned  that  they  were,  he  tarried  yet  in  the 
ark.  waiting  until  God  sliould  bid  him  dis- 
embark. On  New  Yi'ar's  day  he  removed 
the  eovi'ring  and  saw  that  the  ground  was 
dry.  hut  it  was  eight  weeks  longer  before 
Ood  hade  hini  go  forth.  Then  he  built  an 
altar  and  oUered  burnt  offerings  to  the  God 
of  his  rcdejn])tion.  who  aece])ted  the  wcn'ship 
and  jiurposcd  in  his  liiart  not  to  curse  the 
ground  again  and  smite  i'Very  living  thing 
ou  account  of  man's  wiekednes.s.  God  pro- 
ceeded to  reveal  this  purpose.  As  lie  had 
blessed  Adam  when  lie  cri'ated  him  and  had 
coinmandcd  that  he  l)e  fruitful  and  multi]ily. 
so  now  at  tlie  beginning  of  a  new  world  he 
ble.s.sed  Noah  ami  hade  him  he  fruitful.  He 
also  laid  injunctions  on  the  head  of  the  new 
race;  but  of  tlu'sevin  precepts  of  Noah,  as 
they  are  callcil.  which  were  regarded  by  the 
Jews  as  antecedriit  to  the  law  and  the  ob- 
servance of  which  was  ref|iiired  of  all  pros- 
elytes, three  only  are  exjiressly  mentioned 
here:  the  abstinence  from  blood,  the  jirohibi- 
tion  of  murder,  and  the  recognition  of  the 
civil  authority  ((n'li.  ix.  4-()).  The  remain- 
ing four,  the  ])rohihition  of  idolatry,  blas- 
phemy, incest,  and  theft,  rested  on  the  gen- 
eral s<-nse  of  mankind,  (iod  further,  in 
revealing  his  imrjiose  not  to  curse  the  ground 
again  for  man's  .sake,  jiledged  himself  not  to 
<Mit  olf  all  flesh  again  by  the  waters  of  a 
flood  and  adopted  the  rainbow  as  the  sign  of 
the  <'ngagenient  by  whieh  he  had  binind 
himself  (s-17). 

Noah  natui-ally  devoted  himself  to  agri- 
eiiltiire.  Among  other  works  he  jilanted  a 
vineyard,  and  he  drank  himself  drunk  on 
the  wine.  His  son  Ham  mocked  at  his  dis- 
grace, but  the  other  sons  sought  to  ))rotect 
their  father.  When  Noah  recovered,  .•iiid 
leanieil  what  had  occurretl.  with  insight  into 
character,  and  with  that  knowledge  which 
he  had  derived  liefori'  the  flood  of  (Jod's 
ordination    that     the    evil    jiropensities    of 


parents  descend  to  children  and  that  God 
bles.sed  the  righteous  in  their  generations 
(E.X.  XX.  o,(i),  lie  foretold  degradation  anions 
the  posterity  of  Ham,  for  some  reason 
singling  out  one  only  of  Ham's  sons,  ])re- 
dicled  the  subjection  of  this  branch  of  the 
tribe  to  the  descendants  of  the  high-minded 
and  godly  brothers,  iironouneed  the  divine 
l)le.s.sing  on  the  families  of  Slieiii  and  .laphetb, 
and  announced  esiKcially  their  united  ser- 
vice of  Jehovah,  Ciod  of  Shem  ((ieii.  ix.  20- 
27);  see  C.\N,\AN,  J.\i>ni;'rii,  and  Shicm. 

Noah  lived,  or  the  family  which  he  rejirc- 
sented  continued  its  leadershi]),  for  .i50  years 
afterthe  flood  (Gen.  ix.:2S|,  Then  theSemites, 
as  distinguished  from  tlu'  other  descendants 
of  Noah,  became  the  leading  family  and  the 
line  in  which  the  church  (lesceiHled.  The 
flood  seems  to  be  referred  to  in  Ps.  xxix.  10, 
where  mnhhnl,  the  special  word  for  the  flood, 
is  used.  Isaiah  (Hv.  ft|  and  E/ekiel  (xiv.  14) 
both  allude  to  Noah.  Our  Lord  comiiarcs 
the  days  of  Noah  to  those  which  should  pre- 
cede his  own  second  coming  (Mat.  xxiv.  .'i7) ; 
the  patriarch's  faith  is  commended  in  Heb. 
xi.  7,  and  I'eter  twice  alludes  to  the  eight 
saved  from  the  deluge  when  it  overwhelmed 
the  ungodly  (1  I'et.  iii.  20;  2  I'et.  ii.  .">).  The 
(Tieeks  and  Komans  had  a  story  about  a  flood 
from  which  only  two  peojile  were  saved, 
Deucalion  and  his  wife  Pyrrha ;  and  this 
Deucalion  may  be  Noah  under  a  ditlerent 
name.  However  this  may  be,  the  I'aby- 
lonians  at  any  rate  jireserved  a  tradition  of 
tlie  same  flood  of  which  the  Hebrews  liad 
knowledge.  They  called  the  liero  of  it 
Sitnapishtim  and  Atrahasis.     See  Flood. 

No'ah  II.  [a  moving,  wandering]. 

Adaughti'rof  Zeloiihehad  (  Num.  xxvi.  33  , 
xxvii.  1  ;  xxxvi.  11:  .losh,  xvii.  3j. 

No-a'mon.    See  No. 

Nob  [elevation]. 

A  town  of  the  jiriests  (1  Sam.  xxii.  19),  in 
tlu'  territory  of  Pi'iijamin  (Neh.  xi.  32),  on 
the  north  and  ajiparently  within  sight  of 
Jerusalem  (Is.  x.  .'52).  Af^ter  the  caiitiire  of 
the  ark,  the  tabernacle  Avas  I'or  a  tinu'  ]iitehed 
at  Nob,  with  Ahimeleeh  as  high  ])riest.  He 
was  ignorant  of  the  variance  between  Saul 
and  David,  ami  when  the  latter  came  to  Nob, 
Ahimeleeh  allowed  him  and  his  men  to  eat 
the  sbowbread  and  gave  him  the  sword  of 
Goliath.  This  act  was  re]iorted  to  Saul,  who 
summoned  the  jiriests  and  had  them  slain, 
and  smote  Nob.  men,  women,  and  children 
with  the  sword.  Abiathar.  howi'ver.  escajied 
and  told  David  (1  Sam.  xxi.,  xxii.).  The 
place  was  inhabited  after  the  exile  (Neh.  xi. 
.32),  but  its  site  has  not  been  identified. 
Robinson  contents  himself  with  locating  it 
"somewlu're  ujion  th(>  ridge  of  the  mount 
of  Olives,   northeast  of  the  city." 

No'bah  [barking] 

I.  .\  Maiiassite.  presumably,  who  caiitured 
the  town  of  Keiiath.  on  the  western  slope 
of  the  Jebel  Haiiran,  and  gave  it  his  own  name 


Nobai 


520 


Numbers 


(Num.  xxxii.  42).  The  old  name  was  prob- 
ably ere  long  restored.     See  Kicnath. 

2.  A  town  mentioned  in  eonnection  with 
the  Gadite  town  of  .Io>,'l)ehah.  A  road  lead- 
ing to  the  coniitry  of  the  nomads  passed 
on  the  east  (.Tndg.  viii.  11).  The  site  of 
Nobah  is  aceordingly  to  be  sought  near  the 
boundary  between  Gad  and  the  Arabian 
desert. 

No'bai,  in  .\.  V.  aii<l  margin  of  R.  V.  Ne- 
toai,  which  is  the  traditional  pronuneiation. 

One  of  the  ehiefs  of  the  people  who  with 
Nehemiah  sealed  the  covenant  (Neh.  x.  19). 

Nod  [in  Hebrew,  wandering,  exile]. 

A  district  on  the  east  of  Eden  to  whieli 
Cain  went  and  there  abode  (Gen.  iv.  l(j). 
Not  identified. 

No'dab  [nobility]. 

An  Arab  trilie  of  the  Syrian  desert,  to 
judge  from  their  allies  (1  C'hron.  v.  19). 

No'e.     See  Noah. 

No'gali  [brilliance]. 

A  son  of  David  (1  Ghron.  iii.  7;  xiv.  (!). 

No 'hah  [rest]. 

The  fourth  son  of  Benjamin  (1  Chron.  viii. 
2),  who,  however,  did  not  give  rise  to  a  tribal 
family.  He  is  not  mentioned  among  those 
who  accompanied  .Jacob  into  Egypt,  probably 
because  he  was  born  after  the  migration  into 
Egypt.  Keil  oflers  a  different  explanation. 
He  supposes  that  Nohah  either  is  another 
name  for  Shephupham  (Num.  xxvi.  39,  R.  V.), 
or  else  was  a  celebrated  chief  who  was  de- 
scended from  Shephupham  and  whose  name 
supplanted  Shephupham  as  the  designation 
of  the  family. 

Non.     See  Nun. 

Noph.    See  Memphis. 

No'phah  [possibly,  a  breeze]. 

A  Moabite  town  (Num.  xxi.  .30),  not  else- 
where mentioned.  The  text  is  open  to  ques- 
tion. 

Nose  Jew'el. 

A  jewel  inserted,  generally  by  means  of 
a  ring,  into  the  side  of  the  nostril  for  orna- 
ment (Is.  iii.  21,  R.  v.). 

Nose  Ring. 

A  ring  worn  as  an  ornament,  especially  by 
women  (R.  V.  of  Gen.  xxiv.  47  ;  Ezek.  xvi. 
12).  It  was  inserted  through  the  partition 
between  the  nostrils  or  in  the  side  of  the 
nose. 

Num'ber  and  Nu'mer-al. 

Tliere  is  no  evidence  that  the  ancient  He- 
brews used  figures  todenote  numbers.  The  nu- 
merals which  occur  in  the  present  text  of  the 
Hebrew  Scriptures,  in  the  Siloam  inscription, 
and  on  the  Moabite  stone,  are  spelled  in  full. 
The  Hebrews  employed  the  letters  of  the 
alphabet  to  represent  numerals  as  early  as 
Maccabsean  times,  using  aleph  for  one,  beth 
for  two.  This  practice  is  exhibited  on  the 
coins  of  Simon ;  see  Monky.  In  the  Na- 
bathtean  inscriptions  of  the  first  century  the 


numerals  are  generally  spelled,  but  they  are 

occasionally  reiiresented  by  signs,  uprigi)t 
strokes  for  the  smaller  units,  a  figure  like  5 
without  the  upper  horizontal  arm  for  five, 
and  other  marks.  In  the  Aramaic  inscrip- 
tions of  the  same  jieriod  at  Palmyra  signs  are 
also  used.  On  the  lion  weights,  whicli  were 
used  by  Arama>an  traders  in  Nineveh  in  the 
eighth  century  n.  c.  the  weight  is  indicated 
by  upright  strokes  for  the  units  and  a  hori- 
zontiil  stroke  for  ten.  In  yet  earlier  cen- 
turies the  Assyrians  and  Babylonians  used 
cuneiform  signs  to  indicate  numl)er. 

Numbers  were  used  symliolically  and  con- 
ventionally. Three  had  ai)parcntly  no  sym- 
bolism ;  but  emphasis  was  conventionally  ex- 
pressed by  it;  as  "The  temple  of  tlie  Lord, 
the  temple  of  the  Lord,  the  temple  of  the 
Lord,  are  these "  (Jer.  vii.  4),  "  O  earth, 
earth,  earth"  (xxii.  29),  "I  will  overturn, 
overturn,  overturn  it"  (Ezek.  xxi.  27), 
"  Holv,  holy,  holy  "  (Is.  vi.  3),  and  the  trijde 
blessing  (Num.  vi.  24-26).  The  threefold 
character  of  the  baptismal  formula  and  the 
apostolic  benediction  resulted  from  the  doc- 
trine of  the  Trinity  (Mat.  xxviii.  19  ;  2  Cor. 
xiii.  14).  Four  does  not  play  an  important 
part.  Four  corners  or  quarters  oT  the  earth 
were  recognized,  north,  south,  east,  and  west 
(Is.  xi.  12),  and  hence  four  winds  (Dan.  vii. 
2),  and  four  chariots  (Zech.  vi.  1,  .")}.  Seven 
was  early  a  sacred  number  among  the  Sem- 
ites (Gen.  ii.  2;  iv.  24  ;  xxi.  28).  It  did  not 
derive  its  character  from  the  fact  that  it  was 
equal  to  three  plus  four.  Not  arithmetical, 
but  religious  considerations  were  involved  ; 
see  S.iBBATH.  Ten  was  recognized  as  a  com- 
plete number,  and  was  constantly  used  as 
such  ;  there  were  ten  commandments  (Ex. 
xxxiv.  28),  ten  antediluvian  and  ten  jiost- 
diluvian  patriarchs  (see  Chroxology),  and 
a  tenfold  division  of  the  book  of  Genesis. 
Twelve  was  the  basis  of  the  duodecimal  sys- 
tem of  the  Babylonians,  and  as  a  result  found 
employmcmt  in  common  life.  Something  of 
it  was  probably  inherited  by  the  Hebrews, 
and  was  enhanced  by  the  fact  that  the  tribes 
of  Israel  were  twelve.  Forty  was  a  round 
number  much  in  vogue  (Ex.  xxiv.  18  ;  1  Kin. 
xix.  8  :  Jonah  iii.  4  ;  Mat.  iv.  2  :  and  Chko- 
NOLOGY,  From  the  Exodus  to  the  Foundation 
of  Solomon's  Temple). 

Num'bers. 

The  fourth  book  of  the  Pentateuch.  It  is 
named  in  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  by  the 
])hrase  "  In  the  wilderness."  Its  modern 
designation  originated  with  the  Greek  trans- 
lators, and  was  chosen  on  account  of  the  two 
enumerations  of  the  people  which  the  book 
relates  ;  the  first  at  Sinai  in  the  second  year 
of  the  exodus,  the  second  on  the  Jordan  in 
the  fortieth  year. 

It  may  be  divided  into  three  main  .sections : 
1.  In  tiie  wilderness  at  Sinai  (i.  1-x.  11). 
Census  of  the  people,  exclusive  of  the  Le- 
vites,   with  assignment  of  a  place  for  each 


Numenius 


521 


Oak 


tribe  in  the  entauiiiment  (i.,  ii.)  ;  ci-nsus  of 
the  Levitts,  their  lociition  in  tlie  eaiiip,  and 
speci(iu  duties  (iii.,  iv.  i.  Laws  reKardinf;  iiii- 
jiiirity,  trespass,  jealousy,  Nazirites;  and 
i'orni  of  Ilie  jiiiest's  lilcssin;;  (v.,  vi.i.  Oll'cr- 
inj;  of  tile  iiriuecs  at  tiie  dedication  ol'  the 
tal)ernacie  (vii.).  Conseer.it  ion  of  the  Invites 
(viii.).  Observance  of  tlie  jiassover  and  law 
of  tlie  suppk'nuiitary  ecleliration  (ix.  1-11). 
'JMie  Kuidinji  pillar  of  eloud  (\7>--S.'>)  and  sil- 
ver si};nal  trumpets  (X.  1-1(1).  "J.  On  tlie  way 
from  Sinai  to  the  Jordan  (x.  11-xxi.  35). 
Order  of  inareh  (x.  11-3(5).  Jlurnnirsaftainst 
the  manna,  and  descent  of  t|nails  (xi.). 
Miriam's  lti)rosy  (xii.).  At  Kadesli  :  the 
sjiies  and  their  rejiort.  tlie  jieojile  faithless 
and  condemned  to  die  in  the  wilderness 
(xiii.,  xiv.).  Supplementary  legal  sjiecifica- 
tions  (xv. ).  Iki-ljcllion  of  Korah,  Dathan, 
and  .Abinim  :  and  related  events  (xvi.,  xvii.) ; 
in  conseiiuence,  duties  and  jirivileges  of  the 
priests  anil  Levites  atlirnied  (xviii.).  Law 
for  purification  of  those  defiled  by  contact 
with  a  dead  body  (xix.).  Iveturn  to  Kadesh  : 
death  of  .Miriam,  sin  of  Moses  and  Aaron, 
enii>assy  to  Ldom  (xx.  1-21 ).  Death  of  Aaron, 
journey  from  mount  Hor  around  Edom  to 
jilains  of  Moab,  fier.v  serpents,  conquest  of 
the  country  east  of  the  .lordan  (xx.  22-xxi. 
3n).  3.  At  Shittim  opjiosite  Jericho  (xxii.  1- 
XXX vi.  13'.  lialaam  i  xxii.-xxiv.).  Sin  of 
Haal-peor  (xxv.).  Census  of  the  new  fjener- 
atioii  (xxvi.).  Laws  regardiiij;  inheritance 
by  daughters  (xxvii.  1-11).  Public  announce- 
ment of  Joshua  as  Moses'  successor  (12-23). 
Furtlier  ri'gulation  of  the  daily  ott'erings  and 
of  vows  (xxviii.-xxx.).  War  with  ilidian 
(xxxi.).  Assignment  of  the  conquered  coun- 
try east  of  Jordan  to  the  Iveuhenites,  CJadites, 
and  half-trilie  of  Manasseh  (xxxii.).  Itiner- 
ary from  Kgyiit  to  Shittim  (xxxiii.).  Bound- 
aries of  the  land  and  a  coiumission  on  allot- 
rnetit  (xxxiv.).  Laws  of  the  citiis  of  refuge 
(xxxv. ).  Sui)plenientary  law  concerning  in- 
heritance by  daughters  (xxxvi.). 

The  liook  of  Numbers  is  recognized  by  all 
.scIkioIs  of  criticism  to  rcllcct  the  s;ime  social 
Conditions  and  laws  as  Leviticus. 

Nu-me'ni-U8  [pertaining  to  the  new  moon]. 

A  .Jew,  son  of  Antiochus,  .sent  as  amhassii- 
dor  to  Home  and  Sparta  in  111  b.  c.  by  Jona- 
than Maccaba-us,  and  dispatclu-d  a  .second 
time  to  Rome  by  Simon  in  110  it.  c.  (1  Mac. 
xii.  1<>;  xiv.  21  ;  xv.  1.")). 

Nun,  in  A.  V.  and  Hcbn  w  text  once  Non 
n  Cliroii.  vii.  27i  |lisb]. 

1.  Katlicr  of  Joshua,  the  military  leader 
(Kx.  xxxiii.  11  :  Josh.  i.  1  i.descendi'd  through 
Tahan  and  jierhaps  Heriah  frotn  Ki)hraim 
(1  Chroii.  vii.  27l. 

2.  The  fourteenth  letter  of  the  Hebrew 
alphabet.  English  N  has  the  same  origin 
and  represents  it  in  anglicized  Hebrew  names. 
It  heads  the  fourteenth  section  of  I's.  <-xix., 
in  which  section  each  vei"se  of  the  original 
begins  with  this  letter. 


Nurse. 

1.  A  wet  nurse,  mcntkclh,  employed  to 
suckle  an  infant  (Ex.  ii.  7-!l;  2  Kin.  xi.  2). 
Deborah,  wh(»  had  nur.sed  liebekah,  ri'iiiained 
an  honored  servant  in  the  family  ((  hii.  xxiv. 
'>'.>:  xxxv.  h),  as  was  freiiueutly  the  case 
(Odys.sey  xix.  15,  251). 

2.  A  male  or  female  attendant,  'omni,  who 
acted  as  nurse,  (.  c,  had  the  care  of  small 
children,  either  when  infants  (Num.  xi.  12; 
Kuth  iv.  IG)  or  whin  older  but  still  helpless 
(2  Sam.  iv.  4). 

Nuts. 

1.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Jiolnim, 
]iislacliio  nuts  (Oeii.  xliii.  11,  H.  V.  margin). 
The  true  pistachio  tree  (I'istacin  rent)  belongs 
to  the  order  AiKHindiitccic  (anacards  or  tere- 
binths). Its  leaves  have,  asa  rule.  Iliree  or  four 
leaflets.  Its  fruit,  which  is  a  little  less  than 
an  inch  in  diameter,  consists  of  a  bony  shell 
surrounded  by  a  dry  covering  and  enclosing 
a  sweet,  sonie\\liat  oily  kernel.  The  nuts  are 
eaten  like  almonds  or  used  for  making  con- 
fectionery. It  is  a  native  of  western  Asia, 
from  which  it  has  been  introduced  into 
southern  Europe.  It  is  not  now  common  in 
Palestine.  Jacob  sent  some  of  its  fruit, 
with  other  vegetable  ]iroduce,  as  a  present  to 
the  Egyptian  prime  minister  (Gen.  xliii.  11). 

2.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  word 
"(/OS,  walnut  (Song  vi.  11).  The  walnut  tree 
(JiKjlaiis  reijut),  in  America  distinguished  as 
the  English  walnut,  is  native  from  the  Cau- 
casus to  the  mountains  of  northern  India. 
It  is  cultivated  in  (Jalilee  and  along  the 
slojies  of  Lebanon  and  of  Jlermon. 

Nym'phas  [sacred  to  the  muses]. 
A   Christian   at    Laodicea    or   Colossae,   to 
whom  Paul  sent  salutation  (Col.  iv.  15). 


0. 


Oak. 


1.  A  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  word  'EInh, 
a  strong  tree.  The  Hebrew  word  occurs  in 
fifteen  i)assages  of  the  O.  T.  In  three  of 
these  it  serves  as  a  geographical  designation 
and  is  treated  as  a  jiroper  name,  valley  of 
Elah  (1  Sam.  xvii.  2,  lit;  xxi.  !i;  11.  V.  "mar- 
gin, terebinth  I.  In  two  passages,  where  it  is 
associati'd  with  another  word,  'ullnii.  which 
is  rendered  oak,  it  is  translated  terebinth  in 
H.  v..  but  teil  tree  and  elms  in  A.  V.  (I.s.  vi. 
l.'{;  Hos.  iv.  l.'{).  In  the  remaining  ten  ja.s- 
sages  it  is  rendered  oak,  with  terebinth  on 
the  margin  of  K.  V. 

2.  The  rendering  of  tlie  Hebrew  'Elon, 
strong  one,  in  the  text  of  nine  jias-sages  of 
tin'  i{.  ^'.,  terebinth  being  placed  on  the 
margin.  The  .\.  \ ..  following  the  Targiims 
and  Vulgate,  nniformly  renders  'chtn.  by 
jdain,  but  on  the  margin  of  Judg.  ix.  (>  it 
substitutes  oak.  There  were  the  oak  of 
Moreh  ((ien.  xii.  (I;  Dent.  xi.  30),  the  oak  of 
Mamre  (<4en.  xiii.  lt<;  xiv.  13;  xviii.  1),  the 


Oath 


522 


Obadiah 


oak  in  Zaanannini  {.Tudg.  iv.  11),  the  oak  of 
the  pillar  that  was  in  Shecheui  (ix.  6),  the 
oak  of  the  augurs  (ix.  :?7,  K.  V.  margin),  and 
the  oak  of  Tabor  (I  Sam.  x.  :5). 

3.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  word  'El, 
strong  tree,  in  Is.  i.  2\). 

4.  The  uniform  and  doubtless  eorrect  ren- 
dering of  the  Hebrew  word  WUon.  It  occurs 
in  eight  passages,  and  was  a  sjjccies  of  oak 
as-sociated  with  Bashan  (Is.  ii.  i;i ;  Ezck. 
xxvii.  6  ;  Zech.  xi.  2).  Under  a  tree  of  this 
species  near  Bethel  Deborah,  Rebekah's  nurse, 
was  buried  (CJen.  xxxv.  8).  It  was  probably 
the  prickly  oak  [Qucrcun  coccifera)  ;  see  illus- 
tration, article  Ahk.\UAM. 

5.  The  rendering,  i>robably  correct,  of  the 
Hebrew  word  'Allah  (Josh.  xxiv.  26). 

Oak  is  the  meaning  of  'nllon,  for  it  was  a 
characteristic  tree  of  Bashan.  'El<ih  diflered 
from  it  (Is.  vi.  13 ;  Hos.  iv.  13),  and  hence  is 
probably  the  terebinth  ;  and  the  three  re- 
lated words,  'elah,  'el,  and  'eloii,  may  denote 
three  kinds  of  terebinth.  They  may,  how- 
ever, designate  any  large  tree,  and  not  spec- 
ify the  terebinth  in  particular.  Several 
species  of  oak  grow  in  Palestine.  Qnercns 
sessiliflora  grows  high  up  on  Lebanon  and  in 
the  Hauran.  Four  varieties  of  the  prickly 
evergreen  oak  {Q.  coccifera)  occur:  one  is  Q. 
pseudococcifera,  and  is  found  on  Carmel,  in 
Gilead,  and  in  Bashan,  often  being  of  mag- 
nificent growth ;  another  is  Q.  calliprinoK, 
which  is  found  in  Lebanon,  on  Tabor,  and  in 
Gilead.  Valonia  oak  [Q.  segilops)  is  decidu- 
ous.    It  is  common  in  Galilee  and  Gilead. 

Oath. 

An  appeal  to  God  in  attestation  of  the 
truth  of  a  statement  or  of  the  binding  char- 
acter of  a  promise  ( Gen.  xxi.  23  ;  xxxi.  53 ; 
Gal.  i.  20;  Heb.  vi.  16).  Its  violation  was 
an  olfense  against  God  (2  Chron.  xxxvi.  13; 
Ezek.  xvii.  13,  18).  Sometimes  the  appeal 
was  to  the  sovereign  or  other  sacred  object 
(Gen.  xlii.  15;  2  Sam.  xi.  11;  Mat.  v.  33; 
xxiii.  16-22).  Jehovah  condescended  to  con- 
firm his  promise  to  the  itatrinrch  by  an  oath, 
swearing  by  himself  (Gen.  xxii.  16  ;  Heb.  vi. 
13-^0).  An  oath  was  commonly  made  by 
lifting  the  hand  nnto  God  (Gen.  xiv.  22 ; 
Ezek.  XX.  5,  6  ;  Rev.  x.  5  ;  Homer,  Iliad  xix. 
254),  but  it  was  sometimes  made  by  i)lacing 
the  hand  under  the  thigh  of  the  person  to 
whom  the  promise  was  made  (Gen.  xxiv.  2 ; 
xlvii.  29),  ]n-ol)ably  as  an  invocation  of  the 
posterity,  which  should  ]iroceed  from  the 
loins,  to  guard  the  oath  and  avenge  its  viola- 
tion. The  oath  was  occasionally  taken  before 
the  altar  (1  Kin.  viil.  31).  Abraham  gave 
Abimelech  seven  ewe  lambs  as  witness  of  the 
oath  (Gen.  xxi.  27-31).  An  oath  was  some- 
times intensified  by  slaying  an  animal,  divid- 
ing it  into  two  parts,  and  i)assing  between  the 
pieces  (xv.  8-18).  E;u-h  ])iirty  to  the  oath  in- 
voked upon  himself  the  fate  of  the  victim  if  he 
broke  the  covenant.  By  the  Mosaic  law,  in 
certain  judicial  investigations,  a  man  to  clear 


himself  was  required  to  swear  an  oath  of  the 
Lord  (Ex.  xxii.  11;  Num.  v.  19-22).  Any 
man  swearing  an  oath  or  making  a  vow  to 
(iod  was  re()uircd  to  carry  out  his  promise, 
as  was  a  wuuian,  if  being  a  virgin  her  father 
did  not  disallow  her  oath  when  she  uttered 
it,  or  being  married  her  husband  did  not  in- 
terfere. If  she  was  a  widow,  or  had  been 
divorced,  her  oath  stood  (Num.  xxx.).  If 
anyone  swore  falsely  by  the  name  of  the  true 
God,  he  i)rofaned  the  divine  name  (Lev. 
vi.  3;  xix.  12;  cp.  Is.  xlviii.  1  ;  Jer.  xii.  16; 
Mai.  iii.  5) ;  and  no  one  was  under  any  circum- 
stances to  swear  by  a  false  god  (Josh,  xxiii. 
7).  The  man  is  commended  in  Ps.  xv.  4  who 
does  not  change,  although  he  has  sworn  to 
his  hurt.  Our  Lord  condemned  the  use 
of  oaths,  even  when  taken  with  the  best  in- 
tention, declaring  that  whatever  went  be- 
yond "  j'ca.  yea,  or  nay,  nay,"'  was  of  the 
evil  one  (Mat.  v.  33-37).  He  was  delivering 
the  sermon  on  the  monut  and  correcting 
varions  perversions  of  the  law  which  the 
scribes  had  introduced  ;  and  among  other 
evils,  he  condemned  swearing  in  ordinary 
communications  between  man  and  man.  But 
the  judicial  oath  is  lawful;  for  it  was  en- 
joined by  God  (Ex.  xxii.  11),  and  Christ 
himself  did  not  hesitate  to  answer  when  he 
was  put  ujjon  his  oath  by  the  high  priest 
(Mat.  xxvi.  63).  The  oath  was  recognized  as 
lawful  by  the  apostles  also,  for  they  calk'd  on 
God  to  witness  to  the  truth  of  what  thev  said 
(2  Cor.  xi.  31;  Gal.  i.  20).  The  mischief 
which  may  arise  from  a  rash  oath  was  well 
illustrated  in  that  of  Herod  the  tetrarch, 
which  made  him  against  his  will  the  mur- 
derer of  John  the  Baptist  (Mat.  xiv.  3-12). 

O-ba-di'ah  [worshiper  of  Jehovah]. 

1.  A  man  of  Issachar,  family  of  Tola,  lionse 
of  Uzzi  (1  Chron.  vii.  3). 

2.  A  Gadite  hero  who  joined  David  at  Zik- 
lag  (1  Chron.  xii.  9). 

3.  Father  of  the  chief  of  the  Zebulunites 
in  David's  reign  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  19). 

4.  A  descendant  of  Jonathan  (1  Chron. 
viii.  38  ;   ix.  44). 

5.  The  governor  of  Ahab's  palace,  who 
dui'ing  the  persecution  of  Jehovah's  pro]ihets 
by  queen  Jezebel,  hid  a  hundred  projjhets.  in 
two  companies  of  fifty,  in  a  cave  (1  Kin. 
xviii.  3,  4).  He  was  sent  by  his  royal  master 
to  look  for  grass  for  the  horses  and  mules 
during  the  great  drought,  and  while  so  en- 
gaged fell  in  with  Elijah,  who  persuaded  him 
to  announce  to  the  king  the  ])resence  of  the 
proi)het  (5-16).  Elijah's  interview  with  tlie 
king  le(l  to  the  contest  at  Carmel,  which  was 
followed  by  the  slaughter  of  Baal's  jirophets. 

6.  (^ne  of  the  princes.sent  by  Jehoshajdiat  to 
teach  in  the  cities  of  Judah  (2  Chron.  xvii.  7). 

7.  A  proiihet  of  Judah  (Obad.  1).  Jo- 
sei>hus  believed  that  he  was  the  God-fearing 
Obadiah  of  Ahab's  palace,  but  the  prophet 
probably  lived  at  least  a  century  after  Ahab. 

The  book  of  Obadiah  is  the  fourth  of  the 


Obadiah 


523 


Obed-edom 


luinor  prophets.  It  consists  of  a  solitary 
fliaptor,  and  fon-tflls  tlic  ck'structiou  of 
Kdoiii  (l-!»)  and  tin-  reahou  of  it,  naniily 
Edoni's  unhrotluTly  attitiidu  toward  the 
cliildrcn  of  Jacol)  (10,  11),  warns  Ivlmii  ac- 
(■ordin<;ly  not  to  oxnlt  over  the  cliihlri  ii  of 
.Indali  in  tiicir  distross  (1"2-1(!),  and  jiri'diets 
till'  dflivcranci-  and  cnlargi'nR'ut  of  Isnu'l 
(17-"Jli.  Miicli  uncorlainty  exists  as  to  tlic 
date  of  tile  ]nii|ihecy.  It  is  very  generally 
aserihed  to  the  Chaldean  period,  when  .leru- 
(iiileni  was  alternately  snhjeet  to  the  kinjj  of 
Efiyjit  and  the  king  ol'  15;ihylon,  and  was 
finally  eajitnred  hy  Nehucliadni'/./.ar  and 
razed  to  tlie  j^round,  and  its  inhabitants  car- 
ried into  captivity.  This  view  is  Ijased  on 
tlie  deseription  of  Judah's  ealaniity  ll'>-l(J), 
and  the  faet  is  appi'aled  to  that  jirophets  of 
the  time  .severely  denounce  Kduui  (Jer.  xlix. 
7~'2'2;  Ezek.  xxv.  l'.i-ll ;  xxxv.).  The  proph- 
ecy may.  howi'ver,  he  much  earlier,  for  1.  No 
allusion  ismatle  to  thestrikinj;  fiatnresof  the 
fall  of  .lerusalem,  the  hurninj;  of  the  temple, 
the  razing  of  the  walls,  and  annihilation  of 
the  city.  '2.  The  hostile  attitude  of  Edom 
was  of  long  standing  (Ezek.  xxxv.  5\  and 
the  feeling  against  Edom  expressed  hy  Oba- 
diah was  viiiced  by  Amos  more  than  a  cen- 
tury hcfoi'c  the  Chaldean  invasion  (Amos  i. 
6,  }),  especially  11,  1^:  ix.  12;  cp.  Joel  ill. 
19).  '.i.  Historical  conditions,  which  are  pre- 
suppo.sed  by  the  |irojili(,'t,  existed  as  early  as 
the  reign  of  Aliaz.  Jerusalem  had  been 
jdundered  several  times  :  it  had  been  en- 
tered and  ravaged  by  Arabians  and  Philis- 
tines in  the  reign  of  Jehoram  (2  C'hron.  xxi. 
16,  17;  ci).  Amos  i.  (!)  ;  and  in  the  reign  of 
Aniaziah,  who  slaughtered  the  Edomites,  the 
king  of  Israel  entered  Jerusalem,  broke 
down  the  northern  portion  of  the  city  wall, 
])hindered  temple  and  palace,  and  carried  olT 
hostages  (2  Kin.  xiv.  14.  17  ;  2  C'hron.  xxv. 
11.  12.  2;5,  21).  In  the  calamities  whi(di  be- 
fell Judah  in  the  reign  of  Ahaz,  when  the 
king  of  Damascus  wrested  Edom  from  Judah, 
the  king  of  Israel  raviiged  to  tlu'  gates  of  Je- 
rusalem, the  I'hilistiues  took  the  cities  of  the 
lowland,  and  .Miaz  strijjped  the  ti'mjile  of  it,s 
treasures  to  buy  aid  from  the  king  of  As.syria, 
did  homage  to  this  foreigner,  and  made 
Judah  a  vassal  state,  when  Israeliti's  also 
were  carried  into  cajitivity  (()bad.2n;  .•Knios 
i.  <>,  !• ;  (•]).  1  Chron.  v.  2(i),  then  the  iMlomile 
did  violence  to  his  brother  Jacob,  refrained 
fr(»m  extending  aid,  and  bi'came  as  oni-  of 
Judah's  enemies  (2  Chron.  xxviii.  17;  2  Kin. 
xvi.  i;.  Iv.  V.  margin:  Obad.  10,  111.  It  was 
an  api)ro|)riate  time  for  Obadiah  to  take  up 
his  iirophecv  against  them,  reiiuke  thi-m  for 
tlwir  indilleren<'e  to  .ludah's  woes,  and  for 
their  ojien  hostility  in  the  past  and  j)re.sent, 
and  warn  them  not  to  exult  over  .ludah's 
l>resent  distress,  for  their  own  tinii"  of  ]iun- 
ishment  is  coming. 

H.  A  I.evite,  one  ot'  the  overseers  ovir  tin- 
workmen  who  repaired  the  temple  in  the 
reigu  of  .losiah  (2  Chron.  xxxiv.  12). 


9.  Founder  of  a  family,  presumably  of  the 
lineage  of  David  (1  Chron.  iii.  21). 

10.  A  di'.scendant  of  Joab.  He  came  from 
Babylon  with  Ezra  (Ezra  viii.  9). 

11.  A  priest  who,  doubtless  in  behalf  of  a 
father's  liouse,  sealed  the  covenant  made  in 
the  time  of  Nehemiah  ( Neh.  x.  ."»). 

12.  A  Levite,  apparently  founder  of  a 
family  of  jiorters  (Neh.  xii.  2.")).  He  seems 
to  have  been  the  Levite  Obadiah,  son  of  She- 
maiah  (1  C'hron.  ix.  Ki),  called  Abda  in  Neh. 
xi.  17. 

O'bal  [cor]inlence]. 

A  people  descended  from  Joktan  ((Jen.  x. 
28).  'Abil  is  the  name  of  one  of  the  oldest 
tribes  of  Arabia  (Delitzsch)  and  of  a  district 
in  Yemen  (Jlalevy).  JJocharl  suggests  I'liny's 
Avalita'  on  the  African  coast,  near  the  straits 
of  Hah  el-Mandeb.  In  1  Chron.  i.  22  the 
name  is  written  Ebal,  jod  being  used  instead 
of  vau.  These  letters  were  oi'ten  confu.sed 
by  copyists. 

O'bed  [server,  worshijier]. 

1.  Son  of  Ejihlal,  of  the  house  of  Jerah- 
meel,  tribe  of  Judah  (1  Chron.  ii.  :57). 

2.  Son  of  Hoaz  and  Ruth,  and  grandfather 
of  David  (Ruth  iv.  17,  21,  22). 

3.  One  of  David's  mighty  men  (1  Chron. 
xi.  47). 

4.  A  Levite,  one  of  the  doorkeepers,  son 
of  Shemaiah,  house  of  Obed-edom  (1  Chron. 
xxvi.  7). 

5.  The  father  of  a  certain  Azariah.  in  the 
time  of  Athaliah  (2  Chron.  xxiii.  1). 

O-bed-e'dom  [serving  Edom,  or  Edom  is 
serving]. 

1.  A  (iittite,  that  is  a  native  either  of  the 
Philistine  Ciatli,  and,  if  .so,  i)robably  a  mem- 
ber of  David's  bodyguard,  orel.se  of  the  Le- 
vitical  city  of  (lath-rininioii  in  Dan.  He 
lived  between  Kirjath-Jeaiim  and  .leru.salem, 
near  the  s])ot  where  Uzzali  was  struck  dead 
for  touching  the  ark.  The  ark  was  there- 
fore taken  to  his  house  by  David's  order, 
where  it  remained  three  months,  blessings 
attending  him  and  his  family  for  giving  it 
accommodation  (2  Sam.  vi.  10-12:  1  Chron. 
xiii.  ];{,  14 ;  xv.  2n).  If  a  Levite,  he  is 
doubtless  identical  with  Obed-edom  the  Kor- 
ahite  (see  number  ){).  The  Korahites  were  a 
division  of  the  Kobathite  family  to  which 
Ciath-rimmon  was  assigned,  and  the  state- 
ment that  (iod  blessed  him  I  1  Chron.  xxvi.  3) 
seems  to  refer  to  1  Chron.  xiii.  11  and  2  Sam. 
vi.  11. 

2.  A  Levite  of  the  second  degree,  who 
with  others  acted  as  doorkeei)er  for  the  ark, 
and  was  moreover  a  musii'ian  who  ))layed 
the  harj)  at  the  removal  of  the  ark  to  .leru- 
salem, and  afterwards  as  a  regular  duty  in 
the  tent  erected  for  the  ark  (1  C'hron.  xv.  18, 
21  ;  xvi.  r,). 

15.  A  Levite,  who  as  doorkeeper  marched 
in  front  of  the  ark  at  its  removal  to  Jerusii- 
lem  (1  Chron.  XV.  24).  He  is  prol»bly  one 
with  Obed-edom,  sou  of  Jeduthun,  a  door- 


ObU 


524 


Offerings 


keeper  for  the  ark  in  the  tent  at  Jerusalem 
(xvi.  3M),  and  who  is  generally,  thoiigli  on 
uncertain  grounds,  lield  to  be  the  person 
mentioned  in  the  preceding  clause  of  the 
verse.  He  ai)pears  to  l)e  01>L'(l-edoni  the 
Korahite  (xxvi.  1,  4;  cp.  also  10  with-  xvi. 
38),  whose  sous  and  grandsons,  with  their 
brethren,  sixty-two  in  number,  were  among 
the  ninety-three,  of  whom  the  courses  were 
formed  in  David's  reign  (xxvi.  8).  Their 
station  was  at  the  southern  gate  (15).  The 
family  was  still  on  duty  in  the  reign  of 
Amaziah  (2  Chron.  xxv.  24). 

O'bil  [a  camel  keeper]. 

An  Ishmaelite  who  had  charge  of  David's 
camels  il  Chron.  xxvii.  30). 

Ob-la'tion.     See  OFii-ERiNG. 

O'both  [water  skins]. 

A  station  of  tlic  Israelites  before  their 
arrival  in  the  desert  east  of  Moab  (Num. 
xxi.  10,  11  ;  xxxiii.  43,  44).  Situation  un- 
known. 

Och'ran,  in  A.  V.  Ocran  [troubled]. 

An  Asheritc,  father  of  Pagiel  (Xum.  i. 
13). 

O'ded  [he  hath  restored]. 

1.  Father  of  the  prophet  Azariah  (2  Chron. 
XV.  1).  In  ver.  8  the  text  is  evidently  cor- 
rupt. 

2.  An  Israelite  prophet  in  the  reign  of 
Pekah.  Meeting  the  army  of  the  northern 
kingdom  returning  from  battle  with  many 
captives  of  Judah,  the  prophet  remonstrated 
with  them  on  their  unbrotherly  conduct, 
and  in  the  name  of  Jehovah  called  on  them 
to  send  the  cai^tives  home.  His  words  pro- 
duced a  great  etfect.  Some  of  the  leading 
men  in  Samaria,  persuaded  by  him  as  to  the 
path  of  duty,  refused  to  allow  the  army  to 
bring  the  prisoners  inside  the  citj'.  They 
then  clothed  the  naked,  fed  the  hungry,  and, 
mounting  the  feeble  on  asses,  took  them  to 
Jericho,  and  handed  them  over  to  their 
countrymen  (2  Chron.  xxviii.  9-15). 

Od-o-me'ra,  in  A.  V.  Od-o-nar'kes. 

Chief  of  a  nomad  tril)e,  or  possibly  an 
officer  under  Bacchides,  whom  Jonathan 
Maccabieus  smote  (1  Mac.  ix.  66). 

Of'fer-ings. 

Ort'frings  to  Tlod  of  various  kinds  can  be 
traced  from  the  dawn  of  human  history.  In 
the  O.  T.  alone  there  are  mentioned  among 
others  of  early  times  the  vegetable  offering 
(Gen.  iv.  3),  the  sacrifice  of  the  firstling  of 
the  flock  (iv.  4),  the  burnt  offering  (viii.  20; 
Ex.  X.  25),  the  sacrificial  meal  (Gen.  xxxi. 
54),  and  the  drink  offering  (xxxv.  14).  An 
elaborate  ritual  of  sacrifice  existed  among 
the  great  nations  of  antiquity,  notably  in 
Babylonia  and  Egypt,  long  before  the  days 
of  Moses. 

Offerings  of  many  kinds  to  God  constituted 
a  marked  feature  of  the  Israelitish  worship. 
Extended  information  on  the  subject  is  found 
in  Lev.  i.-vii.,  but  not    there    exclusively. 


Offerings  were  of  two  classes,  pulilic  and 
private,  according  as  they  were  oflered  at 
the  expense  of  the  nation  or  of  an  individ- 
ual, and  tliey  were  of  three  kinds:  drink 
ofl'erings.  vegetable  or  meal  offerings,  and 
animal  ofl'erings  or  sacrifices.  The  .shedding 
of  blood  was  a  necessary  accom])aninient  of 
every  offering  made  in  accordance  with  the 
religion  i)f  Jehovah.  Without  it  there  is  no 
remission  of  sins  ;  and  hence  a  bloodless  offer- 
ing could  not  be  accepted  from  man,  for  man 
by  nature  and  i)ractice  is  a  sinner  and  has  no 
right  to  api>roach  God.  It  is  true  that  in 
certain  cases,  such  as  extreme  jioverty,  a 
bloodless  offering  was  permitted  ;  but  it  was 
made  and  accepted  only  in  connection  with 
the  blood  of  the  great  public  altar  (Lev.  ii.  2, 
8  ;  V.  11-13). 

The  drink  offering  was  not  independent 
under  the  law.  It  was  made  only  in  connec- 
tion with  the  meal  offering  which  accom- 
panied all  burnt  offerings,  except  perhaps 
that  of  Lev.  xii.  6,  and  all  peace  offerings 
which  were  Nazirite,  votive  or  freewill 
(Xum.  vi.  17  ;  xv.  1-12).  It  was  excluded 
from  sin  and  trespass  offerings. 

The  vegetable  offering,  called  meat  offer- 
ing in  A.  V.  and  meal  offering  in  R.  V.,  con- 
sisted of  white  meal,  or  of  unleavened  bread, 
cakes,  wafers,  or  of  ears  of  grain  roasted, 
always  with  salt  and,  except  in  the  sin  offer- 
ing, with  olive  oil  (Lev.  ii.  1,  4,  13,  14 ;  v. 
11).  It  might  form  an  independent  offering : 
and  part  might  be  placed  on  the  altar  and 
the  rest  belong  to  the  priest,  as  in  private 
voluntary  offerings  (ii.),  and  when  accepted  as 
a  sin  offering  from  the  very  poor  in  lieu  of  an 
animal  (v.  11-13)  ;  or  else  the  whole  might  be 
consumed  on  the  altar.  In  this  latter  case  it 
corresponded  to  the  burnt  offering;  and  was 
made  at  the  consecration  of  the  high  priest 
and  at  the  cleansing  of  the  leper  (vi.  19-23  ; 
xiv.  10,  20).  Or  the  vegetable  offering  might 
be  subordinate,  an  accompaniment  of  a  sacri- 
fice. It  was  thus  the  invariable  concomitant 
of  the  burnt  offering,  except  perhaps  that  of 
Lev.  xii. ;  and  of  peace  offerings,  excejit  those 
obligatory  at  the  feast  of  weeks.  In  the.se 
cases,  according  to  tradition,  it  was  entirely 
consumed  on  the  altar.  In  other  cases,  part 
was  iilaced  on  the  altar  and  the  rest  went  to 
the]iriest:  namely,  the  wafers  at  the  conse- 
cration of  jiriests  (viii.  2(!-2S),  in  the  thank 
offering  (vii.  12-15),  and  at  the  release  of  the 
Nazirite  (Num.  vi.  13-20). 

Animal  offerings  or  sacrifices  called  for 
cattle,  siieei"  and  goats  of  both  sexes,  rarely 
for  doves.  The  animal  was  required  to  be 
free  from  blemish  and  at  least  eight  days 
old.  Sacrifices  were  of  three  kinds,  in  each 
of  which  the  blood  made  atonement  (Lev.  i. 
4  ;  xvii.  11).  1.  The  burnt  offering,  for 
which  a  male  lamb,  ram,  goat,  or  bullock 
was  prescribed.  The  case  in  1  Sam.  vi.  14 
was  extraordinary.  The  blood  was  sprinkled 
round  about  upon  the  altar,  and  the  entire 
animal  was  consumed  on  the  altar.     It  was 


Offerings 


525 


Oholibamah 


fxiiirssivf  of  till'  entire  self-clfdicatioii  of 
the  (ill'crcr  to  .Icliovali.  2.  TIic  sin  olli-rinf{ 
and  tilt-  tri'sjiass  or  K'li't  oflVrinf; ;  for  the  for- 
niiT  of  wliirli  a  liullouk,  a  male  or  female  j^oat, 
a  female  lamb,  a  dove,  or  a  jiigeon  was  used 
(Ja'V.  iv.  4,  S.i,  2H,  32;  v.  7),  while  for  the 
latter  a  ram  was  prescribed  or,  in  the  <'aseof 
the  lejjer  and  the  Nazirite,  a  male  lamb  (vi. 
(i;  xiv.  12,  21  ;  Num.  vi.  12).  The  l)loo(l  was 
.synibolieally  disjilayed,  but  in  dill'erent  ways. 
In  tiic  sin  olferinK  a  jxirtion  of  the  blood  was 
.s](rinkled  before  the  Jjord  and  smeared  on  the 
horns  of  the  altar  of  ineense,  and  tlie  rest 
was  ])onrcd  out  at  the  base  of  the  altar  of 
l)Ui-nt  oIl'erinL'.  when  the  sin  had  been  eom- 
mitted  by  the  hi.uli  iiriest  or  the  nation  ;  but 
in  the  ca.se  of  other  sinners,  a  iiart  was  put 
on  the  altar  of  burnt  offering,  and  the  rest 
was  iioured  out  as  before  (Lev.  iv.  0, 7. 17,  18, 
25,  oO,  34).  In  the  tresjiass  ollering  all  the 
blood  was  scattered  over  the  altar.  The  fat 
only  was  burnt  on  the  altar.  The  llesh  of  those 
sin  od'eriiiffs  of  which  tlie  blood  was  taken 
into  the  .sanctuary  w;is  burnt  witlnjut  the 
cami),  whereas  the  flesh  of  other  sin  ofler- 
ings  and  of  trespass  offerings  belonged  to  the 
l>riest.s  (Lev.  vi.  2(i,  30 ;  vii.  G,  7 ;  cp.  Ex. 
x.xix.  14;  Lev.  iv.  3,  12,  13,  21;  xvi.  27; 
Heb.  xiii.  11,  12).  \o  iwrt  ofthe.se  offerings 
was  eaten  by  the  offerer,  as  in  tlu'  jieace  ofler- 
ings ;  for  the  sacrificer  came  as  one  unworthy^ 
of  comnuinion  with  (iod.  and  the.se  offerings 
were  for  jiurposes  of  exjjiation.  The  sin 
offering  was  made  for  sins  of  which  the  ef- 
fect terminates  i)rimarily  on  the  sinner;  the 
tresjiass  offering  for  sins  of  which  the  etfects 
terminate  jn-imarily  on  another,  and  for 
which,  in  addition  totlu^  sacrifice,  restitution 
■was  madi'.  Hut  sins  committed  deliberately 
and  for  which  the  jienalty  was  death  could 
not  be  exi)iated  (Num.  xv.  .'{().  :>11.  Atone- 
ment could  lie  made  for  unintentional  sins  ; 
for  non-ca]>ital  sins,  like  theft,  for  which 
])unishment  had  been  endured  and  restitu- 
tion made  ;  and  fVn-  sins  which  the  guilty 
one  voluntarily  confessed  and  for  which  he 
made  comiiensation  wlien  ]iosslble.  3.  The 
])eace  offering.  Three  kinds  ai'e  distin- 
gui>hed  :  the  thank  offering  in  recognition  of 
unmerited  and  une.\])ected  l)lcs.sings;  the 
Votive  offering,  in  ]pay7neut  of  a  vow;  and 
the  freewill  olI'<Ming,  proliably  not  in  grati- 
tudi-  for  a  s]iecial  favor,  but  as  an  expression 
of  irre]>re.ssible  love  for(;od  (Lev.  iii.).  Peace 
offerings  might  also  be  ]irom|)ted  by  the  fi-lt 
need  of  renewing  peaceful  comnninion  with 
(Iod  (.Indg.  XX.  21) :  xxi.  1  :  2  Sam.  xxiv.  2")). 
Any  animal  autliorizi'd  for  sacrifice,  of  either 
>ex,  might  be  u.sed,  but  no  bird.  The  blood 
was  siirinkled  ;  the  fat  was  consumed  on  the 
altar  ;  and.  when  the  ofl<ring  was  jirivate, 
tlie  breast  and  shoulder  went  to  the  jiriests, 
anil  the  rest  of  the  flesh  was  eaten  by  the 
offerer  and  his  friends  before  the  Lord  at  the 
place  of  the  .sjinctuarv  (Lev.  iii.,  vii.  11-21  ; 
cp.  22  27  ;  Ex.  xxix.  "20-28;  Deut.  xii.  7,  18  ; 
1  Sam.  ii.  15-17).     The  meal  before  Jehovah 


was  a  eueharistic  feast.     It  signified  that  Je- 
hovah was  present  as  a  guest. 

The  .sacrificial  acts  were  five  :  1.  Presenta- 
tion of  the  .sicrifice  at  the  door  of  the  sanc- 
tuary by  the  offerer  himself  as  his  personal 
act.  2.  Laying  on  of  hands.  The  otferer 
placed  his  hands  on  the  victim's  head,  there- 
by dedicating  it  to  God  and  making  it  liis 
own  reiiresentative  and  substitute  (c]>.  Lev. 
xvi.  21)  ;  see  LA^  iNc  ox  oi'  IIanjis.  3.  Slay- 
ing the  animal  by  the  offerer  him.--(lf,  who  thus 
symbolically  acceiited  the  ]iunishnient  due  for 
liis  sin.  In  later  times  the  jiriests  slew  the  ani- 
mal. 4.  Symbolic  aiiplication  of  the  bhxKl. 
The  jiriist  sjirinkled  or  sniiared  it  on  the  al- 
tar and  jioured  it  out  at  the  base.  In  specified 
cases  a  ])art  was  put  on  the  oflerer,  or  it  was 
sprinkled  before  the  veil  of  the  sanctuarj' 
(liCV.  iv.  (i),  or  carried  into  the  ]i(»ly  jtlace 
(vi.  30),  or  even  into  the  holy  of  holies  ixvi. 
14).  5.  Unrning  the  sacrifice,  the  whole  of 
it  or  its  fat  only,  on  the  altar  of  burnt  offer- 
ing, whereby  its  essence  and  flavor  ascended 
to  God. 

Og. 

A  king  of  the  Aniorites  of  Rashan  (Deut. 
iii.  8,  10).  He  was  a  giant,  the  last  of  the 
Rejiliaim,  and  had  an  iron  bedstead  or  sar- 
cojihagus  9  cubits  long  by  4  cubits  liroad, 
which  was  of  course  longer  and  wider  than 
its  occujiant.  This  relic  was  jireserved  in 
Rabbath  Amnion  (Deut.  iii.  11).  He  had  resi- 
dences at  liotli  Ashtaroth  and  Edrei  (.Josh.  xii. 
4,  .'") ;  xiii.  12).  After  the  Isnielites  had  con- 
quered Sihon,  they  left  their  families  and 
their  cattle  at  tlie  .secure  camj)  at  Pisgah,  and 
mardu'd  against  Og.  They  defeated  and 
slew  him  at  Edrei  and  took  possession  of  his 
country  (Num.  xxi.  20,  32-35;  Deut.  iii.  14). 
This  territorv  was  given  to  the  half-tribe  of 
Manasseh  (Deut.  iii.  13). 

O'had. 

A  son  of  Simeon  (Gen.  xlvi.  10;  Ex.  vi.  15). 
He  did  not  found  a  tribal  family. 

O'hel  [a  tent]. 

A  son  of  Zerubbabel  (1  Cliidii.  iii.  20). 

O-ho'lah,  in  A.  V.  Aholah  'bor  tent]. 

Siimaria  and  the  kingdom  of  Israel  per- 
sonified as  a  woman  of  bad  cliarai'ter  (Ezek. 
xxiii.  ]-l!l). 

0-ho'li-ab,  in  A.  V.  Aholiab  [father'stent]. 

An  artificer  of  the  tribe  of  Dan,  who  as- 
si.sted  Rezalel  in  making  furniture  for  the 
tabernacle  (Ex.  xxxi.  0;  xxxv.  .'M,  35). 

O-hol'l-bah,  in  A.  'N'.  Ahollbah  [my  tent 
is  in  her]. 

Jeru.siilem  and  the  kingdom  of  Judab  jier- 
sonified  as  a  woman  of  liad  character  (Ezi-k. 
xxiii.  l-4!l). 

0-hol-l-ba'mah,  in  A.  V.  AhoUbamab  [my 
tent  is  a  lugh  i>lace]. 

A  wife  of  Esiiii,  daughter  of  Anah  the 
Plivite  (Gen.  xxxvi.  2).  She  gave  name  lo 
an   Edomite  family,  organized  under  a  chief 


Oil 


526 


Old  Testament 


(41).     She  was  also  called  Judith,  the  praise- 
worthy (xxvi.  34 ;  cp.  Anaii). 

OU. 

The  oil  used  by  tlie  ancient  Hebrews  was 
chiefly  olive  oil,  obtained  by  pressing  the 
fruit  of  the  olive  tree  (ij.  v.).  it  was  so  im- 
portant a  product  of  Palestine  that  oil  and 
wine  are  frequently  mentioned,  with  or  even 
without  grain,  as  the  chief  liarvest  gain 
(Num.  xviii.  12;  Dent.  vii.  Hi;  Xeh.  x.  39  ; 
xiii.  5,  etc.).  Oil  was  used  for  illuminating 
purposes,  being  burned  in  lamps  (Ex.  xxv. 
6  ;  Mat.  xxv.  3).  Oil  was  used  for  food  (1 
Chron.  xii.  40  ;  Ezek.  xvi.  13).  It  was  mixed 
with  meal  and  made  into  bread  (1  Kin.  xvii. 
12) ;  and  cakes  of  fine  flour  mingled  with 
oil,  or  with  oil  ])oured  u])on  them,  were  part 
of  the  meal  offering  (Lev.  ii.  1,  4-7),  the  oil 
being  i)rescril)ed  pr()bal)ly  on  account  of  its 
common  use  in  food.  Oil  was  used  in  medi- 
cine for  mollifying  wounds  (Is.  i.  6;  Mark 
vi.  13).  Sometimes  wine  was  added  to  the 
oil,  as  was  done  by  the  good  Samaritan  in  the 
case  of  the  wounded  Israelite  (Luke  x.  34). 
Herod  was  put  in  a  bath  of  warm  oil  in  the 
hope  of  alleviating  his  disease  (War  i.  33,  5). 
Oil  was  used  as  a  cosmetic  for  anointing  the 
hody,  especially  after  a  bath,  and  for  render- 
ing the  hair  smooth  (Ps.  xxiii.  5 ;  civ.  15 ;  2 
Sam.  xiv.  2).  Olive  oil  was  used  for  anoint- 
ing kings  (1  Sam.  x.  1  ;  xvi.  1,  13  ;  1  Kin.  i. 
39;  2  Kin.  ix.  1,  fi)  ;  and  was  called  holy  be- 
cause employed  in  behalf  of  God  (Ps.  Ixxxix. 
20).  A  holy  oil  of  comi)osite  and  expensive 
character  was  used  for  the  anointing  of  high 
priests.  The  tabernacle,  the  ark,  the  table, 
the  candlestick,  the  altar,  the  laver  and  its 
foot  were  also  anointed  with  the  same  pre- 
cious compound  (Ex.  XXX.  22-33). 

Oil  Tree. 

The  literal  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  words 
'&  shemen,  tree  of  oil,  in  Is.  xli.  19.  The 
words  are  translated  olive  wood  (1  Kin.  vi. 
23 ;  in  A.  V.  olive  tree)  and  wild  olive  (Neh. 
viii.  15;  in  A.  Y.  pine  branch).  It  is  gener- 
ally believed  to  be  the  oleaster  (Elseagnus 
hortensis),  sometimes  called  the  wild  olive, 
but  which,  though  it  lias  a  certain  super- 
ficial resemblance  to  the  true  olive,  is  not 
really  akin  to  it,  Elirtujims  being  the  type 
genus  of  the  order  Elwacjnacex  or  oleasters. 
They  are  trees  or  shrubs  more  akin  to  the 
willows  and  gales  than  to  the  olive  tree.  The 
oleaster  yields  an  oil,  but  much  inferior  to 
that  of  the  true  olive.  It  is  abundant  in 
Palestine,  especially  near  Heliron.  Samaria, 
and  mount  Tabor.  Other  investigators  iden- 
tify the  oil  tree  Avith  Bdliniilcs  wgi/ptiaca, 
which  is  called  zakkuni  by  tlie  Arabs,  and 
from  which  they  extract  an  oil.  But  it  now 
grows  around  the  Dead  Sea,  and  not  on  the 
mount  of  Olives  (Neh.  viii.  15). 

Oint'ment. 

Fragrant  ointments  were  highly  prized 
among  the  Hebrews  (Eccl.  vii.  1).  They  were 
used  in  dressing  the  hair  and  in  purifying  and 


perfuming  the  skin  (Esth.  ii.  12;  Eccl.  ix.  8), 

and  Jesus  was  several  times  anointed  with 
(liiitnuiit  brought  by  women  who  regarded 
him  with  adoration  (Mat.  xxvi.  ()-13;  Luke 
vii.  3G-50).  Ointments,  with  other  spices, 
were  employed  on  the  dead  body  and  in  em- 
balming (Luke  xxiii.  56).  Balm  of  (iilead 
and  eye  salve  were  used  in  medicine  (.Jer. 
viii.  22;  Kev.  iii.  18).  In  the  ritual  an  oint- 
ment or  holy  oil  was  used,  composed  of 
myrrh,  ca.ssia,  cinnamon,  calamus,  and  olive 
oil  (Ex.  XXX.  25).  In  Palestine  the  usual 
ointment  consisted  of  perfumed  olive  oil. 
The  He))rew  word  for  oil  is  sometimes  ren- 
dered t)intment  in  A.  V.  (2  Kin.  xx.  13),  and 
this  rendering  is  allowed  to  stand  in  K.  V.  in 
Prov.  xxvii.  9;  Ecc.  vii.  1 ;  ix.  8;  x.  1;  Song 
i.  3 ;  iv.  10  ;  Is.  Ivii.  9  ;  Amos  vi.  6). 

Old  Tes'ta-ment. 

The  first  of  the  two  portions  into  which 
the  Bible  is  naturally  divided.  The  title 
was  borrowed  from  the  apostle  Paul,  who  in 
2  Cor.  iii.  14,  says:  "For  until  this  day  re- 
maineth  the  same  veil  untaken  away,  in  the 
reading  of  the  O.  T."  [in  E.  V.  covenant]. 
The  O.  T.  consists  of  thirty-nine  books 
which,  in  the  order  in  which  they  stand  in 
the  English  Bible,  naturally  divide  into 
three  classes  :  seventeen  historical  books 
(Genesis  to  Esther),  five  poetical  books  (Job- 
to  Song  of  Solomon),  and  seventeen  propheti- 
cal hooks.  Poems  and  fragments  of  poems, 
occur  in  the  historical  books  (Gen.  iv.  23,  24  ;; 
ix.  25-27;  xlix.  2-27  ;  Ex.  xv.  1-18 ;  Judg.  v.), 
and  poetry  abounds  in  the  prophetical  books. 
The  Hebrew  Bible  contains  all  these  books, 
and  no  more ;  but  there  is  a  difference  in 
the  arrangement  and  in  the  classificaticm.. 
See  Caxon.  The  English  Bible  has  adopted 
the  arrangement  of  the  old  versions.  Nearly 
the  whole  of  the  O.  T.  was  written  originally 
in  Hebrew,  the  onlv  exceptions  being  Ezra  iv. 
8-vi.  IS;  vii.  12-26;  Jer.  x.  11;  Dan.  ii.  4- 
vii.  28,  which  are  in  Aramaic.  The  letters: 
of  the  Hebrew  and  Aramaic  alphabets  were 
similar.  An  early  form  of  them  is  .seen  on. 
the  Moabite  stone,  in  the  Siloam  inscription., 
and  on  Maccaba-an  coins.  Tliey  passed 
through  various  changes  of  form  until  they 
ultimately  became  the  familiar  square  char- 
acter of  the  extant  Hebrew  manuscripts  and 
])rinted  editions  of  the  Hebrew  Bilile.  The- 
books  of  the  O.  T.  were  written  in  the  older 
scrijjf;  but  in  the  course  of  their  multiplica- 
tion liy  manuscript  copies,  the  older  charac- 
ters were  gradually  transliterated  into  the- 
square.  An  ai)iiroximation  to  this  character 
was  used  as  early  as  the  time  of  Christ  (Mat. 
V.  18),  for  the  allusion  to  jod  as  the  smallest 
letter  could  not  have  well  been  made  excei)t 
to  the  more  modern  character.  Hel)rew 
w-riting  consisted  of  consonants  only,  vowels- 
being  supjdied  by  the  reader.  But  between 
the  seventh  and  the  tenth  centuries  of  the 
Christian  era,  Jewish  scholars,  resident 
chiefly  at  Tiberias,   supplied   vowel   points 


Old  Testament 


527 


Olive 


which  indicated  the  proper  vocalization 
and  tbUowed  the  traditional  jironunciation. 
Those  vowel  sifins  ^ave  f^reater  (ixity  to  the 
iiieaiiin;;  of  the  texts.  These  men  are  called 
-Masoretes  nr  .Massorefes,  IVoni  niiisonth  or 
helter  inussdiith.  tradition;  and  the  text.  assu]i- 
plied  with  vowi'ls  and  otherwise  inijiroved,  is 
known  as  the  .Masoretie  text.  They  also  added 
a  system  of  accents  to  indicate  the  jtroper 
accentuation  of  the  words  and  the  manner  in 
which  they  are  to  he  conjoined  or  disjoined. 
Two  stages  iif  the  Ilei)rew  language  are  trace- 
ahle  in  the  ( ).  'I\  In  tlie  lirst  or  golden  age  of 
tliat  tongue,  the  Jlel)rew  is  comparatively 
pure  ;  in  the  second  or  silver  age,  it  is  tinged 
more  and  nu)re  as  time  goes  (tn  with  Ara- 
maic, so  that,  sjieaking  hroadly,  the  deeper 
the  Aramaic  tinge  the  more  modern  the 
book.  This  test,  however,  is  not  infallible; 
for  a  writer,  writing,  say  in  northern  Pales- 
tine, near  Syria,  in  which  the  Aramaic  was 
the  vernacular,  would  naturally  tend  to  use 
Aramaic  words  nmre  than  one  who  penned 
his  book  at  Jerusalem,  where  purer  Hebrew 
prevailed.  The  existence  of  Aramaic  forms 
in  an  O.  T.  book  may.  therefore,  in  some 
casts  indicate,  not  the  time,  but  the  place  of 
its  comjiosition. 

It  is  believed  that  the  original  manuscripts 
of  the  O.  T.  books  were  written  on  skins ; 
see  KooK.  That  many  of  them  were,  is 
certain  (I's.  xl.  7;  Jer.  xxxvi.  14).  The  ex- 
isting maniiscrijits  are  usually  of  ]iarcliment 
or,  in  the  Ka.st,  of  leather.  They  are  not 
old.  In  the  British  Museum  is  a  manuscript 
of  the  Law.  written  on  vellum,  wliich  is  be- 
lieved to  have  been  ]ienned  before  A.  I).  850. 
The  oldest  extant  niainiscrijit  of  which  the 
date  can  be  allirnied  with  certainty  is  amanu- 
scrijit  t)f  the  iiro])het.s,  punctuated  after  the 
less])erfect  I)ai)ylonian  system.  It  wasbrought 
from  the  Crimea,  and  is  dated  a.  1^.  91(5. 
The  oldest  manuscrijit  of  the  entire  ().  T.  is 
dated  a.  D.  HHO.  The  scarcity  of  ancient 
Hebrew  manuscri]its  is  to  a  large  extent  due 
to  the  iiractice  of  the  .Jews,  which  is  alluded 
to  in  the  Talmud,  of  buryingall  sacred  manu- 
scrijits  which  became  defective  through  wear 
or  otherwise  faulty.  .\lt<'i'  the  invention  of 
jirinting,  the  Mook  of  Psalms  was  ]int  in  tyjie 
and  publisiied  in  1177.  Eleven  years  later,  in 
14b>^.  the  whole  printed  Hel)rew  Bible  was 
issued  in  folio  from  a  press  at  Soncino  in 
the  duchy  of  Milan.  A  ]>rinted  manual 
editiiin  was  (irst  issued  by  Bomberg  in  ].")17. 
\'an  der  Ilooghl's  was  first  jiublislied  at 
Amsterdam  in  1705.  It  has  held  its  ground 
on  account  of  its  accuracy,  being  re]>rinted 
with  minor  corrections  bv  .\ng.  Ilahn  in 
1-:U  and  l>y  ('.<;.(;.  Tbeil'e  in  lM!t.  It  has 
about  l.dnn  marginal  rt^adings.  most  of  them 
of  considenilde  antiiiuity.  Yi't  more  im- 
portant is  the  edition  of  the  Masoretic  text, 
in  single  parts,  with  critical  and  Masoretic 
appendices,  prepared  liy  S.  Baer  and  i^'ranz 
I>elit/sch.  (ienesis  appeiired  in  IMl'.t.  and  sev- 
enil  other  books  iiave  followed  at  intervals. 


The  number  of  "various  readings"  is  less 
in  the  ().  T.  than  in  the  N.  T. ;  and  such  as 
they  are,  they  exist  more  in  nundiers  and  in 
jjrojier  names  than  in  narratives,  and  do  not 
vitiate  didactic  statements.  They  are  due  to. 
transcribers  mistaking  one  Hebrew  charac- 
ter for  another  that  closely  resembled  it  (see 
Bkth,  Dai.kth),  im](roperly  uniting  two 
words  into  one  or  .separating  one  word  into 
two  (sec  Mole  2],  attaching  an  initial  letter 
to  the  i)receding  word,  or  accidentally  re- 
]ieating  or  omitting  letters  or  words.  As  in 
the  ca.se  of  the  N.  T.,  three  aids  exist  for 
biblical  critics  who  attem])t  to  eliminate 
coi)yists'  errors  and  restore  the  text  to  its 
primitive  i)urity.  They  are.  tirst.  the  colla- 
tion of  Hebrew  manu.scripts.  which  has  been 
carried  on  with  jiersevirance,  jiortions  of 
from  1.500  to  'JOOO  manusci-ipts  having  been 
used  in  the  com])arison  ;  second,  the  exami- 
nation of  early  versions  made  from  the  He- 
brew into  other  languages  before  the  Maso- 
retic text  was  established  ;  and  third,  the 
study  of  ]iassages  quoted  or  alluded  to  in 
the  Apocrypha,  the  N.  T.,  or  other  writings. 

Ol'ive. 

A  tree  largely  cultivat«d  in  Palestine  in 
olive  yards  (Ex.  xxiii.  11,  Josh.  xxiv.  13; 
Judg.  XV.  5;  1  Sam.  viii.  14).  It  grew  also 
in  Assyria  (2  Kin.  xviii.  32).  Strabo  men- 
tions it  among  the  trees  of  Armenia,  and  it 
is  supjio.sed  to  be  indigenotis  in  northern 
Hidia  and  other  tcmjierate  regions  of  Asia. 
The  wood  was  used  for  tindxr  (1  Kin. 
vi.  23,  31,  32.  :53).  The  fruit  was  obtained 
by  shaking  the  tree  (Is.  xvii.  6 ;  xxiv. 
13),  or  by  beating  it  (Dent.  xxiv.  20). 
Oil  was  expressed  from  the  berries  by- 
treading  them  with  the  human  foot  iDeut. 
xxxiii.  24  ;  Mic.  vi.  15),  or  by  crushing  them 
in  a  basin  under  a  wheel,  and  .scjueezing  the 
]iul]>  in  a  ]>re.ss  constructed  for  the  purpose. 
The  oil  had  extensive  use  ;  see  Oil.  The 
process  of  grafting  a  cutting  fnjm  the  wild 
olive  tree  into  one  of  the  cultivated  kind  is  al- 
luded to  in  lioni.  xi.  17.  24  to  illtistrate  the 
gnifting  of  the  gentile  converts  on  what  hith- 
erto had  been  the  Jewish  church.  In  garden- 
ing the  i)rocess  wasditi'erent  :  it  was  the  graft- 
ing of  a  cutting  from  the  cultivated  tree  into 
a  stock  of  the  wild  olive  to  alter  and  im- 
prove its  nature.  It  was  from  an  olive  tree 
that  the  dove  phnked  the  leaf  when  the 
waters  of  the  flood  were  subsiding  (tien. 
viii.  11).  An  olive  branch  is  now  an  emblem 
of  i)eace.  The  olive  was  also  a  symbol  of 
]>rosperity  and  divine  blessing,  of  lieauty  and 
strength  (Ps.  Hi.  h;  Jer.  xi.  l(j :  Hos.  xiv.  fi). 
The  aged  olive  tree  is  often  surrounded  by 
young  and  thrifty  shoots  (Ps.  cxxviii.  3). 
Women  .sometimes  adorned  themselves  with 
garlands  of  olives  on  festal  occasi(ms  (Judith 
XV.  13'.  and  at  the  dlyniiiic  games  in  Oreece 
the  victor's  crown  was  coni]iosed  of  olive 
leaves.  The  tree  is  the  common  Olra  europxa. 
It  has  lanceolate,  entire,  leathery,  evergreen 


Olives,  Mount  of 


528 


Omri 


leaves  of  a  dusty  color,  and  small  whitish, 
monopctalous  flowers.  The  nearest  ajiiJroach 
to  it  of  familiar  garden  plants  is  the  privet. 
The  olive  is  still  cultivated  through  nearly 
every  part  of  Palestine. 

Ol'ives,  Mount  of,  and  Ol'i-vet.  the  latter 
word  liciui;:  a  Liilin  form,  liorrowcd  from  the 
Vulgate,  and  meaning  a  place  where  many 
olive  trees  grow. 

A  hill  which  is  before  Jerusalem  on  the 
east  (Zech.  xiv.  4),  separated  from  it  by  the 
valley  of  the  Kidron  (2  Sam.  xv.  14,  23,  30). 
Its  summit  with  the  farther  slope  was  reck- 
oned as  a  Sabbath-day's  journey  from  the 
city  (Acts  i.  12),  or,  according  to  Josephus,  at 
5  or  6  stades  (Antiq.  xx.  8,  ti;  War  v.  2,  3). 
On  its  summit  God  was  wont  to  be  worshiped 
(2  Sam.  XV.  32).  The  glory  of  the  Lord  aj)- 
peared  there  to  Ezekiei  in  a  vision  (Ezek.  xi. 
23),  and  Zechariah  prophetically  portrayed  Je- 
hovah standing  on  the  mountain  to  interpose 
in  behalf  of  his  people  (Zech.  xiv.  4).  Jesus 
went  often  to  the  mount  of  Olives  (Luke  xxi. 
37  ;  xxii.  39 ;  John  viii.  1).  He  was  descending 
its  slope  when  the  multitude  welcomed  him 
to  the  city  with  hosannas  (Luke  xi.t;.  37,  38). 
He  had  rounded  itsshoulder  when  Jerusalem 
Tjurst  into  full  view,  and  he  wept  over  the  fate 
which  he  knew  awaited  the  city  (41-44).  He 
wassittingon  the  mount  with  his  disciples  gaz- 
ing across  the  valley  at  the  splendid  temple  and 
the  city,  when  he  prophesied  the  destruction 
of  both  (Mat.  xxiv.  3  ;  Mark  xiii.  3).  After  his 
last  passover  he  retired  to  the  mount  of  Olives 
(Mat.  xxvi.  30;  Mark  xiv.  2(5).  The  garden 
of  Gethsemane  was  to  the  west  of  it,  either 
at  its  base  or  some  small  distance  up  its  as- 
cent. Bethany  and  Bethphage  were  on  the 
eastern  side  (Mat.  xxi.  1  ;  Mark  xi.  1;  Luke 
xix.  29).  It  was  near  the  former  of  these 
villages  that  our  Lord's  ascension  took  place 
(xxiv.  .50).  The  mount  of  Olives  is  un- 
questionably the  eminence  now  called  by 
the  Arabs  Jebel  et-Tor,  east  of  Jerusalem. 
Properly  .speaking,  it  is  a  chain  of  hills  rising 
into  three  or,  as  .some  reckon,  four  summits, 
and  with  two  lateral  spurs.  One  spur  runs 
westward,  starting  at  the  bend  of  the  Kidron, 
about  a  mile  north  of  .Terusalem.  This 
northern  spur  is  generally  identilied  with 
Josephus'  Scopus.  The  other  spur  is  sepa- 
rated from  the  main  ridge  by  the  Kidron. 
It  also  runs  westward,  and  faces  the  city  on 
the  south.  It  has  been  designated  the  hill 
of  Evil  Counsel,  a  single  tree  which  it  bears 
being  denominated  the  tree  of  Judas.  Of 
the  four  peaks  into  which  the  range  of  Olivet 
rises,  the  most  northerly  one,  called  Karem 
es-Seiyad,  is  the  highest,  being  2723  feet 
above  sea  level.  It  was  formerly  called  Gali- 
lee, either  because  Galilteans  encamped  there, 
or  because  it  was  believed  to  be  the  place  of 
the  ascension  where  the  angels  addressed  the 
disciples  as  men  of  (Jalilee.  The  second  peak 
is  called  the  Ascension.  As  early  as  A.  D. 
315  it  was  crowned  by  Constantine  with  a 


basilica,  which  was  replaced  later  by  succes- 
sive churches  of  the  Ascension.  This  is  the 
mount  of  Olives  proj)er.  It  stands  directly 
opposite  to  the  eastern  gate  of  Jeru.salem, 
and  rises  to  2637  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
ocean,  560  above  the  bed  of  the  Kidron,  and 
19t)  over  the  temple  jilateau.  At  its  foot,  at 
the  traditional  site  of  (iethsenume,  three 
roads  diverge.  Two  include  the  garden  with- 
in the  angle  which  they  make.  One  of  these 
two  winds  round  the  southern  shoulder  of 
Olivet,  the  other,  which  is  steep  and  ruggea, 
leads  to  the  summit.  They  both  meet  again 
at  Bethany,  which  is  on  the  eastern  slope  of 
the  hill,  about  921  feet  lower  than  the  crest. 
The  way  to  Jericho  is  the  southern  road. 
The  third  hill  is  called  the  Prophets',  from 
what  are  called  the  prophets'  tombs  on  its 
side.  The  fourth  hill  is  named  the  mount 
of  Offense,  from  the  belief  that  Solomon 
there  built  the  idolatrous  shrines  for  his 
heathen  wives.  The  ascension  hill  and  the 
hill  of  the  i)rophets  are  so  slightly  dissevered 
that  some  reduce  the  four  summits  to  three. 

Ol'i-vet.     See  Olives,  Mount  of. 
0-lym'pas. 

A  Roman  Christian  to  whom  Paul  sent  his 
salutation  (Itom.  xvi.  15). 

O'mar. 

A  descendant  of  Esau  through  Eliphaz 
(Gen.  xxxvi.  11),  and  chieftain  of  a  tribe 
of  the  name  (15). 

0-me'ga. 

The  last  letter  of  the  Greek  alphabet, 
hence  used  figuratively  for  the  last  or  for  the 
end  (Rev.  i.  8,  11 ;  xxi.  6;  xxii.  13). 

O'mer. 

A  measure  for  dry  articles.  It  contained 
a  tenth  part  of  an  ephah  (Ex.  xvi.  3fi),  and 
was  one  hundredth  of  a  homer  (Ezek.  xiv, 
11).  The  omer  contained  nearly  6  pints. 
See  Measure. 

Om'ri  [untaught  or  impetuous  or  like  a 
sheaf]. 

1.  A  man  of  Benjamin,  family  of  Becher 
(1  Chnm.  vii.  8). 

2.  A  man  of  Judah,  fuuily  of  Perez  (1 
Chron.  ix.  4). 

3.  Son  of  Michael  and  prince  of  the  tribe 
of  Issachar  in  David's  reigu  (1  Chron.  xxvii. 
18). 

4.  A  king  of  Israel.  Before  gainnig  the 
throne  he  was  commander  of  the  Israelite 
army  in  the  reign  of  Elah  and  not  unlikely 
in  that  of  Baasha  also ;  and  he  may  have 
subjugated  Moab  at  this  time  (Moabite  Stone 
7.  S).  He  was  couduetiiig  the  siege  of  (iib- 
bethon,  which  belonged  to  the  Philistines, 
when  news  arrived  that  Zimri  had  murdered 
Elah,  and  usurped  the  throne.  The  army  at 
once  ]u-oclaimed  Omri  king  of  Israel.  He 
acce])ted  the  honor,  and  led  bis  troo])s  against 
the  town  of  Tirzah,  the  national  capital, 
where  Zimri  was.  The  latter,  despairing  of 
his   ability  to   hold    the   throne,  committed 


On 


529 


Onion 


suicide  (1  Kin.  xvi.  15-20).  But  the  nation 
was  divideil.  Ono  lialf  ailhiTcd  to  Oniri  and 
tlio  other  half  sii])iiortod  tlic  rlaiitis  of 
Titini  ;  and  it  was  not  until  the  di-ath  of 
Tihni  live  yrars  lator  that  Oniri  hcc-anio  tlie 
nn(lis|iiit<'(l  soviTi'if^n  of  all  Israel  ('2l-2'.i). 
The  statement  of  ver.  2;{,  "in  the  thirty-lirst 
year  of  Asi  l>ej;an  <  )niri  to  reign  over  Israt'l  " 
(in  llehrew  simply  "Oniri  reigned"),  re- 
fers, not  to  the  time  of  his  ]iroclaniation 
hy  the  soldiery  and  his  assumiition  of  the 
royal  title  (althoiifih  the  twelve  years  of  his 
reign  are  eounted  from  this  event),  huttoliis 
attainment  of  the  sole  authority  in  the  king- 
dom (ep.  vir.  1.'),  :j!)).  Jle  transferred  the 
seat  of  government  from  Tir/.ali  to  Samaria, 
whieh  he  hiiilt  for  the  purpose  CJ-l).  He  fol- 
lowed the  iilolatrie.s  of  .Ierol)(»ani  and  acted 
in  other  resjiects  more  wickedly  than  any  of 
liis  iiredecessors  on  the  throne  of  the  ten 
tribes  CM  ;  Mic.  vi.  Iti).  lie  died  about  874 
B.  c,  and  was  buried  in  Sanuiria.  His  .sou 
Ahah  succeeded  him  on  tlu^  throne  (1  Kin. 
xvi.  "JS).  Omri  made  an  impression  on  his- 
tory outside  of  Israel.  Not  only  did  the 
-Moabites  renuMuber  his  luuue  ;  but  after  lii.s 
death  and  the  annihilation  of  his  family  the 
As.syrians  for  a  tin-.e  still  attached  his  name, 
which  they  wrote  Humri,  to  the  reigning 
monarch  and  laud  of  Israel. 

On,  I.  [strength]. 

A  Keubeiiite  cliief  who  took  part  in  the 
rebellion  of  Korah  (Num.  xvi.  1);  see  Korah. 

On,  II.  [Kgyptian  An,  light]. 

An  old  and  renowned  city  of  Lower  Egypt, 
on  the  east  of  the  Nile,  in  the  delta,  sev- 
eral   miles   from    the    rivtjr  and    19    miles 


jXiJf-- 


.-M^^^^^^^> 


oli.'lisk  nt  Ili-lio|M>lis. 
1. le.l  l.y  llheil.-hin.  br<'..ii.l  Uiii^  1.1  tlie  twelfth  dynn.tty. 

north  of  Menijjhis.  It  was  the  ])rincipal  seat 
of  the  worshi])  of  the  sun  ;  lieuce  called 
Ileliopolis  by  the  (Jreeks  (cp.  Ex.  i.  11,  Sep- 
tiiagiut)  and  IJeth-shemesh  liy  .lereniiah 
(xliii.  i:{).  Ajiparentlv  ls;iiah  hail  this  citv 
34 


in  mind  ;  and  by  a  slight  change  in  the 
first  letter  of  the  name  turned  city  of  the 
sun  into  city  of  destruction,  to  denote  the 
overthrow  of  idolatry  ( Is.  xix.  l^i ;  c]).  margin  i. 
With  the  temple  of  the  sun  were  connected 
a  training  school  for  i>riests  and  a  medical 
school,  and  these  institutiinis  were  visited  by 
all  the  (ireek  jihilosophers  who  went  to 
Egyjit  to  study.  In  Herodotus'  day  the 
l)ri«'sts  of  On  were  esteemed  the  most  learned 
in  history  of  ail  the  Egyptians  (ii.  3).  It 
was  the  daughter  of  a  i)riest  of  On  whom 
Pharaoh  gave  to  Joseph   to  wife  (Gen.  xli. 

■iry,  50  ;    xlvi.  20). 

O'nam  [strong,  wealthy]. 

1.  A  Horite  (Gen.  xxxvi.23  ;  1  Chron.  i.  40). 

2.  A  man  of  Judah,  house  of  Jerahnieel 
(1  Chron.  ii.  2(3,  28). 

O'nan  [strong]. 

A  son  of  Judah  l»y  a  Canaanite  woman. 
He  sinned,  and  was  cut  oft"  by  a  divine  judg- 
ment, leaving  no  posterity  (Gen.  xxxviii. 
4-10;  xlvi.  12;  Num.  xxvi.  19). 

0-nes'i-mus  [useful,  profitable]. 

A  slave  of  I'hilenion,  whom  I'aul  was  the 
means  of  converting  at  Rome,  and  whojn  he 
.sent  back  to  liis  Christian  master  requesting 
that  he  might  be  received,  not  as  a  servant, 
but  as  a  brother  beloved  (I'hilem.  10-19).  He 
was  a  man  of  Colossa',  and  with  Tychiciis 
carrieil  from  IJome  to  that  city  the  ejiistlesto 
the  Colossians  and  to  Philemon  (t'ol.  iv.  7-9). 

On-e-siph'o-rus  [bringing  advantage]. 

A  Christian  who.se  home  was  probably  at 
Ephesus  (2  Tim.  i.  18).  Wlien  he  was  at 
Kome  lie  sought  out  the  apostle  Paul,  then  a 
l)risoner,  and  showed  him  great  kindness 
(16).  The  members  of  his  household  were 
with  Tinuithy,  and  Paul  .sent  them  his  s;ilu- 
tations  (iv.  19). 

0-ni'as,  in  A.  V.  once  O-ni'a-res  (1  Mac. 
xii.  19)  [Greek  for  perhajjs  Coiiiah].  The 
form  Oniares  is  an  old  corru])tion,  in  which 
the  two  names  Ouias  Arius  ai"e  blended  (cp. 
Antiq.  xii.  4,  10). 

.V  high  jiriest  of  the  Jews,  who  held  office 
from  about  '.i'S.i  to  :5(«)  B.  c.  He  was  a  con- 
temporary of  Arius,  king  of  Sparta,  who 
reigned  from  309  to  2().")  B.  c.  (1  Mac.  xii. 
7,  in  A.  V.  Darius,  a  corrujition  of  .\rius;  19, 
20).  Onias  succeeded  Jaddua,  and  was  the 
father  and  jiredeces-sor  of  Simon  the  Just 
(.\nti(i.  xi.  8,  7;  xii.  2,  5).  He  is  probably 
referred  to  in  Eccliis.  1.  1.  Jose])hus  errs  in 
regarding  Onias  III.,  a  later  pontifl',  as  the 
re(i|)ieiit  of  the  letter  from  Arius. 

For  others  of  the  name,  .see  HiuH  Prie.st. 

On'ion. 

A  jilant,  the  bulbous  root  of  which  was 
much  used  in  Egyi)t  as  an  article  of  food 
(Num.  xi.  5  :  Herod,  ii.  ]2.">).  It  is  Allinni 
cepii,  called  in  Hebrew  besrl,  in  Ar.ibic  Iximl. 
It  has  been  cultivated  from  an  early  jnriod 
in  Egypt  and  other  jiarts  of  the  ea.st. 


Ono 


530 


Ophrah 


O'no  [strong]. 

A  town  of  Bonjiiniin  (Neh.  xi.  :{.")),  in  a 
plain  of  consideialjh^  sizi'  (vi.  2),  built  or 
rather  rebuilt  by  a  iJenjaniite  called  Shamed 
(1  Chron.  viii.  12).  Some  of  its  inhal>itants 
returned  from  the  Babylonian  eaiitivity 
(Ezra  ii.  33;  Neh.  vii.  .'37).  It  is  considered 
to  have  been  at  Kefr  'Ana,  about  7  miles  in- 
land east  by  .south  from  Joppa, 

On'y-cha. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  f^Miclelh  (Ex. 
XXX.  34).  It  was  one  of  the  ingredients  in  a 
l)erfume  made  for  the  service  of  the  taber- 
nacle. It  is  believed  to  liave  been  the  oper- 
culum (lid)  of  a  shell  mollusc  called  .stromb 
or  wing-.shell,  which  lieing  Imrnt  gave  out  a 
certain  i)erfume. 

O'nyx  [a  linger  nail,  an  onyx]. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Shoham. 
The  Hebrew  word  denotes  a  precious  stone 
(Job  xxviii.  Ifj,  R.  V.  margin  beryl ;  Ezek. 
xxviii.  13).  It  was  found  in  the  land  of 
Havilah  (Gen.  ii.  12).  Two  of  these  stones, 
each  graven  with  the  names  of  six  Israelite 
tribes,  were  put  on  the  shoulder  pieces  of  the 
high  priest's  ephod  (Ex.  xxviii.  9.  12),  and 
another  was  the  second  stone  in  the  fourth 
row  on  his  breastplate  (xxviii.  20).  David 
gathered  such  stones  for  the  service  of  the 
future  temple  (1  Chron.  xxix.  2).  The  onyx 
is  a  cryptocrystalline  variety  or  subvariety  of 
quartz.  It  is  in  layers  of  different  colors, 
which  alternate  with  each  other  aTid  bear 
some  resemblance  to  the  white  and  Hesh-col- 
ored  bands  of  the  finger  nail. 

O'phel  [a  swelling,  a  hill]. 

The  southern  and  lower  portion,  or  per- 
haps originally  only  an  eminence  on  this 
southern  portion,  of  the  eastern  or  temple 
hill  at  Jerusalem,  enclosed  by  the  city  walls. 
This  general  locality  is  indicated  by  the 
proximity  of  the  pool  of  Shelah,  i.  e.  doubt- 
less Siloam,  the  court  of  the  guard,  the  water 
gate,  and  the  horse  gate  (Neh.  iii.  l.^j-27;  see 
Jerusalem,  paragraph  on  the  walls)  ;  the 
pool  of  Siloam,  the  eastern  court  of  the  tem- 
ple, and  the  Kidron  valley  (War  v.  4,  1  and 
2;  a,  1).  Jotham  built  much  on  its  walls, 
and  Manasseh  increased  their  height  (2 
Chron.  xxvii.  3  ;  xxsiii.  14).  After  the  ex- 
ile, if  not  before,  the  Nethinim  had  their 
residence  in  tliis  quarter,  because  of  its  con- 
venience to  the  tem])le  (Neh.  iii.  26;  xi.  21). 
Sir  Charles  Warren,  in  the  course  of  his  ex- 
cavations on  this  ])ortion  of  the  ridge,  came 
upon  a  wall  more  than  70  feet  high,  which 
be  felt  disposed  to  identify  with  that  of  Ma- 
nasseh (Recovery  of  Jerusalem,  285-6). 

O'pMr. 

A  tribe  descended  from  Joktan  (Gen.  x. 
29;  1  Cliron.  i.  23),  and  the  country  which 
they  inhabited.  This  region  was  celebrated 
for  its  gold  (xxix.  4;  Job  xxii.  24 ;  xxviii. 
16;  Ps.  xlv.  9  ;  Is.  xiii.  12),  to  obtain  which, 
Hiram,  in  conjunction  with  Solomon,  sent  a 
navy  from  Ezion-geber  (1  Kin.  ix.  28).     The 


ships  brought  back  algum  or  almug  trees 
as  well  as  gold  (x.  11),  :uid  pnjbably  also 
silver,  ivory,  apes,  and  i)eac(icks  (22;  cp. 
xxii.  l.S).  Jehoshaphat  attemi)ted  to  imitate 
the  enterprise,  but  his  shi])S  were  wrecked  at 
Ezion-geber  (xxii.  4S).  As  this  jtort  was 
on  the  gulf  of  Akaba,  the  route  to  Ophir  was 
by  the  Ked  Sea  and  not  by  the  Mediterranean. 
The  voyage  out  and  back  in  the  sliips  of  that 
day,  with  the  jieculiar  winds  (jf  the  Ked  Sea, 
and  including  the  lying  in  port,  lasted,  it  may 
be  judged,  three  years  (x.  22;  cp.  xxii.  4S)  ; 
see  Red  Sea.  Three  opinions  exist  as  to  its 
situation  :  1.  Ophir  was  at  Sofala,  on  the  east- 
ern coast  of  Africa,  opposite  the  island  of 
Madagascar.  In  favor  of  this  view  is  the 
fact  that  it  was  formerly  an  emporium  for 
gold.  But  when  it  is  noted  that  the  algum 
or  almng  tree  is  apparently  the  sandalwood, 
which  is  a  native  of  India,  and  is  not  be- 
lieved tooccur  either  in  Arabia  or  Africa,  and 
that  other  products  of  Ophir  brought  by  the 
seamen  had  also  Indian  names,  it  is  probable 
that  Ophir  was  in  India,  or  else  was  a  mart 
of  exchange  for  Indian  goods.  2.  Joseiihus 
says  that  it  was  the  Golden  Laud  in  India 
(Antiq.  viii.  6,  4),  perhaps  on  the  river 
Cophen  (i.  6,  4) ;  and  hence  it  has  been  con- 
jecturally  located  at  Abhira,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Indus.  3.  Ophir  was  in  southern  or 
southeastern  Arabia.  This  opinion  is  prob- 
ably correct;  for  the  majority  of  the  Jok- 
tanites,  perhaps  all  of  them,  settled  in  Arabia. 
Moreover,  Ophir  is  mentioned  between  Shet)a 
and  Havilah. 

Opli'ni  [perhaps,  the  musty  m-  the  Opli- 
nite].     The  Hebrew  uses  the  definite  article. 

A  village  of  Benjamin  (Josh,  xviii.  24). 
Robins(m  suggests  its  identity  with  Gophna, 
on  the  higliway  from  Samaria  to  Jerusalem, 
a  day's  march  north  of  Gibeah  (War  v.  2,  1)  ; 
the  niodern  Jufna,  3  miles  northwest  by  north 
of  Bethel.  This  identification  asstnnes  that 
the  boundary  of  Benjamin  turned  nortliward 
near  Bethel,  for  Bethel  was  on  the  northern 
boundary. 

Oph'rah  [hind]. 

1.  A  son  of  Menothai,  of  the  tribe  of  Judah 
(1  Chron.  iv.  14). 

2.  A  town  of  Benjamin  (Josh,  xviii.  23;  1 
Sam.  xiii.  17).  Robinson  doubtfully  identi- 
fied it  with  et-Taiyibeh,  on  a  conical  hill  4 
miles  northeast  by  east  of  Bethel,  with  a 
.si)lendid  view  from  its  summit,  whiih  he  felt 
could  not  have  been  left  nnoccui)ie(l  in  an- 
cient times.  His  opinion  has  been  widely 
acce])ted,  although  the  place  seems  far  north 
for  a  town  of  Benjamin. 

3.  A  village  west  of  the  Jordan,  occupied 
by  the  Abiozrites,  a  family  of  Manasseh 
(judg.  vi.  11,  1.^1 ;  cp.  Josh.  xvii.  1,  2).  It 
was  the  home  of  (iideon,  where  he  was  called 
to  his  mission  and  built  an  altar,  where  he 
made  an  ephod  to  the  ensnaring  of  Israel, 
and  where  he  was  buried  (Judg.  vi.-viii.). 
Conder,   pointing  out  that  according  to  the 


Orator 


5;;i 


Ossifrage 


Samiirilaii  Chronicle,  Ophrah  was  the  ancient 
naini-  of  For'ala,  G  niik's  west  by  south  of 
Shochein,  sufjKt'sts  tliis  village  as  its  site. 
Fer'ata  is,  however,  eoiiiiiioiily  rcfiardrd  as 
I'irathon  (q.  v.). 

Or'a-tor. 

I.  The  rciHleriiiK  of  tlie  TIehrew  [.(ilidxh,  an 
iiKMUlatioii,  [Ill-ceded  by  n'hnii,  skillful  in  en- 
cliantment  (Is.  iii.  3).  The  K.  V.  aeenrately 
translates  the  jthrase  l)y  skillful  I'nchanter. 

•J.  The  rendcriM,'it)f  the  (Jreek  lilirlnr,  \mU- 
lic  s]i('akcr,  iiUadcr,  in  .Vets  .\xiv.  1.  aiiiilied 
to  Tertulliis.  lie  was  a  jirolessional  advo- 
cate enj^afied  by  Paul's  Jewish  cneniies  to 
jiroseeute  the  apostle  before  the  lioujan  proe- 
unitor. 

Or'chard.     Sec  (;.\i;i)kn. 

O'reb  [a  raven]. 

1.  Oiii'of  two  Midiaiiili-  prineis  defeated, 
eaiituicd,  and  put  to  diatli  hydidt-on.  He 
was  slain  at  a  roek,  which  canii'  t(»  he  called 
in  ctmsccjucnce  the  rock  of  Orel)  (,ludj(.  vii. 
25  ;  viii.  3  ;  Ps.  l.Kxxiii.  11 ;  Is.  x.  2(5). 

2.  \  rock  on  which  the  Midianite  prince 
Orel)  was  killed  by  (Jith'on  (.Tudff.  vii.  2."> ; 
Is.  X.  2(i).  Exact  situation  unknown  ;  but 
doubtless  it  was  west  of  the  Jordan  near  the 
river  l.Iudj;.  vii.  25;  viii.  4). 

O'ren  [a  species  of  pine  tree]. 
A  man  of  .ludah,  house  of  Jerahmcel   (1 
Chron.  ii.  25). 

Or'gan.     Sie  Pipi:. 

0-ri'on. 

A  constellation  (Job  ix.  9 ;  xxxviii.  31 ; 
Amos  V.  Ml,  in  He))rew  K'sil,  a  man  without 
nnderstandiufi,  an  irrtdiiiions  |icrson,  a  fool. 
The  ancient  versions  unite  in  this  identilica- 
tion.  The  Tarj;uins  and  the  Syriae  version 
render  the  word  by  K'ant,  and  tlie  Septnagint 
and  Vulfiate  employ  the  name  Orion.  In  the 
classic  my tholof^y  Orion  is  rein-esented  as  a 
man  of  f:reat  slremrth.  celebrated  as  a  worker 
in  iron  and  as  a  hunter,  lieinji  killed  by  the 
{{oddess  l)iana,  he  was  transferred  to  the 
heavens  and  bound  to  the  sky  (cp.  Job 
XXX viii.  .■Jli,  and  hecame  the  constellation 
Orion. 

Tiie  constellation  is  visible  in  all  latitudes. 
It  disiiutes  with  the  (Jreat  Hear  the  dis- 
tinction of  beiii};  the  finest  constellation  of 
the  sky.  Two  of  its  stars— I?etelf,'ense  at 
the  up]ier  jiarl  of  his  ri;;ht  arm  as  he  laces 
the  siiectator,  ami  Ki^jel  at  his  uplifted  left 
foot — are  of  the  first  ma,i;nitti<b'.  About  100 
stars  in  the  constellation  are  visible  to  the 
naked  eye,  and  2000  or  mure  may  be  seen 
under  the  telescoi)e. 

Or'na-ments. 

Oiiciiials  ailorii  I  benisel  ves  with  orna- 
ments to  an  <xtent  deemed  exces.sive  by 
occidental  taste.  It  has  ever  been  so.  He- 
brews, F>;y])tians,  Midianites.  Syrians,  both 
men  and  women,  were  foml  of  wearing  orna- 
ments ((ien.  xxiv.22;  Ex.  iii.  22;  xi.2  ;  xxxii. 


2  ;  Num.  xxxi.  50).  Women  wore  beads  and 
jiearls,  and  articles  of  gold,  .silver  and  brass 
(Song  i.  10,  11  ;  1  Tim.  ii.  9)  ;  earrings,  nose 
rings,  pendants,  necklaces,  chains,  bnizen 
mirrors,  armlets,  bracelets,  finger  rings, 
anklets  ((ien.  xxiv.  22,  47;  xxxv.  4;  Ex. 
XXXV.  22;  Num.  xxxi.  50;  Is.  iii.  18-23). 
Men  of  all  classes  excejit  the  poorest  wore 
seal  rings  ((!en.  xxxviii.  l.s),  which  w«re 
useful  in  business  as  well  as  ornamental. 
Nor  did  they  ri'gard  rings  for  the  arms  as 
eHeminate.  Saul,  like  the  kings  of  A.^syria, 
wore  a  ring  about  the  arm  or  wrist  (2  Sam. 
i.  10).  It  was  a  national  custom  with  the 
Ishmaelites  for  the  men  to  wear  earrings 
(Judg.  viii.  25,  2()),  and  men  among  the  He- 
brews sometimes  did  so  (E.x.  xxxii.  2).  Men 
of  high  rank  wore  a  gold  chain  as  badge  of 
office  (tien.  xli.  42;   Dan.  v.  2!)). 

Ornaments  were  laid  aside  in  time  of 
mourning  (Ex.  xxxiii.  4-6). 

Or'nan  [jierhaps,  piny].     Sec  Au.4UNau. 

Or'pah  [neck,  mane]. 

The  wife  of  Mahlon.  and  the  sister-in-law 
of  liiith.  She  consented  to  remain  in  her 
native  country,  .Moab.  when  Kuth.  drawn  by 
atfection  to  her  niother-iu-law,  Naomi,  in- 
sisted on  accompanving  her  to  Palestine 
(Ruth  i.  4,   14,   15). 

Or-tho-si'a,  in  .\.  ^'.  Orthosias. 

A  city  on  the  coast  of  Plm-nicia,  between 
Tri))oli  and  the  river  Eleutherus  (1  Mac.  xv. 
37;  Pliny,  Hist.  Nat.  v.  17). 

Os-nap'per.     See  Asn.aitkk. 

Os'pray,  obsolete  form  of  Osprey. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  'Ozuifn/ah 
(Lev.  xi.  13;  Dent.  xiv.  12),  an  unclean  bird. 
It  is  either  a  .species  of  eagle  or  more  vaguely 
the  eagle  genus.  The  Sejituagint  translates 
it  '(iHiiietdn,  that  is,  Pandion  halini'tus.  It 
is  a  dark  brown  eagle  widely  distributed 
throiigliout  the  Avorld,  fi'e(|Uenting  seacoasts, 
and  living  on  fish.  In  Palestine  it  occurs 
along  the  ^Mediterranean.  es])ecially  in  the 
lagoons  at  the  mouth  of  the  Kishon. 

Os'si-firage  [bone  breaker]. 

The  rendering  in  A.  \.  of  the  Hebrew 
Pcrrs.  breaker.  It  was  an  uncleaJi  bird  (Lev. 
xi.  13;  and  Deiit.  xiv.  12).  The  K.  V.  trans- 
lates it  gier  eagle.  It  is  believed  to  be  the 
lammergeyer,  or  bearded  eagle  {(ii/jmetux  bar- 
hiiliis).  The  English  name  ossifrag<'  and  the 
Hebrew  jinrs  both  refer  to  the  fact  that 
the  bird  <lelights  in  bom  s,  snakes,  and  tor- 
toises, which  it  breaks.  This  it  sometimes 
does  by  taking  them  uj)  to  a  great  height  in 
the  air  and  dropiiing  them  on  a  stone.  The 
ossifrage  is  :',\  feet  high  ;  (he  exi>ansion  of 
its  w'Mgs  is  about  !•  feet.  Its  claws  are  not 
adaiiled  for  carrying  oil"  living  ]irey,  and  its 
disposition  is  cowardly.  In  Pah-sline  the 
ossifrage  is  rare  and  tending  to  extinction, 
its  chief  haunts  being  the  ravines  of  the 
Arn<)n,  east  of  the  Dead  Sea. 


Ostrich 


532 


Owl 


Os'trich. 

1.  The    roiuloring  of   the   Hebrew    Yd'en, 
feiniiiine     )'n''')inh,   probably    the   voracious 


Ostrich. 

bird.  It  was  ceremonially  unclean  (Lev.  xi. 
1(5;  Dent.  xiv.  15),  makes  a  mournful  sound 
(Mic.  i.  8),  inhabits  the  wilderness  (Is.  xiii. 
'21;  xxxiv.  13),  and  was  believed  to  forsake 
its  eggs  (Lara.  iv.  '.]).  The  A.  V.  translates 
the  masculine  form  by  ostrich,  the  feminine 
form  by  owl. 

2.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Rauini, 
utterer  of  tremulous  sounds  (.Tob  xxxix.  13, 
in  A.  V.  peacock).  The  frniale  deposits  her 
eggs  on  the  ground  to  be  warmed  in  the  dust ; 
and  it  was  commonly  supposed  that  she 
abandoned  them  to  their  fate,  forgetting 
that  the  foot  might  crush  them  or  that  the 
wild  lieast  might  tram])le  them  (14, 15).  The 
speed  of  the  ostrich  is  such  that  it  distances 
a  man  on  lioi-seback  (18). 

3.  The  A.  V.  inaccurately  renders  Nosah 
by  ostrich  in  Job  xxxix.  13.  It  means  a 
feather,  as  in  Ezek.  xvii.  .3,  7. 

The  ostricdi  {Slrnthio  cdmelnfi)  belongs  to 
the  aberrant  subclass  or  division  called 
Ratitie,  or  struthious  birds.  They  are  among 
the  largest  in  size  of  the  class,  but  are  not 
able  to  fly,  the  deiirivation  being  compen- 
sated by  great  power  of  running.  The  com- 
mon ostrich  is  (5  or  8  feet  high.  The  ostrich 
feathers  which  are  used  for  ladies'  hats  are 
the  quill  feathers  of  the  wings  and  tail. 
The  bird  i)re])ares  a  nest  by  rolling  in  the 
.sand  and  scooping  out  a  hole  about  (i  feet  in 


diameter.  An  egg  is  laid  everj'  other  day, 
until  the  eggs  number  ten,  twelve,  or  more. 
Each  egg  is  about  three  pounds  in  weight. 
They  appear  to  be  hatched  ])artly  by  the  heat 
of  the  sun,  hut  mainly  by  incubation,  the 
male  bird  sitting  on  them  for  about  twentj' 
hours  to  the  hen's  four.  The  male  takes 
charge  of  the  young  brood.  At  night  the  bird 
utters  a  hoarse,  complaining  cry,  alluded  to 
in  Mic.  i.  8.  The  ostrich  is  dill'used  over  the 
greater  part  of  Africa.  It  still  occurs  in 
Arabia,  but  its  area  there  seems  to  have  been 
diminished  since  O.  T.  times. 

Oth'ni  [probably,  lion  of  (God)]. 
A  porter,  the  sou  of  Shemaiah  (1  Chrou. 
xxvi.  7). 

Oth'ni-el  [lion  of  God,  powerful  one  of 
God]. 

A  son  of  Kenaz  and  brother  or  half  brother 
of  Caleb,  son  of  Jephunneh  the  Kenizzite 
(Josh.  XV.  17 :  1  Chrou.  iv.  13) ;  see  Caleb. 
Caleb  promised  to  give  his  daughter  Achsah 
in  marriage  to  any  hero  who  took  the  town 
of  Debir  or  Kirjath-sepher.  Othniel  elfected 
its  capture  and  received  Achsah  (Josh.  xv. 
15-17  ;  Judg.  i.  11-13).  He  subsequently  de- 
livered the  Israelites  from  the  tyranny  of 
Cushan-rishathaim,  king  of  Mesopotamia,  and 
became  judge,  and  the  land  had  rest  forty 
years  (iii.  8-11). 

Ov'en.     See  Beead. 

Owl. 

1.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Batli 
hai/ya'"iiiih  (Lev.  xi.  16,  A.  V.).   See  Ostrich  1. 

2.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Kos,  a 
cup,  an  owl.  It  was  ceremonially  unclean 
(Lev.  xi.  17;  Deut.  xiv.  16,  little  owl),  aud 
frequented  waste  places  (Ps.  cii.  6).  Prob- 
ably the  southern  little  owl  (Athene  {ilaiir)  is 
intended,  which  is  universally  distributed 
through  Palestine,  occurring  in  olive  yards, 
rocks,  thickets,  and  among  ruins  and  tombs. 

3.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Yaiifihuph. 
It  was  ceremonially  unclean  (Lev.  xi.  17; 
Deut.  xiv.  16,  great  owl)  and  frequented 
waste  jilaces  (Is.  xxxiv.  11;  R.  V.  margin, 
bittern).  It  is  rendered  ibis  in  the  Septua- 
gint  and  Vulgate,  and  owl  in  the  Targums 
and  the  Syriac  version.  Tristram  believes 
that  the  s]iecies  was  the  Egyptian  eagle  owl 
(Bubo  iiscdinplins).  It  lives  in  caves  and 
among  ruin.s,  and  is  common  about  Petra 
and  Beer-.sheba. 

4.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  T'nishcwefh 
(Lev.  xi.  18  ;  in  A.  V.  swan).  The  Seiituagint 
re7ulei-s  it  heron,  and  the  Vulgate  swan. 

5.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Lilith, 
nocturnal  specter  (Is.  xxxiv.  14;  in  A.  V. 
screech  owl,  in  1\.  \.  night  monster).  The 
scn^ech  or  barn  owl  (^irix  flainmea)  is  found 
in  Palestine  fre(pu'nting  ruins. 

6.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  K'tppoz 
(Is.  xxxiv.  15;  in  R.  V.  arrow  snake).  The 
corresponding  word  in  Arabic,  hiffiha,  de- 
notes the  arrow  snake. 


Ox 


533 


Paint 


lar.  Tristram  says  that  the  common 
tattle  of  soiitlicni  and  centnil  Pales- 
tine are  small  in  size,  those  of  uorth- 
eni  ralesliiie  are  lar;;er.  'J'lie  larjjfcst 
herds  are  now  beyond  the  Jordan. 

The  word  Co,  rendered  wild  ox 
(Dent.  xiv.  5,  A.  V.)  and  wild  hull 
(Is.  li.-JO,  A.  v.),  is  translated  in  R. 
V.  by  antelope  (q.  v.).   SeeUNicoKN. 

Ox'goad.    See  Goad. 

O'zem. 

1.  A  son  of  Jesse  (1  Chron.  ii.  lo). 

2.  A  son  of  Jeralinieel  (1  Chrou. 
ii.  -J.")). 

0-zi'as.    See  Uzzi.vii. 

Oz'ni  [eared,  iittentive]. 

\  son  of  Gad,  and  founder  of  a 
tribal  family  (Num.  .x.xvi.  Hi).  He 
was  eitliir  railed  also  E/.bon  ((Jen. 
xlvi.  Kil,  or  else  on  IC/.bon's  death  he 
took  his  jilaee  and  founded  a  tribal 
family,  as  did  llezron  and  llamul  in 
Judaii  (Num.  xxvi.  19-21). 


P. 


Tlie  male  of  the  siiecies  llos  tnitnis,  though 
ox  freiiuently  sijrnilit'S  any  animal  of  the 
kind,  without  respoet  to  sex  (Ex.  xx.  17), 
and  the  j>lural  oxen  is  often  synonymous 
with  cattle  ((>eii.  xii.  Iti).  The  ox  was  early 
<loniesticated.  .\brahani  had  shee))  and  oxen 
((!en.  xii.  Hi:  xxi.  -JT)  ;  so  bad  bis  eontem|io- 
rary  .\binielech  (xx.  11),  and  the  Kgyjitiansat 
the  time  of  the  ten  jjlasnes  (Ex.  ix.  3).  The 
ox  was  used  for  i)lowinK  (1  Kin.  xix.  19), 
for  drauf-'inn  carts  or  waj^ons  (Num.  vii.  3; 


Epj'ptinn  Oxen  treading  out  fJrain. 

2Sam.  vi.  C,  etc.),  ami  for  treading  out  pniin 
(Dent.  XXV.  1).  They  were  eaten  M  Kin.  i. 
'J.'i;  cp.  -Mat.  xxii.  1).  and  were  larf,'ely  sacri- 
ficed, especially  in  connection  with  the  burnt 
otrerinnstNuni.  vii.  H7.  KS  ;  2  Sam.  xxiv.  2J  ; 
2  t'hron.  v.  (J;  vii.  5,  etc.).  A  yoke  of  oxen 
was  two  oxen  designed  to  be  yoked  together 
for  the  plow,  for  a  cart,  or  for  anything  simi- 


Pa'a-rai. 

One  of  David's  mighty  men  (2  Sam.  xxiii. 
3."),  most  i)robably  a  diverse  reading  of  1  Chron. 
xi.  37). 

Pad'dan  and  Pad-dan-a'ram,  in  A.  V. 
Pa'dan  and  Pa-dan-a'ram  [plain,  plain  of 
Aram,  /.  e.,  Syria]  ;  see  Akam  2  (1). 

Pa'don  [freedom,  redemption]. 

Eounder  of  a  family  of  Nethinim,  mem- 
bers of  which  returned  from  captivity  (Ezra 
ii.  4  J :  Nell.  vii.  47). 

Pa'gi-el  [a  nu'eting  with  God]. 

Head  of  the  tribe  of  Asher  in  the  wilder- 
ness (Num.  i.  13;  ii.  27;  vii.  72,  77;  x.  26). 

Pa-hath-mo'ab  [governor  of  Moab]. 

rouinh  r  of  a  family,  members  of  which 
returned  from  the  iiabylonian  captivity 
(Ezraii.  0;  viii.  4;  Neh.  vii.  11).  Some  of 
them  married  heathen  wives,  from  whom 
Ezra  persuaded  them  to  separate  (Ezra  x.  30). 
The  representative  of  tlie  family  signed  the 
covenant  (Neh.  x.  14),  and  Hasbub,  a  mem- 
ber of  the  family,  rebuilt  or  replaced  part  of 
the  wall  of  Jerusalem  (iii.  11). 

Pa'i.    Sic  I'M'. 

Paint. 

In  ancient  Egyi>t  and  Assyria  the  custom 
of  iiainting  a  black  rim  around  the  eyes  |>re- 
vailed  among  the  women.  The  Hebrews 
seem  to  have  regarded  the  practice asa  niere- 
I vicious  art,  unworthy  of  a  woman  of  high 
diaracter  (2  Kin.  ix.":!0;  Jer.  iv.  3(1;  Ezek. 
xxiii.  40;  War  iv.  9,  10).  The  eyeball  under 
the  lids  and  the  edge  of  the  lids,  and  some- 
times the  eyebrows,  were  blackened.    Doubt 


Palace 


534 


Palestine 


less  various  dye  stuflFs  were  used  for  the 
purpose.  Antimony,  burnt  to  hhickness  and 
pulverized,  was  employed  (Septuagint). 
Probably  lead  also  was  used,  as  it  is  in  Per- 
sia. The  ordinary  kohl,  which  is  used  by 
women  in  Egypt  at  the  i)resent  day,  is  a  i)ow- 
der  obtained  from  almond  shells  or  by  burn- 
ing a  fragrant  resin.  The  powder  was  kept 
in  small,  covered  jars  ;  and  wasa]>plied,  both 
dry  and  moistened  with  oil,  by  means  of  a 
I)robe  made  of  wood,  silver,  or  ivory,  and 
blunt  at  the  end. 

For  cosmetics  applied  to  other  parts  of  the 
body,  see  Hknx.\  ;  and  for  pigments  used  to 
color  walls  and  other  objects,  see  Colors. 

Pal'ace. 

David  occii])ied  a  royal  residence  at  Jeru- 
salem (2  Sam.  V.  9;  vii.  1,  2),  hut  Solomon's 
commodious  and  magnificent  abode  was  the 
first  in  Jerusalem  to  be  constructed  on  a 
grand  scale  (1  Kin.  vii.  1-12).  It  was  thir- 
teen years  in  course  of  erection,  whereas  the 
temple  was  completed  in  seven  years  (vi.  38  ; 
vii.  1).  It  contained  the  house  of  the  forest 
of  Lebanon  (2-5),  which  took  its  name  from 
its  numerous  cedar  pillars.  This  house  was 
100  cubits  or  1.50  feet  long,  .50  cubits  wide, 
and  30  cubits  high.  Its  walls  were  of  solid 
masonry.  Within  were  four  rows  of  cedar 
pillars.  Probably  one  row  ran  i)arallel  with 
each  wall,  and  the  four  rows  formed  the  four 
sides  of  a  rectangular  court,  about  30  by  80 
cubits  in  dimension  :  or  else  the  jnllars  were 
disposed  in  two  double  rows  parallel  to  the  long 
sides  of  the  building  and  left  a  court  in  the 
center.  Beams  extended  from  the  pillars  to 
the  walls  and  supported  thi'ee  tiers  of  cham- 
bers. These  chambers  looked  down  into  the 
court.  This  l)uilding  was  at  once  armory 
and  treasui-e  house  (x.  17,  21 ;  Is.  xxii.  S), 
and  may  have  served  other  purposes  as  well. 
A  hall  of  pillars  was  the  reception  and  wait- 
ing room  of  the  ])alaee  (1  Kin.  vii.  6).  It  was 
50  cubits  in  length  and  30  cubits  in  breadth, 
and  had  a  portico  in  front  of  its  portal.  This 
portico  was  not  unlikely  the  main  entrance  to 
the  palace.  Next  came  the  hall  of  judgment 
(ver.  7).  0]>en  in  front,  but  probably  closed  on 
the  other  three  sides  by  solid  walls  pierced  by 
doors  only.  It  w'as  the  throne  room.  The 
great  ivory  throne  overlaid  with  gold  stood 
there  (x.  18-20).  These  three  buildings  ])rob- 
ably  opened  on  a  rectangular  court,  the  sides 
of  which  were  the  portal  in  the  central  part 
of  the  inner  long  wall  of  the  house  of  the 
forest  of  I.el)anon,  the  inner  doors  and  wall 
of  the  hall  of  ])illars,  and  the  ojjcn  front  of 
the  throne  room.  Behind  the  throne  room 
was  the  inner  court  where  the  king  dwelt. 
The  principal  entrance  to  it  was  probably 
through  the  throne  room,  so  that  the  king  pro- 
nounced judgment  and  granted  audiences  in 
the  gate  of  liis  palace.  This  court  was.  of 
course,  adorned  with  flowers  and  fountains, 
and  surrounded  by  cloisters.  The  palace  of 
Pharaoh's  daughter  (vii.  8)  was  next  to  the 


throne  room,  according  to  Josephus  (Antiq. 
viii.  5,  2).  Solomon's  palace  was  constructed 
on  the  general  model  which  prevailed  in 
western  Asia,  and  which  is  now  familiar  from 
the  remains  of  the  royal  abodes  unearthed 
in  Assyria,  Babylonia,  and  Persia.  Some 
conception  of  its  elegance  and  beauty  may 
be  formed  from  casual  references  in  the  Book 
of  Esther  to  the  palace  of  the  Persian  king 
at  Shushan  (Esth.  i.  5,  (>,  9  ;  ii.  3,  14  ;  v.  1,  2 ; 
vii.  7).  See  House;  Asmon^.\x.s,  P.\l.\ce 
OF  the;  Hekod's  P.\lace;  and  Pk.etor- 

lUM. 

Pa'lal  [a  judge,  or  he  hath  judged]. 

A  son  of  I'zai.  He  helped  to  rebuild  the 
wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  iii.  25). 

Pal-an-quin'. 

A  covered  conveyance,  arranged  both  for 
sitting  and  reclining,  and  carried  by  means 
of  poles  on  the  shoulders  of  two,  four,  or  six 
men  or  borne  as  a  litter  between  two  camels, 
horses,  or  mules.  The  royal  i)alanquin,  pro- 
vided by  Solomon  for  his  bride,  consisted  of 
a  frame  made  of  cedar,  with  .small  orna- 
mental pillars  of  silver,  a  bottom  of  gold, 
costly  cBveriugs  of  purple  for  the  seat,  and 
perhaps  embroideries  lovingly  made  by  the 
daughters  of  Jerusalem  (Song  iii.  9,  in  A.  V. 
chariot ;  by  Ewald  and  Delitzsch  rendered 
bed  of  s{^te). 

Pal'es-tine  (Joel  iii.  4)  and  Pal-es-ti'na 
(Ex.  XV.  14  ;  Is.  xiv.  29,  31),  in  E.  V.  always 
Philistia. 

In  the  O.  T.  the  name  denotes  the  country 
of  the  Philistines  (cp.  Herod,  vii.  89).  The 
name  now  designates  a  country  in  the  south- 
west corner  of  Asia,  constituting  the  southern 
portion  of  Syria,  and  which  for  along  time  was 
in  the  possession  ol'the  Hebrews.  That  jiortion 
of  this  territory  which  lies  west  of  the  Jor- 
dan the  ancient  Hebrews  called  Canaan  as 
distinguished  from  the  land  of  Gilead  on  the 
east  of  the  river.  After  the  conquest  the  en- 
tire country  became  known  as  the  land  of 
Israel  (1  Sam.  xiii.  19  ;  1  Chron.  xxii.  2  :  Mat. 
ii.  20),  but  after  the  division  of  the  kingdom 
this  name  was  often  given  to  the  northern 
realm.  In  the  epistle  to  the  Hebrews  (xi.  9) 
it  is  called  the  land  of  jiromise.  Soon  after 
the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era  Greek  and 
Latin  writers  denominate  it  Paljestina.  lu 
the  Middle  Ages  it  became  known  as  the 
Holy  Land  (cp.  Zech.  ii.  12;  2  Mac.  i.  7). 

1.  Boundiiries  and  Ejieiit  of  Pahsthie.  The 
Hebrews  occu])ied  the  region  from  Kadesh- 
barnea  and  the  wady  el-'Arish  on  the  south 
to  mount  Hernion  on  the  north,  and  from 
the  Mediterranean  Sea  on  the  west  to  the 
desert  on  the  ea.st.  except  the  plain  of  the  Phi- 
listines and  the  country  of  Moab.  In  pros- 
perous reigns  ]«)werful  kings  extended  their 
sway  beyond  these  limits  and  held  dominion 
over  Ilamath  and  Damascus  and  beyond,  as 
far  as  the  river  Euiihrates.  and  over  Amnion, 
Moab,  and  Edom.  The  Hebrews  themselves 
were  accustomed  to  .say  that  their  country 


Palestine 


535 


Palestine 


extended  from  Dan  to  Beer-sheba,  a  distance 

of  \'>0  miles.  Tlie  soiitliern  boundary  was 
tlicn  tlic  wady  i-l-l-'ikrcli  and  tlic  river  Arnon. 
These  limits  included  tlie  thickly  populated 
portion  of  the  land.  Takiiijj  the  smaller 
limits,  which  exclude  most  of  the  territory 
occupied  by  the  tribe  of  Simeon  and  ])art  of 
that  occujiied  by  Xa])hlali.  the  Ixjuiidaries 
form  a  jiarallelofiram,  the  altitude  of  which, 
measured  by  the  latitudes  of  Dan  and  the 
soiiiliern  extremity  of  the  Dead  Sea,  is  145 
miles,  and  the  base  TO  miles.  The  area  is 
1(1,150  square  miles.  This  includes  the  I'hi- 
listine  country,  which,  at  its  utmost  extent 
from  Carmel  to  Beer-sheba,  had  an  area  of 
1705  square  miles,  leaving  83)^5  sijuare  miles 
as  the  territory  occui)ied  by  the  IIel)rcws. 
The  survey  assigns  to  eastern  Palestine,  from 
Hernion  to  the  Arnon.  about  .jSOO  square 
miles;  and  to  western  Palestine,  as  far  south 
as  Beer-slieba  and  including  Philistia,  (i040 
square  miles. 

2.  I'opnialioii  of  Palestine.  The  Hebrews 
at  the  time  of  the  conquest  numbered  (iOO,- 
000  males  above  twenty  years  of  age,  which 
rejiresents  a  total  i)oj)ulation  of  2,160,000. 
They  were  distributed  over  something  more 
tlian  h300  sijuare  miles.  Massachusetts,  with 
an  area  of  8315  square  miles,  had  a  pojjula- 
tion  of  2,238,943  in  1890,  and  New  Jersey, 
with  an  area  of  7815  square  miles,  had  a 
population  of  1,444,!)3.'>.  David  took  the 
census  of  a  much  larger  region.  The  jiresent 
population  is  estimated  at  OOO.OOO.  That  it 
was  formei'ly  much  larger  isevident  from  the 
statements  of  the  Ilible  and  Josephus.  and 
from  the  numerous  ruins  of  former  towns. 
Scarcely  a  hilltoj)  of  the  multitude  always 
in  sight  but  is  crowned  with  a  city  or  village, 
inhabited  or  in  ruins. 

3.  The  (h'oloijy  of  P(ile.iii)ic.  A  band  of 
Nubian  or  Petra  sandstone  extends  along  the 
eastern  coast  of  the  Dead  Sea  and  along  part 
of  the  wall  <>f  rock  Hanking  the  .lordan  val- 
ley on  till'  east,  and  ai)iiears  (in  the  western 
slopes  of  Lebanon  and  Anti-Lebanon.  It  is 
generally  of  a  dark  red  or  blackish  color. 
Above  this  lies  the  mo.st  important  geological 
formation  in  Palestine,  the  cretaceous  lime- 
stone which  constitutes  the  main  jiart  of  the 
table-land  of  the  country  both  east  and  west 
of  the  Jordan.  At  Jeru.salem  there  are  two 
beds  of  the  limestone,  an  upper  or  harder 
layer,  called  by  the  inhabitants  inissvh.  and 
an  inferior  soft  <ine.  denominati'd  wcli'krh. 
The  reservoirs,  sepulchers.  anil  cellars  under 
and  around  the  city  have  been  excavated  in 
the  soft  mclckch.  while  the  foundations  of 
the  buildings  are  on  the  li.-ird  misseh.  The 
large  quarries  near  the  Damascus  gate  are  in 
the  mrlrh'h.  From  ihem  came  the  stone  of 
which  the  temple  walls  were  constructed. 
These  beds  of  cretai-eous  limestone  underlie 
a  newer  series  which,  commenritig  at  mount 
Carmel.  runs  nearly  south  to  Heer-sheba,  fron» 
which  it  then  curves  in  a  southwesterly 
direction  parallel  to  the  Mediterranean.   Out- 


liers of  it  exist  also  northeast,  east,  and 
southwest  of  .Jerusalem  and  around  Shechem. 
From  the  abun<lance  in  them  of  the  little 
forum itiifcni  called  nummulites,  the  beds  are 
nametl  the  immmulitic  limestone.  They  be- 
long to  the  Eocene  Tertiary,  and  probably  to 
the  Middle  Eocene.  This  rock  is  so  connected, 
with  the  cretaceous  limestone  that  the  two 
are  generally  held  to  constitute  but  a  single 
formation,  called  the  <retaceo-iiummulitic 
series.  Flanking  the  nummulitic  limestone 
on  the  west  a  long  continuous  band  of  cal- 
careous sandstone  extends  through  tlie  Phi- 
listine country  and  apjjcars  in  .scattered 
l)atches  farther  north,  to  near  mount  Car- 
mel. As  a  rule,  it  is  jiorous  and  soft,  and  as 
it  easily  weathers  away,  it  exjio.ses  the  harder 
limestone  of  the  table-land  which  dips  be- 
neath it,  and  makes  the  descent  from  the 
uplands  to  the  lowlands  (jf  Juda?a  and 
Samaria  more  abrupt  than  it  otherwise 
would  be.  Between  this  sandstone  and  the 
Mediterranean  lie  raised  beaches  belonging 
to  the  upper  Pliocene,  or  to  recent  times. 
All  these  are  sedimentary  l)eds.  A  few 
igneous  rocks,  however,  exist  in  the  land. 
A  minute  patch  of  very  old  igneous  rocks, 
an  outlier  of  the  great  mass  of  granite, 
porjihyry.  diorite,  and  felsite,  which  occurs 
farther  south  in  the  Arabah  and  especially 
at  Sinai,  is  combined  with  the  carboniferous 
rocks.  On  the  eastern  side  of  the  Jordan, 
nearly  all  the  way  from  the  roots  of  mount 
Hermon  tf>  south  of  the  sea  of  Galilee,  and 
east  and  southeast  to  the  Hatiran,  beyond 
the  limits  of  Palestine,  the  country  is  over- 
spread by  an  iunnense  mass  of  volcanic 
material,  basalt,  dolerite,  felsite,  none  of  it 
older,  and  some  of  it  a])parently  more  re- 
cent, than  the  Pliocene  Tertiary.  There  are 
detached  imrtiiins  of  the  same  volcanic  rocks 
in  western  Palestine,  west  and  northwest  of 
the  sea  of  (lalilee,  with  fragments  in  other 
ijuarters.  .\long  the  Mediterranean  coast  of 
PaU'stine,  wherever  the  ground  is  low  and 
level,  there  is  a  row  of  sand  dunes,  some 
rising  200  feet  in  height.  Those  on  the 
southwest  of  the  country  may  have  been  at 
least  ]iartly  formeil  by  the  blowing  of  sand 
from  the  I'gyptian  and  ."sinaitic  deserts.  Those 
farther  mirth  obtained  the  sand  from  the 
weathering  of  the  calcareous  sandstone  of 
Philistia.  They  tend  to  encroach  upon  the 
cultivated  ])arls  adjacent,  the  wind  continu- 
ally blowing  particles  I'mm  them  inland. 
Palestine  lies  in  one  of  the  lines  in  which 
eariUquake  action  is  ])otent ;  and  l)oth  in 
ancient  times  and  more  recently  jiortions  of 
the  country  luive  been  seriously  convulsed. 
To  recapitulate,  the  geological  structure  of 
Palestine  consists  of  a  layer  of  red  .sjindstone 
over  the  primitive  rocks;  then  comes  the 
chalky  limestone  which  forms  the  ma.ss  of 
the.  vuuix'ry.  overlaid  with  nunnnulite  lime- 
stone ai:d  alltivial  soil;  and  lastly  in  the 
northeast  appear  colos.sal  erupted  ma.s,ses  of 
volcanic  rock. 


Palestine 


536 


Palestine 


4.  The  Phymcal  Geofiraph)/  of  Palestine. 
The  physical  divisions  of  Palestine  are  five: 
the  niaritiiiie  ]ilain,  the  low  country  or 
Shephelah,  the  central  mountain  range,  the 
Jordan  valley,  and  the  eastern  table-land. 
These  form  parallel  zones,  and  with  certain 
modifications  extend  throujjh  the  entire 
lenjith  of  the  country  from  north  to  south. 
They  are  broken  only  by  the  plain  of 
Esdraelon,  which  lies  athwart  the  mountain 
range  and  connects  the  seacoast  with  the 
Jordan  vallej'.  1.  The  maritime  plain  lies 
along  the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea  for 
the  entire  length  of  the  country,  being 
broken  only  by  mount  Carmel.  North  of 
Carmel  it  is  quite  narrow,  but  south  of  that 
mountain  it  is  6  miles  wide  and  increases  in 
■width  southward.  It  is  an  undulating  plain 
100  to  -200  feet  above  .sea  level,  and  very 
fertile.  Between  Carmel  and  the  'Aujah, 
which  empties  into  the  sea  north  of  Joppa, 
it  was  called  Sharon,  south  of  Joppa  it  was 
occupied  by  the  Philistines.  2.  The  low 
country  or  Shephelah  is  a  region  of  low  hills 
situated  between  the  maritime  plain  south 
of  Carmel  and  the  high  central  range.  It 
forms  a  terrace  with  an  elevation  of  about 
500  feet  above  the  sea  level.  The  name  is 
applied  almost  exclusively  to  that  part  of  the 
low  hilly  country  which  extends  from  the 
latitude  of  Joppa  southward  to  Beer-sheba, 
and  which  is  sharply  separated  from  the 
central  range  by  a  series  of  valleys  running 
north  and  south.  3.  The  central  mountain 
range  is  a  continuation  of  the  Lebanon 
mountains.  South  of  the  river  Leontes  the 
lofty  ridge  drops  to  a  high  jdateau  which 
reaches  southward  as  far  as  the  northern  end 
of  the  sea  of  Galilee  and  Acre.  This  is 
Upper  Galilee.  It  contains  a  number  of  hills 
between  2000  and  3000  feet  in  elevation ; 
while  several  rise  considerably  above  that 
height,  like  Jebel  Jermuk  which  is  3934  feet. 
Lower  Galilee  is  triangular,  having  the  sea 


nSOOO-Fat 


of  the  sea  of  Galilee.    Southwest  of  the  sea  is 
mountTabor,  lb43feethigh  ;and  farthersouth 


mount  Gilboa,  with  one  peak  1698  feet  and 
another  1648  feet.  The  southern  part  of 
Lower  Galilee  descends  into  the  plain  of 
Esdraelon,  most  of  the  places  in  which  do  not 
exceed  200  or  300  feet  in  height.  South  of  the 
plain  of  Esdraelon  the  range  is  broken  by 
many  wadies,  mountains  are  scattered  into 
groups,  and  its  inner  recesses  are  accessible 
from  the  maritime  plain,  Esdraelon,  and  the 
Jordan  valley.  Carmel  is  thrust  out  as  a 
spur  toward  the  northwest.  The  average 
watershed  is  2000  feet  high.  But  mount  Ebal 
rises  3077  feet  and  its  co>mpanion  Gerizim 
2849.  This  was  Samaria.  From  Bethel  to 
Hebron  and  almost  to  Beer-sheba,  a  distance 
of  about  45  miles,  the  range  forms  one  com- 
pact mass  with  precipitous  sides  on  the  east 
and  west  and  with  an  average  height  of  2200 
feet.  Bethel,  however,  has  an  elevation  of 
2930  feet  above  sea  level,  the  highest  part  of 
Jerusalem  2598,  Bethlehem  2550,  and  Hebron 
3040.  About  15  miles  south  of  Hebron  it 
slopes  down  to  the  desert  of  the  wandering. 
The  summit  of  the  range  is  the  narrow 
table-land  which  was  occupied  by  the  tribes 
of  Benjamin  and  Judah.  4.  The  Jordan 
valley  is  a  remarkable  chasm  which  begins 


4ooo 


G*' 


lono 

3000 


Cross  Sections  of  Palesthie  on  the  Parallels  of  Hebron,  Jerusalem,  and  Shiluh. 


of  Galilee  and  the  Jordan  as  far  as  Beth- 
shean  on  its  eastern  side  and  the  plain  of 
Esdraelon  on  the  southwestern  side.  It  con- 
sists of  a  series  of  low  ridges  running  east 
and  west.  Its  elevation  is  considerably  less 
than  that  of  Upper  Galilee,  many  of  its  hills 
being  only  400.  500,  or  600  feet  high,  though 
there  are  a  few  loftier  peaks  immediately  west 


at  the  foot  of  mount  Hermon,  1700  feet 
above  sea  level,  but  with  lofty  mountains  on 
each  side,  and  grows  rapidly  deeper  as  it  goes 
southward  until  at  the  surface  of  the  Dead 
Sea  it  is  1290  feet  lower  than  sea  level ;  see 
Dead  Se.\  and  Jordan.  Though  not  an 
impassable  barrier,  it  prevented  free  inter- 
course between  the  peoples  who  dwelt  east 


Palestine 


537 


Palestine 


of  it  south  of  the  Jabhok  as  fur  as  Edom, 
and  the  tribes  of  Juchih  atul  Benjaiiiin  ou 
the  west.  .">.  'I'lie  eastern  tal)k'-hinil  is  a 
great  fertiU-  plain,  nuieh  of  it  more  than 
;j(X)0  feet  in  elevation,  stretching  from  the 
binds  whieh  overlook  the  Jordan  valley  to 
the  Syrian  desert.  It  is  eut  in  twain  l)y  the 
gorge  of  the  .(ahhok  and  tlii'  niirtliern  |)or- 
tion  is  fnrther  eleft  by  the  Yarmuk,  imme- 
diately south  of  the  sea  of  (iaiilee. 

5.  The  Principal  Roads  of  Palcslhie.  The 
jihysieal  structure  determined  the  course  of 
travel.  The  great  commercial  and  militarj- 
liighway  between  Egypt  and  the  empires  of 
the  east  passed  througii  Talestine.  It  crossed 
the  wady  el-'Arish  near  its  mouth,  followed 
the  seacoast  to  (Ja/.a,  where  it  was  met  by  a 
roatl  from  Klath  and  .Vrabia.  and  continued 
through  the  plain  of  tlie  Philistines  to  Ash- 
dod.  JJeyond  Ashdod  it  forked.  One  branch 
followed  the  coast  by  .Toppa  and  Dor,  and 
avoided  nutuut  C'armel  by  keeping  to  the  sea- 
sh(»re  at  the  base  of  the  headland  :  l)Ut  the 
way  is  only  tiOO  feet  wide  under  the  head- 
land, and  is  broken  by  rocks.  The  other 
branch,  and  the  main  Hue  of  travel,  continued 
from  Ashdod  through  Ekron  and  Lod  and 
cros-sed  the  mountains  to  the  plain  of  Esdra- 
elon  by  one  of  three  jia.sses.  The  western 
road  emerged  by  Tell  Keimun  and  led  to 
Acre,  Tyre,  Sidon.  atid  the  north.  The  cen- 
tnil  road  cros.sed  to  el-Lej.jun  (Megiddo), 
traversed  the  ]ilain  of  Esdraelon  and  Lower 
Galilee  to  the  plain  of  tiennesaret,  followed 
the  Jordan  northward,  and  by  one  branch 
entered  the  valley  of  the  Leontes  between 
Lebanon  and  Anti-Lebanon,  and  led  to  Ha- 
math  and  the  north.  The  other  branch 
crossed  the  Jordan  between  the  waters  of 
Merom  and  the  sea  of  (iaiilee,  and  went 
northeastward  to  Damascus.  The  third  and 
most  frequented  route  from  the  maritime 
plain  pas.sed  through  the  jilain  of  Dothan  to 
En-gannim,  whi're  it  divided,  one  branch 
joining  the  aforementioned  road  across  Lower 
(iaiilee,  and  the  other  leading  to  lieth-shean, 
and.  dividing  again,  continuing  to  (iilead  or 
to  Damascus.  Hy  any  of  the  northern  routes 
C'arcbemish  on  the  Euphrates  miglit  be 
reached.  There  was  another  road  from  the 
plain  of  Esdraelon  to  ICgyjit.  It  traversed 
the  hill  country,  {la.ssing  by  Samaria,  She- 
chem.  Bethel,  .Terusalem.  Betldehem,  Hebron, 
and  Heer-sheba.  .\t  this  jioint  the  mad 
branclu'd,  and  there  was  a  choice  of  routes; 
the  highway  along  the  si'acoast  might  be 
gained  by  diverging  to  the  west,  or  the 
journey  might  be  continued  by  way  of  Re- 
boboth  and  ".Vin  ^Iiiwcileb.  and  thence  across 
the  desert  to  I^gypt.  .\  route  from  I!eth- 
shean  to  Etlom,  which  was  also  used  by  trav- 
elers to  Jerusalem.  pas.sed  down  the  Jordan 
valley  to  Jericho,  where  persons  goiiig  to  Je- 
rusiilern  took  the  stee|i  mad  u|i  the  mountains 
to  the  cajiital.  I'Voni  .lerii-lio  the  road  con- 
tinued along  the  western  shore  of  the  Dead 
Sea  to  En-gedi,  where  it  was  joined  by  a  road 


from  Jerusalem  and  Bethlehem,  and  thence 
continued  to  Edom  and  Elath  at  the  head  of 
the  Ked  Sea,  where  it  joined  the  caravan 
routes  from  Egj-jit  and  (iaza  to  sijutheru 
Arabia.  East  of  the  Jordan  a  caravan  route 
led  from  Damascus  along  the  edge  of  the 
desert  -southward  to  Arabia  ;  see  I)kc'A1'<»lis. 
It  was  joined  by  roads  running  from  Beth- 
shean  across  (iilead  ;  by  a  road  from  Shechem 
down  the  wady  Far'ah  to  the  ford  of  the 
Jordan  below  the  mouth  of  the  Jabbok,  and 
thence  across  (iilead  to  Kahliath  Amnion  ; 
and  by  another  froni  the  ford  at  Jericlio  by 
way  of  Ileshbon.  West  of  the  Jordan  Ciali- 
lee  was  crossed  by  a  road  running  almost 
due  east  from  Acre,  which  joined  the  road 
to  Damascus  near  the  jxiint  where  it  crossed 
the  Jordan,  midway  between  the  waters  of 
Merom  and  the  sea  of  Galilee.  The  high 
table-land  occupied  by  the  tribes  of  Benjamin 
and  Judah  was  not  easy  of  access  from  the 
maritime  jilain.  A  way,  however,  led  from 
the  ]ilain  of  Sharon  and  the  Nahr  el-'Aujah 
at  Kas  el-'Ain  (Antii>atris)  southeast wardly 
into  the  hill  country,  and  joined  the  road 
from  Samaria  to  Jerusalem  at  a  point  two 
miles  southwest  of  Bethel.  From  the  sea- 
I)ort  of  Jopjia  a  mad  led  to  Jerusalem  by  the 
valley  of  Aijalon  and  Beth-lioron.  From 
Ashdod  the  cai)ital  was  most  readily  reached 
by  wady  es-Surar  and  Beth-shemesh  ;  but  a 
route  to  Jerusalem  and  also  to  Bethlehem 
was  afforded  by  the  wady  es-Sunt  past  Socoh. 
Access  to  the  hill  country  in  the  vicinity  of 
Hebron  was  had  through  the  wady  el-'Afranj 
by  Beit  Jibriu,  and  by  the  wady  el-IIesy  by 
Lachish. 

6.  The  Meteorology  of  Palestine.  The  great 
contrasts  in  physical  features  have  given  Pal- 
estine a  remarkable  range  of  climate,  from  the 
perpetual  snow  on  mount  Ilermon  to  the 
trojiical  heat  of  the  Jordan  valley  at  Jericho 
ami  En-gedi.  The  average  temperature  at 
Ji-rusalem  in  January,  which  is  the  colde.st 
month,  is  about  49.4^  F..  and  the  greatest 
cold  2i<°.  In  August  the  average  is  7!l.3°, 
and  the  greatest  heat  is  92°  in  the  shade. 
See  al.so  Yk.\r. 

7.  The  Ptotnnii  of  PdJfxthic.  Inconsequence 
of  the  great  diversity  of  surface  and  climate, 
the  llora  is  extensive  and  plants  of  many 
latitudes  llourish.  Tristnim  showed  that  of 
3tKt2  dowering  plants  and  ferns  known  to 
exist  in  Palestine,  a  large  nund)er  for  so 
small  a  country,  'J5();{  are  Pahearctic,  and 
most  of  them  belong  to  its  Mediterranean 
section  ;  Ifil  are  Ethio]>ian,  27  Indian,  and 
251  peculiar.  In  the  region  which  lies  be- 
tween the  Taurus  mountains  and  the  south- 
ern point  of  the  jieniusula  of  .'^iuai.  and  be- 
tween the  Mediterranean  Sea  and  the  Syrian 
desert.  Dr.  Post  has  found  850  genera  aiul 
about  .'5500  species. 

8.  The  Zooloa;/ of  Pnli-stiiii:  The  distribu- 
tion of  the  sevenil  sjiecies  of  animals  es.si'ntial- 
ly  agrees  with  that  of  the  Palestinian  plants. 
Of  113  mammalia  known  to  occur  in  Pale«- 


Palestine 


538 


Palestine 


tine,  Tristram  found  55  to   belong    to  the 

Palicaretic  region,  tlio  same  to  which  our 
KuroiH'au  spet-ios  Ijcloiig  ;  34  were  Elhiojiian, 
16  Indian,  and  1.'}  peculiar  to  the  land.  The 
same  species  sometimes  belongs  to  two  regions. 
Of  .3 18  species  of  t)irds,  271  were  Pahearctic,  40 
Ethioiiian,  7  Indian,  and  30  peculiar.  Of  the 
ill  reptiles  and  amphibians,  4!)  were  Palav 
arctic,  2~  Ethioiiian,  4  Indian,  and  11  pecu- 
liar. Of  43  fresh-water  fishes,  8  were  Palaj- 
arctic,  2  Ethiopian,  7  Indian,  and  2(i  pecu- 
liar. In  tlic  case  of  both  plants  and  animals, 
the  African  and  Indian  types  come  chielly 
from  the  low-lying  region  around  the  Dead 
Sea.  and  to  a  less  extent  from  the  low  valley 
of  the  .Jordan. 

9.  The  Ethnology  of  Palestine.  The  aborig- 
inal inhabitants  of  Palestine  were  a  tall,  stal- 
wart race,  consisting  of  Anakim  (Josh.  xi. 
21,  22),  Eephaim  (Gen.  xiv.  5),  Emim,  Zam- 
zummim,  and  Horites  (Deut.  ii.  10-23).  Traces 
of  the  primitive  population  continued  to  ex- 
ist as  late  as  the  time  of  the  monarchy 
(2  Sam.  xxi.  16-22).  When  Abraham  arrived, 
the  country  was  occupied  chiefly  by  the 
Amorites  and  other  smaller  tribes  of  Canaan- 
ites,  but  Philistines  and  Phoenicians  were  set- 
tled on  the  seacoast  and  Hittites  dwelt  on  the 
northern  border  and  at  Hebron.  The  Hit- 
tites are  regarded  as  a  Turanian  people  from 
the  Taurus  mountains.  The  Philistines  came 
from  the  west.  The  Canaanites,  including 
the  Phoenicians,  either  belonged  to  the  Ham- 
itic  race  by  blood  or  became  incorporated 
with  it  (Gen.  x.  (J,  15-20).  They  early  spoke 
a  Semitic  language.  Tlaese  various  peoples 
were  conquered,  but  not  utterly  extermi- 
nated, by  the  Hebrews  under  the  leadership 
of  Moses  and  Joshua.  The  occasional  intro- 
duction of  Edomites,  Ammonites,  and  ^loal)- 
ites  by  conquest  and  immigration  did  not 
bring  a  new  strain  into  the  blood,  for  these 
peoples  were  Semitic  and  like  the  Hebrews 
descended  from  Abraham.  The  concjuest  of 
Aram<i»an  tribes,  so  far  as  it  resulted  in  add- 
ing foreigners  to  the  commonwealth  of  Israel, 
added  Semites.  After  the  fall  of  Samaria, 
the  Assyrians  deported  the  ■  northern  and 
eastern  tribes  of  the  Israelites  and  intro- 
duced colonists  from  Hamath,  Babylonia, 
and  Elam  (2  Kin.  xvii.  24  ;  Ezra  iv.  9).  They 
were  largely  Semites  and  Aryans.  A  large 
immigration  of  (Greeks  followed  in  the  wake 
of  the  conquest  of  Alexander  the  Great, 
colouized  Ptolemais.  built  the  (4reek  towns 
of  the  Decapolis,  and  introduced  the  Greek 
language,  customs,  and  culture.  Later,  Roman 
officials  and  a  Roman  army  of  occupation 
were  in  the  country,  and  ultimately  Roman 
colonists  came.  In  the  second  quarter  of  the 
seventh  century  of  the  Christian  era  the 
country  was  sulijugated  by  the  Mohammed- 
ans, and  in  many  of  the  towns  and  villages 
Arabian  military  colonies  were  planted.  The 
Turks  made  their  apiiearance  as  conquerors 
in  western  Asia  A.  d.  1086,  and  except  for 
short  periods  Palestine  has  ever  since  been 


under  their  rule ;  but  people  of  Turkish 
descent  are  very  few  in  the  country. 

Kt.  The  llhtoffi  of  Palesiinc.  Tlie  early 
history  of  I'alestine,  before  the  arrival  of 
Abraham,  is  involved  in  oh.scurity.  The 
succession  of  races  who  inhabited  the  coun- 
try may  be  gathered  from  the  Hebrew  record.s, 
as  already  ])ointed  out.  The  kings  of  Baby- 
lonia early  began  their  invasions  of  the  west, 
and  the  campaign  of  Chedorlaomer  in  eastern 
Palestine  in  the  time  of  Abraham  is  described 
in  Gen.  xiv.  The  Babylonians  imi)ressed 
their  culture,  including  their  comi)licated 
script  and  their  language  as  a  medium  of 
international  commuuicati(jn,  upon  the  in- 
habitants. After  the  expulsion  of  the  shep- 
herd kings  from  the  counti-y  of  the  Nile,  the 
great  Pharaohs  of  the  eighteenth  dynasty 
extended  their  sway  far  into  Asia.  Thothmes 
III.  conquered  Canaan  and  exacted  tribute 
from  the  nations  dwelling  as  far  as  the 
Euphrates.  Diiring  the  reigns  of  Amen- 
ophis  III.  and  IV.,  who  succeeded  him  after 
an  interval,  Canaan  was  garrisoned  by  Egyp- 
tian troops  and  governed  by  Egyptian  of- 
ficials. But  in  the  latter  reign  the  grasp  of 
Egypt  was  evidently  weakening.  The  Hit- 
tites were  threatening  the  northern  frontier, 
lawlessness  prevailed  in  various  parts  of  the 
land,  travel  was  insecure,  individual  states 
were  in  a  foment  of  discontent  or  in  rebellion, 
and  various  tribes  were  extending  their  ter- 
ritory at  the  expense  of  Egypt.  Under  the 
succeeding  dynasty  Seti  I.  passed  through 
Palestine  and  waged  war  with  the  Hittites 
on  the  Orontes ;  Ramses  II.  invaded  Pales- 
tine and  penetrated  beyond  ;  and  Meneptah's 
armies  ravaged  southern  Palestine  and  the 
coast  of  Phili.stia,  and  wasted  the  crops  of  the 
Israelites,  who  were  jierhaps  in  the  wilder- 
ness of  the  wandering  near  Kadesh-harnea ; 
see  Egypt  and  Pharaoh.  Ramses  III.,  of 
the  twentieth  dynasty,  overran  Palestine 
while  the  Israelites  were  still  in  the  desert. 
When  the  ])ower  of  the  country  had  been  re- 
duced by  these  wars,  the  Hebrews  appeared 
on  the  scene.  Under  the  leadership  of  Moses, 
they  conquered  the  region  east  of  the  Jordan  ; 
and  in  the  following  year,  under  .Toshua, 
they  crossed  the  river,  and  after  repeated 
camjiaigns  took  ])ossessiou  of  Canaan.  From 
this  time  onward,  until  the  fall  of  Jerusalem 
in  the  first  century  of  the  Christian  era,  the 
history  of  Palestine  is  largely  the  history  of 
the  Hebrew  peo])le.     See  History. 

11.  The  Topofimph)/ of  Palestine.  As  nearly 
as  can  be  estimated,  622  towns  west  of  the  Jor- 
dan are  mentioned  in  the  Bible  and  the  .\poc- 
rypha.  Other  early  documents  refer  to  many 
of  these  towns  by  name.  In  1874  Mariette  Bey 
published  geograi)hical  lists  taken  from  tab- 
lets round  the  necks  of  the  figures  of  cap- 
tives represented  on  the  great  gateway  of  the 
temple  at  Karnak.  They  belong  to  the  reign 
of  Thothmos  III.  There  are  118  iKimes,  of 
which  no  fewer  than  one-third  throw  light 
on  the  topography  of  Palestine  and  the  Book 


Pallu 


539 


Palm 


of  .Joshua.  Kcfereuces  to  towns  of  Palestine 
ii)  tlic  time  of  Amenophis  III.  aud  IV.  oc- 
cur iu  tlic  letters  which  were  discovered  at 
Tell  eI-Aniiirii:i.  Later  references  are  found 
in  coiiteiiiiiiirary  lecdnls  of  .\ssyria,  especial- 
ly in  (liiiiinients  which  relate  to  campaigns 
conducted  in  Palestine.  Eusebius,  hisiioji  of 
Cffisarea  in  the  tirst  half  of  the  fourth  cen- 
tury (tf  the  Christiau  era.  wrote  a  tract  c(jii- 
cerniiif;  the  iianu'S  of  ])laces  in  the  sacred 
Scrii)tures.  It  was  translated  and  enlarjied 
by  Jerome,  resident  at  Bethlehem  a  century 
later.  The  work  is  commonly  known  as  the 
-Ononiasticon  of  luisehius  and  .lerome.  Th(^ 
notices  re^iarding  the  situation  of  ancient 
places  in  ralestiuc,  according  to  the  informa- 
tion pos.ses.sed  by  the  liarned  authors,  are 
often  valuable,  sometimes  absurd.  The  in- 
formation f;athered  liy  Relaiid  and  ])ublished 
by  him  in  1711,  and  the  travels  of  Seetzen 
and  Hiirckhardt.  especially  east  of  the  Jor- 
dan, in  the  befjinningof  the  i)resent  century, 
jirepared  the  way  for  the  systematic,  scien- 
tilic  investifiation  conducted  i)y  Dr.  Robinson. 
lie  visited  Palestine  in  lb;58,  acconiiianicd  by  a 
formeri>u])il  of  his.  Kev.  Dr.  Eli  Smith,  Amer- 
ican missionary  at  Beirut,  who  greatly  aided 
the  in(iuiry  by  his  knowledge  of  Arabic. 
They  found  by  asking  the  natives  what  cer- 
tain ruins  or  yet  inhabited  villages  were 
called,  that  they  often  bore  the  old  Hebrew 
names  still,  a  little  moditied  as  jjronounced 
by  Arab  lii)S.  Tlu'ir  discoveries  in  the  to- 
jKjgrajihy  of  Palestine  were  very  important, 
and  were  given  to  the  world  by  Prof  Robin- 
son in  l.'^ll  in  three  octavo  volumes.  Return- 
ing from  America,  Dr.  Robinson  resiinied  his 
researches  in  PaU'stine  in  is~>2,  accompanied 
again  by  Rev.  Dr.  Eli  Smith  and  others,  lie 
made  fresh  discoveries,  end)odie<l  in  his  Later 
Bibliciil  nesi'aichvs,  lsr)(i.  Dr.  Kobinson 
brought  to  bear  on  his  imiuiry  not  merely 
keen  observation  and  a  sound  judgment,  but 
great  learning  ;  and  his  conclusions,  many 
of  them  dis])Uted  at  the  time,  are  now  much 
more  largely  accepted.  On  .Tune  122,  IHd't,  a 
socii-ty  named  The  Palestine  Exjiloration 
Fund,  was  formed  in  England  to  jirosecute 
in  a  scientific  spirit  all  branches  of  inquiry 
regarding  the  Holy  Land.  Since  then  it  has 
condiii'tecl  an  onlnance  survey  of  a  great 
jiart  of  P.ilcsline,  and  constructed  a  sujK'rb 
ma])  of  the  country  in  twenty-si.x  sheets. 
This  result  is  a  iiermanent  and  s])lendid 
achievement.  The  society  has  al.so  carried 
on  excavations,  es))ecially  at  .Jerusalem  and 
Lachish,  .\sa  result  of  all  iiast  investigations, 
about  one-half  of  tlu'  bibli<'al  sites  have  been 
identilied  with  certainty  or  great  probability. 

Pal'lu,  in  .\.  V.  once  Phallu  ((Jen.  xlvi.  9) 
[distinguished]. 

A  son  of  Reuben,  and  founder  of  a  tribal 
family  (Gen.  xlvi.  !t ;  Ex.  vi.  14;  Num. 
xxvi.  ■'■>). 

Palm. 

A   free,   called   iu  Hebrew  lumitr,  tiiiimorah. 


aud  tomer,  and  in  Greek  phoinix.  It  is  a  tall 
tree  (Song  vii.  7,  8),  straight  and  upright  (Jer. 
X.  5).  It  is  a  fruit  tree  (.Joel  i.  12),  and  suffi- 
ciently ornamental  to  have  been  carved  in  va- 
rious parts  of  Solomon's  temple  and  other  sauc- 


Date  Palm. 

tuaries  (1  Kin.  vi.  29,  32,  35 ;  Herod,  ii.  169). 
Its  great  leaves  were  used  as  tokens  of  victory 
ami  peace  (1  JIac.  xiii.  TA  ;  2  Mac.  x.  7  ;  John 
xii.  l.'{ ;  Kev.  vii.  9  ;  imitated  in  2  Esdr.  ii. 
43—17).  These  leaves  are  often  ])opularly 
called  Ijranches;  and  this  designation  is  em- 
jdoyed  in  the  English  vei-sions  (Lev.  xxiii. 
40;  Neb.  viii.  l."i;  .John  xii.  Hi',  but  is  not 
botanically  correct.  .Scarcily  any  i)almshave 
branches  at  all ;  and  the  date  palm,  the  spe- 
cies common  in  Palestine,  is  uot  one  of  the 
few  exce])tions  to  the  rule.  The  leaves  are 
large  and  feathery,  from  4  tofi  feet  in  length; 
they  are  (luite  accessible,  as  there  are  gener- 
ally a  number  of  young  jilants  around  the 
foot  of  the  i)arent  stem.  Palm  treis  nour- 
ished on  the  banks  of  the  Nile.  They  grew 
at  IClim,  in  the  wilderness  ui'ar  the  Red  Sea 
(Ex.  XV.  27  I,  anil  in  I'.doni  (\'irgil.  (ieorg.  iii. 
12).  They  grew  in  various  jtarts  of  Juda'a 
also  (Pliny  Hist.  Nat.  v.  14)  ;  as  in  the  valley 
of  the  Jordan,  at  Jericho,  and  En-gedi.  and 
on  the  coast  of  the  .si'a  of  Galilee  ((tcu.  xiv. 
7.  in  the  ])ro])er  nanu' ;  Dent,  xxxiv.  .'?; 
Ecclus.  xxiv.  14  ;  Antiq.  ix.  1,2;  War  i.  <>.(>; 
iii.  10,  H) ;  in  the  .south  of  Judab  (Josh.  xv.  31, 
49,  in  the  names  Sansiinnah  and  Kirjath-.san- 
nah),in  mount  Ejiliniim  near  Bethel  (.Judg.  iv. 
5;  XX.  33),  near  Jerusalem  (Neli.  viii.  ITi ;  John 


Palmer-worm 


540 


Papyrus 


xii.  13).  They  grew  also  in  the  desert  east  of 
Damascus,  at  the  town  iiaiia'd  from  them, 
Tadmor,  Tamar,  and  Palmyra.  Tlicy  nour- 
ished also  in  the  h)wer  valli'ys  of  the  Tigrisand 
Eui)hrates  (]Ierod.  i.  1!K!).  The  tree  was  re- 
garded by  the  Greeks  and  Romans  as  peculiar- 
ly characteristic  of  I'alestine  and  the  neigh- 
boring regions.  Phoenicia  took  its  name  in 
Greek  from  the  date  palm ;  and  the  coin 
struck  at  Rome  to  commemorate  the  cai)ture 
of  Jerusalem  rei>resented  a  woman,  emblem  of 
the  country,  sitting  disconsolate  under  a  date 
palm ;  see  .Tkru.s.\lkm  and  Money.  The 
tree  which  was  once  so  common  has  almost 
disapi)earcd  from  Palestine,  except  in  the 
maritime  plain  of  Pliilistia  and  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Beirut,  but  it  is  being  cultivated 
anew  near  .Tericho.  The  palm  tree  in  Scrip- 
ture almost  always  means  the  date  palm 
(Phmiiix  iliicli/Ufn-a).  which  grows  about  60  or 
80  feet  high,  having  a  single  upright  stem  of 
uniform  thickness  through  its  entire  length 
and  marked  by  the  scars  of  fallen  leaves. 
The  stem  terminates  above  in  a  circle  of 
great  feathery  leaves,  perennially  green. 
It  is  believed  to  attain  a  great  age,  from 
a  hundred  to  two  hundred  years.  The  do- 
mestic uses  of  the  palm  are  numerous.  The 
leaves  are  employed  for  covering  the  roofs 
and  sides  of  houses,  for  fences,  mats,  and 
baskets.  When  the  tender  part  of  the  spatha 
is  pierced,  a  sweet  juice  exudes,  from  which 
sugar  is  obtained  by  evaporation,  and  a  strong 
drink  called  arrack  by  fermentation  or  dis- 
tillation (War  iv.  8,  3  ;  Herod,  i.  193).  The 
fruit,  which  it  produces  annually  in  numer- 
ous clusters  and  great  abundance,  constitutes 
its  chief  value,  being  largely  used  as  an  arti- 
cle of  food.  Even  the  stony  seeds  are  ground, 
and  yield  nourishment  to  the  camel  of  the 
desert.  Another  palm  tree  may  have  been 
known  to  many  Israelites:  the  Palmyra, 
which  grows  at  Tadmor  in  the  wilderness. 
It  is  Borassns  flabelliformis,  the  specific  name 
implying  that  it  has  fan-shaped  leaves. 

Palm'er-worm. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Gnsam,  de- 
vourer,  an  insect  which  devoured  vines,  fig 
trees,  olive  trees,  and  the  produce  of  the 
gardens  and  fields  generally  (Joel  i.  4  ;  ii.  2.5-, 
Amos  iv.  9).  Probably  a  kind  of  locust,  or 
a  locust  in  a  certain  stage  of  its  growth 
(R.  V.  margin).  When  the  A.  V.  was  made, 
palmer-worm  denoted  a  sort  of  hairy  cater- 
pillar which  has  no  fixed  abode,  but  wanders 
like  a  ])almer  or  pilgrim  from  i)lace  to  place. 

Pal'sy. 

A  disease,  or  rather  a  series  of  morbid 
symptoms,  characterized  by  jmrtial  or  total 
loss  of  sensibility,  motion,  or  both,  in  one  or 
more  parts  of  the  body  (Mark  ii.  3,  9-12 :  Acts 
ix.  33-35).  It  is  produced  by  disease  of  the 
brain,  the  spinal  cord,  or  particular  nerves. 

Pal'ti,  in  A.  V.  once  Phalti  (1  Sam.  xxv. 
44)  [abbreviation  of  Paltiel,  deliverance  by 
God]. 


1.  The  representative  spy  from  the  tribe 
of  Benjamin  (Num.  xiii.  9). 

2.  The  man  to  whom  Saul  married  Michal, 
David's  wife,  and  from  whom  she  was  later 
wrested  away  and  restored  to  David  (1  Sam. 
xxv.  44;  2  Sam.  iii.  l.^j,  where  the  unab- 
breviated form  is  used). 

Pal'ti-el,  in  A.  V.  once  Phaltlel  (2  Sam. 
iii.  1.^)  [deliverance  by  God]. 

1.  Prince  of  the  tribe  of  Issachar  and  a 
contemporary  of  Moses  (Num.  xxxiv.  26). 

2.  The  same  as  Palti  2  (2  Sam.  iii.  15). 
Pal'tite. 

A  member  of  the  family,  or  an  inhabitant" 
of  the  town,  of  Pelet  or  Palti.  To  judge 
from  2  Sam  xxiii.  26  compared  with  1  Chron. 
xxvii.  10,  the  Paltites  were  reckoned  to 
Ephraim. 

Pam-phyri-a  [popularly  interpreted  by 
the  lirceks  as  meaning  an  assemblage  of 
mingled  tribes]. 

A  stretch  of  coast  land  in  Asia  Minor.  It 
was  bounded  on  the  north  by  Pisidia  ;  on  the 
south  by  a  gulf  of  the  Mediterranean,  called 
the  sea  of  Pamphylia,  across  which  Paul 
sailed  (Acts  xxvii.  5)  ;  on  the  east  by  Cilicia ; 
and  on  the  west  by  Lycia  and  part  of  Phrygia. 
Pamphylia  contained  Jewish  communities 
(ii.  10).  Its  towns,  Perga  and  Attalia, 
were  visited  by  Paul  on  his  first  missionary 
journey  (xiii.  13;  xiv.  24,  25;  xv.  38). 

Pan'nag. 

A  product  of  Palestine  which  the  Tyrians 
purchased  (Ezek.  xxvii.  17).  The  R.  V.,  fol- 
lowing the  Jewish  Targum,  suggests  that 
perhaps  it  was  a  kind  of  confection. 

Pa'per.     See  Papyrus. 

Pa'per  Reed. 

Pa])yrus ;  the  rendering  in  the  A.  V.  of 
the  Hebrew  'Arah,  nakedness  (Is.  xix.  7); 
see  Papy'EUS.  The  corresponding  word  in 
Arabic  means  an  open  place ;  and  R.  Y.  ren- 
ders the  Hebrew  word  by  meadow. 

Pa'phos. 

A  town  at  the  southwestern  extremity  of 
Cyprus,  near  cape  Zephyrion.  It  was  called 
Old  Paphos  to  distinguish  it  from  the  newer 
mercantile  town  some  miles  to  the  Tiorthwest. 
It  was  th(!  capital  of  the  Roman  province  of 
Cyprus,  and  the  residence  of  the  i)roconsul. 
In  its  vicinity  was  a  celebrated  temple  of  the 
Cyiirian  Venus  (Homer,  Odyssey  viii.  362). 
The  town  was  visited  by  Paul  (Acts  xiii. 
6-13).     It  is  now  called  Kuklia. 

Pa-py'rus. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  word  Gome' ;  a 
plant  which  grows  in  mire  (Job  viii.  11.  R.  V. 
margin ;  in  Is.  xxxv.  7  rendered  rush),  and 
of  which  the  ark  in  which  Moses  was  ex- 
posed as  an  infant  on  the  Nile  (Ex.  ii.  3, 
R.  V.  margin),  and  also  larger  boats  (Is. 
xviii.  2,  R.  V.)  wei-e  made.  The  plant  re- 
ferred to  is  the  paper  reed  {Papi/nut  anti- 
quorum).  Though  the  word  reed  is  often 
widely  applied,  yet  it  is  most  closely  asso- 


Parable 


541 


Parable 


ciated  with  the  neniis  Aruvdo,  which  is  a 
grass.  Hut  the  iia])ynis  is  not  a  grass,  nor  is 
it  a  rusli :  it  is  a  giant  st-dgi',  witli  a  triangu- 
lar stock  H  or  10  feet  liigii,  tcrniiiuiting  in  a 
tuft  of  (lowers.     It  grows  in    the  waters  of 


Papyrus. 

Mcriini  and  elsewhere,  and  formerly  did  so 
on  the  Nile,  though  now  extinct  u]ion  that 
river.  The  Egyptians  made  shoes,  baskets, 
boats,  and  otlier  articles  of  it;  and  used 
sheets,  formed  of  stri])s  of  the  pith,  as 
writing  ])aper.  On  such  material,  called  in 
(Jreck  rhiirti'.i.  the  aiiostle  John  wrote  his 
Second   Kjiistle  CJ  .lolm   \->). 

Par'a-ble. 

A  method  of  speech  in  which  inoral  or  re- 
ligious truth  is  illustrated  from  the  analogy 
of  common  ex]ierience.  Tlie  coni]iaris(>n 
may  he  exincssed.  as  hy  the  word  like,  or  he 
im))lied.  'I'he  limits  hetwcen  the  jiarahlc 
and  simile  ami  metaphor  are  not  well  de- 
fined. Often  tiiere  is  scarcely  any  diflcrence, 
cxcei)t  that  the  simile  and  metaphor  are 
short  and  tlii^  ]iarable  com])aratively  lo!ig. 
"  Ye  are  the  light  of  the  world  "  is  a  meta- 
phor; "like  a  lamh  dumh  Ix'fore  his  shear- 
er" is  a  simile;  hut  "the  kingdom  of 
heaven  is  like  unto  leaven,  which  a  woman 
took,  and  hid  in  three  measures  of  meal,  till 
it  was  all  leavened,"  is  a  ))arahle  (Mat.  xiii. 
Xi).  The  i)arahle  has  certain  advantages. 
One  is,  that  this  means  of  conveying  truth 
makes  it  adlu-re  to  the  memory  mucli  more 
than  a  plain  didactic  statement  would  do. 
For  instance,  no  didactic  statement  as  to  the 


willingness  of  our  Lord  to  receive  penitent 
sinniTs  would  have  had  an  ellect  at  all  e(}ual 
to  that  ]iro(luced  hy  the  jtarahle  of  the  j)rodi- 
gal  son  (Luke  xv.  Il-I5ri).  A  second  advan- 
tage ill  a  parable  is  that  when  it  is  needful 
for  a  pro]iliet  or  a  jireacher  to  censure  a 
jiowerful  personage,  who  will  not  allow  him- 
self to  be  directly  found  fault  with,  it  is 
possible  by  a  skillfully  framed  parable  to 
make  him  not  meii'lN-  listen  jiatieiitly,  but 
cuiidemn  himself  before  lie  discovers  that  it 
is  himself  lie  is  condemning.  'J'his  was  done 
with  much  skill  by  the  jirojihet  Katlian 
when  he  went  to  rejirove  David  for  his  great 
sin  in  the  matter  of  Uriah  the  Hittite. 

The  following  are  tlu'  chief  jiarablcs  in 
the  O.  T.:  the  tri'cs  anointing  a  king  (Judg. 
ix.  8-20),  the  ewe  lamb  (2  Sam.  xii.  1-14), 
the  widow,  one  of  whose  two  sons  slew  the 
other  (2  Sam.  xiv.  4-20),  the  soldier  w  ho  let 
his  captive  escajie  (1  Kin.  xx.  :5r)-42),  the 
thistle  which  asked  for  the  cedar's  daughter 
as  a  wife  for  his  son  (2  Kin.  xiv.  9-11).  the 
vineyard  (Is.  v.  1-7),  the  two  eagles  and  a  vine 
(Kzck.xvii.  1-10),  the  lion's  wheljisixix.  l-!»), 
Oholah  and  Oholibah  (xxiii.  1-49),  the  boil- 
ing ])ot  (xxiv.  1-14). 

An  important  jiart  of  our  Lord's  teaching 
was  by  means  of  jiarahles;  and  when  Scrip- 
ture ]iarables  are  spoken  of,  generally  those 
of  Jesus  are  meant.  Christ  used  the  jiara- 
bolic  form  of  teaching  at  every  jn'riod  of 
his  public  ministry  (]\Iark  iii.  '23;  Luke  vi. 
39;  vii.  40-.^0),  but  there  came  a  time  when 
a  distinct  change  took  ])lace  and  he  gave  a 
larger  jilace  to  parables  in  his  public  instruc- 
tion (Mat.  xiii.  3;  Mark  iv.  2).  Two  reasons 
are  assigned  why  he  adojited  to  such  an  ex- 
tent this  method  of  teaching.  One  given  by 
Matthew  is  that  it  was  prophesied  (^lat.  xiii. 
34.  3r):  cp.  P.s.  xlix.  4;  Ixxviii.  2.  3).  The 
other,  emanating  from  our  Lord,  explains 
the  former.  He  used  jiarablcs  because  it  was 
not  given  unto  his  auditors  to  know  the 
mysteries  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven,  since 
.seeing  they  saw  not  and  hearing  they  did 
not  understand  (Mat.  xiii.  1(1  IC).  This 
statement  of  .lesus  has  been  interiireted  to 
mean  that  he  clothed  the  truths  of  the  king- 
dom in  images  in  order  to  make  them  more 
intelligible  to  his  hearers  and  to  imjiress 
them  indelibly  on  tlii'ir  memory.  But  this 
was  triu'  of  a  certain  class  of  hearers  only  and 
in  many  cases,  even  in  respect  to  them,  only 
after  the  parable  had  been  exjilaincd.  Jesus 
rather  meant  that  his  auditors  gcn<>rally 
were  nnprc|iared  to  hear  and  heartily  be- 
lieve the  spiritual  truths  of  the  kingdom; 
and  while  the  time  had  come  to  teach  these 
doctrines  to  his  followers  who  were  to  carry 
on  his  work  after  his  deiiartiire  (Mark  iv.  3.'{, 
.'il),  the  truth  was  henceforth  hidden  from 
those  who  had  lieanl  witlnpiit  rciientance, 
was  cautiously  uttered  in  the  hearing  of  ob- 
durate enemies  who  were  watching  to  seizx; 
u])on  his  words  anil  enii>loy  them  against 
him,  and  was  veiled  from   the  fickle   multi- 


Paraclete 


542 


Paran 


tude  who  would  refuse  to  listen  to  his  words 
if  thev  perceived  the  full  import  of  them 
(Murkiv.  11,  12). 

With  perliajjs  only  one  exception  (Mat. 
xviii.  2;5-l5r)),  the  recorded  parables,  which 
were  spolcen  after  this  form  of  instruction 
hecame  prominent  in  .Icsus'  i)ublic  teaching, 
fall  into  three  grou]is :  I.  Eight  illustrating 
the  nature  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven  (Mat. 
xiii.  1-.50  ;  Mark  iv.  -Jfi-^!)),  followed  by  one 
by  way  of  application  (Mat.  xiii.  51,  52). 
These  were  spoken  during  one  day  ou  the 
shore  of  the  sea  of  Galilee  (xiii.  1,  53).  They 
contain  five  fundamental  trutlis:  1.  Sower 
and  seed:  the  varied  recei>tiou  of  the  gospel 
by  ditl'erent  classes  of  hearers.  2.  Tares  and 
wheat:  evil  springs  up  among  the  good.  3. 
Seed  growing  secretly,  mustard  seed,  and 
leaven  :  growth  of  the  church  imperceptibly, 
externally,  internally.  4.  Hid  treasure,  and 
pearl  of  great  pi'ice :  value  of  the  kingdom, 
necessity  of  sacrifice  to  obtain  it.  5.  Net 
gathering  all  kinds  of  fish  :  mixed  condition 
of  the  visible  church  until  the  end  of  the 
world.  II.  Nineteen,  or  thereabout,  illus- 
trating the  kingdom  of  heaven  in  the  indi- 
vidual life  (Luke  x.  25-xix.,  except  xiii.  18- 
21).  Most  of  them,  if  not  all,  were  delivered 
after  Christ's  departure  from  Galilee,  in  the 
interval  of  six  mouths  between  the  feast  of 
tabernacles  and  his  last  passover.  They  in- 
clude the  parables  of  the  good  Samaritan, 
the  friend  at  midnight,  the  rich  man  and  his 
harns,  the  waiting  servants,  the  shut  door, 
the  chief  seat,  the  supper  and  excuses  for 
not  attending  it,  the  lost  sheep,  the  lost 
money,  the  prodigal  son,  the  unjust  steward, 
the  rich  man  and  Lazarus,  the  servant's 
duty,  the  importunate  widow,  the  Pharisee 
and  the  j)ublican,  and  the  pounds.  III.  Five 
or,  with  Mat.  xxiv.  32-155,  six,  which  were 
delivered  during  the  last  week  at  Jerusalem, 
and  point  to  judgment  and  the  consumma- 
tion of  the  kingdom.  The  attitude  of  those 
called  is  illustrated  by  the  parables  of  the 
two  sons  and  the  wicked  husbandmen  (JIat. 
xxi.  28-4(J),  and  the  need  of  the  wedding 
garment,  of  watchfulness,  and  of  fidelity  is 
shown  by  the  parabhis  of  the  marriage  of 
the  king's  son,  the  ten  virgins,  and  the  five 
talents  (Mat.  xxii.  1-14;  xxv.  1-30). 

In  interpreting  the  parables,  rigid  inquiry 
should  be  made  into  the  circumstances  in 
which  each  was  delivered  at  first,  and  the 
doctrine  or  argument  which  it  was  intended 
primarily  to  convey.  This  done,  it  is  at  once 
.seen  that  the  teaching  of  the  parable  is  of 
universal  apj)lication,  suited  for  all  analo- 
gous circumstances  and  for  all  succeeding 
time. 

Par'a-clete  [Greek  parakletns,  a  legal  as- 
sistant, advocate,  or  intercessor]. 

The  word  occurs  in  R.  V.  on  the  margins 
of  .John  xiv.  16,  26 ;  xv.  26 ;  xvi.  7.  where 
helper  or  advocate  is  given  as  the  English 
equivalent.     In  the  text  of  these  passages 


the  translation  is  comforter,  but  in  1  John 
ii.  1  it  is  advocate.     It  is  applied  to  : 

1.  The  Lord  Jesus  Christ.  He  was  the 
advocate,  by  implication  in  John  xiv.  16, 
who  guided,  counseled,  and  strengthened  the 
disciples  while  he  was  present  with  them, 
and  he  is  now  the  ('hristian's  advocate  with 
the  Eather,  and  pleads  the  believer's  cause 
with  God  (1  John  ii.  1)  as  he  did  while  on 
earth  (Luke  xxii.  31,  32;  John  xvii. ). 

2.  The  Holy  Spirit,  who  is  Clirist's  advo- 
cate with  the  believer,  glorifying  Christ  and 
declaring  him  (John  xv.  26;  xvi.  14),  vindi- 
cating him  from  man's  unworthy  thoughts, 
showing  him  to  be  chief  among  ten  thousand 
and  altogether  lovely,  and  exhibiting  him  as 
man's  great  need ;  and  he  is  the  Spirit  of 
truth,  who  teaches  the  believer  and  guides 
him  into  the  truth  (xv.  26  ;  xvi.  13,  14),  con- 
victing of  sin,  righteousness,  and  judgment 
(ver.  8),  who  teaches  to  pray  and  makes  in- 
tercession with  groanings  that  cannot  be 
uttered  (Rom.  viii.  26,  27). 

Par'a-dise. 

A  jileasure  ground,  orchard,  or  park,  in 
Hebrew  pardes  (Ecc.  ii.  5;  Song  iv.  13,  R.  V. 
margin  ;  in  Neh.  ii.  8  rendered  forest).  Solo- 
mon's gardens  at  Etham  and  the  hanging 
gardens  at  Babylon  are  called  paradises  in 
the  Greek  text  of  Josephus  (Antiq.  viii.  7,  3 ; 
con.  Apion.  i.  20),  and  the  garden  of  Eden 
is  called  the  paradise  ( paradeisos)  of  Eden  in 
the  Septuagint  (Gen.  ii.  8). 

Paradise  was  the  region  of  bliss  which 
man  had  lost,  and  it  naturally  came  to  be  a 
designation  for  the  place  of  the  righteous 
dead.  The  later  Jews  distinguished  between 
a  supernal  and  an  infernal  paradise,  the 
former  being  a  part  of  heaven,  the  latter  a 
division  of  hades  assigned  to  the  souls  of  the 
just. 

In  the  N.  T.  paradise  means  heaven  in 
two  in.stances  (2  Cor.  xii.  4 ;  cp.  2 ;  Rev.  ii. 
7;  cp.  xxii.  2) ;  see  He.wen.  Accordingly  it 
naturally  denotes  heaven  in  the  remaining 
instance  (Luke  xxiii.  43). 

Pa'rall  [heifer,  young  cow]. 

A  village  of  Benjamin  (Josh,  xviii.  23), 
commonly  identified  with  the  ruins  Farah  in 
the  wady  Farah,  5A  miles  northeast  of  Jeru- 
salem. 

Pa'ran  [perhaps,  a  region  abounding  in 
caverns] . 

A  wilderness  between  mount  Sinai,  or  more 
exactly  between  Hazeroth,  several  days' 
march  from  Sinai,  and  Canaan  (Num.  x.  12; 
xii.  16).  It  was  on  the  south  of  Judah 
(1  Sam.  xxv.  1-5).  In  it  Kadesh  was  situated 
(Num.  xiii.  26),  and  apparently  also  Elath  on 
the  Red  Sea  (Gen.  xiv.  6;  see  El-pakan). 
It  lay  east  of  the  wildernesses  of  Beer-.sheba 
and  Sliur  (Gen.  xxi.  14,  21;  cp.  xxv.  9,  12- 
18;  xxviii.  9).  It  included  the  wilderness 
of  Zin,  or  insensibly  merged  itself  in  it 
without  a  sharply  defined  boundary  (Num. 
xiii.  26  with  xx.  1).     These  data  indicate  the 


Parbar 


543 


Parthians 


plateau  or  muuntain  land  (Deut.  xxxiii.  2 ; 
Hab.  iii.  .'{),  lyiiiK  soiitli  ol"  I'aiiaaii,  ami 
bounded  on  the  otlicr  sides  \>y  the  wilderness 
of  Shur,  the  curved  range  of  mountains 
known  as  Jel)el  et-Tih  or  mountain  of  the 
wanderinji,  and  the  Arahali.  It  is  tlie  wil- 
derness where  the  Israelites  wandered  thirty 
and  eight  years.  Most  of  it  is  from  ;*(•()()  to 
25110  feet  ahove  sea  level.  Tlieri-  is  a  wady,  or 
valli'V.  in  the  Sinaitie  Peninsula,  eaUed  wady 
Feiran,  which  looks  very  much  like  I'aran 
altered.  Niel)uhr  thought  that  they  might 
be  identified  ;  hut  it  is  .so  dillicult  to  harmon- 
ize the  Scripture  location  of  the  jilace  with 
this  view,  that  Koliinson,  .S|aiiii-y,  and  most 
inquirers,  decline  to  accejit  the  identification. 
The  wady  Feiran  is  between  mount  Sinai 
and  the  lied  Sea.  Paran  is  not  reached  till 
after  the  departure  from  Sinai  in  the  opposite 
direction. 

Pax'bax  [probably,  colonnade]. 

A  precinct  on  the  western  side  of  the  outer 
court  of  the  tem])le  (1  C'hron.  xxvi.  18).  It 
contained  chambers  for  otiicials  and  stalls  for 
cattle  {2  Kin.  xxiii.  11,  where  the  plural  is 
rendered  suburbs  and  precincts). 

Parch'ed  Corn. 

Roasted  grain  used  as  food  (Lev.  xxiii.  14 ; 
Ruth  ii.  14 ;  1  Sam.  xvii.  17).  Thomson  de- 
scribes the  method  of  preparing  it  at  present 
in  vogue.  A  number  of  the  best  ears  of 
grain,  not  too  rijje,  are  plucked,  with  the 
stalks  attJiched.  After  being  tied  in  small 
parcels,  a  blazing  fire  of  dry  grass  and  thorn 
bushes  is  kindled  under  them,  which  burns 
off  the  chair  and   roasts  tlie  grain. 

Parch'meiit. 

The  skin  of  shee])  or  goats  prepared  for 
use  as  a  writing  material  or  for  other  jnir- 
poses.  The  skin  is  first  soaked  in  lime  to 
remove  the  hair,  and  is  then  shaved,  washed, 
dried,  stretched,  and  sinoothed.  Herodotus 
relates  that  the  ancient  loniaus  used  the 
.skins  of  goats  and  sheei>,  because  of  the 
scarcity  of  pai)yrus  (Herod,  v.  58).  In 
Herodotus'  own  time  papyrus  was  the  com- 
mon writing  material.  I'archment  was  first 
fibtainedat  I'erganios;  and  when  Ttoli'my  for- 
bade the  ex|port  of  iiaiiyrus.  Kumeius  II..  king 
of  I'tTganiiPS, adojpted  jiarciiment  forthe  books 
of  bis  great  library,  and  such  skins  became 
known  asc/i(o7.r  iifrqitnirnre,  whence  (he  word 
]iarchin('nt  isderive<l.  In  the  time  of  .losejihiis 
and  earlier,  parchment  was  used  by  the  .lews 
for  the  maniiscri])ts  of  their  sacred  writings 
(Antic],  -xii.  VJ,  11);  and  it  was  a  i)rovision  of 
the  Talmud  that  the  law  should  he  written 
on  the  skins  of  clean  .inimals.  lame  ov  wiltl, 
and  even  of  clean  birds.  rai)yrus  was  a 
common  writing  material  ('2  .lohn  I'i.  in  E.  V. 
I>a]ier),  but  I'aiil  refers  to  jiarchments  of  his. 
.ilxpiit  which  he  is  especially  solicitous  {2 
Tim.  iv.  i:5). 

Par'ents. 

The  fifth  commandment  inculcates  upon 
children     the     duty    of    reverencing    their 


parents  and  atbiches  a  promise  to  its  ful- 
fillment (Ex.  XX.  12;  Deut.  v.  Ifi;  Ephes.  vi. 
1.  2).  Ujion  the  jiarents  rests  the  (jbligation 
of  bringing  nj)  the  children  in  the  fear  of 
the  Lord,  and  not  provoking  them  to  wrath 
((Jen.  xviii.  1!»;  Diiit.  vi.  7;  Ephes.  vi.  4). 
According  to  the  Mosaic  law,  a  son  that 
.smote  father  or  mother,  or  cursed  them,  was 
])iinished  with  death  (Ex.  xxi.  15,  17:  Lev. 
XX.  'J;  Deut.  xxvii.  KJ)  ;  and  as  an  extrime 
measure,  jiarents  were  enjoined  to  bring  a 
stubborn  and  rebellious  soti  before  the  elders 
for  trial  and  execution  (Deut.  xxi.  lH-21). 
Tile  Mosaic  law  thus  regulated  the  ])ower  of 
Jiarents.  According  to  Roman  law,  as  set 
forth  in  the  twelve  tables,  the  life  and  lib- 
erty of  children  were  in  the  father's  hands. 
In  Hebrew  law  the  right  of  life  and  death 
did  not  rest  with  the  jiarents,  but  was  vested 
in  the  judicial  Iiody.  Custom  jiermitted  an 
impoverished  jiarent  to  sell  a  daughter  to  be 
a  maidservant,  but  the  Mosaic  law  carefully 
guarded  her  rights  (Ex.  xxi.  7-11).  Israel- 
itish  custom  further  jiermitted  a  creditor  to 
seize  a  baiikrujit  debtor  and  enslave  bis  wife 
and  children  (2  Kin.  iv.  1  ;  Neh.  v.  5;  Is.  1. 
1;  ]\Iat.  xviii.  25)  ;  and  in  cases  of  grave  sin 
the  entire  family  was  involved  in  the  exter- 
mination of  the  oUender  (Josh.  vii.  24). 

Par 'lor. 

Eglon's  summer  jiarlor  was  an  upjier  cham- 
ber exposed  to  the  cool  breezes  (Judg.  iii.  20, 
cp.  R.  V.  margin).    See  IIorsE. 

Par-mash'ta  [ju-obably,  a  Persian  name, 
very  great,   siijierior]. 

A  sou  of  llaman  (Esth.  ix.  9). 

Par'me-nas  [jirobably,  faithful]. 

One  of  the  seven  men  elected  to  look  after 
the  Cireek-.speaking  widows  and.  ajijiareiitly, 
the  poor  and  financial  afi'airs  generally  in 
the  ajMistulic  churcli  (Acts  vi.  5). 

Par'nach. 

A  Zebulunite  (Num.  xxxiv.  25). 

Pa'rosh,  in  A.  V.  once  Pharosli  ( Ezra  viii. 
3)  [a  flea]. 

Founder  of  a  family,  members  of  which 
returned  from  the  Babylonian  captivity 
(Ezra  ii.  3;  viii.  3).  One  of  the  clan  was 
called  Pedaiah  (Neh.  iii.  25).  Other  mem- 
bers of  it  married  foreign  wives,  whom  Ezra 
induced  them  to  juit  away  (Ezra  x.  25). 

Par-shan'da-tha  [a  Persian  name,  given 
to  Persia]. 

A  son  c,f  Haman  (Esth.  ix.  7). 

Par'tM-ans. 

\  jieojile  who,  when  first  heard  of.  occu- 
pied a  region  nearly  corresjionding  to  the 
modt'rn  Persian  jirovince  of  Khorasan,  a 
consideralile  distance  southeast  of  the  Cas- 
jiian  Sea.  The  length  ipI'  Parthia  jnojierwas 
about  3()<>  miles,  its  breadth  from  100  to  12il, 
its  area  about  :5li,0(K1  s(|uare  miles,  or  slightly 
more  than  that  of  Scotland  and  nearly  that  of 
Indiana.  The  first  mention  of  the  Parthians  is 
in  the  inscrijitions  of  Darius  Ilystasjiis.  They 


Partridge 


544 


Pashhur 


revolted  against  the  Persians,  521  b.  c,  but 
were  soon  subdued  aKiiiii.  ]''roni  tlie  Per- 
sians, they  passed  to  Alexander  the  (ireat, 
and  then  to  his  eastern  successors,  the  Seleu- 
cida'.  About  25(j  n.  c.  Bactria  successfully 
revolted  against  Seleucidan  douiination,  and 
Parthia.  under  Arsaces  I.,  immediately  fol- 
lowed the  example.  His  successors  are  gen- 
erally known  as  the  Arsacidie.  Mith- 
ridates  I.,  who  reigned  thirty-eight  years, 
from  174  to  VA(i  B.  t-.,  raised  the  kingdom 
founded  by  Arsaces  into  an  empire,  extending 
I.-jOO  miles' from  east  to  west,  with  a  varying 
breadth  from  north  to  south  of  100,  300,  or 
400  miles.  The  western  boundary  was  the 
Euphrates.  The  chief  city  was  Ctesiphoa 
on  the  Tigris,  oppo.site  Seleucia.  After  rid- 
ding themselves  of  the  Macedonian-Greek 
domination,  the"Parthians  came  into  frequent 
collisii>n  with  the  Romans,  one  standing  bone 
of  contention  between  them  being  the  pos- 
session of  Armenia.  From  64  B.  c.  to  A.  D. 
225  they  set  limits  to  the  Roman  empire  in 
the  East.  In  40-37  B.  c.  their  armies  over- 
ran Asia  Minor  and  Syria,  took  and  plun- 
dered Jerusalem,  and  placed  Antigonus,  the 
last  of  the  Asmonseans,  on  the  throne  (Antiq. 
xiv.  13,  3;  War  i.  13,  1).  Jews  from  Parthia 
were  present  at  Jerusalem  on  the  day  of 
Pentecost  (Acts  ii.  9),  and  may  have  carried 
the  gospel  to  Parthia  when  they  returned 
home.  After  wielding  power  for  nearly  500 
years,  the  Parthians  became  enervated  by 
luxury,  and  the  I'ersians  about  A.  d.  224, 
rose  in  revolt,  and  under  the  leadershij)  of 
Ardashir,  family  of  Sassan,  terminated  the 
Parthian  dominion,  substituting  the  second 
Persian  or  Sassanian  empire  in  its  room. 

Par'tridge. 

A  wild  bird,  called  in  Hebrew  lore',  the 
crier  or  caller,  in  Greek  perdix,  which  was 


Greek  Partridge. 

hunted  on  the  mountains  of  Palestine  (1 
Sam.  xxvi.  20).  The  caged  partridge  was 
used  as  a  decoy  bird  (Ecclus.  xi.  .30).  Jere- 
miah compares  the  amasser  of  ill-gotten 
wealth  to  the  partridge  which,  according  to 


the  belief  of  the  Israelites  of  his  time, 
gathers  young  which  it  has  not  brought  forth 
(Jer.  xvii.  11,  R.  \.).  or  .sitteth  on  eggs  which 
it  has  not  laid  (R.  V.  margin).  Two  species 
are  found  in  Palestine,  the  desert  or  Hey's 
sand  ])artridge  {Ammoperdix  hei/i),  which  is 
the  only  species  at  En-gedi,  in  the  wilder- 
ness of  which  David  was  when  he  compared 
himself  to  a  hunted  partridge ;  and  the 
chukar  partridge  iCnccahis  chiihir),  which  is 
abundant  in  all  the  hilly  parts  of  Palestine. 
It  has  richly  barred  feathers  on  the  flanks, 
deep  red  legs  and  bill,  and  deep  black  gorget. 
It  is  a  large  and  fine  bird,  a  variety  of  the 
Greek  partridge  {Caccabifi saxntiiis),  but  larger, 
and  it  exceeds  the  chukar  partridge  of  India 
in  size. 

Pa-ru'ah  [flourishing]. 

The  fiither  of  Solomon's  purveyor  in  Issa- 
char  ;i  Kin.  iv.  17). 

Par'va-im. 

A  designation  of  gold  used  for  the  orna- 
mentation of  Solomon's  temple  (2  Chrou.  iii. 
6).  Gesenius  derived  it  from  Sanscrit  purva. 
in  front,  eastward,  and  gave  it  the  sense  of 
ea.stern  or  oriental  gold  ;  but  most  investiga- 
tors believe  that  it  denotes  a  locality  in 
Ophir. 

Pa'sach  [perhaps,  a  divider]. 

An  Asherite,  of  the  family  of  Beriah  (1 
ChrdU.  vii.  33). 

Pas-dam'mim.     See  Ephes-dammim. 
Pa-se'ah,  in  A.  Y.  once  Pliaseah  (Neh.  vii. 
51)  [lame]. 

1.  A  man  of  Judah,  descended  from  Che- 
lub  (1  Chron.  iv.  12). 

2.  The  father  of  a  certain  Jehoiada,  who 
repaired  the  old  gate  of  Jerusalem  (Xeh.  iii. 
6).  He  was  the  founder  of  a  family  of 
Nethinim,  members  of  which  returned  from 
captivity  (Ezra  ii.  49  ;  Neh.  vii.  51). 

Pash'hur,  in  A.  V.  Pashur. 

1.  Son  of  Malchiab,  and  one  of  several 
officials  who  had  influence  with  king  Zede- 
kiah  and  bitterly  opposed  the  j)rophet  Jere- 
miah (Jer.  xxi.  1  ;  xxxviii.  1,  4  ;  cp.  xxi.  9 
with  xxxviii.  2).  It  is  natural  to  sup]iose 
that  his  father  is  the  Malchiab  mentioned  in 
xxxviii.  fi,  a  royal  prince  into  whose  dungeon 
the  prophet  was  cast.  His  identity  with  the 
priest  Pashhur,  the  son  of  ^lalchijali  (1 
Chron.  ix.  12).  is  doubtful  :  especially  as  to 
his  companion,  but  not  to  him,  is  given  the 
priestly  title  (Jer.  xxi.  1). 

2.  A  son  of  Immer,  a  priest.  He  put  Jere- 
miah in  the  stocks  on  account  of  his  discour- 
aging i)re(lictions  (Jer.  xx.  1-fi). 

3.  The  father  of  an  opponent  of  .Jeremiah 
uame<l  (Jedaliah  (Jer.  xxxviii.  1). 

4.  The  founder  of  a  priestly  f;imily,  mem- 
bers of  which  returned  from  the  Babylonian 
captivity  (Ezra  ii.  38  ;  Neh.  vii.  41,  and  per- 
haps 1  Chron.  ix.  12).  Some  of  his  descend- 
ants married  foreign  wives,  whom  Ezra  in- 
duced them  to  put  away  (Ezra  x,  22). 


Passages,  The 


545 


Fatara 


5.  A  juicst,  doubtless  head  of  a  father's 
house,  who,  with  others,  sealed  the  CDveuant. 
made  in  the  days  (if  Neheiiiiah,  liy  which  it 
was  a}j;ree(l  to  foritid  tlu^  iiiteniianiajte  of 
their  ehildreii  with  foreigners  and  to  keep 
the  law  of  (iod  (Neh.  x.  :i). 

Pas'sa-ges,  The.    See  Aharim. 

Pass'o-ver  [jiassing  over  (Ex.  xii.  2.3;  An- 
tiq.  ii.  14,  (>)]. 

1.  The  first  of  the  three  annual  festivals 
at  whieh  all  the  men  were  required  to  appear 
at  the  sanetiiary  (Ex.  xii.  i'.i  ;  Dent.  xvi.  1), 
known  also  as  the  feast  of  unleavened  hread 
(Ex.xxiii.  15;  Deut.  xvi.  1()).  It  was  instituted 
in  Egypt  to  oonnncmorate  the  culminating 
event  in  the  redeni])tion  of  the  Israelites  (Ex. 
xii.  1,  14,  4-2;  xxiii.  1.");  Deut.  xvi.  1,  3). 
Tiiat  night  was  to  l)e  much  observed  unto 
the  Lord,  when  he  smote  all  the  firstborn  in 
the  land  of  Egypt,  but  passed  over  the 
houses  of  the  Israelites  where  the  blood  had 
been  sprinkled  and  the  inmates  were  stand- 
ing, start'  in  hand,  awaiting  the  deliverance 
promised  by  the  Eord.  The  festival  began 
on  the  fourteenth  of  Abib  at  evening,  that  is 
ill  the  l)eginning  ttf  the  fifteenth  day,  with 
the  .sacrificial  meal  (Lev.  xxiii.  .">).  A  lamb 
or  kid  was  slain  between  the  evenings,  that  is 
in  the  evening  at  sunset  (Ex.  xii.  6  ;  Deut. 
xvi.  t>).  It  was  roasted  whole,  and  was  eaten 
with  unleavened  bread  and  bitter  herbs  (Ex. 
xii.  H).  The  shed  Ijlood  denoted  expiation, 
the  bitter  herbs  symbolized  the  bitterness  of 
Egyptian  bondage,  the  unleavened  bread  was 
an  emblem  of  ]nirity  (ep.  Lev.  ii.  11 ;  1  Cor. 
V.  7,  H).  The  Israelites  pleading  the  blood, 
mindful  of  the  afilietions  from  which  they 
awaited  di-liverance,  and  juitting  away  wick- 
(■(Iness,  were  the  i)eo])le  of  the  Lord  in  holy, 
glad  communion  before  him.  The  sujiper  was 
partaken  of  by  tlie  members  of  every  house- 
hold. If  the  family  was  small,  neighbors 
joined  until  the  comjiany  was  large  enough 
to  consume  the  entire  lamb  (Ex.  xii.  4).  The 
head  of  the  houseliold  recited  the  history  of 
the  re<k'mption.  At  the  first  institution  the 
participants  stood,  in  later  times  they  re- 
clined. Other  nunor  features  were  intro- 
duced :  four  successive  cujts  of  wine  mixed 
with  water,  to  which  there  is  no  reference  in 
the  law;  singing  of  I's;ilms  cxiii.-cxviii.  (cp. 
Is.  XXX.  25t ;  I's.  xlii.  4);  a  dish  of  fruits  re- 
duc«'d  with  vinegar  to  the  eonsisteticy  of 
lime  as  a  reminder  of  the  mortar  used 
during  the  Egyptian  bondage.  The  paschal 
supjier  was  tlie  introductory  ceremony  and 
chief  feature  of  the  festival,  which  lasted 
until  the  twenty-first  day  of  the  month  (Ex. 
xii.  IS;  Lev.  xxiii.  ."),  <i ;  Deut.  xvi.  (J.  7). 
That  the  event  was  to  be  commemorated  by 
a  festival  of  seven  days'  duration  (Ex.  xii. 
14-20)  was  not  communicated  to  tlie  people 
until  the  day  of  the  fiight  (xiii.  :}  KM.  They 
were  directe(l  ri'garding  one  evening  only 
(xii.  21-2.'!),  and  iiifornu'd  that  the  service  was 
to  be  kept  i)criietuallv  (24,  2.'>i.  The  attend- 
35 


ance  of  the  jiilgrims  was  required  at  the 
supper  only.  They  were  at  liberty  to  depart 
on  the  morrow  (Deut.  xvi.  7).  The  first  day, 
that  is  the  fifteenth,  was  kept  as  Salibath 
and  likewise  the  seventh  ;  no  work  was  done 
and  there  was  a  holy  convocation  (Ex.  xii. 
1() :  Lev.  xxiii.  7  :  Num.  xxviii.  is,  25 ;  of 
which  only  the  last  is  enqihasized  in  Ex. 
xiii.  (i  ;  Deut.  xvi.  8).  On  the  morrow  after 
the  Sabbath,  that  is  on  the  second  day  of  the 
festival,  a  sheaf  of  the  first  ripe  barley  was 
waved  by  the  priest  before  the  Lord  to  con- 
secrate the  o]iening  harvest  (Lev.  xxiii.  10- 
14  ;  cp.  .Tosh.  V.  10-12,  Ii.  V.  margin ;  Se])tu- 
agint  of  Lev.  .xxiii.  7,  11  ;  Antiq.  iii.  10,  5| ; 
see  Wkkks,  Feast  of.  This  was  an  incl- 
di'utal  feature  :  the  act  consecrated  the  open- 
ing harvest,  l)ut  it  held  a  subordinate  jilace  ; 
the  second  day.  when  it  was  jierformed,  was 
not  ob.served  as  a  Sabbath  ;  and  altogether 
the  relation  of  the  passovcr  to  the  agricul- 
tural year  was  less  marked  than  in  the  festi- 
valsoi'weeksand  tabernacles.  Duringtlie  jiass- 
over  day  by  day  continually,  in  addition  to  the 
regular  sacrifices  of  the  sanctuary,  two  bul- 
locks, one  ram.  and  seven  lambs  were  offered 
as  a  burnt  offering,  and  a  he  goat  as  a  sin  ofi'er- 
ing  (Lev.  xxiii.  8;  Num.  xxviii.  li(-23). 
During  the  seven  days  also  unleavened  bread 
was  eaten.  They  had  no  leaven  in  their 
houses  on  the  night  of  the  passover,  and 
consecitiently  the  dough  which  they  .seized  in 
their  hurried  flight  was  unleavened  (Ex.  xii. 
8,  34,  39).  It  was  baked  thus.  Henceforth 
unleavened  bread  was  associated  in  their 
minds,  not  only  with  the  tliought  of  sin- 
cerity and  truth,  which  was  the  essential 
idea,  but  also  with  that  of  the  Inirried  flight 
from  Egypt  (Deut.  xvi.  3).  Celebrations  of 
the  passover  are  recorded  at  Sinai  (Num.  ix. 
1-14).  on  entering  Canaan  (Josh.  v.  11),  un- 
der Hezekiah  (2  Chron.  xxx.  1-27 ;  with 
reference  to  .Solomon,  5,  26),  under  Josiah  (2 
Kin.  xxiii.  21-23  :  2  Chron.  xxxv.  1-lft),  in 
the  days  of  Ezra  (Ezra  vi.  19-22).  See  also 
Mat.  xxvi.  17  seq.  ;  Mark  xiv.  12  seq. :  Luke 
xxii.  7  seq. ;  John  xviii.  28 ;  Antiq.  xvii.  9,  3; 
XX.  5.  .3 ;  War  vi.  9,  3). 

2.  The  lamb  or  kid  killed  at  the  festival 
of  the  passover  (Ex.  xii.  21  ;  Deut.  xvi.  2  ;  2 
Chron.  xxx.  17).  Christ  is  our  passover  (1 
Cor.  V.  7).  Like  the  jiaschal  lamb,  he  was 
without  blemish  (Ex.  xii.  5  with  1  Pet.  i. 
18.  1!)),  not  a  bone  was  broken  (Ex.  xii.  4t> 
with  .lolin  xix.  3fi),  his  blood  was  a  token  be- 
fore (Jud  (Ex.  xii.  13).  and  the  feast  was 
eaten  with  unleavened  bread  (18  and  1  Cor. 
V.  8). 

Pat'a-ra. 

.\  maritime  city  on  the  southwest  of  Lycia. 
Paul  took  shii)  there  for  Phu-nicia  on  his  last 
voyage  to  Palestine  (Acts  xxi.  1).  It  pos- 
se.'^.sed  a  famous  onude  of  Ajiollo.  It  still  ex- 
ists as  a  ruin  under  its  old  name,  tliough 
gradually  becoming  overwhelmed  by  moving 
sand  dunes. 


Pathros 


546 


Paul 


Fatb'ros  [laud  of  the  south  (Gesenius, 
Brujisfhl,  house  of  the  jjoddess  Hathor  in  the 
south  (El)ers)]. 

The  country  of  southern  or  Upper  Egypt. 
It  is  mentioned  between  Egypt  and  Cush  (Is. 
xi.  11) ;  and  is  known  in  Egyptian  texts  as 
Pa-to-ris,  with  Tliehes  as  its  capital.  It  was 
the  original  seat  of  tlu;  Egyiitians  themselves 
(Ezek.  xxix.  14)  ;  and  tlie  iirst  liistorical  king 
of  Egypt,  Menes,  is  reported  to  liave  resided  in 
Upper  Egy])t,  in  whose  time  all  the  lower  coun- 
try north  of  lake  Monis  was  a  swamp  (Herod, 
ii.  I,  15,  99).  Isaiali  foretold  the  dispersion 
of  Israel  to  the  remotest  regions  and  their 
eventual  return,  among  other  places  from 
Pathros  (Is.  xi.  11 ;  cp.  vii.  18).  After  the  cap- 
ture of  Jerusalem  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  Jews, 
])robably  refugees,  were  dwellers  in  Pathros 
(Jer.  xliv.  1,  2,  15). 

Path-ru'sim. 

One  of  seven  peoples  proceeding  from  Miz- 
raim.  They  are  the  inhabitants  of  Pathros 
(Gen.  X.  14 ;  1  Chron.  i.  12). 

Pat'mos. 

An  island  to  which  the  apostle  John  was 
banished  for  the  word  of  God,  and  for  the 
testimony  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  where  he  saw 
the  visions  recorded  in  the  book  of  Revela- 
tion (Kev.  i.  9).  It  is  a  small,  rocky  island, 
one  of  the  Sporades,  in  the  Grecian  Archi- 


Hehrew  race  and  nation.  It  is  applied  to 
Abraham  (Heb.  vii.  4),  to  the  twelve  sons 
of  Jacol)  (Acts  vii.  8,  9),  and  to  king  David 
(ii.  29).  Tlie  title  is  commonly  given  to  the 
godly  men  and  heads  of  families,  whose 
lives  are  recorded  in  the  O.  T.  previous  to 
the  time  of  Moses,  as  the  antediluvian  patri- 
archs whose  lineage  is  given  in  (ien.  v.  In 
tiie  patriarchal  sy.stem  the  government  of  a 
clan  is  regarded  as  the  paternal  right.  It 
resides  in  tlie  tirst  instance  in  the  jirogenitor 
of  the  tribe,  and  descends  from  liini  to  the 
tirst  born  son  or  ehlest  lineal  niali- descendant. 
The  head  of  each  several  family,  into  which 
the  increasing  tribe  expands,  exercises  a 
similar  government  within  his  own  limited 
sphere. 

The  patriarchal  dispensation  w'as  the  period 
before  the  establishment  of  the  theocracy  at 
Sinai,  when  each  patriarchal  head  of  a  family 
was  the  priest  of  his  own  household,  and 
God  communed  with  him  as  such. 

Pat'ro-bas. 

A  Cliristiau  at  Rome,  to  whom  Paul  sent 
salutations  (Rom.  xvi.  14). 

Pa'u  [bleating  (of  sheep)]. 

A  town  of  Edom,  the  city  of  king  Hadar 
(Gen.  xxxvi.  39).  Site  unknown.  Called  in 
1  Chron.  i.  50  Pai,  vau  and  jod  being  inter- 
changed ;  see  Vau. 


Patmos  and  the  Harbor  nf  La  .-^cala. 


pelago,  and  is  now  called  Patino.  It  lies  off 
the  southwestern  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  about 
30  miles  south  of  Samos ;  and  is  about  15  miles 
in  circumference,  and  generally  barren. 

Pa'tri-arcli. 

The  father  or  chief  of  a  race  ;  a  name 
given  in  the  N.   T.  to  tlH>   founders  of  the 


Paul  (Greek  Paulos,  from  Latin  Paitlus, 
little). 

The  great  apostle  to  the  gentiles.  His 
Jewish  name  was  Saul  (Hebrew  l^hn'  nl.  Greek 
SiikIos).  He  is  so  called  in  The  Acts  until 
after  the  account  of  the  conversion  of  Sergius 
Paulus,    proconsul   of    Cyprus,    from    wliicb 


Paul 


547 


Paul 


point  in  the  narrative  (Acts  xiii.  9)  the  name 
Paul  alone  is  jcivcn  bini.  In  his  epistlrs  tin- 
ii|mstk-  always  calls  liiiiisclf  Paul.  It  is  not 
stranjic  that  soiiii-  have  suiijiosed  that  he 
took  the  name  i'aul  lioni  the  idoeonsul.  Hut 
this  is  in  reality  (juite  inijirohahle  in  itself, 
and  tails  to  ()t)servc  the  delicacy  \vith  which 
Luice  introduces  the  ajioslle's  Ki'"'ih'  name 
when  his  work  anions  the  >;cnliles,  hy  whom 
he  was  known  as  Paul,  hejian.  It  is  more 
jtrohahle  tliat,  like  many  Jews  (Acts  i.  'Si; 
xii.  12\  Col.  iv.  11 1,  and  esiiecially  in  tlu'  dis- 
jH-rsion,  the  apostle  had  I'rom  the  hejiinniufi 
l)(»th  names.  He  was  horn  in  Tarsus,  the 
ehief  city  of  Cilieia  (Acts  ix.  11;  xxi.  :{!» ; 
xxii.  3).  and  was  of  the  tribe  of  I5en.jamin 
(Phil.  iii. .")).  It  is  not  known  liow  the  family 
eame  to  reside  in  Tarsus,  though  one  ancient 
tradition  rejiresi'iits  it  as  having  removed 
there  from  (iischala  in  (Jalilee  after  the  latter 
])lace  had  lieeii  caidured  hy  the  Romans.  It 
is  possible,  bowi'Ver.  that  the  family  had  at 
an  earlier  time  formed  part  of  a  colony  set- 
tied  in  Tarsus  by  one  of  tlie  Syrian  kings 
(Kamsiy,  St.  I'lutl  Ihc  TnncliT,  ji.  :51),  or 
they  may  have  voluntarily  mij^rated,  as  so 
many  Jews  did,  for  commercial  purposes. 
Paul  seems,  however,  to  have  had  a  larfje 
and  even  inlluential  family  connection.  In 
Kom.  xvi.  7,  11  he  salutes  three  persons  as 
his  kinsmen,  two  of  whom,  Andronicus  and 
Junias  (li.  V.),  are  said  to  have  been  "of 
note  amonji  the  apostles,"  and  to  have  be- 
come t'hristians  biTore  Paul  did.  From  Acts 
xxiii.  Hi  we  learn  th;il  his  "sister's  son," 
wlio  seems  to  have  resided,  jjcrhajis  with  liis 
mother,  in  Jerusalem,  gave  information  to 
the  eliief  captain  of  the  i)lot  to  kill  Paul, 
from  which  it  msiy  be  inferred  that  the 
youiiir  man  was  ct>nnected  with  some  of  tlu" 
leading  families.  This  is  also  conlirmed  by 
the  |irominence  of  Paul,  though  liimself  a 
yoving  man.  at  the  time  of  Stephen's  death. 
He  was  apparently  already  a  mend)er  of 
the  council  (.\cts  xxvi.  1(1),  and  soon  after- 
wards the  high  priest  intrusted  to  liim  tlie 
work  of  persecuting  the  CbristiaTis  (ix.  1, 
2;  xxii.  .')).  His  language  in  Phil.  iii.  4-7 
further  imiilies  that  he  occu])ie(l  originally  a 
position  of  larg<'  iiilluence,  and  that  up)ior- 
tunitii'S  of  honor  and  gain  had  been  open  to 
him.  His  fanuly  coniu-ctions,  therefore,  can- 
not have  l)een  obscure.  Though  lie  was 
brought  U|i  in  the  strict  observance  of  the 
Hebrew  faith  and  Iradilions,  his  father  liav- 
ing  been  a  Pharisee  (.\cts  xxiii.  (1).  he  was 
l)orn  a  free  Koman  <-itizen.  We  do  not  know 
hy  what  means  his  an<'estor  obtained  citizen- 
ship. It  may  liave  been  for  service  to  the 
state  or  j)ossildy  by  purchase.  Its  possession 
may  liav<'  had  some  connection  witli  the 
apostle's  Ivoman  name  Paulus.  Hut.  how- 
ever ae<|uired,  his  K'oman  «-itizenship  becanie 
of  great  importance  in  the  prosecution  of  his 
Christian  work  and  more  than  once  .saved 
his  life.  Tarsus  was  one  of  the  intellectual 
centers  of  the  Kast.  and  the  scat  of  a  famous 


school  of  learning  in  which  Stoicism  was  the 
dominant  ])hilosoi)hy.  It  is  scarcely  jiroh- 
able,  however,  that  Paul  came  under  these 
influences  when  a  boy,  for  his  jiarents  were 
strict  Jews,  and  he  was  early  sent  to  Jerusa- 
lem to  be  educated.  Like  other  Jewish  boys 
hi'  was  taught  a  trade,  which  in  his  case  was 
the  manufacture  of  tents,  such  as  were  used 
by  travelers  (xviii.  U).  Hut,  as  lie  him- 
self sjiys  (xxii.  3),  he  was  brought  up  in 
Jeru.salem.  He  must,  therefore,  have  been 
sent  there  when  quite  young.  Aiul  his  edu- 
cation in  .lerusalem  tended  to  deepen  the 
hold  ui)on  him  of  his  inherited  Pharisaic 
traditions.  He  was  instructed  "according  to 
the  i)erfect  manner  of  the  law  of  the  fatliers" 
(ibid.).  He  had  for  his  teacher  one  of 
the  most  learned  and  distinguislied  rabbis 
of  the  day.  This  was  (Jamaliel,  the  grand- 
son ol'  the  yet  more  famous  Hillel.  It  was 
this  (iamaliel  whose  speeib,  recorded  in  Acts 
V.  34-.'i!t,  i)revented  the  sanhedrin  from  at- 
tempting to  slay  the  apostles.  (Tamaliel,  in- 
deed, liad  .some  leaning,  strangely  for  a  Phar- 
isee, t(n\ard  (Jreek  culture,  and  his  sjieech 
in  The  Acts  shows  the  reverse  of  a  bitter, 
jiersecuting  sjiirit.  Hut  he  was  famous  for 
rabbinical  learning,  and  at  his  feet  the  young 
man  from  'i'arsus  became  versed  not  only  in 
the  teaching  of  tlu-  ().  T.,  ))Ut  in  the  subtle- 
ties of  rabbinical  interjiretation,  while  it  is 
l)lain  also  that  his  zeal  for  the  traditions  of 
the  fathers  and  his  narrow  Pharisaism 
burned  with  the  fiery  intensity  of  youth. 
Thus  the  future  apostle  grew  up  an  ardent 
Pharisee,  trained  in  the  religious  and  intel- 
lectual ideas  of  his  peojile.  and  from  his  per- 
sonal (|ualities,  his  course  of  education,  and 
])robably  his  family  connections  jirepared  to 
take  a  high  jiosition  ainejug  his  countrymen, 
lie  first  aipjiears  in  Christian  history  as  the 
man  at  whose  feet  the  witnesses  who  .stoned 
Stephen  laid  their  clothes  (Acts  vii.  of<).  He 
is  described  as  being  then  a  young  num. 
The  position  he  is  here  said  to  have  occupied 
was  not  an  official  one.  It  .seems  to  imply, 
however,  especially  when  taken  with  tlie 
statement  (viii.  1)  that  he  "was  consent- 
ing unto  his  death,"  that  Paul  was  active 
in  the  iiersecutioii  of  the  first  Christian  mar- 
tyr. He  was  doubtless  one  of  the  Hellenists, 
or  Greek-sjieaking  .lews,  mentioned  in  Acts 
vi.  9  as  the  original  instigators  of  the  charge 
against  Stei)hen.  We  cannot  be  wrong  in 
sujiposing  lliat  Paul's  hatred  of  the  new  sect 
had  already  been  arous<'d  ;  that  he  not  only 
despised  their  crticitied  Messiah,  but  reg;irded 
them  as  bi'iiig  both  ]iolilically  and  religiously 
dangerous;  and  that  he  was  already  pre- 
jiared,  with  bitter  but  conscientious  fanati- 
cism, to  op|)ose  them  to  the  death.  .*<o  we 
find  him.  iimiiedialely  afti'r  Ste]ihen's  diath, 
faking  a  leatling  part  in  the  jiersecutjon  of 
the  Christians  which  followed  (.\cts  viii.  3  : 
xxii.  I :  x.wi.lO,  11;  1  Cor.  xv.  9;  (Jal.  i.  1.'? ; 
Phil.  iii.  (i;  1  Tim.  i.  13).  He  did  this  with 
the  fierceness  of  a  misguided  conscience.    He 


Paul 


548 


Paul 


was  the  type  of  the  religious  inquisitor.  Not 
coiitotit  with  waginfj  the  persecution  in  Jeru- 
stiloni,  he  asked  of  the  high  priest  letters  to 
the  synagogues  in  Damascus  that  lie  might 
bring  from  thence  any  Christian  Jews  whom 
he  might  find  (Acts  ix.  1,  2).  Large  powers 
of  internal  administration  were  granted  to 
the  Jews  even  l)y  the  Romans,  and  in  Da- 
mascus, which  was  under  the  control  of 
Aretas,  king  of  the  Nahathieans,  the  gover- 
nor was  particularly  favorable  to  them  (ix. 
■S.i,  2i  ;  2  Cor.  xi.  ."52),  so  that  I'aul's  persecu- 
tion of  the  Christians  is  not  in  the  least  in- 
credible. The  important  tiling  to  observe, 
however,  is  that  according  to  the  express 
testimony  of  Luke  and  of  Paul  himself,  he 
was  tilled  with  fury  against  them  up  to  the 
very  moment  of  his  conversion,  and  believed 
that  in  persecuting  them  he  was  rendering 
the  highest  service  to  God.  He  did  not  have 
a  doul)t  as  to  the  righteousness  of  his  course, 
nor  did  his  heart  fail  him  in  its  execution. 

It  was  on  the  way  to  Damascus  that  his 
sudden  conversion  occurred.  Paul  and  his 
companions,  probably  on  horseback,  had  been 
following  the  usual  road  across  the  desert 
from  Galilee  to  the  ancient  city.  Damascus 
had  been  nearly  reached.  It  was  the  hour 
of  noon  and  the  sun  was  blazing  in  the  zenith 
(Acts  xxvi.  13).  Suddenly  a  light  from 
heaven,  brighter  than  the  sun,  streamed 
round  about  them,  and,  overcome  by  its 
blinding  brilliance,  Paul  fell  upon  the  ground. 
His  companions,  too,  fell  to  the  ground 
(14),  though  they  appear  to  have  afterwards 
arisen,  while  he  remained  prostrate  (ix.  7). 
Out  of  the  light  he  heard  a  voice,  say- 
ing in  the  Hebrew  language:  "Saul,  Saul, 
why  persecutest  thou  me?  it  is  hard  for 
thee  to  kick  against  the  goad"  (xxvi.  14 
E.  v.).  He  replied  :  "  Who  art  thou.  Lord  ?  " 
He  heard  in  answer :  "  I  am  Jesus  whom 
thou  persecutest"  (15).  "Arise,  and  go 
into  the  city,  and  it  shall  be  told  thee 
what  thou  must  do"  (ix.  6;  xxii.  10).  His 
companions  heard  the  sound  of  the  voice 
(ix.  7),  but  did  not  understand  what  was 
said  (xxii.  9).  Paul,  however,  was  found  to 
be  blinded  by  the  light,  so  they  led  him  by 
the  hand  into  Damascus,  where  he  lodged  in 
the  house  of  a  certain  Judas  (ix.  11).  For 
three  days  he  remained  blind  and  fasting, 
praying  (ft,  11)  and  meditating  on  the  reve- 
lation which  had  been  made  to  him.  <  )n  the 
third  day  tlie  Lord  commanded  a  certain 
Jewish  Christian,  named  Ananias,  to  go  to 
Paul  and  lay  his  hands  on  him  that  he  might 
receive  his  sight.  The  Lord  assured  .Ananias, 
who  was  afraid  of  the  p(>rsecutor,  that  the 
latter  had  already  .seen  him  in  a  vision  com- 
ing to  hini.  Thereujion  Ananias  obeyed. 
Paul  confessed  his  faith  in  Jesus,  received 
his  sight,  accepted  baiitism,  and  forthwith, 
with  his  characteristic  energy  and  to  the  as- 
tonishment of  the  Jews,  began  to  preach  in 
the  svnagogues  that  Jesus  was  the  Christ,  the 
Son  of  God  (ix.  10-22). 


Such  is  the  narrative  of  the  conversion  of 
Saul  of  Tarsus.  Three  recitals  of  it  are 
given  in  The  .Acts  ;  one  by  Luke  (ix.  3-22)  ; 
one  by  I'aul  himself  before  the  Jews  (xxii. 
l-KJ) ;  again  by  Paul  before  Festus  and 
Agrippa  (xxvi.  1-20).  The  three  accounts 
entirely  agree,  though  in  each  of  them  par- 
ticulars are  dwelt  on  which  are  not  found  in 
the  others.  The  story  in  each  case  is  told 
with  special  regard  to  the  purpose  of  the  nar- 
rator. Paul  in  his  ejiistles  also  frequently 
alludes  to  his  conversion,  attributing  it  to  the 
grace  and  power  of  God,  though  he  does  not 
describe  it  in  detail  (1  Cor.  i.x.  1,  16;  xv.  8- 
1{»:  Gal.  i.  12-16;  Eph.  iii.  1-8;  Phil.  iii.  .")-7; 
1  Tim.  i.  12-16;  2  Tim.  i.  9-11).  The  fact, 
therefore,  is  supported  by  the  strongest  possi- 
ble testimony.  It  is  certain  also  that  Jesus 
not  onlj'  spoke  to  Paul,  but  visibly  apjieared 
to  him  (Acts  ix.  17,  27;  xxii.  14  ;  xxvi.  16  ; 
1  Cor.  ix.  1).  While  the  form  in  which  he 
appeared  is  not  described,  we  may  be  sure 
that  it  was  a  glorious  one ;  so  that  Paul  real- 
ized at  once  that  the  crucified  Jesus  was  the 
exalted  Sou  of  God.  He  himself  describes 
it  as  "the  heavenly  vision"  (Acts  xxvi.  19), 
or  spectacle,  a  word  elsewhere  used  only  in 
Luke  i.  22  and  xxiv.  23  to  describe  the  mani- 
festation of  angelic  beings.  There  is  no 
ground  therefore  for  the  allegation  that  it 
was  an  illusion  of  any  kind.  At  the  same 
time  the  mere  appearance  of  Christ  did  not 
convert  Paul.  This  was  the  work  of  the 
Spirit  in  his  heart,  enabling  him  to  ajipre- 
hend  and  accept  the  truth  which  had  been 
revealed  to  him  (see  especially  Gal.  i.  15). 
Ananias  also  was  evidently  made  use  of  in 
order  to  connect  Paul's  new  life  with  the 
already  existing  church.  The  various  ration- 
alistic attempts  which  have  been  made  to  ex- 
plain Paul's  conversion  without  acknowledg- 
ment of  the  objective  and  supernatural  in- 
terposition of  the  Lord  are  wrecked  upon 
the  testimony  of  Paul  himself  that  he  had 
thought  up  to  the  time  of  his  cfinversion 
that  it  was  his  religious  duty  to  persecute 
Christianity,  and  that  his  change  was  due  to 
the  sovereign  exercise  of  God's  power  and 
grace.  The  expression,  "  It  is  hard  for  thee 
to  kick  against  the  goad,"  does  not  imply 
that  he  had  been  an  unwilling  jiei-secntor  or 
that  he  already  believed  that  Christianity 
might  be  true,  liut  describes  the  folly  of  any 
resistance  to  the  purjiose  of  God  with  him. 
.\t  the  same  time  his  previous  history  had 
been  an  unconscious  jirejia ration  for  his  fu- 
ture work.  His  Roman  citizensliiji.  his  rab- 
binical training,  as  well  as  his  natural  quali- 
ties of  mind  fitted  him  for  his  life  task. 
There  is  reason  to  believe  also  that  with  all 
his  zeal  he  liad  not  found  spiritual  peace 
in  Judaism  (Rom.  vii.  7-25).  If  so,  the 
manner  of  his  conversion  must  have  made 
him  vividly  realize  that  salvation  is  alone 
through  the  grace  of  God  in  Christ.  His  re- 
ligious exjierience  therefore  was  also  part  of 
his    preparation    to    become    the  great  ex- 


Paul 


549 


Paul 


pounder  of  the  gospel  as  providing  justifit-a- 
tion  for  tiie  sinner  on  the  ground  (»f  Christ's 
merits  received  througli  faitli  alone.  As 
soon  as  lie  was  con viTti'd  I'aul  began  evan- 
gelistic work.  This  was  partly  due  ti>  liis 
natural  energy,  hut  also  to  Ihi-  tact  that  it 
had  heen  revealed  to  him  that  (utd's  i>uri>ose 
in  calling  him  was  to  make  him  a  mission- 
ary and  apostle  (Acts  i.\.  l."> :  xxvi.  Ki  "JO; 
(ial.  i.  I.").  Ki).  Ill'  began  work  in  the  syna- 
gogues of  Daina.scus  and  pursued  it  with  suc- 
cess. This  rai.sed  against  him  jier-seeulion  from 
the  Damascene  Jews,  who  were  aided  by  tlie 
governor  of  the  city  ("J  Cor.  .\i.l5"Ji  :  so  tliat  he 
was  coin|iellcd  to  (lee  secri'Ily,  bi'ing  let  down 
hy  his  di.sciplcs  in  a  basket  from  a  window  in 
the  city's  wall  (Acts  ix.  •2:i--Jo;  2  Cor.  xi.  33). 
Instead  of  returning  to  .Jerusalem,  however, 
he  wi-nt  to  Arabia  and  afterwaids  returned 
to  Damascus  ((ial.  i.  17).  We  do  not  know 
wliere  he  went  in  .\rabia,  nor  how  long  he 
stayed,  nor  wiiat  he  did  there.  It  is  not  im- 
l)robable  that  the  time  was  mainly  spent  in 
meditation  ujion  the  great  change  which  had 
come  over  his  life  and  the  truth  as  it  had 
now  been  revealed  to  him.  But  three  years 
after  his  conversion  he  determined  to  leave 
Dama.scus  and  visit  .Jerusalem  again.  He 
tells  us  (<Jal.  i.  IM.  liD  that  his  main  ])nr]>ose 
was  to  visit  Peter;  that  he  remained  in  Je- 
rusjilem  only  fifteen  days;  and  that  of  the 
apostles  he  s;iw  I'eter  only,  though  he  men- 
tions that  he  also  saw  .Janies.  the  Lord's 
brother.  Luke,  however  (Acts  ix.  2(j~'J!)), 
gives  further  particulars.  It  ai)pears  that 
the  Christians  in  .Ferusalem  were  afraid  of 
him  iiecau.se  of  his  former  reputation  and 
did  not  believe  he  was  really  a  discijile  ;  but 
that  I'arnabas,  with  that  generosity  of  mind 
which  was  ever  characteristic  of  him,  took 
Paul  to  the  apostles  and  related  the  story  of 
his  conversion  and  siil)se(iuent  clianged  life. 
We  are  also  told  that  Paul  ])rcailied  as  fear- 
le.ssly  in  .leriisalem  as  he  had  done  at  Damas- 
cus and  directed  his  efforts  especially  toward 
his  old  friends,  the  (ireek-s|ieakiiig  .lews  (i.v. 
28,  2!>).  These,  too.  i>lotted  at  once  against  his 
life.  The  tlireat<iiing  dangir  caused  the 
brethren  to  send  him  away,  so  they  took  him 
to  Ca-sjirea  and  sent  him  from  there  to  Tar- 
sus (2tt,  :{<•;  Cal.  i.  21).  He  deiiarted  the 
more  willingly  because  in  the  teiii|ile  the 
Lord  had  a]>peared  to  him  in  a  vision  bidding 
him  go  and  telling  him  distinctly  that  his 
mission  was  to  the  gentiles  (Acts  xxii.  17-21). 
The  two  accounts  in  'I'lie  .Acts  and  (ialatians 
of  this  visit  to, leriisalem  have  soinetiiiics  been 
thought  inconsistent,  but  they  may  be  natur- 
ally harmoni/.ed.  It  is  highly  probable  that 
Paul  Would  want  to  visit  Peter  in  order  that 
his  work  might  ]irocee<l  in  unison  with  that 
of  the  ori;;inal  ajiostles.  of  whom  Peter  was 
the  most  prominent.  It  is  <'(|iially  natural 
that  the  .leriisalem  Christians  should  be  at 
first  afraid  of  him;  and  the  conduct  of  Har- 
nahas,  who  was,  like  Paul,  a  Hellenistic 
Jew,  is  in  keeping  with  his  action  through- 


out the  whole  hi.story.  Fifteen  days,  more- 
over, are  not  too  short  a  time  for  the  events 
described  in  The  Acts.  It  is,  in  fact,  confirmed 
by  the  Lord's  command  to  Paul  to  dejiart 
<|iiickly  (.\xii.  IS).  Nor  is  Luke's  statement 
that  Barnabas  brought  Paul  "  to  thea]postles" 
inconsistent  with  Paul's  statement  that  he 
saw  Peter  only,  together  with  .lames.  The 
receiition  of  the  new  convert  even  by  Peter 
alone,  not  to  sjieak  of  .lames,  who  occupied 
almost  an  ajiostolic  jiositioii  (see  (Ial.  ii.  !»), 
wase()uivalent  toajiostolic  recognition  of  him, 
and  tills  is  all  that  Luke's  ex[iression  was 
meant  to  describe.  It  is  further  W(jrtliy  of  re- 
mark that  it  was  now  realized  fiill\-,  both  by 
Paul  and  the  leaders  in  Jeriis;ilem.  that  the 
new  convert  was  a  chosen  apostle  of  Christ, 
and  that  his  mission  %vas  to  the  gentiles.  At 
the  same  time  the  ()Uestion  does  not  aiipear 
to  have  been  raised  of  what  would  be  the  re- 
lation of  gentile  converts  to  the  Mosaic  law. 
Neither  did  any  foresee  how  important  Paul's 
mission  was  to  become.  His  conimi.ssion, 
however,  was  admitted,  and  he  was  sent 
forth  to  Tarsus  to  engage  in  such  work  as 
might  ojien  before  him. 

Paul's  stay  in  Tarsus  is  nearly  a  blank  to 
us.  It  i)robably  lasted  six  or  seven  years ;  see 
below  on  the  chronology  of  Paul's  life.  No 
doubt  he  engaged  in  missionary  work,  and 
jirobably  founded  the  churches  of  Cilicia, 
which  arc  mentioned  incidentally  in  Acts 
XV.  41.  If  at  any  time  he  felt  the  intellec- 
tual influences  of  Tarsus,  this  must  have 
heen  the  period.  As  already  remarked,  Tar- 
sus was  one  of  the  centers  of  the  Stoic  jihil- 
()So]ihy,  and  Paul's  apiueciatioii  of  Stoicism 
plainly  ajij^ears  in  his  speech  at  Athens.  But 
we  must  be  content  with  the  little  informa- 
tion that  has  been  given  us.  While  doubt- 
less not  inactive.  Paul  was  waiting  for  the 
Lord  by  his  providence  to  niaki'  ])lain  the  way 
in  which  his  chosen  ambassador  was  to  go. 

At  length,  however,  the  purpo.se  of  God 
began  to  ajijiear.  Some  of  the  Greek-speak- 
ing .lewish  Cliristians  who  had  been  driven 
from  .Jerusalem  by  the  iierseciitioii  \\hich 
followed  Stephen's  death  caine  to  the  great 
city  of  Antioch  in  Syria.  It  was  situated  on 
the  Orontcs,  north  of  the  Lebanon  range, 
hail  been  the  cajiital  of  the  ."Syrian  king- 
dom, and  was  (  ben  tlie  residence  of  the  Koiiian 
governor  of  the  province.  It  was  rated  as 
one  of  the  chief  cities  of  the  emjiire.  Its 
mixed  po])ulatiou  and  its  extensive  com- 
merce made  it  a  center  of  wide  inlluence. 
Lying  .just  outsidt-  of  Palestine  and  at.  the 
entrance  to  Asia  Minor,  connected  also  by 
traffic  and  politics  with  the  whole  emjnre,  it 
formed  a  natural  base  of  operations  from 
which  tlw  new  faith,  if  it  wastolx'  sejja rated 
from  ,Fu(laism,  could  go  forth  to  theconrniest 
of  the  world.  In  Antioch  the  Christian  ref- 
ugees l)egan,  we  an-  told  (Acts  xi.  20),  to 
jireach  to  the  gentiles  (A.  V.  Grecians;  R. 
V.  Greeks).  Tliere  is  a  difficult  question  of 
the   text   in  the  original ;    hut   the   context 


Paul 


550 


Paul 


leaves  uo  room  for  doubt  that  the  work  was 
among  giMitiles.  Many  wen-  converted,  so 
that  a  distinctively  {jentile  churcli  sprauf^ 
up  in  tlie  mctrojiolis  of  Syria.  When  tlie 
fact  was  reported  at  Jerusalem,  B;irn;il);is  was 
sent  to  investijiate.  Willi  noble  breadth  of 
view,  he  saw  the  Lord's  hand  in  the  new  de- 
velopment in  sjjite  of  the  fact  that  the  con- 
verts were  nncircunicised.  He  also  seems  to 
have  realized  that  this  was  the  divine  open- 
ing for  Paul;  for  he  went  to  Tarsus  to  seek 
him  and  brought  him  to  Antioch.  Together 
they  labored  for  a  year  in  Antioch.  Many 
more  gentiles  were  converted,  and  the  nou- 
Jewisli  character  of  the  church  was  signal- 
ized by  the  fact  that  to  the  disciples  in  Anti- 
och was  the  name  Christians  first  given,  evi- 
dently by  their  heathen  neighbors.  Thus 
began  Paul's  connection  with  Antioch.  Thus 
also  aro.se  on  the  page  of  church  history  the 
first  gentile  Christian  organization.  It  was 
to  be  the  starting  point  for  Paul's  mission  to 
the  pagan  world. 

While  Paul  was  at  Antioch,  a  prophet  from 
Jerusalem,  named  Agabus,  predicted  in  the 
Christian  assembly  that  a  famine  was  soon  to 
occur.  This  was  seized  upon  by  the  brethren 
at  Antioch  as  an  occasion  for  evincing  their 
love  to  and  fraternity  with  the  Christians  of 
Judcea.  The  fact  is  a  remarkable  proof  of 
the  sen.se  of  obligation  which  these  gentiles 
had  to  tho.se  from  whom  they  had  received 
their  new  faith,  as  well  as  of  the  extent  to 
which  the  go.spel  broke  down  at  once  the 
barriers  which  had  existed  between  races 
and  classes.  Contributions  for  the  relief  of 
the  Judiean  Christians  were  made  at  Anti- 
och, and  the  same  were  sent  to  the  elders  at 
Jerusalem  by  the  hands  of  Barnabas  and 
Saul  (Acts  xi.  29,  30).  This  visit  of  Paul 
to  Jerusalem  probably  occurred  in  A.  D.  44, 
or  shortly  after.  It  is  not  mentioned  by 
Paul  in  Galatians,  no  doubt  because  he  did 
not  see  any  of  the  apostles.  Some  writers 
indeed  have  tried  to  identify  it  with  the 
visit  recorded  in  Gal.  ii.  1-10 ;  but  that 
plainly  occurred  after  the  dispute  concerning 
the  circumcision  of  gentiles  had  sprung  up, 
and  Luke  distinctly  assigns  the  rise  of  that 
controver.sy  to  a  later  date  (Acts  xv.  1).  The 
purpose  of  Paul  in  ( Jalatians  was  to  recount 
the  opi)(U-tunities  he  had  had  of  obtaining 
his  gospel  from  the  older  ajjostles  ;  and  if  on 
this  occasion,  as  Luke  intimates  (xi.  30),  he 
met  only  the  elders  of  the  church,  and  if  the 
brief  visit  was  purely  on  ii  matter  of  charity, 
his  argument  in  <talatians  did  not  require 
him  to  mention  the  journey.  Barnabas  and 
Paul  soon  returned  to  Antioch,  taking  with 
them  .Tohn  Mark  (xii.  2")). 

The  time  had  at  length  arrived  when 
Paul's  historic  missionary  work  to  the  gen- 
tiles was  to  begin.  It  was  indicated  by  the 
Spirit  to  the  i)rophets  belonging  to  the 
church  in  Antioch  (Acts  xiii.  1-3).  They  were 
directed  to  set  apart  two  of  their  number, 
Barnabas  and  Paul,  for  the  work  to  which 


God  had  called  them.  Thus  by  divine  direc- 
tion and  under  the  auspices  of  the  church  at 
Antioch, the  apostle's  first  missionary  journey 
began.  Its  exact  date  is  uncertain.  We  can 
only  assign  it  to  the  years  between  a.  l>. 
45-50  ;  perhaps,  46-48.  Neither  is  there  any 
clear  indication  how  long  a  time  it  occupied. 
Barnabas,  who  was  the  older,  is  mentioned 
as  the  leader;  but  Paul  speedily  took  the 
chief  place  through  his  ability  in  speaking. 
John  Mark  also  went  as  their  helper.  The 
party  went  from  Antioch  to  Seleucia,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Orontes,  and  thence  sailed 
to  Cyprus,  the  original  home  of  Barnabas. 
Landing  at  Salamis,  on  the  east  coast  of 
Cyprus,  they  began  work,  as  was  natural,  in 
the  Jewish  synagogues.  Then  they  moved 
through  the  island  from  place  to  place  until 
they  reached  Pa|ihos  on  the  southwest  coast. 
Here  they  attracted  the  notice  of  Sergius  Pau- 
lus,  the  Eoman  proconsul,  and  were  violently 
opposed  by  a  Jewish  sorcerer,  Bar-jesus, 
who  called  himself  Elymas,  learned  one, 
and  who  had  previously  won  the  patronage 
of  the  proconsul  (Acts  xiii.  6,  7).  Paul,  with 
much  indignation,  rebuked  the  sorcerer  and 
smote  him  with  blindness ;  and  the  effect 
of  the  miracle  and  of  the  missionaries' 
teaching  was  the  conversion  of  Sergius  (8- 
12).  Then  leaving  Cyprus,  the  party,  of 
whom  Paul  was  now  the  recognized  head 
(13),  sailed  north  toward  Asia  Minor  and 
came  to  Perga  in  Pamphylia.  There  John 
Mark,  for  some  unexplained  reason,  left 
them  and  returned  to  Jerusalem.  Nor  do 
Paul  and  Barnabas  appear  to  have  remained 
iu  Perga,  but  journeyed  northward  into 
Phrygia  until  they  reached  Antioch,  called 
Pisidian  because  it  lay  toward  Pisidia. 
This  was  the  chief  city  of  the  Eoman  prov- 
ince of  Galatia.  There  they  entered  the 
Jewish  synagogue  and,  on  invitation  of  the 
rulers  of  the  synagogue,  Paul  made  the  great 
address  recorded  in  Acts  xiii.  16-41,  the  first 
recorded  specimen  of  his  preaching.  After 
rehearsing  the  divine  leading  of  Israel  with 
a  view  to  the  coming  Messiah,  he  related  the 
testimony  of  the  ISaptist  and  the  rejection 
of  Jesus  by  the  Jewish  rulers,  but  declared 
that  God  had  raised  him  from  the  dead,  that 
in  him  the  ancient  promises  to  Israel  were 
being  fnUilled.  and  tliat  only  through  faith  in 
him  (■<iuld  men  be  justified.  He  also  warned 
the  Jews  not  to  repeat  the  crime  of  tlieir 
rulers  in  Jerusalem.  The  speech  aroused 
the  enmity  of  the  leading  Jews:  but  it  made 
an  impression  on  some  others,  and  yet  more 
on  those  gentiles  who  were  already  under 
the  influence  of  the  synagogue  and  who 
ever  formed  the  connecting  link  for  Paul  be- 
tween the  synagogue  and  the  pagan  world. 
The  next  Sai)l)a1h  the  break  took  jilace  be- 
tween the  missionaries  and  the  synagogue, 
and  the  former  began  to  address  their  work 
directly  to  the  gentiles.  The  chief  people 
of  the  citj',  however,  were  excited  by  the 
Jews  against  the  Christians,  and  Paul  and 


Paul 


551 


Paul 


JJaniahas  were  exi)elled  (Acts  xiii.  50).  From 
Aiitiorh  they  went  to  Icnniuni.  anotlicr  city 
of  IMiry^cia,  wIrtc  iiiaiiy  cnii  verts,  txilli 
Jewish  and  yenlile,  were  made  I')!).  ]5ut 
the  Jews  a^ain  succeeded  in  raising  jier- 
seciition,  and  the  missionaries  jiassed  on  to 
Lystra  and  l)erl)e,  iniporUmt  cities  of  Ly- 
caonia  (xiv.  l-(i).  At  Lystra  tlic  niiracu- 
hius  cure  of  a  hiine  man  hy  Paul  led 
to  an  aiteini)t  on  the  part  of  the  heathen 
liojnilace  to  otter  worship  to  the  missionaries, 
<-allin^  them  Jiijiiter  and  Mt-rcury  ;  and  this 
occasioned  the  second  rccoided  siieech  of 
I'aul  (1.">-1^),  in  which  he  reasoned  against 
the  folly  of  idolatry.  At  Lystra  Tinu)thy 
■was  prohahly  converted  (see  Acts  xvi.  1; 
2  Tim.  i.  2;  iii.  11).  The  hrief  i>oi>Mlarity 
of  the  ajiostle  was,  however,  soon  followed 
hy  renewed  persecution  under  Jewish  in- 
stigation (Acts  xiv.  1!)),  so  that  he  was 
stoned,  dragged  out  of  the  city,  and  left  for 
dead.  When  he  revived  he  (ieitarted  with 
Barnahas  to  Dertjc,  which  was  prohahly  at 
the  southeastern  limit  of  the  province  of 
Galatia  (2t().  It  would  have  heen  i)o.s.Mhle  for 
the  missionaries  to  cross  the  mountains  into 
Cilicia,  and  .so  go  directly  hy  way  of  Tarsus, 
back  to  Syrian  Antioch.  Their  route  had 
followi'd  a  rough  circle.  But  the.v  would  not 
return  until  they  had  placed  the  new  churches 
on  a  firm  l)asis.  Jlence  they  retunu'd  from 
Derheto  Lystra,  from  Ly.stra  to  Iconiuni,  from 
Iconium  to  Pisidian  Antioch,  and  from  An- 
tioi'h  to  Perga,  in  each  place  organizing  the 
church  and  encouraging  the  (lisci)iles.  At 
Perga  they  ])i'eached,  as  they  had  .seemingly 
not  done  at  the  formi-r  visit ;  then,  going  to 
its  seajiort,  Attalia,  they  returned  to  Antioch 
in  Syria  (.Vets  xiv.  21-20).  Thus  the  first 
mis-iionary  tour  of  the  apostle  was  com- 
]ileted.  It  covered  the  regions  next  toward 
the  west  of  those  already  occupied  h.v  tlie 
gospel.  His  method  was  to  oti'er  the  gosjiel 
first  to  the  Jews  and  then  to  the  gentiles. 
He  found  a  large  nund)er  of  the  latter 
already  inlluenced  hy  Judaism,  and  there- 
fore somewhat  jire])ared  to  receive  t'hris- 
tianity.  His  method  was  to  found  churches 
in  the  ]irincipal  cities,  and  ins  Journeys  were 
facililuli'd  by  the  fine  roads  which  the 
Koniai>  government  had  made  helwi'cn  lier 
military  jjosts.  The  (ireek  language  also 
was  everywhere  nndei"stood.  Providence 
had  thus  pre])are(l  the  way  for  the  i)repared 
lierald  of  the  gosjxd  to  the  world.  [On  the 
missionary  .journeys  of  Paul,  the  stinlent 
should  consult  Conyheare  and  Howson's 
Life  iiiitl  Kpistle.t  of  SI.  Paul ;  and,  especially 
for  the  first  Journey,  the  first  part  of  limn- 
SJiy's   Church   ni  llic   limntni   Kiniiiri'.] 

The  success  of  Paul's  work  among  the 
gentiles  led,  howi'Ver,  to  controversy  within 
the  church.  Ci'rtain  strict  Jewish  (  hristians 
from  Jerusalem  went  to  Antioch  and  de- 
clared that  unless  the  converted  getitiles 
were  circunici.sed,  the.v  coulil  not  he  .sjived 
(Acts  XV.  1).   Some  years  before  this  time  God 


had  revealed  to  the  church  through  Peter 
that  gentiles  were  to  be  received  without 
observance  of  the  Mo.sjiic  law  (x.  1-xi.  IS). 
But  the  strict  Jewish  party,  made  up 
mostly  of  converted  Pharisees  (xv.  5),  would 
not  abide  by  this  teaching;  and  the  an- 
nouncement of  their  doctrines  in  Antioch 
so  disturbed  the  church  there  that  the 
brethren  deterndned  to  send  Paul  and  J5ar- 
uabas,  with  others,  to  Jerusiilem  to  consult 
with  the  apostles  and  elders  8il)out  this  (jiies- 
tion.  This  is  the  visit  (le.scril)ed  in  A<-ts  xv. 
and  (4al.  ii.  l-KJ.  Both  accounts  are  entirely 
harmonious,  though  written  from  ditlerent 
jwints  of  view.  Paul  tells  us  that  a  revela- 
tion from  God  directed  liim  to  go  ((xal.  ii.  2). 
It  was  a  great  crisis.  The  whole  future  of 
the  new  religion  was  depending  on  the  issue. 
But  the  result  was  a  triumph  of  Christian 
loyalt.v  and  charity.  Paul  and  Barnabas 
proclaimed  to  the  mother  church  what  God 
had  done  through  them.  When  the  strict 
Jewish  Christians  o]ii>osed  them,  a  council 
was  held  of  the  a])ostles  and  elders  (Acts  xv. 
()-2it).  Peter  reminded  the  church  of  God's 
will  as  shown  in  the  case  of  Cornelius;  Paul 
and  Barnabas  related  the  mighty  attestations 
which  God  had  given  to  their  mission; 
James,  the  Lord's  brother,  pointed  out  that 
pro)>hecy  had  foretold  the  calling  of  the 
gentiles.  It  was  resolved  to  heartily  recog- 
nize the  uncircumcised  converts  as  brethren, 
but  to  direct  them  to  avoid  certain  i)ractices 
which  were  specially  offensive  to  the  Jews. 
Paul  tells  us  in  (ialatiaus  that  the  church  in 
Jerusalem  stood  by  him  against  the  "false 
brethren;"  and  al.so  that  James,  Peter,  and 
John  gave  him  the  right  hand  of  fellowship, 
he  to  go  to  the  gentiles,  they  to  the  Jews. 
Tims  Paul  retained  fellowship  with  the  other 
ai)ostles  while  at  liberty  to  go  on  his  own 
divinely  ai)pointed  nnssion.  How  bitter  the 
controversy  was  on  tlie  part  o\'  the  Judaizers 
is  shown  by  their  subseqtu'nt  hatred  and  hos- 
tility to  Paul.  But  he  had  gained  his  jioint. 
The  nnit.v  of  the  church  was  preserved. 
The  liberty  of  the  gentiles  was  ])reserved.  A 
practical  adjustment  was  made  by  which 
reasonable  Jewish  ])rejiulice  was  conciliated, 
while  the  way  was  open  for  the  carrying  of  the 
gospel  to  all  ])eoples,  unencunihered  by  Jew- 
ish ceremonialism.  A  brief  reminder  of  the 
controversy  occurred  indeed  soon  after  in 
Antioch  which  ought  to  be  mentioned  ((ial. 
ii.  11-21).  Peter  had  gone  there  and.  being 
in  entire  agreement  with  Paul,  had  lived  in 
free  association  with  the  gentiles.  But  when 
Jews  from  .lerusalem  came  to  .\nlioch,  Peter 
and  even  Barnabas  withdrew  from  this  asso- 
ciation. This  led  Paul  ])ublicly  to  rebuke 
Peter,  and  in  liis  rebuke  he  outlined  the 
doctriiuil  ground  on  which  he  rested  the 
rights  of  the  gentiles  in  the  church.  Salva- 
tion is  by  faith  alotie,  he  said,  because  the 
believer  has  died  with  Christ  to  the  law  ;  i.e. 
Christ  by  ilying  hits  met  all  the  obligations 
of    the   law   for    his  people,   and   therefore 


Paul 


552 


Paul 


notliing  more  than  faith  in  Christ  can  be 
made  the  condition  of  any  one's  becoming  a 
Christian.  We  thus  see  that  the  ri;ilils  of 
the  gentiles  in  tlie  chnrch  involved  for  Paul 
much  more  than  a  question  of  church  unity. 
He  saw  that  it  involved  the  essential  ])rinciple 
of  the  gospel.  By  his  defense  of  this  prin- 
ciple, as  well  as  hy  his  missionary  work, 
Paul  was  the  chief  agent  in  the  establish- 
ment of  universal  Christianity. 

The  council  at  Jerusalem  was  probably 
held  in  a.  d.  50  :  see  the  chronology  below. 
Not  long  after  it  Paul  proposed  to  Barnabas 
a  second  missionary  journey  (Acts  xv.  36). 
He  was  unwilling,  however,  that  John  Mark 
should  again  go  with  them,  and  this  led  to 
the  final  separation  of  the  two  great  mis- 
sionaries. Paul  thereupon  took  with  him 
Silas :  sec  Silas.  They  first  visited  the 
churches  of  Syria  and  Cilicia.  and  then 
passed  northward,  through  the  Taurus  moun- 
tains, to  the  churches  which  had  been 
founded  on  Paul's  first  journey.  They  thus 
came  first  to  Derbe,  then  to  Lystra,  At  the 
latter  place  Paul  determined  to  take  Timothy 
with  him,  and  circumcised  him  to  prevent 
giving  ofl'ense  to  the  Jews,  for  Timothy's 
mother  was  a  Jewess,  Paul  thus  showed 
willingness  to  conciliate  Jewish  prejudice  ; 
though  he  would  not  yield  an  inch  when 
the  principles  of  the  gosjiel  were  at  stake. 
From  Lystra  they  appear  to  have  gone  to 
Iconium  and  Pisidian  Antioch.  Their  move- 
ments here,  however,  are  much  disputed  by 
scholars.  Ramsay  and  others,  who  believe 
that  the  churches  of  the  first  journey  were 
the  "  churches  of  Galatia  "  to  which  the  epis- 
tle with  that  name  was  afterwards  written 

(seeGALATIA.  (iALATIAXS.  EpiSTLE  TO  THP:), 

hold  that  Paul  went  directly  north  from 
Pisidian  Antioch  through  the  Roman  prov- 
ince of  Asia,  but  without  preaching,  since 
he  was  "forbidden  of  the  Holy  Ghost  to 
preach  the  word  in  Asia  "  (Acts  xvi.  6)  ;  that 
when  they  came  "over  against  Mysia  "  (7, 
R.  V.)  they  attempted  to  go  into  Bithyn- 
ia,  but  were  again  forbidden  ;  then  passing 
by  (or,  as  the  original  may  mean,  neglect- 
ing) Mysia  they  turned  westward  through  or 
alongside  of  Mysia  to  Troas.  The  commoner 
view  is  that  from  Pisidian  Antioch  the 
travelers  moved  northeastward  into  Galatia 
proper;  that  on  the  way  Paul  was  for  a 
while  disabled  by  sickness,  and  that  this  led 
him  to  improve  the  opportunity,  sick  though 
he  was,  of  preaching  in  Galatia  and  so  of 
founding  the  "churches  of  Galatia"  (Gal. 
iv.  1.3-I.t)  ;  that  this  movement  to  the  north- 
east from  Pisidian  Antioch  was  due  to  the 
command  not  to  preach  in  Asia  :  that  when 
his  work  in  Galatia  proper  was  done,  he  at- 
temi)ted  to  enter  Bithynia,  but  was  again 
forbidden  ;  and  so,  as  on  the  former  theory, 
he  turned  west  through  or  alongside  of 
Mysia  to  Troas.  This  whole  period  is  very 
briefly  described  by  Luke.  The  Spirit 
was  directing  the  missionaries  to   Europe, 


and   Luke's  narrative  likewise  hastens  for- 
ward. 

At  Troas  there  appeared  the  vision  of  the 
man  of  Macedonia  (.\cts  xvi.  9) ;  in  response 
to  whose  call  the  missionaries,  now  joined  by 
Luke  himself,  took  ship  for  Europe,  and 
landing  at  Neajjolis.  went  forward  to  the  im- 
])ortant  city  of  Philippi.  Here  a  church  was 
founded  (xvi.  11-4(J),  which  ever  remained 
specially  dear  to  the  apostle's  heart  (.see  Phil, 
i.  4-7;  iv.  1,  1.5).  Here,  too,  Paul  first  came 
into  conflict  with  Roman  magistrates  and 
found  that  his  citizenship  was  a  i)rotection 
for  his  work  (Acts  xvi.  20-24  ;  37-39).  From 
Philip]ii,  where  Luke  remained.  Paul,  Silas, 
and  Timothy  went  on  to  Thessalonica.  The 
brief  account  in  Acts  xvii.  1-9  of  the  work 
done  there  is  supj)lemented  by  the  allusions 
made  to  it  in  his  two  epistles  to  that  church. 
He  had  much  success  among  the  gentiles;  he 
laid  with  great  care  the  foundations  of  the 
church ;  and  he  gave  the  example  of  indus- 
try and  sobriety  by  supporting  himself  by 
his  trade  while  preaching  the  gosi)el  (1  Thes. 
ii.,  etc.).  But  persecution  arose,  instigated 
by  the  Jews,  so  the  brethren  sent  Paul  to 
Bercea,  and  from  there,  after  marked  success 
even  in  the  synagogue,  to  Athens.  His  so- 
journ at  Athens  was  rather  disappointing, 
and  is  memorable  chiefly  for  the  address  be- 
fore the  philosophers  on  Mars'  hill  (Acts 
xvii.  22-31),  in  which  Paul  showed  his  appre- 
ciation of  the  truths  which  the  gospel  had  in 
common  with  Stoicism,  while  lie  yet  faithfully 
proclaimed  to  a  critical  audience  their  duty 
to  God  and  what  God  required  them  to  be- 
lieve. At  Corinth,  on  the  contrary,  to  which 
he  next  went,  he  remained  eighteen  months, 
and  his  work  was  most  successful.  Here  he 
made  the  accjuaintance  of  Aquila  and  Pris- 
cilla  and  abode  with  them  (xviii.  1-3).  At  first 
he  preached  in  the  synagogue,  but  afterwards, 
because  of  the  opposition  of  the  Jews,  in  the 
house  of  a  gentile,  Titus  Justus,  who  lived  next 
to  the  synagogue  (.5-7,  R.  V.).  In  both  The 
Acts  (xviii.  9.  10)  and  1  Cor.  (ii.  1-5)  there  are 
allusions  to  the  great  anxiety  of  mind  with 
which  the  apostle  prosecuted  his  mis.sion  in 
Corinth,  and  to  his  earnest  determination  to 
proclaim  in  Greece  as  elsewhere  the  simple 
gospel  of  the  Crucified  ;  while  1  Cor.  amply 
testifies  both  to  his  success  and  to  the  many 
temptations  to  which  the  Christiansof  Corinth 
W'Cre  exposed,  and  which  from  the  beginning 
occasioned  the  apostle  special  solicitude.  The 
needs  of  other  churches  also  pressed  upon 
him,  so  that  from  Corinth  he  wrote  the  two 
ei>istles  to  the  Thes-salonians  for  the  purpose 
of  warning  against  certain  doctrinal  and 
practical  perils  by  which  that  chureh  was 
threatened.  The  hostility  of  the  Jews  also 
did  not  cease,  and,  on  the  coming  to  Corinth 
of  the  new  proconsul.  Gal  Ho,  they  accused 
Paul  of  violation  of  the  law.  But  the  i)ro- 
consul  ]iro]ierly  decided  that  the  matter  jier- 
tained  to  the  synagogue  itself  and  that  the 
apostle  had  broken  no  law  of  which  the  gov- 


Paul 


553 


Paul 


eminent  could  take  cognizance.  The  empire 
thus  at  tl)is  period  jirotected  the  Cliristians 
from  Jewish  violence  hy  identifying  them 
with  the  Jews,  and  Paul  was  iieniiitted  to 
ciintiiiue  his  Work  inuiKiltstcd.  Jlis  mission 
to  Corinth  was  one  of  the  most  fruitful  iu 
the  history  of  the  early  Christiau  church. 
At  length,  however.  Paul  turned  his  face 
again  to  the  east.  From  Corinth  he  sailed  to 
Kphesus.  He  did  not  remain  there,  howeviT, 
but.  j)romisiiig  to  return,  siiled  to  Cu-sarea, 
made  apjiarently  a  hasty  journey  to  Jerusa- 
lem, ami,  having  saluted  the  cluirch  there, 
returned  to  Autioch,  whejice  he  had  orig- 
inally started  (Acts  xviii.  -J^].  Thus  was 
completed  his  second  missionary  journey.  Its 
result  had  been  the  establishment  of  Chris- 
tianity in  Europe.  Macedonia  and  Achaia 
had  lieeu  evangelized.  Tlie  gosjiel  had 
thereby  taken  a  long  step  forward  toward 
the  conciucst  of  the  eminre.  After  renuiin- 
ing  some  time  at  Antiocii,  Paul,  probal)ly  iu 
A.  D.  51.  began  his  third  journey.  He  first 
traversed  "the  region  of  (ialatia  and  Phry- 
gia  in  order,  stablisliing  all  the  discii>les" 
(•23),  and  then  settled  in  Ephesus.  It  thus 
ap])ears  that  the  previous  divine  jjrohibition 
to  preach  iu  tiie  province  of  Asia  had  been 
renuived.  E])hesns  was  the  ca])ital  of  Asia 
and  one  of  the  most  influential  cities  of  the 
East.  Hence  the  apostle  for  '.i  years  made  it 
his  center  of  oiK'ratioiis  (xix.  !^,  1) ;  xx.  31).  For 
3  months  he  taught  in  the  synagogue  (xviii. 
8),  and  then  for  2  years  in  the  school  or 
lecture  hall  of  a  certain  Tyrannus  (J»).  His 
work  in  Ejdiesus  M'as  ni:irked  by  great 
thoriiughness  of  instructiim  (xx.  18-31);  by 
the  exercise  of  astonishing  miraculous  jiower 
(xix.  11,  12)  ;  by  great  success,  so  that  "all 
they  which  dwelt  in  Asia  heard  the  word  of 
the  Lord  "  (10),  and  even  some  of  the  chief 
f)flicers  of  Asia  became  Paul's  frii-nds  (31); 
yet  also  by  constant  and  tierce  ojijiosition 
(23-41 ;  1  Cor.  iv.  9-13  ;  xv.  32) ;  and  finally, 
by  the  care  of  all  the  churches  (2  Cor.  xi.  2H). 
This  ))eriod  of  the  apostle's  life  is  es]>ecially 
rich  in  iuci(biits.  Much  occurred  of  which 
The  Acts  tells  nothing.  Here  Paul  heard  of 
attacks  made  on  him  and  his  doctrine  by  Ju- 
daizing  tea<-hers  in  (Jalatia  ;  and  in  re])ly  he 
wrote  the  famous  Ei>istlc  to  the  (ialatians,  in 
which  he  defends  his  aiiostolic  authority, 
and  gives  the  first  formal  statement  and 
proof  of  the  doctrines  of  grace.  The  condi- 
tion of  the  Corinthians  also  occasioned  him 
nmch  anxiety.  In  re]>ly  to  in(|uirii'S  from 
Corinth  he  wrote  a  letter,  now  lost,  concern- 
ing the  relations  of  belii'vers  to  the  pagan 
society  about  them  (1  Cor.  v.  9).  But  later 
rejiorts  showed  that  more  serious  troubles 
had  arisen.  Hence  our  1  Cor.  was  written, 
an  eiiistle  which  finely  exhibits  the  a]iostle's 
practical  wisdom  in  the  instnu'tion  and  dis- 
cipline of  the  infant  churches.  Even  so, 
however,  the  seditious  elements  in  the  Co- 
rinthian church  would  not  yield.  Many 
tliiuk  that  Paul,  after  writing  1  Cor.,  him- 


self made  a  hurried  visit  to  Corinth  for  dis- 
ciplinary purjio.ses  (cp.  2  Cor.  xii.  14  ;  xiii. 
1).  At  any  rate,  before  leaving  Ephesus  he 
sent  Titus  to  Corinth,  probal)ly  with  a  let- 
ter, to  secure  the  discipline  of  a  refractory 
mend)er  of  the  church.  Titus  was  to  njoin 
hint  iu  Troas.  When  he  failed  to  do  so.  Paul 
]tassed  on  in  much  anxiety  to  Macedcuiia, 
whither  Timothy  and  Erastus  had  i)recede(l 
him  (.\cts  xix.  22).  At  length,  however, 
Titus  rejoined  him  (2  Cor.  ii.  12-14  :  vii.  .">- 
l(i),  with  the  good  news  that  the  Corinthian 
church  had  obeyed  the  ai)ostle  and  were 
loyal  iu  their  love  for  him.  Whereupon  Paul 
wrott'  our  2  Cor.,  the  most  biogra]iliical  of 
all  his  epistles,  in  which  he  rejoices  in  their 
obedience,  gives  directions  concerning  the 
collection  he  was  making  for  the  Jiida'au 
saints,  and  once  more  defends  his  authority 
as  an  ajjostle  (jf  Christ.  From  Macedcnia  he 
himself  went  to  Corinth  and  jjassed  the  win- 
ter of  A.  D.  57-f)8  there.  No  doubt  lie  com- 
jileted  the  discipline  and  organization  of  the 
Corinthian  church;  but  the  visit  is  most 
memorable  because  he  then  wrote  the  Epistle 
to  the  Komans.  In  it  he  states  most  com- 
pletely the  doctrine  of  the  way  of  .siilvation. 
He  evidently  regarded  Eome  as  the  i)lace 
where  his  labors  should  culminate.  He  could 
not,  however,  go  there  at  ()nce,  because  he 
felt  it  necessary  to  return  to  Jerusalem  with 
the  gifts  of  the  gentiles  to  the  mother  church. 
Christian  work  had  already  been  begun  at 
Eome,  and  was  being  carried  on  mainly  by 
Paul's  own  friends  and  discijiles  (cp.  Kom. 
xvi.).  Hence,  he  sent  the  ei)istle  from  Cor- 
inth that  the  Christians  of  the  cajiital  might 
l)ossess  complete  instruction  in  the  gos]>el 
which  Paul  was  ])roclaimiug  to  the  world. 
Paul  now  set  out  on  his  last  journey  to 
Jerusjilem.  He  was  accom]ianied  by  friends 
who  reitresented  various  gentile  churches 
(.\cts  XX.  4).  The  apostle's  work  among  the 
gentiles  had  l)een  nmch  oi>]iosed  by  Juda- 
izers,  and  even  the  ordinary  .Tewish  Christians 
often  regarded  him  and  it  with  distrust. 
Hence  arose  his  scheme  of  i>roving  the  loy- 
alty of  tlie  gentile  churches  by  inducing 
them  to  .send  a  liberal  olfering  to  the  poor 
Christians  of  Judfea.  It  was  to  carry  this 
offering  that  he  and  his  friends  left  Corinth 
for  Jerusalem.  His  ]ilan  had  first  l)een  to 
sail  direct  to  Syria,  but  a  jdot  of  the  Jews 
led  him  to  change  his  route  and  to  return  by 
way  of  -Macedonia  (xx.3).  He  lingered  at  Phi- 
li])])!  while  his  com])anions  went  on  to  Troas, 
but  he  was  rijoined  at  that  ]ilace  by  Luke 
(.")).  After  the  jiassover  he  and  Luke  wi'Ut 
on  to  Troas,  where  the  others  were  waiting 
for  them  and  where  all  remained  seven  days 
(fi).  A  church  had  grown  u]i  at  Troas,  ami 
an  iuteri'stiiig  account  is  given  by  Luke  o!' 
the  events  of  the  a|>ostle's  interview  with  it 
on  the  day  and  night  before  he  left  it  (7-12). 
From  Troas  Paul  went  by  foot  about  twenty 
miles  to  Assos,  whither  his  com]>anions  liad 
already   gone   by   boat    (13).      Thence   they 


Paul 


554 


Paul 


sailed  to  Mitylene,  on  the  eastern  shore  of 
the  ishuid  of  Lesbos,  and  then,  coasting 
southward,  they  passed  between  the  main- 
hind  and  the  ishuid  of  Cliios,  touched  the 
next  day  at  tlie  ishiud  of  Sanios,  and  the 
day  following  reached  Miletus  (14,  15).  The 
A.  V.  states  (Acts  xx.  !'■>)  that  they  "  tarried 
at  Trogylliuni  "  after  leavint;  Samos  ;  see  Tko- 
GYLLIUM.  The  R.  V.  with  the  best  manu- 
scripts omits  this  clause.  Miletus  was  about 
'AG  miles  from  Kphesus,  and  as  Paul  was  in 
haste,  he  determined  not  to  go  to  Ephesus, 
but  to  .send  for  the  elders  of  the  church.  At 
Miletus  he  took  leave  of  them  in  the  affec- 
tionate address  recorded  in  Acts  xx.  18-35. 
No  words  could  more  strongly  exhibit  the 
apostle's  devotion  to  his  work,  and  his  love 
for  his  converts,  and  his  realization  of  the 
spiritual  perils  to  which  they  would  be  ex- 
posed. Leaving  Miletus,  the  ship  went  with 
a  straight  course  to  Cos  (Acts  xxi.  1,  in  A. 
v.,  Coos),  an  island  about  40  miles  to  the 
south ;  then,  the  next  day,  Rhodes,  an  island 
and  city  about  50  miles  southeast  of  Cos,  was 
reached ;  and  from  Rhodes  the  course  lay 
eastward  to  Patara,  on  the  coast  of  Lycia  (Acts 
xxi.  1).  At  Patara  a  ship  for  Phoenicia  (Syria) 
was  found  and  the  party  went  on  board  (2), 
and,  passing  west  of  Cyprus,  reached  Tyre 
(3).  There  they  remained  a  week,  and  the 
disciples  of  Tyre  urged  Paul  not  to  go  to 
Jerusalem  (4) ;  hut  after  an  affectionate  fare- 
well he  sailed  (5,  6)  to  Ptolemais,  the  modern 
Acre,  and  came  the  next  day  to  Ctesarea 
(7,  8).  At  Cjesarea  the  company  abode  with 
Philip  the  evangelist.  There  too  the  prophet 
Agabus,  who  at  an  earlier  time  had  foretold 
the  famine  (xi.  28),  bound  his  own  hands  and 
feet  with  Paul's  girdle,  and  predicted  that  so 
would  the  Jews  bind  Paul  and  deliver  him 
to  the  gentiles.  But  in  spite  of  this  warning 
and  the  lamentation  of  the  brethren,  Paul 
insisted  on  going  forward  (xxi.  11-14).  So, 
in  company  with  a  number  of  the  disciples, 
he  went  on  to  Jerusalem,  tlius  completing 
what  is  known  as  his  third  missionary 
journey. 

The  prediction  of  Agabus  was  soon  fulfilled. 
Paul  was  at  first  indeed  well  received  by  the 
brethren  in  Jerusalem,  and  on  the  day  fol- 
lowing his  arrival  went  in  to  .James,  the 
Lord's  brother,  and  tlie  ciders  of  the  church. 
When  he  had  related  his  work  among  the 
gentiles,  they  glorified  God.  At  the  same 
time  they  reminded  him  that  many  of  the 
Jewish  Christians  had  heard  evil  reports 
about  him  and  doubted  his  fidelity  to  Moses. 
It  was  i)roposed,  therefore,  that  he  should 
give  an  ocular  proof  that  he  still  held  the 
Jewish  cust(mis  in  honor.  He  was  to  join 
with  four  men,  who  at  that  time  were  jier- 
forming  a  Na/.irite  vow  in  the  temple.  To 
this  Paul  assented,  for  he  was  ever  anxious 
not  to  give  needless  offense  to  the  Jews,  and 
the  observance  proposed  was  probably  little 
more  than  what  he  had  done  of  his  own  will 
at  Corinth  (xviii.  18).     While  Paul  insisted 


that  no  gentile  should  observe  the  Mosaic 
law,  and  while  he  maintained  that  n(j  Chris- 
tian .Tew  was  bound  to  observe  it,  he  found 
no  fault  with  Jews  who  chose  to  observe  it, 
and  held  himself  at  liberty  to  observe  its 
regulations  or  not  as  circumstances  might 
seem  to  make  expedient.  His  assent  to  this 
propo.sal,  therefore,  was  not  inconsistent  with 
his  action  on  other  occasions.  But  the  ex- 
pedient jiroved  unavailing  for  the  purpose 
for  which  it  was  intended.  Certain  Jews 
from  Asia  saw  him  in  the  temple  and  raised 
a  tumult.  They  falsely  charged  him  with 
having  brought  gentiles  into  the  temple,  and 
declared  to  the  populace  that  he  had  every- 
where taught  men  to  dislionor  both  the  tem- 
ple and  the  law  (xxi.  27-29).  A  riot  speedily 
ensued  in  which  Paul  would  probably  have 
been  slain,  had  not  the  commander  of  the 
Roman  garrison,  Claudius  Lysias,  hastened 
with  soldiers  to  quell  the  uproar.  He  was 
leading  Paul,  bound  with  two  chains,  into 
the  castle  for  examination  and  the  Jews  were 
following  with  many  outcries,  when  the 
apostle  desired  liberty  to  speak.  The  com- 
mander was  surprised  that  the  prisoner  could 
use  Greek,  for  he  had  taken  him  to  be  an 
Egyptian  insurrectionist  who  had  recently 
given  trouble  to  the  government  (38).  When 
Paul  exi)lained  that  he  was  a  Tarsian  Jew, 
Lysias  allowed  him  to  address  the  multitude. 
He  did  so  in  the  Hebrew  tongue  (xxii.  2).  He 
related  his  early  life  and  the  story  of  his 
conversion.  They  heard  him  till  he  uttered 
the  word  "gentiles,"  when  the  uproar  was 
renewed,  and  Lysias  withdrew  him  into  the 
castle  for  safety  and  further  examination. 
The  examination  would  have  been  by  scourg- 
ing, had  not  Paul  remarked  to  the  centiirion 
that  he  was  a  Roman  citizen  (25).  When 
this  was  reported  to  Lysias,  he  unbound 
Paul  and.  feeling  that  the  matter  was  a  seri- 
ous one.  directed  the  priests  to  convoke  the 
sanhedrin  on  the  following  day  that  the 
prisoner  might  be  tried. 

The  appearance  of  Paul  before  the  council 
led,  however,  to  another  tumult  (Acts  xxiii. 
1-10).  The  apostle  was  now  fighting  for  his 
life.  He  had  no  hope  of  justice,  and  should  the 
council  condemn  him,  Lysias  might  give  hiin 
over  to  execution.  With  much  shrewdness 
he  succeeded  in  dividing  his  enemies.  He 
claimed  to  be  a  Pharisee,  and  to  be  on  trial 
for  teaching  the  doctrine  of  the  resurrection 
of  the  dead.  This  was  true,  as  far  as  it 
went,  and  it  served  Paul's  purpose.  The 
hatred  of  the  Pharisees  and  Sadducees  for 
each  other  was  greater  than  their  hostility  to 
Paul,  and  the  two  sects  quickly  arrayed 
themselves  on  opposite  .sides.  The  com- 
mander feared  that  Paul  would  be  ]nilled  to 
pieces  between  his  defenders  and  his  oppo- 
nents, so  ])y  his  orders  the  soldiers  removed 
the  pristmer  again  to  the  castle. 

That  night  the  Lord  a))peared  to  Paul  iu 
a  vision  and  bade  him  he  of  good  cheer, 
since  he  was  certaiulv  to  bear  his  testimony 


Paul 


555 


Paul 


at  Rome  (Acts  xxiii.  11).  This  consumma- 
tion was  to  be  etfected,  however,  in  an  unex- 
pected way.  Some  of  the  Jews  formed  a 
plot  to  kili  Paul  and,  to  acc-oni]ili>ii  this,  it 
was  deterniiucd  to  n«|ni-st  tlio  einnniandrr 
to  briii;;  llie  prisimcr  unci-  uioie  l)tfipre  tlie 
council.  But  Paul's  neiihew  heard  of  the 
plot  and  manajied  to  inform  his  uncle  and 
the  ciunmandir  (1"2-2'J).  Thereuixm  Lysias 
sent  Paul  under  a  strong  guard  to  t'a-sarea 
with  a  letter  to  Felix,  the  procurator,  re- 
ferring the  case  to  him.  When  Felix  learned 
that  the  accused  was  from  Cilicia,  he  declared 
that  he  would  wait  until  the  accusers  came, 
an<l  meanwhile  jdaced  Paul  for  safe  kcejiiug 
in  Herod's  palace,  which  was  used  as  the  jirie- 
torium  or  residence  of  the  procurator.  Then 
followed  two  years  of  imprisonment  in  Ca-sa- 
rea.  When  tlie  .lews  ajipeared  l)efore  Feli.x, 
they  made  a  general  ac<'usiiti<>n  against  Paul 
of  sedition  and  especially  of  jirofanatiou  of 
the  tem])le,  complaining  of  the  violence  with 
which  Lysias  had  taken  their  i>risoner  out 
of  their  hands  (Acts  xxiv.  1-9).  To  this 
Paul  rei)lied  by  an  exi)licit  denial  and  a 
demand  that  witnesses  sliould  be  i)roduced 
against  him  (10-r21).  Felix  ajipears  to  have 
been  suliiciently  aciiuainte<l  witli  the  matters 
in  dispute  to  perceive  that  Paul  had  not  com- 
mitted any  crime  worthy  of  ])unishment. 
He  dismissed  the  accusi'rs  on  the  jilca  that 
he  must  li'arn  furtlier  ])articuiars  from  Lysias, 
and  directeil  that  Paul  should  be  kejpt  in  cou- 
finenunt.  but  tliat  his  friends  should  be 
allowed  to  visit  him  freely.  Felix  and  his 
wife  Drusilla  were  also  much  impressed  by 
wiiat  Paul  had  said  and  "heard  him  con- 
cerning the  faith  in  Christ"  ("24).  In  fact, 
the  apostle  seems  to  have  exercised  a  strange 
fascination  over  the  procurator,  who  trembled 
before  his  solemn  ])reacliing  and  iirtmiised  to 
send  for  him  again.  He  hojii'd  also  that 
Paul  would  pay  for  his  lil>erty  (2.5,  2(i).  But 
the  ajHistle  would  not  l)ribe  tlie  ])rocurator, 
and  the  latter  deferred  decision  of  the  case, 
so  that  when,  after  two  years,  Porcius  Festus 
succeeded  Felix,  Paul  was  still  a  prisoner 
(27). 

Tlie  Jews  hoped  that  the  new  governor 
Would  i)rove  more  favorable  to  their  desires 
than  Felix  had  been.  But  Festus  refused  to 
send  P:ui]  to  Jerusalem  for  trial,  and  re- 
quired his  accu.sers  to  confront  him  again  iu 
C'fpsarea  (Acts  xxv.  l-fi).  Again,  however, 
they  were  unable  to  prove  any  crime  against 
him,  while  he  i)ersistently  maintained  his 
innocence  (7,  >).  Festus,  however,  willing  to 
jdease  tlie  Jews,  asked  Paul  if  lie  would  go  to 
Jerusalem  to  l)e  tried.  Paul  knew  lliat  such 
a  course  would  ])robalily  jirove  fatal  to  him. 
He  availed  liiniself,  therefore,  ot'  his  right  asa 
Roman  eiti/en  .nid  appealed  unto  (';esar(!>- 
11  I.  This  took  the  case  out  of  the  imHiirator's 
liands  and  necessitated  the  jirisoiier's  trans- 
mission to  Rome.  Before  he  could  be  sent, 
however,  Agrijipa  II.  and  liis  sister  Bernice 
came  to  visit  Festus,  doubtless  to  congratu- 


late him  ou  his  accession  to  office ;  and  the 
jirocurator,  who  was  not  well  versed  in 
Jewish  disjiutes  and  yet  was  bound  to  send 
to  the  emiieior  a  full  account  of  the  case, 
related  tlie  matter  to  .Agripjia.  who  ex]iressed 
his  desire  to  hear  what  the  prisoner  had  to 
say.  Forthwith  it  was  arranged  that  Paul 
should  state  his  cause  before  the  assembled 
comiiany.  Agrippa's  familiarity  with  Jewish 
atl'airs  would  be  <d'  service  to  the  luocurator 
iu  preparing  his  rejiort  to  the  emperor  ( 12-27). 
Paul's  defense  before  Agrippa  forms  one 
of  his  most  notable  speeches.  In  it  he  dis- 
jilayed  the  courtesy  of  a  gentleman,  the  elo- 
quence of  an  orator,  and  the  fearlessness  of 
a  Christian.  He  reviewed  his  life  in  order  to 
sh(jw  that  he  had  been  governed  only  by  the 
wish  to  obey  the  God  of  Israel,  and  main- 
tained that  iiis  course  as  a  Christian  had  not 
only  been  determined  by  God's  direction, 
but  had  been  the  fulfillment  of  the  Hebrew 
])rophecies  themselves  (Acts  xxvi.  1-23). 
When  Festus  interrupted  him  with  the  ex- 
clamation that  he  was  mad.  Paul  appealed 
earnestly  to  Agrippa.  But  the  king  was  not 
disposed  to  be  more  than  an  oljserver  and  critic 
of  what  he  deemed  a  new  fanaticism.  He 
reidied  with  some  coiitemjit :  "  With  but  little 
Iiersuasion  thou  wouldest  fain  make  me  a 
Christian"  (2^,  K.  V.).  Nevertheless  he  ad- 
mitted that  Paul  had  done  no  crime,  and 
might  have  been  set  at  liberty  if  he  had  not 
aiijiealed  unto  Csesar  CM.  32).  In  the  autumn 
of  the  same  year,  A.  D.  (iO  (see  chronology  be- 
low), Paul  was  sent  to  Rome.  He  was  com- 
mitted, with  other  jirisoners,  to  the  care  of  a 
centurion.  Julius,  of  the  Augustan  band  or 
cohort.  He  was  acconijianied  by  Luke  and 
Aristarchus,  a  Thessalonian  (xxvii.  1,  2). 
The  account  of  the  voyage  is  related  by 
Luke  with  .singular  detail  and  accuracy  (see 
James  Smith,  The  I'oi/age  aud  Sldpineck  of  St. 
Paul).  The  ajiostle  was  treated  also  with 
notable  courtesy  by  the  centurion.  Leaving 
Ca'sarea  in  a  coasting  ship  of  Adramyttium, 
they  touched  at  Sidon  and  then  saile<l  to 
Myra  in  Lycia.  There  they  were  transferred 
to  an  Alexandrian  merchant  shi})  bounil  for 
Italy.  The  wind,  however,  was  not  favor- 
able. They  were  compelled  at  first  to  keep 
coasting  northwest wanl  until  over  against 
(nidus  on  the  coast  of  Caria.  Tlun  luitting 
southward,  they  rounded  with  dilKculty 
cape  Salmone,  on  the  eastern  extremity  of 
Crete,  and  managed  to  reach  Fair  Havens,  a 
])ort  on  the  southern  shore  of  the  same  i.sland 
(.\cts  xxvii.  .'{  S).  It  was  now  after  the  Fast. 
i.e.  the  loth  of  Ti.shri  or  day  of  atonement  (!>), 
wlien  the  season  of  navigation  was  drawing  to 
a  close.  The  weather  also  continued  threateu- 
ing.  Paul  counseled  against  sailing  further, 
but  tlie  ceutiirioii  fullowed  llie  advice  of  the 
master  and  the  owner  of  the  sliiii,  who  wished 
to  go  on  to  PhoMiix,  further  west  on  the 
coast  of  Crete,  where  there  was  a  better 
harbor  (9-12).  But  when  they  bad  left  Fair 
Havens,  a  fierce  northeast  wind  came  down 


Paul 


556 


Paul 


upon  tlu'ni  and  drove  them  to  the  south. 
Passing  south  of  Cauda  (or  t'laiula  A.  V.,  the 
modern  Gozzo),  and  haviu<;  lightened  the 
ship,  they  were  driven  for  fourteen  days  be- 
fore the  gale  in  a  westerly  direction.  Paul 
alone  maintained  his  courage  and  that  of  the 
rest,  for  an  angel  of  the  Lord  assured  him 
that  no  life  would  be  lost  (13-26).  On 
the  fourteenth  night  the  sounding  lead 
told  of  their  approach  to  land  ;  and,  casting 
four  anchors,  they  waited  for  the  day.  When 
daylight  came,  they  perceived  in  the  un- 
known land  a  small  bay  with  a  beach ;  so 
cutting  otf  their  anchors,  they  hoisted  the 
foresail  to  the  wind  and  made  for  the  beach 
{27-40,  K.  v.).  The  ship,  however,  grounded, 
and  soon  began  to  break  up  under  the  vio- 
lence of  the  waves.  Thereupon  the  whole 
company  cast  themselves  overboard  and,  as 
Paul  had  i)redicted,  all  reached  land  in  safety 
(41-44).  In  this  thrilling  adventure,  which 
Luke  relates  with  so  much  detail,  the  conduct 
of  Paul  beautifully  illustrates  the  courage  of 
the  Christian  and  the  influence  over  others 
which  a  man  of  faith  can  exercise  in  times 
of  peril. 

The  land  on  which  they  had  been  cast  was 
the  island  of  Melita,  the  modern  Malta,  which 
lies  5b  miles  south  of  Sicily.  The  inhabitants 
kindly  received  the  shipwrecked  company, 
and  Paul  by  his  works  gained  special  honor 
among  them  (Acts  xxviii.  1-10).  After  three 
months,  however,  they  were  put  on  board 
another  Alexandrian  ship,  which  had  win- 
tered in  the  island,  and,  after  touching  at 
Syracuse  and  Rhegiiim,  arrived  at  Puteoli,  a 
harbor  of  southwestern  Italy.  There  Paul 
found  Christian  brethren  with  whom  he 
tarried  seven  days  (11-14).  Meanwhile  word 
of  his  arrival  had  reached  the  Christians  in 
Eome,  so  tliat  some  of  them  went  to  meet 
him  at  the  Market  of  Appius  and  the  Three 
Taverns,  two  jdaces  distant  from  Rome  about 
43  and  33  miles  respectivelj'  (15,  R.  V.).  Ac- 
cording to  the  A.  V.  (16)  the  centurion  deliv- 
ered his  ])risoners  to  the  captain  of  the 
guard,  and  this  has  been  usually  understood 
to  mean  the  i)refect  of  the  prsetorian  guard, 
who  at  this  time,  A.  D.  61,  was  the  celebrated 
Burrus.  The  R.  V.,  however,  with  the  best 
manuscripts,  omits  this  statement.  Mommsen, 
followed  by  Ramsay,  thinks  that  the  prison- 
ers were  delivered  to  the  captain  of  another 
corps,  to  which  .Julius  the  centurion  him- 
self belonged,  and  whose  duty  it  M'as  to 
superintend  the  trans]>ortation  of  grain  to 
the  capital  and  to  jierlorm  police  duty.  We 
really  cannot  tell  to  whose  custody  Paul  was 
delivered.  We  only  know  tliat  he  was  held 
in  military  cojifiuement,  chained  to  a  soldier 
(xxviii.  16;  Phil.  1.  7,  i:!),  b!it  allowed  to 
lodge  by  himself.  Appeals  to  Csesar  were 
slow  processes.  Paul  soon  hired  a  dwelling 
and  coutiutUMl  in  it  for  two  years  (Acts 
xxviii.  30). 

So  began  Paul's  first  imprisonment  in 
Eome.     The  Acts  closes  with  an  account  of 


how  after  three  days  he  snnmu)ned  the  chief 
of  the  Jews,  related  the  reason  of  his  pres- 
ence in  the  capital,  and  on  an  appointed  day 
expounded  to  them  the  gospel  ;  but  that  when 
they,  like  tlieir  countrymen  elsewhere,  dis- 
believed, Paul  again  declared  that  he  would 
turn  to  the  gentiles.  His  imprisonment, 
therefore,  did  not  jjrevent  his  missionary  ac- 
tivity. The  last  verses  of  The  Acts  relate  that 
for  two  whole  years  he  received  all  who  came 
to  him  and  preached  the  kiiigdom  of  God 
and  the  things  concerning  the  Lord  Jesus 
Christ  without  hindrance  from  the  authori- 
ties (xxviii.  17-31).  But  still  more  light  is 
thrown  on  this  period  of  Paul's  life  by  the 
epistles  which  he  wrote  during  it.  They  are 
those  to  the  Colossians,  to  Philemon,  to  the 
Ephesians,  and  to  the  Philippians.  The  first 
three  were  probably  written  in  the  earlier 
part  of  the  period  and  that  to  the  Philiji- 
pians  toward  its  close.  These  epistles  show 
that  the  apostle  in  Rome  had  many  faithful 
friends  working  with  him.  Among  these 
were  Timothy  (Col.  1.  1;  PhiV  i.  1;  11.  19; 
Philem.  i.),  Tychicus  (Eph.  vi.  21 ;  Col.  iv.  7), 
Aristarchus  (Col.  iv.  10  ;  Philem.  24),  John 
Mark  (Col.  iv.  10  ;  Philem.  24),  and  Luke  (Col. 
iv.  14  ;  Philem.  24).  His  friends  had  unhin- 
dered access  to  him  ;  they  acted  as  his  mes- 
sengers to  the  churches  and  also  as  his  co- 
workers in  Rome ;  and  they  made  the  im- 
prisoned apostle  the  center  and  head  of  the 
gentile  Christian  work  throughout  the  em- 
pire. The  epistles  further  show  the  personal 
activity  of  the  apostle's  life.  With  great 
zeal  and  success,  in  spite  of  his  bonds,  did 
he  preach  the  gospel.  He  was  an  ambassador 
in  bonds  (Eph.  vi.  20).  He  desired  his  friends 
to  pray  that  Cod  would  ox>en  for  him  a  door 
of  utterance  (Col.  iv.  3).  In  Onesimns,  the 
runaway  slave,  we  see  an  example  of  the 
fruit  of  his  labors  (Philem.  10).  As  time  went 
on  the  success  of  his  work  increased.  He 
wrote  to  the  Philippians  (i.  12,  13,  R.  V.)  that 
the  things  which  had  happened  unto  him  had 
fallen  out  unto  the  jirogress  of  the  gospel,  so 
that  his  bonds  were  manifest  in  Christ 
throughout  the  whole  prjetorian  guard  and 
to  all  the  rest.  He  sent  greetings  also  (iv. 
22)  from  them  of  Csesar's  household.  At  the 
same  time  he  was  opposed  even  by  some  of 
the  Christians,  probably  of  the  Jewish  Chris- 
tian type  (i.  l.'i-18).  Rut  he  regarded  their 
opposition  with  etiuaniniity,  and  was  confi- 
dent that  he  would  be  tiually  released  (Phil.i. 
25  ;  ii.  17,  24  ;  Philem.  22).  His  imprisonment 
was  only  (4od's  way  of  enabling  his  ambassa- 
dor to  fulfill  to  the  uttermost  his  chosen 
mission.  Finally,  the  epistles  testify  to  the 
a])ostle's  continued  superintendence  of  the 
churches  throughout  the  empire.  New  her- 
esies had  arisen  in  Asia.  In  the  epistles  of 
the  imprisonment  Paul  gave  his  ripest  in- 
structions concerning  the  ])erson  of  Christ 
aiul  the  eternal  iniri)ose  of  God  revealed  in 
the  gospel,  while  the  practical  directions 
which  they  contain  disclose  the  breadth  of 


Paul 


557 


Paul 


his  grasp  ou  Christian  duty  and  the  fervor  of 
his  own  Christian  life. 

Althoiigli  the  l)o()k  of  The  Acts  leaves  Paul 
a  prisoner  at  Konic,  there  is  abundant  reason 
to  liclieve  that  lie  was  released  after  two 
years'  conruienu-nt  and  resinned  his  mission- 
ary journeys.  The  evidence  for  this  may  be 
summarized  as  follows:  (1)  The  closing  verse 
(if  The  Arts  accords  better  with  this  view 
than  with  tlic  suiijxisition  that  the  imjirison- 
ment  which  has  liecn  described  ended  in  the 
apostle's  condemnation  and  death.  Luke 
emi)hasizes  the  fact  that  no  one  hindered  his 
work,  thus  certainly  giving  tJie  impression 
that  the  end  of  his  activity  was  not  near. 
Moreover  {'2)  Paul  fnllvexjiected  to  be  released 
(Phil.  i.  25  ;  ii.  17.  ;.'4  ;  Philem.  -J-J),  and  this 
expectation  was  fidly  justilied  by  the  treat- 
ment winch  he  had  always  received  at  the 
hands  of  Roman  oihcials.  It  should  be  re- 
membered that  Nero's  i>ersecniion  of  the 
Christians  had  not  yet  begun;  that  it  was  a 
sudden  outbnak,  preceded  by  no  ofhcial  ill- 
treatment  of  them  :  and  that  in  the  view  of 
Koman  law.  the  Christians  were  as  yet  only 
a  sect  of  the  Jews,  whose  liiierty  to  maintain 
their  religion  was  fully  recognized.  It  is, 
therefore,  altogether  probable  that,  when 
Paul's  case  came  before  the  imjierial  tri- 
bunal, he  was  ac(juitted  of  any  crime  of 
which  Koman  law  could  take  cognizance. 
No  doubt  also  the  report  of  Festus  was  a 
favorable  one  (see  Acts  xxvi.  31),  nor  do  the 
Jews  a])pear  to  have  sent  any  accusers  to 
Kome    to   ai)iK'ar   against    him    (xxviii.    L'l). 

(3)  The  tradition  that  he  was  released  and 
resumed  hisjourneys,  and  was  again  arrested 
dates  from  an  early  period.  Clement  of 
Rome,  A.  I).  IMi,  seems  clearly  to  imply  that 
Paul  went  to  Spain,  for  he  says  that  in 
hisjourneys  "he  reached  the  limit  of  the 
west."  His  journey  to  Spain  is  also  men- 
tioned in  the  so-called  Mur.itori  Fragment, 
A.  I).  170.  With  this  agre(>s  the  history  of 
Euscbius.  A.  i>.  'i2i,  which  rc]i()rts,  as  the 
common  tradition,  that  "after  he  [Paul]  had 
made  his  defense,  the  apostle  was  sent  again 
on  tlu-  ministry  of  preaching,  ami  a  second 
time  having  come  to  the  same  city  [Kome], 
he  sulfen-d  martyrdom."  It  must  be  ad- 
mitted that  this  tritfiitiiuial  evidence  is  not 
sulhciently  strong  to  be  absolutely  demon- 
strative ;  but  it  is  early  anil  strong  <Miongh  to 
confirm  the  rest  of  the  evidence,  and  no  suf- 
ficient   counter-evidence    can    be    ailduced. 

(4)  The  e]iistlcs  to  Timothy  ami  Titus  may 
be  proved  to  be  Pauline  by  abundant  ex- 
ternal and  internal  evi<lence.  No  jilaee  for 
them,  however,  can  be  found  in  the  history 
of  Paul  related  in  The  .Acts.  They  nnist, 
therefore,  have  been  written  later,  and  that 
fact  com])els  us  to  accept  the  tradition  given 
by   Kusebiiis. 

We  must,  therefore,  believe  that  Paul's 
appeal  from  Festus  to  Cjesar  resulted  in  his 
release.  His  subse(|iient  movements  can  only 
be  inferred  from  the  allu.sions  contained  in 


the  epistles  to  Timothy  and  Titus  and  from 
tradition.  We  may  sujijio.se  that  after  his  re- 
lease he  went,  as  he  had  intended  (  Phil.  ii.  -^4  ; 
Philem.  '2'2).  to  Asia  and  Macedonia.  From 
1  Tim.  i.3we  learn  that  he  had  left  Timothy 
in  charge  of  the  churches  about  Ejihesus 
when  he  himself  went  to  Macedonia.  Where 
he  was  when  he  wrote  1  Tim.  is  not  clear, 
but  he  hoped  soon  to  be  able  to  return  to 
Fjihesus  (1  Tim.  iii.  14).  From  Titus  we 
learn  that  he  had  left  Titus  in  charge  of  the 
churches  of  Crete,  and  expected  to  winter  in 
Nicopolis  (Titus  iii.  12).  There  were,  how- 
ever, three  cities  by  that  name  to  which  this 
reference  may  a])i)ly,  one  in  Thrace,  near 
Macedonia,  another  in  Cilicia,  and  a  third  in 
Epirus  ;  so  that  the  name  does  not  help  us 
much  to  fix  the  ajxistle's  locality.  It  is  prob- 
able, however,  that  Nicojiolis  in  Epirus  was 
the  one  referred  to.  If  we  accept  the  early 
tradition  that  Paul  went  to  .Spain  (see  above), 
we  may  su]>pose  that  he  did  so  after  having 
been  in  Asia  and  Macedonia  ;  that  after  that, 
on  his  return  fnun  Sjiain,  he  stojijied  at  Crete 
aud  left  Titus  on  that  island  :  then  that  he 
returned  to  Asia,  from  which  jilace  he  doubt- 
less wrote  the  Ejiistle  to  Titus.  We  learn 
from  2  Tim.  iv.  20  that  he  had  passed  through 
Corinth  and  !Miletum.  the  oue  in  Greece,  the 
other  in  Asia.  There  is  nothing  to  show 
whether  he  carried  out  his  intention  of  win- 
tering in  Nicopolis.  Many  supjiose,  how- 
ever, that  he  did  go  to  Nicopolis  in  Ejnrus, 
and  was  there  rearrested  and  sent  to  Kome. 
But  while  the  apostle's  movements  during 
this  closing  period  of  his  life  are  somewhat 
uncertain,  the  ejustles  then  written  show 
that  he  occujiied  himself,  in  addition  to 
evangelizing  new  regions,  with  the  jierfect- 
ing  of  the  organization  of  the  already  exist- 
ing churches.  He  evidently  felt  that  his 
career  must  .soon  close,  and  that  the  churches 
would  be  exposed  to  new  dangers,  from  both 
without  and  within.  Hence  the  pastoral 
epistles,  as  they  are  called,  round  out  the 
ajiostle's  instruction  of  the  churches  by  solid- 
ifying their  organization  and  practically 
equi]ii>ing  them  for  their  future  work. 

The  release  (if  Paul  from  his  first  Koman 
im]irisonment  jiroliably  occurri^d  in  \.  v.  63, 
and  his  subse(iuent  activity  lasted  about  four 
years.  According  to  Eiisebius.  his  death 
took  jilace  in  a.  d.  (>7;  according  to  Jerome, 
in  A.  D.  ()8.  How  he  came  to  be  rearrested 
we  do  not  know.  There  are  a  few  slight 
hints  furnished,  however,  by  the  Second 
I'-jiistle  to  Timothy,  which  was  written  from 
Kome  shortly  before  his  death.  We  should 
remember,  moreover,  that  in  a.  n.  (54  Nero's 
persecution  of  the  Christians  in  Kome  broke 
out :  and  it  was  doubtless  tollowed  by  sporad- 
ic outbreaks  against  them  in  the  ]>rovinces 
(1  Pet.  iv.  13-l!l).  It  may  be,  as  some  have 
sui)p()sed,  that  Paul  was  informed  against  as 
a  leader  of  the  now  iiroscribed  sect  by  the 
Alexander  mentioned  in  2  Tim.  iv.  14.  At  any 
rate,  aud  wherever  he  was  arrested,  he  was 


Paul 


558 


Paul 


sent  to  Rome  for  trial,  either  because,  as  before, 
he  appuiilcd  to  C'li'SJir,  or  l)ccauso  he  was 
charufd  with  a  criini'  coiiiiiiitti-d  in  Italy, 
perhajis  with  coniiilicity  in  tho  l)iiriiiii;;  of 
Rome,  or  because  the  i)rovinciaIs  wished  to 
gratify  Nero  byseiidinir  so  notable  a  prisoner 
to  the  capital.  Only  Luke,  of  his  former 
friends,  was  with  him  when  2  Tim.  was  writ- 
ten (2  Tim.  iv.  11).  Some  had  even  deserted 
him  (i.  15;  iv.  10,  10),  while  others  had  gone 
away  on  various  errands  (10,  12).  Yet  when 
arraitrned  before  the  tribunal  he  was  at  first 
not  condemned  (17),  though  he  continued  to 
be  held  on  some  other  charge.  Possibly  he 
Avas  able  to  disprove  a  charge  of  criminal 
conduct,  but  was  retained  in  custody  because 
he  was  a  Christian.  He  speaks  of  himself  as 
a  prisoner  (i.  8)  in  bonds  (Ki),  as  if  an  evil- 
doer (ii.  9),  and  regards  his  fate  as  sealed 
(iv.  6-8).  No  doubt  he  was  finally  con- 
demned to  death  simply  because  he  was  a 
Christian,  in  accordance  with  the  policy 
begun  by  Nero  in  A.  D.  64.  Tradition  relates 
that  the  apostle  was  beheaded,  as  became  a 
Roman  citizen,  on  the  Ostian  Way. 

In  giving  this  outline  of  the  life  of  the  apos- 
tle Paul,  we  have  necessarily  followed  the  ex- 
press testimony  of  The  Acts  and  epistles.  But 
it  should  not  be  forgotten  that  many  other 
events  occurred  in  his  active  and  checkered 
career.  To  some  of  these  allusions  are  made 
in  his  epistles  (Rom.  xv.  18,  19 ;  2  Cor.  xi. 
24-33).  Yet  the  well-known  events  of  his 
life,  taken  with  his  epistles,  make  plain  the 
character  of  the  man  and  the  sui)reme  value 
of  his  work.  It  is  difficult  to  gather  into  one 
picture  the  many  features  of  his  versatile 
character.  He  was  by  nature  intensely  re- 
ligious and  bis  religion  controlled  his  whole 
being.  This  was  true  of  him  even  as  a  Jew, 
much  more  after  his  conversion.  Keenly 
intellectual,  he  grasi)ed  truth  at  its  full  value 
and  logically  wrought  out  its  implications. 
Yet  truth  possessed  his  heart  equally  with 
his  intellect,  and  his  emotions  were  as  fervid 
as  his  logical  processes  were  vigorous.  At 
the  same  time  the  practical  aspects  of  truth 
•were  seen  by  him  no  less  than  its  theoretical 
side.  If  on  the  one  hand  he  fully  wrought 
out  dialectically  the  content  of  his  doctrinal 
ideas,  on  the  other  hand  he  applied  Christi- 
anity to  life  with  the  wisdom  and  complete- 
ness of  a  ]iractical  man  of  affairs.  He  was 
intense  in  his  affections,  at  times  ecstatic  in 
his  religious  experiences,  ever  progressive  in 
his  statements  of  truth,  ca]iable  of  soaring  to 
the  loftiest  heights  of  religious  thought,  and 
of  embodying  in  action  the  truth  for  which 
he  stood.  This  versatility,  intensity,  purity, 
breadth  of  mental  and  s])iritual  life,  when 
used  by  the  all-controlling  Siiirit  of  God, 
fitted  Paul  for  the  work  for  which  the  provi- 
dence of  God  intended  Jiim. 

And  that  work  consisted  in  authoritatively 
interpreting  to  the  gentile  world,  in  action 
and  in  written  statement,  the  mission  and 
message  of  Christ.     How  Paul  did  this  in 


action  is  narrated  in  the  book  of  The  Acts. 
Through  bis  agency  the  universalisni  of 
Christianity,  its  independence  of  the  .Jewish 
ritual,  its  adai)tation  to  all  mankind,  was 
historically  established.  Other  men  also  con- 
tributed to  the  result.  But  it  was  Paul's 
divinely  given  task  to  bear  the  burden  of 
this  achievement,  and  to  him,  as  to  no  other 
man,  Christianity  owes  its  possession  of  a 
worldwide  destiny.  All  this  was  done,  of 
course,  in  accordance  with  the  purjjo.se  of 
Christ  and  under  his  direction.  But  the 
student  of  Christian  history  must  recognize 
in  I'aul  the  principal  agent  used  to  accom- 
plish the  result.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
epistles  of  I'aul  disclose  in  written  state- 
ment the  doctrinal  and  ethical  inter]>retation 
of  Christ's  word  and  work,  which  accompa- 
nied Paul's  missionary  activity  and  made  it 
])rofouud  and  ])ermanent.  It  is,  therefore, 
to  Paul  as  a  theologian  that  we  rightly  look 
with  the  greatest  admiration.  His  theology 
took  shape  from  the  peculiar  experience  of 
his  own  conversion.  By  that  sudden  transi- 
tion he  was  made  to  realize  the  impossibility 
of  man's  saving  himself,  the  dependence  of 
the  sinner  on  the  sovereign  grace  of  God, 
and  the  completeness  of  the  redeeming  work 
Mhich  .Jesus,  the  Son  of  God,  had  done 
through  death  and  resurrection.  It  followed 
that  only  by  union  with  Christ  through  faith 
can  any  man  be  saved.  Salvation  consists  in 
justification  of  the  sinner  by  God  on  the 
ground  of  Christ's  obedience,  and  when  thus 
justified  the  sinner,  being  united  to  Christ, 
is  made  to  jiartake  of  all  the  spiritual  bene- 
fits, external  and  internal,  in  heaven  and  on 
earth,  which  Christ  has  purchased  for  him. 
The  Spirit  insj)ired  Paul  to  set  forth  on  this 
foundation  the  truth  of  Christ's  whole  work 
and  ])erson.  In  the  epistles  to  the  Galatians 
and  Romans  the  way  of  salvation  itself  is 
most  fully  elaborated,  while  in  the  epistles 
of  the  imprisonment  the  exalted  dignity  of 
Christ,  and  the  whole  breadth  and  end  of 
God's  eternal  purpose  of  grace  in  Christ  and 
his  church  find  their  full  expression.  Be- 
sides these  ]n'incipal  themes,  almost  every 
phase  of  Christian  truth  and  duty  is  touched 
upon  in  his  epistles.  His  is  emjiliatically 
the  theology  of  grace.  He  sounded  the 
depths  of  this  truth.  He  interpreted  the 
Hebrew  ^Messiah  to  the  gentile  world.  He 
was  raised  up  to  explaiii  to  the  world  the 
Saviour  in  whom  it  was  invited  to  l)elieve 
and  the  work  which  the  Saviour  had  done. 
Paul  was  i)reeminently  the  theologian  of  the 
apostles  as  well  as  the  most  aggressive  mis- 
sioiuiry.  It  is  not  possible  to  understand 
Christianity,  unless  we  unite  with  the  teach- 
ing and  work  of  .Jesus  Christ  the  interpreta- 
tion thereof  furnished  by  his  aj^ostle  Paul. 

Chnnioloiij/  of  Piiul's  life.  While  the  order 
of  events  in  Paul's  life  and  the  relative  dates 
of  his  epistles  are  in  the  main  quite  clear, 
there  is  some  dispute  concerning  the  precise 
years  to  which  both  events  and  epistles  are 


Paul 


559 


Paul 


to  be  assigned.  In  the  book  of  The  Acts  two 
datt's  may  l>f  roKarded  as  eertain,  viz.,  the 
aseension  of  Clirist  in  .\.  1).  .'!()  (tliuiifili  simie 
selidlars  assign  tliis  to  .\.  D.  2'.>)  and  tlie  diatli 
(if  llerod  Agiijjpa  (Acts  .\ii.  2:5),  which  all  ad- 
mit to  have  taken  jdace  in  .\.  D.  44.  Neither 
of  these  dates,  however,  is  of  niiicli  assi.sfance 
in  (h'teriuiniiijr  the  alisdliitc  clinpiinhigy  of 
Paul's  life.  That  deiieiids  mainly  on  the 
date  a.ssigned  to  the  accession  of  Festus  as 
procurator  of  Jiidiea.  .\ccording  to  the 
common  and  most  |irohal)le  ojiinion  Festus 
became  icovi'rnor  (.\xiv.  "JT)  in  .\.  D.  (ill. 
Joseiihus  assigns  ui'arly  all  the  events  during 
the  governorshi])  of  Felix  to  the  reigu  of 
Nero,  which  began  in  October,  A.  D.  54,  and 
I'aul  (10)  s]ieaks  of  Feli.v  as  having  l)een 
"of  many  years  a  .judge  unto  this  nation." 
It  is  hardly  po.ssilile,  therefore,  to  assign 
Paul's  arrest  when  he  ai)i)eared  before  Felix 
to  a  date  earlier  than  \.  D.  .IK.  Then  Paul 
was  kept  two  years  in  ennlinenient  in 
C'iesjirea,  which  would  make  the  accession 
of  Festus,  who  then  succeeded  Feli.x',  to  have 
taken  place  in  a.  D.  (it).  It  can  hardly  have 
been  later,  since  Festus  was  succeedi'd  by 
Albinus  in  a.  d.  <i'2.  and  the  events  recorded 
of  him  imply  that  he  was  governor  for  more 
than  a  year.  But  if  Festus  became  governor 
in  .\.  I).  (iO,  Paul  was  .sent  to  Rome  in  tlie 
autumn  of  that  year,  and  arrived  at  Home 
in  the  si)ring  of  a.  d.  f!l,  liaving  spent  tlie 
winter  on  the  way.  Tlien  the  close  of  The 
Acts,  and  iirobably  the  ajiostle's  release  from 
his  first  Roman  im]irisonnient,  are  tobe  dated 
in  .\.  1).  <!.'>  (xxviii.  :i()). 

For  the  earlier  event.s  of  Paul's  life,  we 
date  back  from  the  accession  of  Festus.  As- 
suming the  latter  to  have  been  in  .\.  d.  tifl, 
then  Paul's  arrest,  which  occurred  two  years 
l)efore  (.\cts  .\.\iv.  27),  was  in  A.  D.  .')i-i.  This 
was  at  the  dose  of  his  third  journej*.  The 
winter  jireceding  his  arrest  lie  had  spent  in 
f'orinth  fxx.  :!i,  the  )irecedin.g  autumn  in 
Ma(((li>iii:i  (2),  and  before  that,  for  three 
years,  he  had  been  in  Kphesiis  l.'jl),  to  which 
lie  had  gone  from  Antioch  after  a  rajiid  tour 
thri>ugh  (Jalatia  and  Phrygia  (xviii.  23). 
ir<'iice  four  years  must  be  allowed  for  the 
third  .ioiirmy.  If  be  was  arrested  in  .Iitu- 
salcm  in  the  s]iring  of  a.  v.  '■>)<.  he  must  have 
b<-gun  this. journey  in  the  s|)ring  of  A.  D.  54. 
The  third  journey  followi'rl  the  second  by  a 
niodenite  interval  (2.'!),  and  for  tin-  latter  at 
least  two  years  and  a  half  must  be  allowed, 
since  eigbteeeii  months  were  spent  at  Corinth 
(11),  and  the  ]>receding  events  of  the  tour 
may  fairly  be  su]i]iose(I  to  have  occupied  a 
year  more  (xv.  lUJ-xvii.  ;M).  If,  therefore, 
the  seconil  .journcv  closed  in  the  autumn  of 
A.  I).  5;j,  it  ]irobably  licgan  in  the  sjiring  of 
A.  I).  51.  The  .second  Journey  in  turn  began 
some  days  (xv.  '.W)  after  the  council  of  .lerii.sa- 
lem.  This  latter  epoch-making  event  ma.v, 
therefore,  be  assigned  to  the  year  A.  I).  .">0. 
The  first  missionary  .journey  can  only  be 
roughly  located  between   a.  v.  41.   the  date 


of  Herod's  death  (xii.),  and  a.  d.  50,  the  date 

of  the  council  (xv.).  We  may  jirobably  a.ssign 
it  to  the  years  A.  D.  l(i-ls,  tboiigli  it  is  not 
possible  to  say  how  long  a  time  it  consumed. 
For  the  date  of  Paul's  conversion,  we  must 
combine  the  results  given  above  with  his 
statements  in  the  Ejiistle  to  the  Galatians. 
Ill  (ial.  ii.  1  lies;iys:  "Then  fourteen  years 
after  I  went  up  again  to  .Jerii.salem  with 
Barnabas."  This  visit  is  undoubtedly  the 
one  to  the  council  wliicli  we  have  located  in 
A.  1).  50.  But  from  what  event  are  these 
fourteen  years  to  be  c<iiinled  ?  According  to 
some  commentators,  they  arc  to  be  reckoned 
from  his  conversion  mentioned  in  Gal.  i.  15. 
If  .so.  his  conversion  was  in  a.  d.  :}6  or  37, 
according  as  we  count  the  fourti'en  years  ex- 
clusively or  inclusively  of  the  first  one  of 
them.  But  in  (Jal.  i.  IK  Paul  notes  tliat  he 
first  visited  Jerusalem  three  years  after  his 
conversion.  Hence  it  is  more  natural  to  date 
the  fourteen  years  of  Gal.  ii.  1  from  the  clo.se 
of  the  ]ireviou.sly  mentioned  three  years.  In 
that  ease,  according  as  we  reckon  exclusively 
or  inclusively,  his  conversion  was  in  a.  d.  33 
or  35.  It  is  most  in  accordance  with  Hebrew 
custom  to  reckon  inclusively.  Hence  we 
may  assign  his  conversion  to  a.  d.  ."55.  his  first 
subsequent  visit  to  Jeru.salem  (Gal.  i.  IK)  to 
A.  D.  37,  and  the  fourteen  years  after  (ii.  1) 
to  A.  D.  50.  As  already  remarked,  all  of 
these  dates  are  disputed.  Some  assign  the 
accession  of  Festus  to  a.  d.  55,  and  therefore 
push  back  all  the  other  dates  five  years  ear- 
lier than  those  given  above.  Other  critics 
vary  on  special  points.  Some  assign  Paul's 
death  to  a.  D.  ()4,  sujiposing  that  he  died  in 
the  first  year  of  Nero's  jiersecution.  But  the 
dates  given  above  ajijiear  to  be  by  far  the 
most  iiriibable.  They  yield,  with  some  other 
details,  the  following  tiible  : 
Death,  resurrection,  and  ascension 

of  Christ A. 

Conversion  of  Paul 

Fir-st  siil)seciuent  visit  to  Jerusalem 

((ial.  1.  18) 

I'aul  at  Tarsus 

Visit  to  .lerusalem  with  the  gifts 

from  Antioch  (Acts  xi.  30)  .   .      "44 

First  missionary  journey "    -tCi— 18  (?) 

Council  at  .lerusaleni "50 

Second  missionary  journey    ....      "    M-SS 

1  and  ■-'  Tliessiiloiiians" "    .')2 

Third  missionary  journey "    .54-58 

(iiilatinns     "    nH 

1  Corinthians ". 50  or  57 


.30 
35(?) 


.S7 
S7-43 


Romans 

.Arrest 

Imprisonment  in  Casarea 

Accession  of  Festus 

Paul  arrives  at  Home 

Colossinns,  Philemon,  Epbesians 

riiilippians     

Release  from  first  Roman  impris- 
onment      

1  Timotbv 

Titus 

Hebrews,  if  by  Paul 

'J  Timothy 

Death  of  Paul 


.57-58 

.•8 

r)M>0 

CO 

c.i 

r.i  orr.2 

62  or  C3 

r.3 

f>4  orfwi 

a'l  or  f>f> 

6f.  or  67 

f.7 

r.7 

.  T.  P. 


Pavement 


560 


Pekah 


Pave'ment.     See  Gabbatha. 

Pe. 

The  seveuteeiith  letter  of  tlic  Hebrew  al- 
phabet. It  comes  i'rom  the  same  source  as 
English  P,  but  was  ])r()iiouiiced  like  ji  or  ph, 
according  to  its  position.  It  is  accordingly 
represented  in  anglicized  Hebrew  names, 
though  too  often  arl)itnirily.  by  either  p  or 
ph.  It  heads  the  seventeentli  section  of  Ps. 
csix.,  in  which  section  each  verse  of  the 
original  begins  with  this  letter. 

Copyists  sometimes  experienced  difficulty 
ill  distinguishing  \)c  from  l)eth  (q.  v.). 

Peace   Of  fer-ing.     See  Offerings. 

Pea'cock. 

1.  Tlie  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  word 
Takki.  The  rendering  is  doubtless  correct, 
for,  along  with  ivory  and  apes,  tukkiiijiUn 
were  im])orted  by  Solomon  in  ships  of  Tar- 
shish  (1  Kin.  x.  22  ;  2  Chron.  ix.  21).  Now 
the  words  for  ivory  and  ape  are  of  Indian 
origin,  and  tukkl  also  finds  a  satisfactory 
origin  in  ^Ialal)ar  toqei,  Old  Tamil  tokei, 
toqe'i,  a  peacock.  The  peacock  {Pavo  cristatun) 
is  a  native  of  India,  where  it.  may  be  found 
in  the  jungles,  generally  running  pretty  rap- 
idly away  when  disturbed.  As  the  natives 
do  not  allow  it  to  be  molested,  it  often  makes 
its  way  into  the  villages. 

2.  See  OsTKicH  2. 
Pearl. 

A  precious  article  of  commerce  (Mat.  xiii. 
4.^,  46 ;  Rev.  xxi.  21 ;  also  Job  xxviii.  18,  in 
R.  V.  crystal),  used  as  an  ornament  by  women 
(1  Tim.  ii.  9;  Rev.  xvii.  4).  Pearls  are  found 
inside  the  shells  of  several  species  of  MuUusca. 
They  consist  of  carbonate  of  lime  interstrati- 
tied  with  animal  membrane,  and  are  formed 
by  the  deposit  of  the  nacreous  substance 
around  some  foreign  body  within  the  mantle 
lobes,  such  as  a  grain  of  .sand,  which  acts  as 
an  irritant  and  .serves  as  a  nucleus.  This 
substance  is  the  same  as  the  mother  of  pearl, 
which  forms  the  lustrous  inner  lining  of  the 
shell.  Pearls  of  large  size  and  fine  quality 
are  yielded  by  the  i)earl  oyster  (Melengrlna 
margaritlfera).  wliich  abounds  in  the  Indian 
seas,  especially  in  the  Persian  Gulf  and  near 
Ceylon.  It  sometimes  attains  a  length  of  10 
or  12  inches. 

Ped'a-hel  [God  hath  .savedl. 

A  ])rincc  of  the  tribe  of  Naphtali  in  the 
wilderness  (Num.  xxxiv.  28). 

Pe-dah'zur  [a  rock,  /.  e.,  God,  hath  saved]. 
Father  of  the  prineie  of  Manasseh  in  the 
wilderness  (Num.  i.  10;  ii.  20). 

Pe-da'iah  [.Jehovah  hath  saved]. 

1.  The  father  of  Joel,  prince  of  Manasseh 
(1  Chron.  xxvii.  20). 

2.  A  citizen  of  Rumah  and  maternal  grand- 
father of  king  Jehoiakim  (2  Kin.  xxiii.  3(j). 

.3.  A  brother  of  Shealtiel  or  possibly,  though 
not  probably,  his  son  (1  Chron.  ill.  18,  19). 
See  Zkritrbabel. 

4.  A   descendant  of    Purosli.      He   rebuilt 


and  repaired  part  of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem 
(Nell.  iii.  25). 

'i.  One  of  tho.se,  probably  priests,  who 
stood  on  Ezra's  left  hand  when  he  addressed 
the  i)eo))le  (Neb.  viii.  4). 

(i.  A  Benjamite  of  the  familv  of  Jeshaiah 
(Neh.  xi.  7). 

7.  A  Levite ;  one  of  those  appointed  by 
Nehemiah  over  the  treasures  (Neh.  xiii.  13). 

Pe'kah  [an  opening  (of  the  eyes),  deliver- 
ance] . 

Son  of  Remaliah.  He  was  a  captain  under 
Pekahiah  ;  but  he  conspired  against  his  king, 
slew  him,  and  reigned  in  his  stead.  He  ad- 
liered  to  the  calf  worshij)  of  Jeroboam  I.  (2 
Kill.  XV.  25-28).  When  Jotham's  reign  was 
drawing  to  a  close,  Pekah  entered  into  an  alli- 
ance with  Rezin,  king  of  Syria,  against  Judah. 
They  purposed  to  dethrone  the  king,  and 
])lace  the  crown  on  a  creature  of  their  own. 
The  allied  kings  began  their  great  invasion 
of  Judah  just  as  the  reins  of  government 
passed  from  Jotbam  into  the  hands  of  Ahaz. 
The  Syrians  advanced  through  the  country 
east  of  the  Jordan  to  Elath,  intending  to 
rendezvous  at  Jerusalem.  Pekah  led  his 
army  directly  toward  the  capital  of  .Tiidah, 
burning  and  pillaging  as  he  went.  The  in- 
habitants of  .Jerusalem  were  greatly  alarmed. 
Isaiah,  however,  was  directed  to  encourage 
the  king  and  the  people  with  the  assurance 
that  the  ])lan  of  the  enemy  would  fail,  and 
to  exhort  them  to  put  their  trust  in  Jehovah. 
Ahaz  spurned  the  advice,  preferring  to  trust 
to  the  king  of  Assyria,  and  purchased  the 
aid  of  Tiglath-pileser.  The  advance  of  tlie 
Assyrian  army  through  Galilee  (2  Kin.  xv. 
29)  to  Philistia,  in  734  B.  c,  compelled  the 
allied  kings  to  withdraw  their  troops  from 
Judah  in  order  to  protect  their  own  domin- 
ions. Pekah  carried  oil"  a  multitude  of  ca])- 
tivesas  he  (lepartcd  ;  l)iit  on  the  remonstrance 
of  theprojihet  Oded,  he  clothed  and  fed  them 
and  sent  them  home  (2  Kin.  xvi.  .5-9;  2 
Chron.  xxviii.  5-15;  Is.  vii.  1-13).  During 
the  next  two  years  Tiglath-jiileser  was  at 
Damascus,  doubtless  leading  his  army  across 
the  territory  of  Israel  as  he  marched  from 
Philistia.  From  Damascus  detachments  of 
the  Assyrian  army  were  sent  fortli,  which 
overran  the  country  east  of  the  Jordan  and 
carried  off  many  Israelites  captive  (1  Chron. 
V.  2G).  In  730  B.C.  Ho.shea  murdered  Pekah 
and  ascended  the  throne  in  his  stead  (2  Kin. 
XV.  30).  This  deed  was  accomplished  with 
the  connivance  of  Tiglath-pileser,  as  the  As- 
syrian records  relate.  The  present  Hebrew 
text  assigns  twenty  years  to  the  reign  of 
Pekah  (2  Kin.  xv.  27).  It  is  impo.ssil)le  that 
he  occuiiied  the  throne  of  Samaria  during  all 
these  years,  for  .McnahtMn,  a  predecessor  of  his, 
was  on  the  throne  about  738  B.  c,  in  the  reign 
of  Tiglatb-jiileser  (2  Kin.  xv.  19).  Critics 
of  all  schools  accordingly  admit  that  twenty 
years  are  much  too  long.  There  is  a  bare 
I)()ssiliility,  liowever,  that  the  Hebrew  writer, 


Pekahiah 


561 


Pelican 


when  lie  smnuiiiriises  the  reifjn  i)f  Pekah, 
ami  states  that  "in  the  lifty-secoiid  year  of 
I'zziali  IVkali  rei^ineil  ovei-  Israel  in  Samaria 
— twenty  years,"  does  not  mean  that  I'lkali 
reifineil  all  of  these  twenty  years  in  Samaria. 
Pekah  was  assoeiated  witii  (lileadites  (2  Kin. 
XV.  'J.')).  It  is  jnst  (xissiliie  that  he  set  uji  his 
authority  in  norllurn  (iilead  and  (ialilee  in 
7-I!*  H.  <.'..  diirini;  the  confusion  whicli  accom- 
panied the  de;ith  of  Jerohoam  II..  and  main- 
tained his  i)ower  durinjj;  the  {ireater  part  of 
Menahem's  ri-ign,  heinji  the  eausi-  of  Mena- 
heiiTs  feeling  of  insecurity  until  Tijilatli- 
pile.ser  invaded  the  north  and  estal>lished 
Menahem's  sway  over  the  wlnjle  country 
(2  Kin.  XV.  19).  Then  Pekah,  like  Abner 
l)efore  him,  abandoned  o]iposition,  jirofessed 
loyalty,  and  was  liiven  a  liiuh  military  i)osi- 
tion  in  thi'  service  of  the  kinj?  to  whom  he 
had  hitherto  refused  obedience.  After  ]Men- 
ahem's  death  and  in  the  absence  of  Tiglath- 
pileser,  and  jierhaps  backed  by  Rezin,  he 
seized  the  throne  in  the  tifty -second  year  of 
Uzziah    and    again    reigned.      See     CiiKO- 

Ndl.iKlV. 

Pek-a-M'ah  [Jehovah  hath  given  sight  or 
delivered]. 

Son  anil  successor  of  jMenahem  in  the  king- 
dom of  Israel.  He  came  to  the  thicme  about 
737  15.  «'.,  and  reiiiued  two  years,  adhering  to 
the  calf  worship  of  ,Ieroi)oam  I.  He  was 
a.ssas-sinated  in  his  j)alace  at  Samaria  by 
Pekah,  a  captain  of  his,  who  then  usurped 
the  throne  (2  Kin.  xv.  -J-'J-^t)). 

Pe'kod. 

A  localitv  in  Babvlonia  and  its  inhabitants 
(.Ter.  1.  -.'l';  Kzek.'xxiii.  -2:5);  doubtless  the 
Pukudu.  a   Hal)ylonian  people. 

Pe-la'iah  [Jehovah  hath  made  illustrious]. 

1.  One  of  the  Lcvites  who  with  Ezra 
caused  the  i>eople  to  understand  the  law 
(Nell.  viii.  7)  and  s(>aled  the  covenant  (x.  10). 

2.  A  man  of  .Iiidali,  descended  from  Shec- 
aniah  (1  Ciiron.  iii.  24). 

Pel-a-ll'ah  (Jehovah   hatli  juduMd]. 
A  priest  descended   from   Malchijah   (Xeh. 
xi.  12). 

Pel-a-ti'ah  [Jehovah  hath  set  free]. 

1.  One  of  the  Simeonite  captains  in  tlie 
successful  war  between  that  tribe  and  the 
Amalekitcs  il  Chron.  iv.  42). 

2.  .\  jirince  of  Israel,  and  son  of  Henaiah. 
He  misled  the  ])eo))le.  In  vision  Ezekiel  .s;iw 
him,  and  he  ]iro|>h<'sied  against  him.  and 
Pelatiah  suddeulv  died  (Ezek.  xi.  1  13;  cp. 
viii.  1,  3;  xi.  24  .' 

:{.  .\  son  of  Hananiah,  and  a  grandson  of 
Zerubbabel  (1  Chron.  iii.  21).  Perhajis  he 
was  the  ])erson  of  this  name  who  was  a  chief 
of  the  peoi)le  and  with  Nehemiah  sealed  the 
covenant  (Neh.  x.  22). 

Pe'leg,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Phalec  [<livisi..n]. 

\  son  or  descendant  of  I'Jier  l(!eu.  x.  2."): 
xi.  Ki).  He  takes  Ills  name  from  the  fact 
that  in  his  davs  the  earth  was  divided.  The 
36 


division  alluded  to  may  be  the  separation  of 
the  descendants  of  Arpachshad  from  the 
.l(d<tani(le  .Arabs  (x.24-2!ii;  or  it  may  refer 
to  the  scattering  ol'  the  descendants  of  Xoah 
in  conse(iuence  of  the  c(jnfusion  of  tongues 
at  Biibel. 

Pe'let  [lil)eration]. 

1.  .\  son  of  Jahdai,  of  the  tribe  of  Judah 
(1  Chron.  ii.  47). 

2.  A  Ben.jamite  who  joined  David  while 
he  was  at  Ziklag  (1  Chron.  xii.  3). 

Pe'leth  [swiftness]. 

1.  A  Keubenite,  father  of  that  On  who 
joined  in  Korah's  rebellion   (Num.  xvi.  1). 

2.  A  man  of  Judah.  family  of  Hezron, 
house  of  Jerahmeel  (1  Chron.  ii.  33). 

Pel'e-thites. 

Certain  members  of  David's  bodyguard. 
A])parently  they  were  from  the  Philistine 
country,  as  were  the  Cherethites  and  the 
men  of  (Jath.  who  were  their  comrades  in 
arms.  They  were  faithful  to  David  during 
the  calamities  of  his  later  years,  and  took  a 
prominent  i)art  in  the  war  in  which  Al)salom 
lost  his  cause  and  his  life  (2  Sam.  xv.  lS-22). 
They  also  lieliied  in  the  fight  with  Sheba 
(xx.  7).  The  name  which  they  bear  is  doubt- 
less a  gentile  adjective,  like  those  with  which 
it  is  connected  ;  but  it  is  not  a  contraction 
of  P^lishfi,  Philistine,  as  some  scholars  have 
supiiosed. 

Pel'i-can. 

The  rendering  of  the  Ilebi-ew  word  Ka'ath, 
])robably  meauiug  the  vomiter.  The  word  is 
twice  translated  cormorant  in  the  text  of 
A.  V.  (Is.  xxxiv.  11  ;  Zeph.  ii.  14);  but  else- 
where jielican,  as  everywhere  in  K.  V.  The 
bird  was  ceremonially  unclean  (Lev.  xi.  18; 


■-^^U&fci-" 


Peli<.; 

Dent.  xiv.  17),  lived  in  the  wilderness  (Ps. 
cii.  »>),  and  fre(|uented  ruins  (Isa.  xxxiv.  11; 
Zeidi.  ii.  14).  It  is  i)robably  the  common  or 
roseate  pelican  { I'flfrKinis  (iniicrnldlKs^,  though 
rivei'sand  lakes,  rather  I  ban  ruined  cities,  un- 
less the  ruins  are  inters j)i'rsed  with  marshes. 


Pelonite 


562 


Pentateuch 


are  its  appropriate  place  of  abode.  Its  four 
U)vs.  being  all  conuected  by  large  webs,  adapt 
it  for  aquatic  life.  It  .-ionietimes,  bdwevcr, 
perches  ou  trees.  Its  bill  is  large  and  fur- 
rowed, and  has  under  it  a  large  pouch  iu 
which  the  bird  carries  the  lish  ou  which  its 
young  feed.  Its  height  is  from  5  to  6  feet ; 
the  expansion  of  its  wings  12  or  13.  A  few 
individuals  are  found  on  the  sea  of  (ialilee ; 
a  much  larger  number  on  the  shallow  lakes 
of  Egyi)t  and  on  the  Nile. 

Pel'o-nite. 

A  word  e(irresi)()nding  in  1  Chron.  xi.  27; 
xxvii.  10  to  Paltite  in  2  Sam.  xxiii,  26,  and 
in  1  C'hron.  xi.  'M  ai)i)arently  to  Gilonite  in 
2  Sam.  XV.  12:  xxiii.  .'51.  In  1  Chron.  xxvii. 
10  the  person  who  is  designated  by  this 
epithet  is  further  said  to  be  of  the  children 
of  Ejihraim.  Xo  person  or  place  is  known 
from  which  this  adjective  could  be  derived; 
certainly  not  from  Pallu,  who  was  a  Eeubeuite 
and  whose  descendants  were  called  Palluites 
(Num.  xxvi.  5).  In  view  of  these  circum- 
stances, Pelonite  is  not  unreasonably  believo.d 
to  be  either  a  corruption  of  the  text  or  else 
to  mean  ".such  and  such  a  one,"  as  it  does 
in  other  connection  {c.  g.  1  Sam.  xxi.  2),  and 
to  have  been  inserted  in  the  passages  men- 
tioned by  a  scribe  who  could  not  read  the  orig- 
inal word  in  the  text  which  he  was  copying. 

Pen. 

1.  A  stylus  or  graving  tool  made  of  iron 
and  used  by  writers  for  cutting  letters  on 
stone  (Job  xix.  24 ;  Ps.  xlv.  1 ;  .Ter.  viii.  8 ; 
xvii.  1).  In  Hebrew  it  is  called  'et  and  once 
heret  (Is.  viii.  1). 

2.  A  reed  pen  used  for  writing  with  ink  on 
papyrus  (3  John  13;  cp.  2  John  12).  The 
mention  of  a  penknife  or  knife  of  a  writer 
iu  Jeremiah  xxxvi.  2:5,  and  of  a  roll  in  which 
the  prophet's  words  were  written,  imply  that 
reed  pens  had  been  introduced  among  the 
Israelites  by  the  time  of  Jehoiakim. 

The  Hebrew  words  rendered  pen  of  the 
writer  in  Judg.  v.  14,  A.  V.  mean  literally 
staff  of  a  marshal  or  scribe  (R.  V.). 

Pe-ni'el.     See  Penuel  2. 

Pe-nin'nali  [ruby  or  coral]. 
One    of    Elkauah's   two   wives,   the   other 
being  Hannah   (1  Sam.  i.  2-6). 

Pen'ny. 

The  rendering  of  the  Greek  Dennnon.  It 
was  the  denarius,  a  silver  coin  of  the  Romans 
(Mat.  xxii.  19-21),  worth  about  17  cents  in  the 
time  of  Christ  (xviii.  28,  R.  V.  margin).  See 
Money.  It  was  the  ordinary  pay  of  an 
agricultural  laborer  for  a  day  (Mat.  xx.  2,  f), 
13).  Two  were  given  to  the  innkeeper  by 
the  good  Samaritan  for  looking  after  the 
wounded  Jew,  though  he  promised  to  sup- 
plement this  sum  if  the  expense  should  ex- 
ceed it  (Luke  X.  .3.")).  The  aiiostles  calculated 
that  200  would  be  needetl  to  buy  sufticient 
bread  to  feed  r)000  people  (.Mark  vi.  37). 
This  would  be  one  denarius  for  each  twenty- 


five,  or  two  thirds  of  a  cent  to  each  i)erson. 
The  jirices  iu  Rev.  vi.  6  were  those  asked 
during  a  dearth. 

Pen'ta-teuch  [Greek  pentateuchos,  consist>- 
ing  of  five  books]. 

The  first  five  books  of  the  O.  T.,  viz.. 
Genesis,  Exodus,  Leviticus,  Numbers,  and 
Deuteronomy.  The  word  nowhere  occurs  in 
Scripture,  the  Israelites  calling  these  books 
collectively  the  law  (Josh.  i.  7;  Mat.  v.  17), 
the  law  of  Moses  (1  Kin.  ii.  3;  Ezra  vii.  6; 
Luke  ii.  22),  the  law  of  the  Lord  (2  Chron. 
xxxi.  3;  Luke  ii.  23),  the  book  of  the  law 
(Josh.  i.  pi),  the  book  of  Moses  (2  Chron.  xxv. 
3,  4),  the  book  of  the  law  of  Moses  (Josh, 
viii.  31),  the  book  of  the  law  of  (xod  (Josh. 
xxiv.  26),  the  book  of  the  law  of  the  Lord 
(2  Chrou.  xvii.  9).  This  fact  suggests  that 
the  five  books  were  considered  as  one  ;  and 
they  still  are  so  iu  Hebrew  manuscripts, 
though  severally  cited  by  their  opening 
words.  The  division  into  five  distinct  books  is 
mentioned  by  Josephus  (con.  Apiou.  i.  «).  It 
may  have  originated  with  the  Greek  trans- 
lators or  been  ancient.  But  whether  or  not 
the  Septuagiut  translators  adopted  or  origin- 
ated this  five-fold  division,  from  them  at 
least  emanated  the  modern  names  Genesis, 
Exodus,  Leviticus,  Numbers,  and  Deuteron- 
omy.* 

*  The  division  of  the  law  of  Moses  into  five 
books  furnished  the  model,  it  is  thought,  for  the 
similar  division  of  the  Psalter.  If  it  did,  it  is 
ancient;  for  the  Psalter  was  early  divided  into 
five  books.  Proof  that  it  did  is  sought  in  tlie 
alleged  discovery  that  the  contents  of  each 
book  are  so  arranged  that  the  opening  psalm 
shall  correspond  to  the  respective  book  of  the 
Pentateuch.  Ps.  i.,  with  its  comparison  of  the 
righteous  to  a  tree  planted  by  the  rivers  of 
water,  is  a  reminder  of  the  garden  of  Eden  in 
the  first  book  of  the  Pentateiich.  Ps.  xlii.,  uith 
which  the  second  book  of  the  Psalter  opens,  is 
the  cry  of  a  man  in  distress,  oppressed  by  the 
enemy,  and  thinking  himself  forgntten  by  God, 
but  anticipating  deliverance  out  of  all  his 
troul)le.  It  recalls  the  affliction  of  Israel  in 
Egypt  and  their  deliverance,  as  related  in'Ex- 
odiis.  In  Ps.  Ixxiii.,  with  wliich  the  third  hook 
begins,  the  doubts  of  the  psalmist  reganlingthe 
justice  of  God's  dealing  with  men  vanisli  when 
he  considers  the  end  of  the  wicked.  Thei>sahu 
is  supposed  to  reflect  gratitude  for  (Jod's  good- 
ness in  giving  the  law  of  Leviticus,  wliicli  was 
an  ahidiug  uierey.  Ps.  xc,  a  i)rayer  of  .Moses, 
in  which  God  is  besought  to  teach  iis  to  mimber 
our  days,  corresponds  to  Numbers.  Ps.  cvii., 
which  begins  the  fifth  book,  speaks  of  the  good- 
ness of  the  Lord  in  the  days  of  trouble,  and  is 
thus  like  Deuteronomy,  which  recapittdates  the 
instances  of  (iod's  loving  kindness  to  Isniel.  It 
must  be  confessed  tliat  tlie  corresiiondeuce  is 
rather  fanciful :  and  if  an  editor  set  about  secur- 
ing correspondence,  it  is  strange  tliat  he  did  not 
adii])t  a  more  appropriate  arrauiiement.  Ps. 
viii..  with  its  reference  to  the  heavens,  tlie  work 
of  God's  lingers,  to  the  moon  and  stars  wliicli  he 
ordained,  and  to  man  whom  he  made  and  to 
whom  he  gave  dominion  over  all  creatures, 
would  have  better  corresponded  with  Gen.  i. 
Ps.  Ixvi.  of  the  second  book,  which  tells  of  the 
works  of  God,  how  he  turned  the  sea  into  dry 
land  for  the  people  to  pass  throuudi,  and  how  he 
tried  the  Israelites,  laid  sore  burdens  on  thera 


Pentateuch 


563 


Pentateuch 


The  events  recorded  in  the  fii"st  V)ook  of 
tlie  I'ent^teiich  were  traiisniilted  to  the  time 
ol'  MiKses,  as  is  now  known,  liy  liadition  oral 
and  written  ;  tin;  suhseijnenl  occiirrenLL'S 
tell  under  iiis  own  til)servation,  and  he  was 
liimself  an  actor  in  the  most  stirring  events. 
Writing  was  jiractieed  hing  before  the  time  of 
Moses.  It  waseomnion  in  ICgypt,  wlierc'  lie  was 
educated;  in  Arabia,  througli  a  jiortion  of 
■wliich  he  jia.ssed  ;  and  in  Canaan  wiiere  liis 
ancestors  had  sojourned  and  wbitlier  he  was 
leading  the  pt-ople.  Though  the  live  books 
tliemselves  are  not  attributed  as  a  wluile  to 
Moses  in  any  verse  which  they  contain,  yet 
till'  IVntateuih  testilies  exjiressly  to  the 
Mosaic  authorshij)  of  its  contents.  Two  pas- 
Siiges  of  the  narrative  portion  are  attributed 
to  his  pen  ;  the  account  of  the  victory  over 
Anialek  (E.x.  xvii.  11),  and  the  itinerary  of 
the  march  of  tlie  Israelites  from  Egy])t  to 
the  plains  of  ]\Ioab  ojiposite  Jericho  (Num. 
xx.xiii.  2).  A  didactic  song,  reciting  the 
dealing  of  the  Most  High  witJi  Israel,  is  de- 
clared to  have  been  written  and  uttered  by 
:Moses  (I)eut.  xxxi.  1!).  2-J,  30;  xxxii.  44). 
The  legal  portion  consists  of  tliree  distinct 
bodies  of  law.  The  lirst  is  entitled  the  book 
of  the  covenant,  and  comprises  the  ten  com- 
mandments which  formed  the.  fundanuiital 
law  of  the  nation,  and  specific  regulations 
based  on  them  (Ex.  xx.-xxiii.).  This  book 
]SIoses  is  expressly  said  to  have  written  (Ex. 
xxiv.  4).  Tlie  second  liody  of  laws  pertains 
to  the  sanctuary  and  service  (Ex.  xxv.-xxxi., 
XXXV. -xl.,  Leviticus,  and  major  legal  juirt 
of  Nundjers).  This  legislation  is  constantly 
declared  to  have  been  revealed  by  the  Lord 
to  Moses  (Ex.  XXV.  1.  etc.).  The  tliird  body 
of  legislation  exiiressly  and  rejieatedly  claims 
to  be  the  address  of  Closes  to  the  new  gen- 
eration of  i)eople  on  the  eve  of  their  intrance 
into  Canaan.  It  contains  a  brief  rehearsal 
of  the  way  which  (lod  has  led  them  and 
then  repeats  sundry  jxirtions  of  the  law  with 
the  special  object  of  exhibiting  its  s])iritn- 
alily,  empbasi/.ing  the  featuris  wliicli  are  of 
vital  religious  importance  in  the  newcinum- 
stanccs  in  which  the  peojile  will  soon  be 
jilaced,  and  modifying  details  to  adajjt  the 
laws  t()  the  new  re(iuirements  of  the  settled 
life  in  Canaan.  Closes  wrote  tliis  adilress 
and  delivered  it  into  the  custody  of  the 
Levites  I  Dent.  xxxi.  !>,  24-2(i).  These  are 
the  explicit  claims,  scattered  throughout  the 
rentateucb  itself,  to  its  Mos;»ic  aiithorshi]). 
The  remainder  of  the  O.  T.  refers  to  the  law 
as  the  work  ui  Muses  and  written  in  a  book 
(Josh.  i.  7,  M;  Ezra  vi.  l-^;  Xeh.  viii.  1.  l.-<) ; 
and  abounds  in  exjilicit  references  to  the  law 
i)f  Moses  (Josh.  i.  7,  M  ;  viii.  .'?l-;5."> ;  Judg.  iii.  4  ; 

nnd  cnused  men  to  ride  over  (heir  hends,  iind 
then  liriinjrlit  them  out  into  n  wealthy  place, 
should  have  upcued  the  book.  It  has  an'olividus 
reference  to  tlie  events  recorded  in  Kxodns, 
whereas  I's.  xlii.  has  nut.     I's.  Ixxvi.  or  Ixxviii. 

should  form  the  onenint;  of  tlie  thinl  I k  in 

order  to  corresjiond  appropriately  to  Leviticus. 


1  Kin.  ii.  3 ;  2  Kin.  xviii.  6,  12 ;  cp.  Deut. 
xxiv.  l(i  ;  -2  Kin.  xxi.  7,  H;  Dan.  ix.  II,  13; 
Ezra  iii.  2;  vi.  1^  ;  vii.  <; :  Neh.  viii.  1,  18; 
Mai.  iv.  4).  One  feature  of  this  law,  namely, 
the  law  of  tlie  one  altar,  was  in  abeyance 
during  the  captivity  and  seclusion  of  the 
ark  after  the  Lord  had  forsaken  Shiloh 
(1  Sam.  iv.  11,  21,  22;  vi.  1;  vii.  2:  Ps. 
Ixxviii.  G(l;  Jer.  vii.  12-1.");  xxvi.  (i).  Dur- 
ing this  period  the  jieople  under  the  leader- 
shiji  of  Samuel  sacriliced  where  they  could 
(1  Kin.  iii.  2-4),  as  their  fathers  had  done 
in  the  olden  time  before  the  covenant  had 
been  entered  into  between  Jehovah  and  the 
Israelites,  of  which  the  law  and  the  ark 
were  the  sign  and  pledge.  Once  again  this 
specific  law  was  in  abeyance.  The  iiious  Israel- 
ites of  the  northern  kingdom  were  pievented 
from  going  up  to  Jerusalem  to  wurshii). 
They  had  to  choose  l)etween  refraining  from 
sacrifice  altogether  or  worshijiing  Crod  as  did 
Abraham,  Lsaac,  and  Jacob.  They  properly 
chose  the  latter  alternative.  All  other  cases 
of  sacrifice  ollered  elsewhere  than  at  the 
central  .sanctuary  were  strictly  in  accord 
with  the  law  which  ex])ressly  jirovided  that 
wdierever  Jehovah  manifested  his  name,  there 
sacrifice  was  lilting  (Ex.  xx.  24:  and  see 
Judg.  ii.  1,  5;  vi.  19-24;  xiii.  l.")-22).  The 
law  of  Closes  was  known  and  its  authority 
acknowledged  even  in  the  northern  king- 
dom. Tlie  prophets  Hosea  and  Amos,  who 
labored  among  the  ten  tribes,  although 
they  do  not  mention  the  name  of  Moses, 
coii.stantly  refer  to  the  laws  recorded  in  the 
rentateucb  and  use  its  very  language.  At 
a  still  later  time  the  temple  copy  of  the  book 
of  the  law  was  unused  and  cast  aside  during 
the  half  century  of  Manasseh's  reign  when 
the  religion  of  .lehovah  was  neglected  ;  but 
when  the  temple  was  being  cleaned,  prepara- 
tory to  the  restoratitm  of  Jehovah's  worship, 
the  book  was  found,  or  so  much  of  it  at  least 
as  contained  Deuteronomy  (2  Kin.  xxii.  S  ; 
xxiii.  2.")).  Daniel,  Ezra,  and  Neluniiah 
allude  to  the  written  law  of  ]\Ioses.  That 
Moses  was  the  author  of  the  Pentateuch  was 
the  o])inion  of  the  Jews  of  Christ's  time 
(JIark  xii.  1!) :  John  viii.  ">;  Antiq.  i)reface4; 
con.  Ajiion.  i.  b).  Christ  and  the  evan- 
gelists call  (he  Pentateuch  Closes  and  the 
book  of  Mo.ses  (Mark  xii.  2() ;  Luke  xvi.  2St ; 
xxiv.  27,  44),  and  speak  of  its  having  been 
given  by  ^Nloses  and  committed  to  writing  by 
:\loses  (Slark  x.  ."> ;  xii.  IH;  Jo^in  i.  17;  v.  4G, 
47:  vii.  1!)). 

The  Mosaic  authorshi])  of  the  Pentateuch 
is  impugned.  The  ]irincipal  objections  for- 
merly urged  against  it  were  several  verses 
in  which  r«'ference  has  been  found  to  times 
subsecitU'Ut  to  the  death  of  Moses.  1.  In 
(Jen.  xii.  li  we  read:  "And  the  Canaanite 
was  (hen  in  (he  land  "  (cit.  xiii.  7).  The 
meaning  assigiu'd  to  these  words  is  (ha(  (he 
Canaani(es  had  ceased  (o  he  there  when  tlie 
writer  lived.  Tlie  words,  however,  attinilly 
state  only  that  the  Cauaanites  were  in  the 


Pentateuch 


564 


Pentateuch 


country  when  Abraham  was  there,  and  were 
occupying  the  iironiiscd  land.  2.  In  (iun. 
xiv.  i4  we  read  that  Abraham  pursued 
the  defeated  confederates  to  Dau.  In  the 
patriarch's  time,  however,  the  place  was 
called  Laish,  the  name  Dan  not  having  been 
given  it  till  the  time  of  the  judges  (.Tudg. 
xviii.  29).  The  question  is,  however,  whether 
Dan  in  Genesis  is  the  place  mentioned  in 
tlu>  I?ook  of  Judges.  If  it  is.  the  more 
familiar  name  may  have  been  substituted  in 
the  place  of  Laish  in  the  course  of  repeated 
transcription.  The  Hebrew  text  has  not 
been  preserved  in  absolute  purity.  3.  In 
Gen.  xxxvi.  31  the  words  occur:  "Before 
there  reigned  any  king  over  the  children  of 
Israel,"  as  if  the  Hebrew  monarchy  under 
Saul  had  already  been  established  when  the 
author  wrote.  But  the  kings  of  Edom  who 
are  mentioned  in  ver.  32-43  reigned  before 
Moses  ;  and  Moses  notes  that  the  descendants 
of  Esau  already  had  kings,  although  the  Isra- 
elites, to  whom  the  promise  had  been  given 
that  kings  should  arise  among  them  (Gen. 
xvii.  6, 16;  XXXV.  11 ),  as  yet  had  none.  4.  Moses 
is  said  to  be  beyond  .Jordan,  meaning  east  of 
the  river,  as  though  the  writer  himself  were 
in  Canaan  (Dent.  i.  1).  The  expression,  how- 
ever, does  not  imply  this.  Abraham,  Isaac, 
and  Jacob  spoke  of  that  region  as  "beyond 
Jordan,"  and  the  designation  became  a  fixed 
geographical  term.  Moreover  that  country 
was  not  Canaan,  not  the  promised  land. 
Moses  was  still  beyond  Jordan.  No  matter 
on  which  side  of  the  river  the  people  were, 
they  designated  the  mountains  east  of  the 
Dead  Sea  Abarim,  those  beyond,  and  in  later 
times  they  called  the  country  between  the 
Jabbok  and  the  Arnon  Pera^a,  region  beyond. 
5.  Itisuniversallyadmitted  that  Dent,  xsxiv. 
5-12,  in  which  the  death  of  Moses  is  recorded 
and  comparison  made  between  him  and  proph- 
ets subsequently  rai.sed  up  (5, 10,  etc.),  cannot 
have  been  from  his  pen.  But  an  addition  of 
this  sort  does  not  militate  against  the  Mosaic 
authorship  of  the  Pentateuch  as  a  whole. 

The  orthodox  theologian  and  commentator 
Vitringa  expressed  the  opinion  in  1707,  in 
the  interest  of  the  credibility  of  Genesis, 
that  Moses  edited  and  sujiplemented  records 
left  by  the  fathers  and  itreserved  among  the 
Israelites.  In  1753,  Jean  Astruc,  a  French 
physician  of  ability,  but  profligate,  attempted 
to  discriminate  two  leading  authors  in  Gene- 
sis, whose  writings  Moses  used  and  who  are 
distinguished  by  their  em])loyment  respec- 
tively of  the  words  Elohim,  that  is  God,  and 
Jehovah.  Besides  the  writings  of  these 
two,  he  thought  he  could  detect  ten  minor 
documents  relating  chiefly  to  foreign  nations 
and  in  which  no  name  of  God  is  found.  This 
■.hyiiotlu'sis  was  adopted  by  Eichhorn,  and 
elaborated  with  learning  and  ingenuity.  He 
steadfastly  insisted  that  Moses  compiled  Gen- 
esis, and  was  the  author  of  the  rest  of  the 
Pentateuch.  It  was  soon  discoven:'d,  how- 
ever, that  the  principles  which  govern  the 


partition  of  Genesis  were  capable  of  being 
apjjlied  with  similar  results  to  the  entire 
Pentateuch  ;  and  if  so,  the  original  docu- 
ments covered  the  history  of  Moses'  own 
time,  and  were  scarcely  put  together  by 
Moses  to  form  the  present  Pentateuch.  The 
grounds  on  which  the  partition  is  made  are 
chietly  four:  1.  The  alternate  use  of  the 
divine  names  God  and  Lord  in  successive 
paragraphs  or  sections.  2.  The  continuity 
of  each  so-called  document  when  taken  sepa- 
rately. 3.  The  diversity  of  style,  diction, 
and  ideas  in  the  ditiereut  documents.  4. 
Repetitions  or  parallel  pa.s.sages,  often  contra- 
dictory, indicative  of  distinct  documents. 
Starting  in  simple  form,  the  hypothesis  un- 
derwent constant  modification  under  careful 
criticism  in  order  to  remove  the  difficulties 
which  beset  it.  The  form  which  it  now  as- 
sumes is  that  four  principal  original  docu- 
ments were  used  by  an  editor  or  redactor  in 
compiling  the  Pentateuch  :  an  Elohistic,  in 
which  the  divine  title  is  Elohim,  and  which 
supi)lies  about  one-half  the  matter;  a  Jeho- 
vistic  and  another  Elohistic,  which  have 
many  mutual  likenesses  and  arc  closely 
united ;  and  finally  the  document  of  the 
Deuteronomist.  The  second  and  third  docu- 
ments, referred  to  as  J  E,  are  regarded  as 
the  oldest  and  dated  about  1000-ir^OO  b.  c. 
Deuteronomy  or  D  is  assigned  to  the  year 
621  B.  c.  (2  Kin.  xxii.  8).  And  the  first  men- 
tioned, usually  denominated  P  to  indicate 
that  its  author  was  a  priest,  is  commonly 
dated  at  the  close  of  the  exile.  To  each  of 
these  main  divisions  there  is  a  code  of  law  ; 
to  J  E,  Ex.  xx.-xxiii. ;  to  D,  Dent,  xii.-xxvi. ; 
and  to  P  the  priestly  and  other  legislation 
of  Exodus,  Leviticus,  and  Numbers.  It  will 
be  observed  that  there  are  two  distinct 
matters  involved  in  the  modern  theory : 
first,  the  existence  of  documents  out  of 
which  the  Pentateuch  was  constructed,  and, 
second,  the  date  of  thege  documents.  Well- 
hausen  dates  them  as  above,  holding  that  the 
legislation  of  Leviticus  is  later  than  that  of 
Deuteronomy.  But  1.  This  theory  involves 
the  denial  of  the  truth  of  the  historical  narra- 
tive in  the  O.  T.,  not  the  assertion  of  occa- 
sional or  minute  inaccuracies,  but  the  rejec- 
tion of  the  credibility  of  the  O.  T.  narrative 
almost  as  a  whole.  Wellhausen  makes  no  con- 
cealment of  the  fact.  2.  Furthennore.todate 
the  so-called  documents  so  late  is  forbiilden  by 
the  fact  of  the  development  of  doctrine.  In 
the  Pentateuch,  the  conceptions  entertained 
and  the  doctrine  taught  concerning  the  future 
state,  divine  retribution,  the  sjiiritual  char- 
acter of  true  worship,  angels,  and  the  Mes- 
siah are  rudimentary.  They  apjiear  in  de- 
veloped form  in  late  books,  in  Job,  the  Psalms, 
and  the  prophets;  a  strong  argument  that 
the  writer  of  the  Pentateuch  lived  at  an 
earlier  age  and  in  a  difterent  intellectual  en- 
viroimient.  Dillmann,  while  accei)ting  the 
existence  of  documents,  opposed  Wellhau- 
sen's  arrangement,  insisting  that  history  re- 


Pentateuch 


565 


Pentateuch 


quiri'd  the  existence  of  the  Levitical  legisla- 
tii)ii  hi'fort' tliat  of  DouttTonoiuy,  and  so  far 
111'  is  uioro  in  accord  willi  the  toadiint;  of 
Scriiitiirt'.  'A.  The  early  I'xistcuce  of  tlie  hiws 
and  institutions  of  tiic  Pentateuch  is  attested 
by  tlie  traces  of  them  in  the  writinfjs  of  the 
early  prophets.  A  short  time  since,  it  was 
ciist(jmary  to  admit  tlie  fjeniiineness  of  tlie 
passages  where  tlu'se  traces  are  found,  but  to 
deny  that  they  were  derived  from  Deuter- 
ononiic  or  jiriestlj'  documents.  Now  it  is 
universally  conceded  that  these  laws  and  in- 
stitutions were  in  full  force  when  the  pas- 
sages were  writt<-n  :  hut  the  h)gical  result  of 
this  concession,  namely  tliat  the  I'entateuchal 
law  and  organiziition  were  in  I'xistence  in  the 
eighth  century  B.  c,  is  avoided  by  declaring 
that  these  references  are  late  interpolations 
in  the  genuine  writings  of  the  prophets.  As 
a  rule  no  jiroof  for  thi>  declaration  is  ottered. 
The  decision  is  magisterial.  It  is  i>ronounced 
without  apjteal  from  the  master's  mere  as- 
sertion. Believers  in  the  Mosaic  authorshij) 
of  the  Levitical  and  Deuteroiiomic  law  ])oint 
with  contideiice  to  the  evident  indissoluble- 
ness  of  these  references  from  the  context  and 
their  inseparable  connection  with  the  original 
argument,  which  show  that  they  are  not  in- 
terpolations, but  an  essential  part  of  the  dis- 
course of  the  ]>rophets  of  the  eighth  century. 
What  are  the  objections  to  the  theory  of 
documents?  1.  The  impossibility  of  separa- 
ting the  documents  from  each  other  in  strict 
adherence  to  the  principle  that  certain  words 
are  characteristic  of  tlie  several  writirs.  To 
take  an  examjile  from  the  use  of  different 
divine  names,  which  is  the  starting  jioiut  of 
the  hypothesis  and  tlie  phenomenon  most 
evident  to  English  readers,  the  name  Lord 
betokens  J.  and  should  not  occur,  according 
to  the  theory,  in  (ienesis  in  the  documents 
E  and  P.  But  it  does  occur  in  v.  29  ;  vii.  16  ; 
xiv.  2'2;  XV.  1,  2;  xvii.  1;  xx.  18;  xxi.  1  b, 
Xi :  xxii.  11. 14,  L").  Ki :  xxviii.  21.  Xor  should 
tlie  name  (iod  apjiear  in  the  document  .1; 
yet  it  does  in  iii.  1-5  :  iv.  2.");  vi.  2,  4  ;  vii.  9; 
ix.  2(i,  27  :  xxxiii.  5,  11 ;  xliii.  14,  etc.  Here 
are  more  than  a  score  of  instances  in  Genesis 
alone  and  in  respect  to  but  two  diaracteristic 
words,  where  the  critical  princijile  fails. 
When  obstinate  facts  like  these  oppo.se  the 
critical  theory,  they  are  exscinded.  The 
compiler  is  .said  to  have  introduced  the  awk- 
ward words  arbitrarily  or  from  aTiother  docu- 
ment. In  some  cases  J  is  said  to  have  used 
the  name  (iod  discriminatingly,  which  is  a 
virtual  aliaiidoimient  of  the  theory.  If  the 
writer  used  the  disine  name  discriminatingly 
in  some  cases,  he  may  have  done  so  in  all.  as 
the  defenders  of  the  Mosaic  authorshi])  main- 
tain. On  the  theory  of  the  Mosaic  aiitliorshiii, 
tliese  Words  are  in  jilace  :  and  it  is  ordinarily 
a))i)arent  that  tliey  are  discriminatingly  em- 
))loyed.  God  denotes  the  divine  being  in  his 
relation  to  the  universe  at  large  as  creator,  pre- 
server, and  governor  of  all  his  creatures  and 
all  their  actions.    .Jehovah  denotes  Go<l  as  he 


reveals  himself  to  man,  especially  in  grace. 
2.  The  asserted  continuity  of  the  documents 
when  taken  separately  is  fictitious.  J's  nar- 
rative ending  in  iv.  2."),  2(i  is  continued  in  v. 
2H  b,  29;  vi.  (1-4)  .">-«.  The.se  passages  do 
not  relate  unbroken  history,  they  ;ire  discon- 
nected fniginents,  there  is  no  continuity.  .J's 
narrative  in  vi.  5-H  is  continued  in  vii.  1-.^. 
The  account  is  fragmentary  again,  not  con- 
tinuous. Whence  came  the  ark  into  which 
Noah  was  commanded  to  enter?  .J's  nar- 
rative embraces  X.  21,  25-30;  xi.  (1-9), 'Jb-^O; 
xii.  1-4  a.  Who  was  Terah,  and  who  were 
Haran  and  Abrani  ?  Where  is  the  sni(K)th- 
ness  of  continuous  narrative?  P  narrated  i. 
1-ii.  4  a.  concluding  with  the  enii>hatic  decla- 
ration that  (iod  .saw  everything  that  he  had 
made ;  and  behold,  it  was  very  good.  Then 
after  listing  the  genealogy  of  Adam  (v.  l-28a, 
30-32),  he  suddenly  said:  "And  the  earth 
was  corrupt  Ixl'ore  God  "  (vi.  9-22).  How  did 
that  become  corrupt  which  God  had  i)ro- 
nounced  very  good?  Again,  P's  uncouth  nar- 
rative of  the  early  history  of  Abraham  is  cut 
out  of  J's  account,  thus:  xi.  27,  31,  .'52;  xii. 
4  b,  ;  5  xiii.  G  a,  11  b,  12  a.  It  is  continued  in 
xvi.  1  a,  3,  15,  Ki ;  xvii.  Over  against  this 
nncouthness  in  tlie  hypotlietical  documents, 
Jielievers  in  tlie  Mosaic  authorshi])  are  able 
to  show  unity  <jf  theme,  unbroken  continuity 
of  thought,  balanced  treatment  of  the  parts, 
and  progressive  narrative.  See  Gkxksis.  3. 
The  theory  that  there  are  parallel  accounts 
marked  by  ditl'ereiice  of  style  fails  as  a  trust- 
worthy i)rinciple  in  the  only  case  where  it 
can  be  tested  by  external  evidence.  It  is 
a.sserted  that  in  the  narrative  of  the  flood 
the  storm  which  produced  the  deluge  is 
described  twice  in  three  successive  verses: 
"The  .same  day  were  all  the  fountains  of 
the  great  deeji  broken  up,  and  the  win- 
dows of  heaven  were  opened"  (vii.  11,  P), 
and  "  It  came  to  i)ass  after  the  seven  days 
that  the  waters  of  the  flood  were  n])on  the 
earth,  and  the  rain  was  u])on  the  earth  forty 
days  and  forty  nights  "  ( 10, 12.  .J ).  It  is  urged 
also  that  there  are  two  literary  styles  ajipar- 
ent  here:  the  former  exuberant,  vivid, 
poetic,  the  latter  a  liald  statement  of  the 
facts  in  sinijile  prose.  But  the  account  of 
the  flood  was  also  h.anded  down  by  the  Baby- 
lonians and  Assyrians;  and  when  tlie  Assyro- 
Babylouian  narrative  is  compared  with  the 
Hebrew  record,  it  is  found  to  show  the  .sjune 
repetitions  whicli  occurring  in  (Jenesis  are 
called  jiarallel  narratives,  and  to  exhibit  like 
diU'erences  of  style  in  tlu'corresjionding  places, 
'i'he  narrator  di'piets  the  breaking  and  raging 
of  the  storm  with  eipial  iiiciures(|uene.ss  and 
even  greater  exuberance  than  tlie  Helirew 
writer  :  but  when  he  comes  to  state  how  long 
the  storm  lasted,  he  natunilly  expres.'ies  him- 
self simidy.  He  says:  "".'six  days  and  nights 
wind,  storm  and  rain  jirevailed  ;  on  the 
seventh  day  the  rain  abated,  tlu'  storm  which 
had  struggled  like  a  woman  in  travail, 
rested;    the    sea   withdrew  to    its    bed,   the 


Pentecost 


5G6 


Perga 


violent  wind  and  the  flood-storm  ceased ; " 
see  the  Assyrian  account  in  article  Flood. 
On  the  theory  of  Mosiiic  aiithorsliip,  there  is 
no  difficulty  in  accounting  for  dill'erence  of 
style.  Dillcrent  themes  require  ditt'erent 
statement.  Dates,  genealogies,  and  the  like 
do  not  call  the  imagination  into  exercise. 
Vi%'id  and  picturesque  <lescrii)tion  tielongs  to 
the  narration  of  lively  and  vivid  incidents. 
•1.  The  critical  theory  that  there  are  parallel 
accounts  of  the  .same  event  which  are 
mark^Jd  by  contradictions  likewise  fails  to 
stand  the  test  of  external  evidence.  It  is  con- 
tended that  according  to  P  God  forewarns 
Noah  of  an  impending  destructive  Hood  of 
waters,  but  does  not  reveal  to  him  whether 
it  will  be  caused  by  melting  snows  or  con- 
tinuous rains  or  tidal  wave  ;  and  thus  P  con- 
tradicts J,  who  states  that  the  Lord  bade 
Noah  enter  into  the  ark,  because  in  yet  seven 
days  he  would  cause  it  to  rain  upon  the  earth. 
But  again  the  Assyrian  account  shows  that 
the  Hebrew  narrative  does  not  embody  two 
divergent  accounts,  but  is  the  record  of  suc- 
cessive progressive  events.  For  according  to 
it.  as  in  Genesis,  man  was  first  warned  of 
coming  destruction  and  bidden  build  a  boat. 
The  ruin  was,  accordingly,  to  be  wrought  by 
a  flood  of  water,  but  whether  the  deluge 
would  be  due  to  rain,  or  a  freshet,  or  the  in- 
flowing sea  was  not  disclosed.  When  the 
appointed  time  approached,  however,  the 
proj)hecy  became  definite  and  foretold  rain. 
The  Hebrew  account,  with  its  present  ma- 
terial and  the  present  arrangement  of  that 
material,  is  essentially  the  ancient  account 
handed  down  from  the  fathers.  And  the 
criticism  which  distributes  the  narrative 
among  different  writers  on  the  ground  of 
ditfereuces  of  style  or  alleged  contradictions 
is  demonstrably  invalid.  [For  full  discussion 
of  the  subject,  see  William  Henry  (jreen.  The 
Hiffher  Criticism  of  the  Pentateuch  and  The 
Viiilii  of  the  Book  of  Genesis]. 
Pen'te-cost.     See  Weeks,  Feast  of. 

Pe-nu'el  and  once  Peniel  (Gen.  xxxii.  31) 
[face  of  God]. 

1.  Originally  an  encampment  east  of  the 
Jordan,  first  named  by  Jacob  because  he  had 
there  seen  God  fece  to  face,  yet  his  life  had 
been  preserved  (Gen.  xxxii.  30,  31).  In  the 
time  of  the  judges  there  was  a  tower  there, 
which  Gideon  jiroke  down,  and  a  city,  the 
inhabitants  of  which  he  slew  (.Judg.  viii.  8, 
J),  17).  It  was  fortified  l)y  Jeroboam  I.  (1  Kin. 
xii.  25). 

2.  A  man  of  Judah,  and  the  ancestor  of 
the  inhabitants  of  Gedor  (1  Chron.  iv.  4). 

.'{.  A  Benjamite,  family  of  Shashak  (I  Chi'on. 
viii.  '2'}). 

Pe'or  [an  opening,  a  cleft]. 

1.  A  mountain  in  IMoab  looking  toward  the 
desert,  or  Jeshimon  (Num.  xxiii.  28).  From 
it  the  cam])  of  Israel  at  Shittim  was  in  full 
view  (xxiv.  2).  A  mountain  still  bore  the 
name  in  the  time  of  Eusebius  and  Jerome. 


It  stood   opposite  Jericho,  on   tlie  road  to 

Heshbon,  above  or  to  the  east  of  Livias,  now 
Tell  cr-I\iinich.  Accunlingly  Peor  was  a  peak 
of  the  Abarim  range  near  wady  Hesban. 

2.  A  Moabite  diviiuty  worshiped  in  mount 
Peor,  and  often  called  Baal-peor.     See  Baal- 

I'EOK. 

Pe-rae'a  or  Perea  [the  land  beyond]. 

The  region  between  the  Jabbok  and  the 
Arnon,  beyond  Jordan  (War  iii.  3,  3);  cp. 
signification  and  location  of  Abarim.  Tlie 
name  was.  however,  used  in  a  wider  sense ; 
for  Josephus  calls  Gadara,  on  the  banks  of 
the  Yarmuk,  the  capital  of  Persea  (War  iv. 
7,3). 

Per'a-zim.     See  Baal-perazim. 

Pe-re'a.     See  Per.«;a. 

Pe'res.     See  Mene. 

Pe'resh  [distinction,  separation,  dung]. 

A  man  of  Manasseh  (1  Chron.  vii.  16). 

Pe'rez,  in  A.  V.  of  O.  T.  Pharez  except 
thrice  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  3;  Neh.  xi.  4,  6) ;  in 
A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Phares  [a  breach]. 

A  sou  of  Judah,  one  of  twins  whom  Tamar 
bore  (Gen.  xxxviii.  24-30).  He  became  the 
founder  of  a  tribal  family  which  took  its 
name  from  him,  and  of  two  other  tribal  fam- 
ilies which  sjiraug  from  his  sous  and  were 
named  from  them  (Num.  xxvi.  20,  21  ;  1 
Chron.  ii.  4,  5).  He  was  an  ancestor  of  David 
and  consequently  of  Christ  (Euth  iv.  12-18; 
Mat.  i.  3). 

Pe-rez-uz'za  and  Perez-uzzah  [breach  of 
Uzza]. 

The  name  given  by  David  to  the  jdace 
where  Uzza  was  struck  dead  for  touching 
the  ark  (2  Sam.  vi.  8;  1  Chron.  xiii.  11).  Ex- 
act .situation  unknown. 

Per-fum'er-y. 

Spices  of  various  kinds,  such  as  aloes,  cas- 
sia, cinnamon,  myrrh,  frankincense,  spike- 
nard, which  were  raised  in  the  .Jordan  val- 
ley or  imported  from  Arabia  and  elsewhere, 
formed  the  basis  of  perfumery  (Ecclus.  xxiv. 
15).  The  spice  was  compelled  to  yield  its 
fragrance  by  at  least  four  diflerent  methods. 
It  was  tied  in  a  bundle  or  enclosed  in  a  bag 
(Song  i.  13)  ;  it  was  reduced  to  powder  and 
burned  as  incense  (iii.  6) ;  its  aromatic  matter 
was  separated  by  boiling,  and  the  extract  was 
carried  as  scent  in  smelling-bottles  suspended 
from  the  girdle,  or  was  mixed  with  oil  and 
used  as  an  ointment  (i.  3;  Is.  iii.  20:  John 
xii.  3).  Frequently  several  spices  were  com- 
pounded (Ex.  xxx".  23.  24;  John  xix.  39). 
Perfumery  was  applied  to  the  person  and 
garments  and  furniture  (Ps.  xlv.  8:  Prov. 
vii.  17 :  Song  iv.  11).  It  was  u.sed  in  the  tem- 
ple service  both  as  incense  and  as  ointment 
(Ex.  xxx.  22-38). 

Per'ga  [doubtless  citadel,  burg]. 

A  seajiort  in  Pamphylia.  and  capital  of  the 
province,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river  Kes- 
tros,  60  stades  from  its  mouth.     Paul  and 


Pergamum 


567 


Persia 


Barnabas  visited  the  town  on  tlie  first  mis- 
sionary JDnrnoy,  both  Roiii};  anil  ntiirning 
(Arts  xiii.  1:5,  14;  xiv.  •_'.'>).  In  the  vicinity 
was  a  celebrated  temple  of  the  jjoddess  Ar- 
temis, the  Roman  Diana. 

Per'ga-mum,  in  A.  V.  Pergamos  [citadel, 
bur;:].  Hdtb  t'ornis  of  tlic  name  were  used 
by  ibf  ancii'iits. 

The  most  impurtant  city  of  Mysia,  situated 
on  the  north  bank  of  the  river  Caicus,  about 
20  miles  from  the  sea.  It  was  once  tlie  cap- 
ital of  a  wealthy  kin.L'tlom  ruled  over  liy  a 
dynasty  of  kintjs,  several  of  tiiem  called  At- 
tiilus.  The  first  of  these  came  to  the  throne 
in  the  year  241  B.  c\  His  son  Eumenes,  who 
succeeded  him,  197  K.  ('.,  founded  a  cele- 
brated lil)rary.  which  ultimately  was  second 
only  to  that  of  Alexandria.  Attains  III.,  who 
died  in  the  year  l.'{3  h.  c,  bequeathed  to  the 
Romans  his  movable  property.  They  misin- 
terjireted  the  l)e(iuest  to  mean  the  kingdom, 
and  approjuiali'd  it  at  once.  iSI.iic  .Vutouy 
])romisi'd  tlie  library  (which  did  not  beloun 
to  him)  to  his  nnstres.s.  t'leo])atra,  and  had  it 
removed  to  Ej;y]it.  where  it  was  added  to  the 
renowned  Alexandrian  liln-ary.  I'eriiamos 
l)ossessi'd  a  celel)ntt<'d  temple  of  /T>cula]iius, 
god  (if  nu'dicine.  Parchment,  called  in  Latin 
jH'itjiiiiiciKt.  and  in  tireek  })er<j((m?)ir.  was  .so 
nanu'd  becau.se  it  was  fii-st  obtained  at  Per- 
ganuts.  The  tliird  of  the  seven  churches  of 
Asia  addressed  in  the  book  of  Revelation  was 
that  at  Periianios.  It  is  said  that  Satan's  seat 
was  tliere.  and  that  a  faithful  martyr,  An- 
tipas.  had  lieen  put  to  death  in  the  jdace.  It 
must,  therefore,  have  been  a  stronghold  of 
autichristiau  idolatry  (Rev.  i.  11  ;  ii.  12-17). 
It  is  now  called  Hergama  or  P.ergnia.  aJid 
still  exists  as  a  town  of  nu-an-lookiug  woiideu 
houses  interspersed  with  the  more  sjilentlid 
relics  of  anticjuity. 

Pe-ri'da.    See  Pkkid.v. 

Per'iz-zites  [dwellers  in  un walled  vil- 
lages]. 

An  important  .section  of  the  t'anaanites, 
often  enumenited  as  one  of  the  tribes  of 
Palestine  (<ien.  .\v.  20;  Ex.  iii.  8;  Josh.  ix. 
D.and  jierhaps,  like  tlu;  Rciiliaim.  an  aborig- 
inal jH'iijile  who  wi're  of  dillerent  race  from 
the  ( 'auaanites  and  in  tlie  land  before  them 
(cji.  (Jen.  xiii.  7;  Josh.  xvii.  l."> ;  and  the 
omission  of  them  in  (ien.  x.  l."i.se(|.).  They 
were  in  the  country  as  early  as  th(>  days  of 
Abraham  and  Lot  ((Jen.  xiii.  7).  In  .Joshua's 
time  tiu-y  inhabited  the  mountain  rc;.;iou 
(Josh.  xi.  '.'>).  dwelling  in  tlie  territory  after- 
wards given  over  to  tlu'  tribes  of  Eiihraim, 
Mauasseh  (xvii.  15),  ami  Judali  (.lud;;.  i.  I.  .">). 
Tiiey  were  not  extirpated,  but.  contrary  to 
•the  law  of  Mos<-s  ( Deut.  vii.  .'>).  allowed  to 
enter  into  marriage  alliances  willi  llieir  cou- 
<|nerors,  seducing  them  into  idolatry  (Judg. 
iii.  ;").  (i).  .Solomon  ini])osed  \\\»m  these  Per- 
iz/:ites  a  yoke  of  Iioudservice  (1  Kin.  ix.  20, 
21  ;  2  Clirou.  viii.  71. 


Per'se-us. 

.Son  and  succes.sor  of  Phili])  III.,  and  last 
king  of  .Macedon.  In  171  n.  c.  he  resunu'd 
the  war  with  the  Romans  which  his  father 
had  waged;  but,  after  three  years  of  desul- 
tory fighting  and  occasional  success,  he  was 
comjiletely  defeated  (1  Mac.  viii.  5)  by  L. 
.Emilius  Paulus  in  the  battle  of  Pydna, 
which  ended  the  Macedonian  monarchy.  He 
tied,  but  was  ca]iture(!  and  taken  to  Rome, 
where  he  graced  the  triumjih  of  his  con- 
queror. 

Per'si-a. 

Persia  jiroper,  the  seat  of  the  Persians 
when  they  first  became  known  to  the  West- 
ern nations  as  a  settled  jn'ople.  lay  southea.st 
of  Elam  and  nearly  corres])on<led  to  the 
jirovince  of  modern  Persia  called  Ears,  or 
Earsistan.a  modification  of  the  original  native 
name  Par(;a.  Persia,  in  this  limited  sense,  was 
bounded  on  the  north  by  (ireat  Media  (Media 
Magna),  on  the  southwest  by  the  Persian 
(iulf,  on  the  east  by  Carmania  (now  called 
Kermau),  and  on  the  nortliwest  by  Susiana. 
Its  length  was  at  most  about  2.^0  miles;  its 
average  breadth  about  200;  its  area  consid- 
erably less  than  oO.OOO  square  miles.  In 
looser  usage,  the  term  Persia  denoted  the 
jilateau  of  Iran,  the  region  bounded  liy  the 
Persian  (iulf,  the  valleys  of  the  Tigris  and 
the  Cyrus,  the  ('asjiian  Sea,  the  rivers  Oxus, 
Jaxartes,  and  Indus  d  JIac.  vi.  1  ;  2  Mac.  i. 
lit).  But  when  the  Persian  em]>ire  was  at 
the  height  of  its  power,  it  stretched  from  the 
em]iire  of  India  t>n  the  east  to  the  Grecian 
.\rchi])elago  on  the  west ;  and  from  the 
Danube,  the  Black  Sea,  mount  Caucasus, 
and  the('asi)ian  Sea  on  the  north,  to  the  .\ra- 
bian  and  Nubian  deserts  on  the  south  (Esth. 
i.  1  :  X.  1 ) :  and  it  was  nearly  .'JOOO  juiles  long, 
with  a  varying  breadth  of  r)00  to  1.500  miles. 
It  had  an  area  of  2,0(10,000  s(|ua re  miles,  half 
that  of  Enrojie.  The  race  inhabiting  Persia 
iud]>(r  was  Aryan,  and  closely  related  to  the 
Median  race. 

The  Persians  arc  not  mentioned  in  the 
table  of  nations  (Gen.  x.).  Tliey  did  not 
attain  to  prominence  until  many  cenluries 
after  Jloses.  About  700  i?.  c.  the  country  of 
Parsu,  (.  e.  Persia,  was  one  of  the  allies  of 
Elam.  But  soon  Teisjies,  a  chief  of  the  tribe 
and  a  member  of  the  family  of  the  Acha-- 
nu'nida',  concpiered  Elam  and  established 
him.self  as  king  in  the  district  of  Ausau  or 
.\uzan,  as  the  name  is  also  written.  His  de- 
scendants branched  into  two  lines,  one  reign- 
iu;;  in  Ansan  and  the  other  remaining  in 
Persia.  His  great-grandson.  Cyrus  II.,  king 
of  Ansan,  united  the  ilivided  power,  con- 
quered Media  about  ."i.")!!  n.  c.  Lydia  in  .\sia 
Minor  a  little  later,  and  Piabyloiiia  in  ."i.'iO. 
He  allowed  the  Hebrew  exiles  to  return  to 
their  own  land;  see  Cvius.  Dying  in  r)2!» 
B.  c.,  lie  was  succeeded  by  his  son  (  andiyses. 
but  reserved  a  snuill  ])ortion  of  his  vast  do- 
minions for  his  younger  son,  Smerdis.     The 


Persia 


568 


Peruda 


arrangement  worked  badly.  Cambyses 
bi'cainr  ji'iiloiis  of  Smcnlis,  and  Iiad  him 
inivately  jiiit  to  death.  In  .V2.")  tlii'  kintct-on- 
qiiured  Ei;yi)t.  As  ho  was  rctiirnin^c  to  IVr- 
sia,  the  news  reached  him  tliat  Smerdis, 
whom  he  helieved  to  be  dead,  was  really 
alive  (which  was  not  true),  and  liad  assumed 
the  sovereijinty.  the  I'lTsian  army  sn]ii)ortinn 
his  claim.  Troubled  by  the  tidiniis,  the  mon- 
arch drew  a  short  sword  from  its  sheath  and 
^av(^  himself  a  wound  wliich  in  a  few  days 
proved  fatal.  He  died  522  B.  c.  The  so- 
called  Smerdis,  who  was  really  one  of  the 
Masii,  now  ascended  the  throne.  When  it 
was  discovered  that  he  was  not  the  true 
Smerdis,  a  conspiracy  Avas  formed  against 
him,  and  he  was  slain.  Darius,  .sou  of  Hys- 
tasi)es,  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  plot  and  ap- 
parently the  next  heir  to  the  throne  when 
the  family  of  Cyrus  became  extinct,  began 
to  reign,  521  b.  c,  being  then  about  twenty- 
eight  years  of  age.  The  accession  of  the  new 
king  was  the  signal  for  a  general  revolt  of 
the  provinces,  but  the  insurrection  was  sup- 
pressed, and  Darius  organized  a  new  empire 
which  extended  from  India  to  the  Grecian 
Archipelago  and  the  Danube.  It  was  under 
him  that  the  temple  at  Jerusalem  was  re- 
built. He  died  486  B.  c. ;  see  Darius  2.  His 
son  and  successor  was  Xerxes,  the  Ahasuerus 
of  the  Book  of  Esther  and  probably  of  Ezra 
iv.  6.  He  reconquered  the  Egyptians ;  and 
he  attempted  an  invasion  of  Greece,  but  was 
repulsed  with  great  lo.ss  to  the  Per.siaus ;  see 
Ahasukrus  2.  After  a  reign  of  twenty  years, 
he  was  assassinated  in  465  B.  c.  His  son  and 
successor,  a  much  more  respectable  charac- 
ter, but  still  fickle  and  feeble,  was  Artaxerxes 
Longimanus.  He  was  not  unfriendly  to  the 
Jews.  He  allowed  Ezra  to  lead  a  large  num- 
ber of  them  back  to  Jerusalem,  and  he  per- 
mitted Nehemiah  to  rebuild  the  walls  of  the 
city ;  see  Artaxerxes.  He  reigned  forty 
years,  dying  in  425  B.  c.  His  successors  were 
Xerxes  II.,  425 ;  Sogdianus,  425 ;  Darius 
Nothus,  the  Illegitimate,  424 ;  Artaxerxes 
Mnemon,  of  good  memory,  404 ;  Artaxerxes 
Ochus,  359 ;  Arses  338 :  and  Darius  Codo- 
mannus,  336.  The  last  king  was  conquered 
by  Alexander  the  Great  in  331  b.  c,  and 
with  him  the  first  Persian  empire  passed 
away.     See  Darius  3. 

The  royal  residences  were  Persepolis  (2 
Mac.  ix.  2),  Shushan  (Xeb.  i.  1:  Esth.  i.  2), 
Ecbatana,  that  is  Achmetha  (Ezra  vi.  2; 
Anticj.  X.  11,  7),  and  to  an  extent  Babylon 
(Ezra  vi.  1). 

When  Cyrus  the  Great  allowed  the  Jews 
to  return  to  their  own  land  538  b.  c,  he  did 
not  grant  them  their  independence.  They 
were  placed  under  governors  appointed  by 
the  Persian  emperor  (Neh.  iii.  7),  and  formed 
part  of  the  satrapy  beyond  the  river  (Ezra 
viii.  36)  which  consisted  of  Syria,  Pales- 
tine, Phamicia,  and  Cyjirus  (Herod,  iii. 
91).  They  were  subjects  of  Persia  for  207 
years,    from  ,539,   the  year  in   which   Cyrus 


entered  Babylon,  to  332,  that  in  which  Alex- 
ander the  Great  completed  the  conquest  of 
Palestine. 

The  faith  of  their  imperial  lords  was 
Zoroastrianism,  but  no  etl'ort  was  made  to 
enforce  it  on  the  subject  peoples.  It  was  a 
sjiiritual  religion,  recognizing  the,  distinction 
between  ( iod  and  nature,  between  spirit  and 
matter,  and  coii.sequently  being  averse  to 
images  of  God.  Its  fundamental  ethical 
principle  was  the  essential  contradiction  be- 
tween good  and  evil,  light  and  darkness.  It 
conceived  of  two  realms  of  spirits :  one  with 
a  hierarchy  of  angels  and  archangels,  where 
Ahuramazda  or  Ormazd,  as  the  name  is  writ- 
ten in  modern  Persian,  the  all-wise  lord, 
God  in  the  fullest  sense,  presides  over  the 
seven  holy  spirits,  who  are  his  ministers  and 
the  exjiression  of  his  attributes,  and  over 
thousands  of  worthy  ones ;  and  another 
realm  of  evil  spirits  ruled  over  by  Ahriman, 
the  spiritual  enemy.  It  was  deeply  tainted 
with  dualism,  and  Ahriman  was  probably 
regarded  as  self-existent.  It  taught  the  duty 
of  man  to  eradicate  evil  and  cultivate  good, 
and  to  strive  after  holiness  in  thought,  word, 
and  deed,  which  will  be  rewarded  by  im- 
mortality and  heaven.  It  paid  homage  to 
fire,  air,  earth,  and  water  as  the  creation  of 
Ahuramazda.  See  Magi.  Later  Judaism 
shows  traces  of  the  Persian  supremacy. 

What  once  had  been  Persia  passed  first 
to  the  Macedonian  Greeks  and  their  suc- 
cessors of  the  same  race.  Then  it  became 
part  of  the  Parthian  empire.  In  A.  D.  211  or 
212  Ardashir  laid  the  foundations  of  a  new 
Persian  sovereignty,  ruled  by  a  dynasty 
called  after  his  family  Sassanian.  In  224  he 
defeated  and  slew  the  last  Parthian  king. 
The  Sassanian  dynasty  became  powerful, 
met  the  Roman  armies  on  equal  terms,  and 
set  limits  to  the  extension  of  their  sway  in 
the  east.  In  a.  d.  636  and  641,  Yazdejard, 
or  Yezdejerd  III.,  the  last  of  the  dynasty, 
was  defeated  by  the  Saracens,  and  Persia 
came  under  Mohammedan  rule,  which  has 
continued  till  now.  Some  of  the  bolder 
spirits  refused  to  submit  to  Mohammedan 
domination,  and  fled  to  the  deserts  and  the 
mountains.  Finally,  a  number  of  Persian 
refugees  landed  in  Guzerat  about  a.  d.  717, 
seeking  and  obtaining  an  asylum  in  India. 
Their  successors  constitute  a  limited  but  im- 
portant section  of  the  Indian  community. 
They  are  called  Parsees.  They  have  become 
prosperous,  and  are  loyal  to  the  English 
throne. 

Per'sis  [Persian]. 

A  Christian  at  Rome  who  labored  dili- 
gently in  the  Lord,  and  to  whom  Paul  sent 
his  salutation  (Rom.  xvi.  12). 

Pe-ru'da  and  Perida  [scattered,  a  kernel]. 

A  subdivision  of  the  children  of  Solomon's 
servants  who  returned  from  captivity  (Ezra 
ii.  55;  Neh.  vii.  57J. 


Pestilence 


569 


Peter 


Pes'ti-lence. 

An  infectious  or  contagious  disease,  a 
plague.  While  the  seniling  of  pestilence  is 
frc(jufntly  nicnti<jiic<l  as  from  (<o(l  (Ex.  ix. 
1.");  Lev.  xxvi.  'Si;  Dcut.  xxviii.  21),  he 
very  often,  if  not  in  all  cases,  uses  secondary 
causes  for  its  jirodnction.  The  i)unishnient 
which  is  threatened  is  oft«'n  described  as  the 
sword,  the  famine,  and  the  i)estilence,  and 
these  words  tend  to  stand  in  this  onh'r  (E/.ek. 
vi.  11).  Tliere  is  reason  for  this  order.  War 
breaks  out.  The  ])eople  of  the  invaded 
country  cannot  cultivate  their  fields,  or,  if 
tlu-v  do.  they  lind  their  crops  reaped  or  de- 
stroyed liy  tile  enemy.  Hesicfrers  invi-st  the 
cities  and  intentionally  cut  otf  the  sui)plies 
with  the  object  of  forcing  a  surrender. 
Famine  ensues  in  country  and  town.  The 
starvation,  the  carnage,  and  the  unsanitary 
condition  of  the  cities  crowded  during  the 
siege  bring  a  pestilence. 

Pe'ter. 

The  Greek  form  of  the  Aramaic  surname 
Cephas  (John  i.  42;  1  Cor.  i.  12;  iii.  22;  ix. 
;") ;  XV.  5;  (tal.i.  18;  ii.  9.  11,  14),  meaning  a 
riK'k,  which  Christ  bestowed  upon  Simon  or, 
nnire  j)roperly,  Symeon  (Acts  xv.  14  ;  2  I'et. 
i.  1,  R.  V.  margin)  on  his  first  appearance  he- 
fore  him  (John  i.  42),  and  afterwards  ex- 
plained more  fully  in  its  prophetic  imjiort 
(Mat.  xvi.  IS  .sc(|.  ;'  Mark  iii.  Ki).  Simon  was 
the  son  of  a  certain  John  (John  i.  42,  K.  V. ; 
xxi.  l.">,  1(>,  17,  K.  V.)  or  Jona  (Mat.  xvi.  17, 
probably  a  syncope  of  John),  who,  with  his 
sons,  Andrew  and  Peter,  prosecuted  the  trade 
of  a  (ishcrman  on  tliesea  ol'  (ialilee  in  jiart- 
lu-rship  with  Zebedce  and  his  sons  (Mat.  iv. 
IS;  Mark  i.  Ki;  Luke  v.  ;j  seq.).  He  was  a 
native  of  Bethsaida  (John  i.  44),  and  snbse- 
<iuently  dwelt  with  his  family  at  Capernaum 
(.Mat.  viii.  1  J  ;   Luke  iv.  :5S). 

IVter  was  jirobably  a  disciple  of  John 
the  Hai)tist,  and  was  in  the  first  instance 
brought  to  Jesus  by  his  brother  Andrew 
(.John  i.  41,  42),  who  was  om^  of  the  fa- 
vored two  disciples  of  .lohn  whom  he  ])ointed 
to  Jesus  innnediately  after  his  return  from 
the  temptation  in  the  wilderness  (John  i. 
3.">  seq.).  With  i)rophetic  insight  into  his 
character,  Jesus  at  once  conf(M-rc(l  ujion 
him  the  surname  r)f  Cephas,  or  I'cter,  that 
is,  "Rock"  (.John  i.  42).  In  common  with 
the  earliest  followers  of  Jesus.  IVter  re- 
ceived three  .separate  calls  from  his  Master: 
first,  to  become  his  disciple  (.John  i.  HI  seq. ; 
cp.  ii.  2) ;  secondly,  to  become  his  constant 
companion  (Mat.  iv.  lit;  Mark  i.  17;  Luke 
v.  10)  ;  and,  thirdlv,  to  be  his  ajiostle  (Mat. 
X.  2;  .Mark  iii.  14,  Hi;  Luke  vi.  1.5,  14). 
Peter's  ardor,  earnestness.  counig<-,  vigor,  ami 
impetuosity  of  disposition  marked  him  from 
the  first  as  the  leader  of  the  disciples  of 
Jesus.  He  is  always  named  first  in  the  lists 
of  the  ajjostles  (Mat.  x.  2  ;  Mark  iii.  Hi ;  Luke 
vi.  14;  Acts  i.  13).  In  the  more  intimate 
circle  of  the  most  favored  three  disciples,  he 


is  likewise  always  named  first  (Mat.  xvii.  1  ; 
Mark  v.  37;  ix.  2;  xiii.  3;  xiv.  .33;  Luke 
viii. .")!  ;  ix.  28).  He  was  the  natural  sjiokes- 
man  of  the  apostolical  band.  He  was  the 
first  to  confe.Ks  .lesiis  as  the  Christ  of  (iod 
(.Mat.  xvi.  KJ;  Mark  viii.  2!»),  but  was  equally 
forward  to  di.ssuade  him  from  his  chosen 
I)ath  of  su fieri ng  (Mat.  xvi.  22;  Mark  viii. 
.'5.3),  receiving  from  Christ  the  appropriate 
praise  and  blame. 

Peter's  life  exhibits  three  well-marked 
stages.  First,  there  is  the  jjcriod  of  train- 
ing, as  exhibited  in  the  gosjjcl  narrative. 
During  these  years  of  jiersonal  associa- 
tion with  Chri.st,  he  learned  to  know  both 
Christ  and  himself.  And  though  he  l)rought 
them  to  an  end  in  a  threefold  denial  of  the 
Master  whom  he  had  boa.sted  that  he  at  least 
would  never  forsake  (Mat.  xxvi.  (i9  .seq. ; 
Mark  xiv.  66  .seq.  ;  Luke  xxii.  .^4  see).  :  John 
xviii.  15  seq.),  Jesus  closed  them  with  a 
loving  pi-obing  of  his  heart  and  restoration 
of  his  i)eace  and  confidence  (.John  xxi.  15 
seq.).  Secondly,  the  periml  of  leadership  in 
the  church,  as  exhibited  in  the  earlier  chap- 
ters of  The  Acts.  During  these  years  Pi'ter 
justified  his  surname,  and  fulfilled  the  projjh- 
ecy  that  on  him  should  the  edifice  of  the 
church  Ik!  raised.  It  was  by  his  bold  and 
strong  hand  that  the  church  was  led  in  every 
stej).  It  was  he  who  moved  the  disciples  to 
fill  u])  the  broken  ranks  of  the  ajiostolate 
(Acts  i.  15)  ;  it  was  he  who  jiroclaimed  to  the 
assembled  multitudes  the  meaning  of  the 
Pentecostal  ett'usion  (ii.  14);  he  was  the 
leader  in  the  public  healing  of  the  lame 
man  and  in  the  subsequent  .sermon  and  de- 
fense (iii.  4,  12;  iv.  S) ;  it  was  liy  his  voice 
that  Ananias  and  Sai>])hira  were  rebuked 
(v.  3,  8).  Above  all,  it  was  by  his  hand  that 
the  door  of  salvation  was  opened  alike  to  the 
.h'ws  in  the  great  sermon  at  Pentecost  (ii. 
10,  38),  and  to  the  gentiles  in  the  case  of 
Cornelius  (x.).  Thirdly,  the  ])eriod  of 
humble  work  in  the  kingdom  of  Christ,  ex- 
hibited in  the  ei>istles  of  the  N.  T.  When 
the  foundations  of  the  church  had  been  laid, 
Peter  takes  a  subordinate  ])lace,  and  in  hum- 
ble labors  to  spread  the  boundaries  of  the 
kingdom,  disajipears  from  the  page  of  history. 
In  the  church  at  Jerusalem  Jami's  takes 
henceforth  the  leading  jilace  ixii.  17; 
XV.  13;  xxi.  IS;  Gal.  ii.  J),  12).  The  door 
had  been  opened  to  the  gentiles,  and  Paul 
now  becomes  the  apostle  to  the  gentiles 
((lal.  ii.  7).  As  the  apostle  to  the  circum- 
cision (S),  Peter  iirosecuted  henceforth  his 
k'ss  brilliant  work,  wherever  Jews  could  be 
found,  and  contentedly  left  Jerusiilem  to 
.lames  and  the  livilized  worhl  to  Paul.  The 
book  of  The  Acts  closes  its  account  of  him 
at  the  meeting  at  Jerusalem  (Acts  xv.),  when 
his  ]iolicy  of  breaking  down  the  l);irriers  for 
the  gentiles  nu-t  with  univi'rsal  acceiitance. 
We  hear  of  him  afti'rwards  at  Antioeh  (Gal. 
ii.  11),  jHissibly  at  Corinth  (1  Cor.  i.  12),  cer- 
tainly in   the  far  east  at  Habvlon  (1  Pet.  v. 


Peter 


570 


Peter 


13),  and  certainly  as  prosecutinj;  Iiis  work 
throufrli  missionary  journeys,  taking  liis  wife 
with  him  (1  Cor.  ix.  n).  Finally,  we  know 
that  he  glorified  God  hy  a  martyr's  death 
(.luliii  xxi.  1!J).  Beyond  this,  Seriiitiire  tells 
lis  nothing  of  his  fortunes,  lahors,  sufferings, 
or  successes,  except  what  can  he  learned  from 
his  two  Epistles.  In  them  he  stands  hefore 
us  in  a  singularly  heautiful  humility,  not 
])rcssing  the  recognition  of  ]iersonal  claims 
to  leadership  upon  the  Christian  community, 
))Ut  following  up  the  teaching  of  Paul  or  of 
Jude  with  his  (jwn,  and  exhorting  his  readers 
to  hold  fast  to  the  eommon  faith. 

No  character  in  Scripture  history,  we 
may  even  say  in  all  literature,  is  drawn 
for  us  more  clearly  or  strongly  than  Peter's. 
In  the  gosj)els,  in  The  Acts,  and  in  the 
•epistles  it  is  the  same  man  that  stands 
out  hefore  us  in  dramatic  distiuctuess.  Al- 
ways eager,  ardent,  impulsive,  he  is  pre- 
eminently the  man  of  action  in  the  apostolic 
circle,  and  exhibits  the  defects  of  his  quali- 
ties as  well  as  their  excellences  throughout 
life  (Mat.  xvi.  22 ;  xxvi.  69-75;  Oal.  ii.  11). 
His  virtues  and  faults  had  their  common 
root  in  his  enthusiastic  disposition  ;  it  is  to 
his  praise  that  along  with  the  weed  of  rash 
haste,  there  grew  more  strongly  into  his  life 
the  fair  plant  of  burning  love  and  ready  re- 
ception of  truth.  He  was  treated  with  dis- 
tinguished honor  by  his  Lord  :  he  was  made 
the  recipient  of  no  less  than  three  miracles 
in  those  early  days  of  the  gospels ;  he  was 
granted  a  special  appearance  after  the  resur- 
rection (1  Cor.  XV.  5)  ;  Jesus  could  find  time 
in  his  own  passion  and  while  saving  the 
world  to  cast  on  him  a  reminding  glance 
and  to  bind  up  his  broken  heart.  Accordingly 
the  life  of  Peter  is  peculiarily  rich  in  in- 
struction, warning,  and  comfort  for  the 
Christian,  and  his  writings  touch  the  very 
depths  of  Christian  experience  and  soar  to 
the  utmost  heights  of  Christian  hope. 

Authentic  historj-  adds  but  little  to  our 
knowledge  of  I'eter's  life  beyond  what  we 
glean  from  the  X.  T.  Conformably  to  the 
imtice  of  his  martyrdom  in  .John  xxi.  19,  we 
are  credibly  told  that  he  died  by  crucifixion 
about  the  same  time  with  Paul's  death  by 
the  sword,  that  is  about  a.  n.  (58.  The  ]dace 
of  his  death  is  not  incredibly  witnessed  to 
be  Kome.  Legend  was  early  busy  with  his 
life ;  the  Koman  legend  of  a  twenty-five 
years'  episcopate  in  Kome  has  its  roots  in 
•early  ap<)cry]ihal  stiu-ies  originating  auu)ng 
the  heretical  I']biouitcs,  and  is  discredited  not 
less  by  its  origin  and  manifest  internal  in- 
■consistencies  than  by  all  authentic  history. 

The  First  Epistle  General  of  Peter.  The 
author  of  this  epistle  announces  himself  as 
the  apostle  Peter  (i.  1 )  :  and  the  whole  in- 
ternal character  of  the  letter  as  well  as  ex- 
ceptionally copious  historical  attestation  bears 
out  the  assertion.  It  is  addressed  "to  the 
elect  who  are  sojourners  of  the  Dispersion  in 
Pontus,  Galatia,  Cappadocia,  Asia,  and   Bi- 


thynia  "  (i.  1),  which  is  evidently  a  somewhat 
metaphorical  descri]>tion  of  the  whole  body 
of  Christians  inhabiting  the  region  com- 
prised in  nmdern  Asia  Minor.  That  the 
readers  in  the  mind  of  the  author  were 
largely  of  gentile  origin  is  clear  from  such 
passages  as  i.  14;  ii.  9,  10;  iii.  (i ;  iv.  3. 
These  were  churches  founded  and  nurtured 
in  large  part  by  the  apostle  Paul,  and  to 
them  Paul  had  writti-n  his  letters  to  the  (Tala- 
tians.  Ephesians,  and  Colossians;  Peter  writes 
to  them  as  those  who  owed  their  conversion 
to  others  than  himself  (i.  12,  25),  and  in 
order  to  testify  that  the  gospel  they  had  re- 
ceived was  '"the  true  grace  of  God"  and  to 
exhort  them  to  ''stand  fast  therein  "  (v.  12). 
Thus  he  publishes  his  hearty  agreement  with 
the  apostle  Paul  and  at  the  same  time  pens 
what  is  ])reeminently  the  epistle  of  ho])e. 
The  order  in  which  the  countries  to  which 
it  was  sent  are  enumerated  (i.  1),  names 
them  from  east  to  west,  and  suggests  that 
the  letter  was  written  in  the  east.  This 
is  borne  out  by  the  salutation  sent  from 
the  Babylonian  church  i  v.  13).  Its  date  is 
set  by  its  pretty  copious  use  of  the  Epistle  to 
the  Ephesians  on  the  one  side,  and  the  death 
of  Peter  on  the  other,  as  betw-een  a.  d.  63 
and  A.  D.  67 :  it  is  most  probable  that  it  was 
W'ritteii  aI)out  64  or  65.  The  style  in  which 
the  letter  is  written  is  at  once  simi)le,  strik- 
ing, and  forcible,  abounding  in  sudden  and 
abrupt  transitions  and  admirably  reflecting 
the  character  of  the  writer.  The  whole 
mode  of  presentation  of  its  matter  is  special 
and  characteristic,  though  the  doctrine  pre- 
sented is  distinctly  the  same  as  that  of  the 
epistles  of  Paul,  .set  forth  here  with  prevail- 
ing reference  to  the  grace  of  God  and  the 
future  hope.  The  epistle  is  filled  to  a  re- 
markable degree  with  reminiscences  of  earlier 
Christian  writings,  particularly  of  the  epis- 
tles to  the  Eomans  and  Ejjhesians  and  James : 
thus  revealing  a  characteristic  of  Peter's.  It 
is  remarkable  for  the  combined  dejith  and 
beauty  of  its  Christian  teaching.  After  the 
greeting  (i.  1,  2)  there  follows  an  introduc- 
tory section  (i.  3-12)  in  which  God  is  praised 
for  the  blessings  of  salvation.  The  body  of 
the  letter  (i.  13-v.  11)  consists  of  (1)  a  series 
of  exhortations  to  a  diligent  Christian  walk, 
correspondent  to  the  teaching  its  readers  had 
received  (i.  13;  ii.  10);  (2)  a  numl)er  of  par- 
ticular directions  for  the  special  relationships 
of  life  (ii.  11-iv.  6);  and  (3)  some  closing 
instructions  for  the  ])resent  needs  of  the 
readers  (iv.  7-v.  11).  It  ends  with  saluta- 
tions and  announcements  (v.  12-14).  Though, 
after  the  allusion  in  2  Pet.  iii.  1,  it  is  first 
mentioned  explicitly  by  name  by  Irenams,  in 
the  later  second  century,  this  epistle  has  from 
the  very  beginning  always  held  a  secure  place 
in  the  Christian  liible  in  every  part  of  the 
world,  and  has  always  been  in  tlu'  fullest  use 
by  Christians  of  every  land. 

The  Second  Epistle  General  of  Peter.    The 
author  of  this  epistle  describes  himself  as 


Fethahiali 


571 


Pharaoh 


■"Symeon  Poter.  a  bond  servant  and  ajxj.stle 
of  Jf.siis  Christ ""  (i.  1,  11.  \'.  iiiarj,'in),  and  rcj)- 
re.siMils  liimscH"  as  liaving  l)ci'n  prrsrnt  at 
Christ's  translifjiiration  (i.  l(j)  and  as  having 
received  from  liini  a  prediction  as  to  his 
<loath  (i.  11;  ri>.  John  xxi.  l!l),  and  also  as 
standing  on  an  eijnality  witli  tlio  apostk; 
I'anl  (iii.  15).  'i'his  distini-t  chiini  of  the  an- 
thor's  to  lie  the  ajiostle  Peter  is  borne  out  by 
tlie  character  of  the  letter  itself,  which  <h)es 
not  lack  traits  characteristic  of  Peter's  man- 
ner or  jHiints  of  liki'ness  to  liis  si)eeclu's  re- 
eoriled  in  The  Acts  and  to  the  first  epistle,  to 
which  it  alludes  (iii.  1).  Traces  of  its  use  in 
the  very  earliest  days  of  the  church  are  not 
numerous  or  very  clear:  but  Origen  at  the 
•ojiening  of  tlii'  third  century  spi'aks  of  it  in 
a  manner  wiiich  shows  that  it  was  used  in 
the  church  of  his  day  :  and  although  douVits 
were  cherished  in  some  ([uarters  concerning 
its  authorship,  these  are  overborne  by  the 
weighty  historical  evidence.  The  form 

•of  its  address  is  ([uite  general :  "  to  them  that 
have  olUained  a  like  jirecious  faith  with  us" 
(i.  1)  ;  but  iii.  1  shows  tliat  tlio  same  readers 
are  in  view  to  whom  1  Peter  had  been  .sent. 
The  place  from  which  it  was  written  cannot 
he  confidently  ascertained;  if  the  allusion 
in  i.  14  ini|>lies  that  Peter  was  on  the  verge 
of  his  martyrdom,  ^^•e  may  think  of  Kome. 
In  that  case  the  letter  should  be  dated  in 
A.  1).  ()8;  and  the  nature  of  the  errors  re- 
iMiked  in  it,  and  its  use  of  the  Epistle  of 
Jude  as  well  as  its  allusion  to  1  Peter  will 
accord   with  this   date.  Its  object  is 

<le(dared  in  iii.  1,  17,  Ifi  to  be  to  stir  up 
the  minds  of  its  readers  to  remember  what 
had  bi'en  taught  them,  to  the  end  that  they 
might  be  saved  from  the  errors  now  be- 
•eoming  i)revalent  and  might  grow  in  grace 
and  the  knowledge  of  the  Lord  and  .Saviour 
Jesus  t"liri.st.  It  was  written,  in  other 
words,  to  rebuki'  the  nascent  gnosticism 
creeping  into  flu-  churches,  and  to  build  up 
Christians  in  true  knowledge  and  purity. 
The  contents  of  the  letter  are  in  full  accord 
with  its  olyect.  After  the  usual  apostolical 
greeting  (i.  1.  2).  it  passes  insensibly  into  an 
earnest  exliortation  to  growth  in  grace  and 
knowletlge  (."5-11 ),  and  thence  int(»  a  re- 
minder of  the  grounds  on  which  this  knowl- 
edge, itself  the  basis  of  i>iety,  rests  (12-21), 
and  a  denunciation  of  the  false  teachers  (ii. 
l-"i"-2i.  The  readers  are  then  reminded  of 
the  nature  and  surety  of  the  teaching  given 
them  as  to  the  second  advent  and  the  end  of 
tlie  world  (iii.  l-K!)  ;  and  the  letter  closes 
with  an  exhortation  to  them  to  make  their 
♦•ailing  ;nid  election  sure,  including  a  coni- 
mendation  of  Paul's  letters,  and  concludes 
with  a  doxology  (14-lb).  B.  It.  W. 

Peth-a-hl'ah  [.Jehovah  hath  .set  free]. 

1.  A  dixiiMlant  of  .\aron  wliost'  family 
became  the  ninetei'nth  i-oiirse  of  ]>riests  (1 
Chron.  xsiv.  Kit. 

2.  A  Levite  wlu)  was  induced   liv  Kzni  to 


put  away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  23).  He 
was  ])rol)ably  the  Levite  of  the  name  who 
assisted  Ezra  in  his  religious  work  (Xeh. 
ix.  5). 

3.  A  man  of  .Iiuhih,  family  of  Zerah,  and 
an  official  of  the  Persian  king  for  all  matters 
concirning  the  people  (Neh.  xi.  24). 

Pe'tbor  [cleft,  ojiening]. 

A  town  near  the  Euphrates  (Num.  xxii.oi, 
by  the  mountains  of  Aram  or  Mesoi)otamia 
(Num.  xxiii.  7;  Deut.  xxiii.  4).  While  the 
Israelites  were  in  Egypt,  the  town  was  cap- 
tured by  the  Hittites,  and  they  retained  it 
until  the  ninth  cintury  li.  v..  when  it  was 
wrested  from  them  by  ,'^halmaneser  II..  king 
of  Assyria,  and  converted  into  a  colony  of 
tlie  conquerors.  It  was  situated  far  north 
of  Palestine,  on  the  western  bank  of  the 
Eu]dirates.  near  the  river  Sagura.  now  Sa.jur, 
a  few  miles  south  of  the  Hittite  capital 
Carchemish. 

Pe-thu'el  [probably,  noblemiudeduess  of 
God]. 

Father  of  the  iirojihet  .Tt.el  (.Toel  i.  1). 
Pe'tra.     See  Sim.a. 

Pe-ul'le-tliai,  in  A.  \'.  Pe-ul'thai  [perhaps, 
full  of  work,  laborious]. 

A  Levite.  a  dtxjrkeeper,  sou  of  Obed-edom 
(1  Chi-on.  xxvi.  5). 

Pha'lec.    See  Peleg. 

Phal'lu.    .'^ce  Pallu. 

Phal'ti.     See  Palti. 

Phal'tl-el.     See  Paltiel. 

Pha-nu'el  [face  or  jtresence  of  God]. 

An  Asherite,  the  father  of  Anna  (Luke  ii. 
36). 

Pha'raoh  [Egy])tian  pcr-dn.  great   house]. 

A  title  used  as  the  general  designation  of 
the  sovereign  of  Egypt,  both  with  and  with- 
out the  jiersonal  name  attached. 

Of  the  Pharaohs  meniioiu-d  in  the  Bible, 
several,  among  whom  are  the  Pharaohs  of 
Abraham  and  .To.sei>h,  cannot  be  identified 
with  any  degree  of  certainty.  Of  those  that 
arc  l)etter  known  theie  are  : 

1.  Thk  PiiAKAoii  iir  I  iii:  Oppues.sion.  It 
is  quite  generally,  though  not  univensjilly,  be- 
lieved that  this  was  Kamses  II..  third  king  of 
the  nineteenth  dynasty  and  son  ofSeti  I.  See 
Ec.Vl'T  III.  .s.  Puth  belonged  to  the  New  Em- 
liire.  Kamses  while  yet  a  mere  child  was  madi- 
coregent  by  Seti,  and  reigned  sixty-seven 
yeai-s.  from  134.s  to  12M  B.  c. according  to  Dr. 
Mahler's  calculation.  He  was  a  great  war- 
rior and  ]ienetrate<l  fartlier  into  .Asia  than 
even  Thulhiiie>  111.  had  dune,  adx  alicing  as 
far  as  .\sia  Minor  and  to  the  vicinity  of  the 
Tigris.  The  Libyans,  the  inhabitants  of 
.\sia  Minor,  and  islanders  of  tlie  Medi- 
terranean made  war  against  Egyjit.  but 
Pamscs  def<'ated  them.  His  great  expedi- 
tions wt'i-e  directi'd  against  the  Hittites  and 
their  allies,  and  occui>ied  many  cain|iaigns. 
His  most  notable  exploit  was  during  an  ex- 


Pharaoh 


572 


Fharaoli 


pcdition  to  Kadesli,  on  the  Orontes,  the 
southorn  Ilittitc  r;i]>ital,  in  which  he  was 
led  by  treacherous  Bedouin  Arab  guides  into 


Head  of  Ramses  II. 

an  ambuscade,  from  which  he  extricated 
himself  by  great  personal  prowess  ;  but  he 
failed  to  take  the  city  or  inflict  on  the  Hit- 
tites  such  a  defeat  as  would  terminate  the 
war.  He  entered  into  a  treaty  of  peace  and 
amity,  sealed  by  his  marrying  the 
daughter  of  the  Hittite  king.  The 
peace  which  ensued  allowed  Ramses 
to  devote  his  attention  to  building 
operations,  to  founding  and  enrich- 
ing libraries,  and  to  establishing 
schools.  Especially  in  the  delta  did 
he  erect  buildings,  among  which 
were  Pa-Ramses  and  in  part  at  least 
Pithom.  His  mummy  is  now  in  the 
museum  at  Bulak. 

2.  The  Pharaoh  of  the  Ex- 
odus. He  is  believ('(l  to  have  been 
^leneptah  II.,  the  thirUeuth  son  of 
Ramses  II.  On  his  accession  to  the 
throne  he  maintained  the  treaty  of 
peace  which  his  father  had  entered 
into  with  the  Hittites.  In  the  fifth 
year  of  his  reign  I^ower  Egypt  was 
invaded  by  the  Libyans  and  their 
allies.  The  mercenaries  of  the 
Egyptian  king,  rather  than  him- 
self, ultimately  gained  a  complete 
victory  over  their  invaders.  A 
hymn  was  composed  to  celebrate 
this  success  and  other  victories. 
The  translation  is  doubtful  in  minor 
points,  but  is  essentially  as  follows  : 


Carried  away  is  the  place  Ashkelon, 

Overpowered  is  tlie  place  Gezer, 

Tlie  place  Ininiam  [near  Tyre]  is  brought  to 
naught, 

The  people  Isiraalu  are  spoiled,  they  have  no 
seed. 

The  place  Khar  [i.  e.  southern  Palestine]  has  be- 
come like  the  widows  of  Egypt. 

All  the  world  is  at  peace. 

Every  one  that  was  rebellious  is  subdued  by  the 
king  Meneptah. 

Isiraalu  is  mentioned  in  close  connection 
with  places  in  Philistia,  Phcenicia,  and  Pales- 
tine. It  cannot  be  rendered  .Tezreel,  for  the 
orthography  of  the  word  and  the  use  of  the 
determinative  which  signifies  people  are  both 
against  it.  It  alone  is  without  the  determi- 
native f(jr  land  or  city.  It  accordingly  is  a 
nomadic  tribe  or  else  a  people  dwelling  in  a 
country  not  their  own.  Leaving  no  seed  to 
a  spoiled  and  harried  people  was  a  common 
mode  which  the  Egyptians  had  of  recording 
the  destruction  of  the  crops  or  supply  of 
grain.  The  natural  meaning  of  the  inscrip- 
tion accordingly  is  that  troops,  who  were  act- 
ing under  Meneptah  and  waging  war  against 
the  peoples  of  Palestine  and  vicinity,  ravaged 
the  Israelites  and  destroyed  their  fields  or 
storehouses  of  grain.  All  available  evidence 
indicates  that  the  Israelites  had  not  con- 
quered Canaan  and  settled  in  Palestine  as 


The  chiefs  bow  down,  making  their 

salutations  of  peace. 
Not  one  of  the  peoples  of  the  bow  [i.  e. 

hostile    foreigners]    lifts  up    its 

head : 
The  land  of  the  Libyans  is  vanquished, 
The  land  of  the  Hittites  is  tranquilized. 
Ravaged  is  the  place  Pa-Kanana  [in  Southern 

Palestine]  with  all  violence, 


ii^^id^0^'^" 


Meneptah. 


yet.  The  attempt  to  identify  the  I;Iabiri, 
who  were  warring  in  Palestine  in  the  reign 
of  Amenophis  IV.,  six  or  seven  generations 
before  Meneptah,  with  the  Hebrews  has  not 


Pharaoh 


573 


Pharaoh 


been  successful ;  see  Egypt  III.  H.  The  bib- 
lical re<:()rd  and  the  inscriiition  of  Monfi)tah 
aj;ri'i-,  if  tlie  inscriiilion  nii'ans,  as  lias  Ipccm 
infiTivd  by  Dr.  W.  \V.  Moore,  tliat  witiiin 
two  or  tliri'i-  years  after  thv  e.xodiis  Kfiyptian 
or  Canaanilisii  sulyectsof  MeiU'iitah  attacked 
the  Israeliti-s  near  Kadosh-barnea.  'i'lie  He- 
l)re\vs  bad  feared  to  advance  from  Kadesb 
and  liad  Ix'jiun  tlieir  dreary  life  of  forty 
years  in  the  wil(h>rne.ss.  Here  tbey  ])astured 
tbeir  Hocks  and  herds,  and  doubtless,  like 
Isiiac  when  in  the  smie  quarter  ((Jen.  x.wi. 
I'i),  .sowed  seed  and  raised  what  crops  a  scan- 
tily watered  .soil  i)erniitted.  Their  };rain  was 
destroyed  by  the  enemy;  and  the  event  may 
]>ossibly  be  referred  to  in  Num.  xiv.  -lit; 
Deut.  i.  4i-U),  for  their  sojourn  at  Kadesb 
bad  been  long  enouKli  to  inrmit  the  ycnin^ 
crop  to  be  f;n)win;_',  but  not  tlie  j;rain  to  be 
ripe.  On  this  iuter]iretation  the  I'hardoh  of 
the  exodus  was  not  drowned  in  the  Ked  Sea. 
The  biblical  record  does  not  necessarily  mean 
that  he  was.  It  is  not  necessary  to  believi' 
that  he  did  in  jierson  everythinj;  which  is 
cbarjied  to  him.  \Vbat  is  done  in  I'baraoli's 
name  and  by  riianiob's  servant.s  can  be  de- 
scribed as  done  l)y  him  :  and  what  his  emis- 
Siirie.s  suffer  he  can  })e  slid  to  suli'er. 

:>.  Shish.\k.  Called  by  the  monuments 
Sheshenk  ami  by  Manetbo  Sesonchis,  the 
first  ruler  of  the  twenty-second  dyna.sty. 
According;  to  an  inscription  found  in  .A.bydos, 
Shisliak  was  the  son  of  an  .\ssyiian  con- 
queror named  Nemret.  The  nanus  of  his 
succes,sors  are  also  more  Assyrian  than  Kjiyp- 
tian  in  orijiin.  .\n  account  of  his  ex])edition 
into  raleslined  Kin.  xiv.  2"),  2(j ;  2  Chron. 
xii.  2-!»),  with  the  usual  embellishments  and 
exafTfrerations,  is  found  on  the  south  wall  of 
the  temjile  at  Karnak.  In  the  li.st  fjiven 
there  of  citii's  <'on(|Uered  in  that  ex])e- 
dition  occurs  the  name  .ludha-mali'k,  which 
may  possibly  mean  royal  city  of  Judah.  He 
was  jirobably  an  able  statesman,  as  he  was 
able  to  avoid  a  rn|)ture  with  Solomon  while 
keeping;  Solomon's  enemy  as  a  truest  (1  Kin. 
xi.  Itt).  He  shrewdly  took  advantage  of  the 
tinsettled  state  of  atfairs  in  Palestine  after 
the  division  of  the  kinfrdom,  to  make  bis  in- 
vasion at  that  time  when  resistance  to  an 
enemy  was  necessarily  weakened  by  dis.sen- 
sions  at  home.  He  also  created  a  balance  of 
power  for  himself  in  Egypt  by  reelevating 
to  a  jiositioii  of  ]iower  the  jiricsts  of  .Xjiis  at 
.Mem])liis,  rivals  of  the  jiriesls  of  Thebes, 
.leroboam  look  refuge  at  bis  court  .some  time 
after  the  twenty-liftb  year  of  Solomon  (1  Kin. 
vi.  :{8;  vii.  1  ;  ix.  10,  21  ;  xi.  27),  and  the  in- 
va.sion  of  .ludab  took  iilace  in  the  fifth  year 
of  Kebiilmani  :  accordingly,  the  longest  time 
re(|nired  by  I  be  biblical  data  for  the  reign  of 
Shishak  is  21  years,  though  a  shorter  time 
would  sutlice.  This  demand  is  met  by  the 
Egyjitian  monuments,  for  they  mention  the 
thirty-niiitli  Near  of  bis  reign. 

4.  Zi;i{\ii  the  Cusbile.  who  und<rtook  an 
expedition  against  Judah  in  the  reign  of  .\s;i. 


leading  an  army  composed  of  Ethiopians  and 
Libyans,  doubtless  in  addition  to  the  Egyp- 
tian troojps.  His  forces  were  routed  at  .Ma- 
reshah  (2  Cbron.  xiv.  H-l'>;  xvi.  b).  The 
monuments  do  not  mention  this  military  ex- 
liedition,  as  it  is  their  custom  to  pa.ss  over  in 
silence  their  own  defeats.  Zerah  is  com- 
monly identified  with  Osorkon  I.  or  II.,  suc- 
cessors of  Shishak  in  the  twenty-second  or 
liubastite  dynasty.  He  may  have  been  called 
Cushite  by  the  biblical  writer  either  because 
he  was  crown  ])rince  when  he  led  the  expe- 
dition against  ,Judah,  in  which  case  he  bore 
the  title  Prince  of  (ush;  or  because  he  was 
by  birth  an  Ethioi>ian,  Osorkon  II.  being  the 
son-in-law,  not  the  son,  of  the  i)receding 
monarch. 

5.  So,  contemporary  of  Hoshea,  king  of 
Israel  (2  Kin.  xvii.  4) ;  .see  So. 

6.  TiRHAK.Mi,  third  and  last  king  of  the 
twenty-fifth  dynasty,  which  is  known  also 
as  the  Ethioi)ian  dynasty.  Both  he  and  his 
name  are  l^tbiopian  (Steindorfl").  AVben  Si'U- 
nacheril).  king  of  Assyria,  was  advancing 
through  Philistia  in  tlie  direction  of  Egyi)t  in 
701  B.  C,  he  beard  that  Tirhakah,  king  of 
Ethiopia,  was  coming  against  him  (2  Kin. 
xix.  i)).  Sennacheril).  in  his  own  account  of 
the  affair,  without  mentioning  the  i)ersoual 
names  of  the  monarchs,  says  that  the  kings 
of  Egypt  and  the  archers,  chariots  and 
horses  of  the  king  of  Ethiojiia  met  him  in 
liattle  at  Kltekeb  (Cylinder  ii.  7.'}-M  i.  Ethi- 
opia and  Egyjit,  which  were  ]irobably  under 
the  general  sway  of  Shabataka,  or  already 
under  the  rule  of  the  young  and  vigorous 
I'irliakah  as  husband  of  Shal)ataka's  widow 
and  guardian  of  his  young  son.  were  gov- 
erned by  subordinate  kings.  Esarhaddon 
conducted  several  cani]iaigns  against  Egyi)t ; 
and  in(i71  H.c. iienetrated  intotlicTnidstof  the 
country,  defeated  Tirhakah.  whom  he  calls 
king  of  Etbiojiia,  t«pok  Mempliis,  made  Tir- 
hakah's  son  a  ca]itive,  and  assumed  the  title 
of  king  of  Egy]it.  Pathios,  and  Ethiopia. 
Tirhakah  founcl  refuge  in  Etliioi)ia,  and  on 
Esarhaddon's  death,  in  (itj!)  or  fifW  b.  c,  re- 
turned to  Egyjit.  Ashurbanijial  sent  an 
army  against  him,  styling  him  king  of  Egyjit 
and  ICthioi)ia,  and  defeated  his  troo]psat  Kar- 
banit.  near  the  month  of  the  Caiio])ic  bninch 
of  the  Nile.  Tirhakah  retired  to  Thebes. 
He  still  had  the  su])port  of  several  minor 
kings  of  Kgyjit,  among  wliom  was  Necho. 
.\shiirlianipal  afterwards  jiursued  him  thither 
and  took  Thebes.  The  Assyrian  king  i>res- 
ently  records  the  death  of  Tirhakah.  This 
event  occurred  about  (i(i4  B.  c.  The  Egyj)- 
tian  lecords  attest  the  fact  that  he  reigned 
at  least  2<>  years,  so  tbal  his  ])o,ssession  of  the 
royal  title  can  be  traced  l)ack  as  far  as  (iiHI  B. 
c.  at  least. 

7.  Necho,  son  of  Psammetick  I.  He  was 
the  si'cond  ruler  of  tiie  I  went.\-sixtli  dynasty 
and  reigned  ll!  years,  from  filO  to  .">!•!  n.  c. 
Heattemjiled  to  complete  a  canal  connecting 
the    Kcd   ."^ea  wiib  the   Nile,  and  sent  a  sue- 


Pharathon 


574 


Pharisees 


cessful  expcditiou  to  circumnavigate  Africa 
(Herod,  ii.  I'lH  ;  iv.  I'J).  He  slew  king  .Tosiah 
at  Megiddo  as  the  latter  umviscly  (ijiposcd 
his  march  toward  Assyria.  Herodotus  says 
that  Necho  defeated  the  Syrians  at  Mag- 
dolus  (Megiddo),  and  afterwards  took  C'ady- 
tiis.  one  of  the  large  cities  of  Syria  (ii.  159). 
This  has  l)een  identified  witli  (laza,  but  bet- 
ter with  Kadesh,  the  Hittite  city  on  the 
Orontes.  On  .Tosiah"s  death,  the  jieojile  set 
up  his  sou  Jehoahaz.  but  Pharaoh  dethroned 
and  carried  him  otl'  to  Egyi)t,  .setting  up  in 
his  stead  his  elder  brotlier,  Jehoiakim  (2 
Kin.  xxiii.  :{()-:>4).  Necho  seems  to  have  left 
his  army  atC'archemish  while  he  returned  to 
Egypt.  In  (i03  u.  c.  he  returned  to  his  army, 
the  object  being  an  attack  on  the  decaying 
Assyrian  cnii)ire.  riifortunately  he  came 
too  late  and  found  himself  opposed  by  Nebu- 
chadnezzar, the  Babylonian  conqueror  of 
Assyria,  was  utterly  routed  by  him,  and  lost 
all  of  Egypt's  Asiatic  possessions  (2  Kiu. 
xxiv.  7i. 

8.  Phar.\oh-hophra,  the  Uah-ab-ra  of  the 
Eg\'ptiau  monumeut.s,  the  Ouaphris  of  Ma- 
netho,  and  the  Apries  of  Herodotus.  He 
was  the  second  successor  of  Necho,  se])arated 
from  him  by  the  short  reign  of  rsanmictick 
II.  He  reigned  19  years,  from  .")89  to  7uO  B. 
c.  He  was  on  the  throne  while  Jeremiah 
and  his  fellow-fugitives  from  Palestine  still 
lived.  The  ])roi)het  intimated  that  Pharaoh- 
hophra  should  be  given  into  the  bunds  of  his 
enemies,  as  Zedekiah,  the  last  king  of  Ju- 
dah.  had  been  (Jer.  xliv.  30).  He  was  a 
warrior,  and  appears  to  have  conquered  the 
combined  fleets  of  Cyprus  and  Sidon  in  a  sea 
fight.  He  failed  at  last  in  an  attack  on  the 
Greek  colony  of  Cyrene.  His  army,  in  con- 
sequence, revolted :  he  was  captured,  confined, 
and  ultimately  put  to  death. 

Phar'a-thon.     See  Pir.^thon. 

Pha'res  and  Plia'rez.    See  Perez. 

Phar'i-sees  [probably,  sei)arated]. 

One  of  the  three  chief  Jewish  sects,  the 
others  being  the  Sadducees  and  the  Es.senes. 
It  was  the  straitest  sect  (Acts  xxvi.  5).  In 
all  jjrobability  the  Pharisees  originated  in 
the  period  before  the  Maccabfean  war.  in  a 
reaction  against  the  hellenizing  spirit  which 
appeared  among  the  Jews  and  manifested  it- 
self in  tiie  readiness  of  a  juirt  of  the  jieople 
to  adopt  Grecian  customs.  Those  wlio  re- 
garded these  ])ractices  with  abhorrence  and 
their  si)read  with  alarm  were  incited  to  strict 
and  open  conformity  to  tlie  ^Mosaic  law.  They 
were  drawn  yet  more  chisely  together  as  a 
party  by  the  llene  ]>ersecution  which  Anti- 
ochus  I^iiipliaues,  l?.")  Ifi4  B.  c,  set  on  foot 
against  the  faithful  Israelites  who  would  not 
abandon  Judaism  and  accept  the  Greek  faith, 
when  he  attempted  \i)  destroy  the  holy 
Scrijitures,  and  commaudi'd  that  whosoever 
was  found  with  any  book  of  tiie  covenant  or 
consented  to  the  law,  should  l)e  ])Ut  to  death 
(1    Mac.    i.   5G,    57).      The    Hasida^ans,    who 


were  mighty  men  of  Israel,  even  all  such  as 
were  voluntarily  devoted  unto  the  hiw  (ii. 
42  ;  cp.  i.  (i2,  (i3),  participated  in  the  Mac- 
caba'an  revolt  as  a  distinct  party.  They  were 
l)ro))ably  the  Pharisees,  they  certainly  cor- 
responded to  that  sect.  When  the  war  ceased 
to  be  a  struggle  for  religious  liberty,  and  be- 
came a  contest  for  jioliiical  supremacy,  they 
ceased  to  take  an  active  interest  in  it.  They 
are  not  mentioned  during  the  time  that  Jon- 
athan and  Simon  were  the  Jewish  leaders, 
l(it)-135  B.  ('.  Tlie  Piiarisees  ai)pear  under 
their  own  name  in  the  time  of  John  Ilyrcaniis, 
135-105  B.  <•.  He  was  a  disci])le  of  theirs, 
but  left  them  and. joined  tlie  Sadducees  (An- 
tiq.  xiii.  10,  5  and  0) ;  and  his  son  anil  suc- 
cessor, Alexander  Janna-us,  endeavored  to 
exterminate  them  by  tlu;  sword.  Hut  his 
wife,  Alexandra,  who  succeeded  him  in  7H 
B.  c,  recognizing  that  ]diysical  force  is  pow- 
erless against  religious  conviction,  favored 
the  Pharisees  (15,  5;  l(i,  1).  Thenceforth 
their  influence  was  paramount  in  the  reli- 
gious life  of  the  .Jewish  people. 

The  Pharisees  held  the  doctrine  of  fore- 
ordination,  and  considered  it  consistent  with 
the  freewill  of  man.  They  believed  in  the  im- 
mortality of  the  soul,  in  the  resurrection  of  the 
body,  and  in  tiie  existence  of  spirits ;  that  men 
are  rewarded  or  jiunished  in  the  future  life, 
according  as  they  have  lived  virtuously  or 
viciously  in  this  life  ;  that  the  souls  of  the 
wicked  shall  l)e  detained  forever  in  prison 
under  the  earth,  while  those  of  the  virtuous 
rise  and  live  again,  removing  into  other 
bodies  (Acts  xxiii.  8;  Antiq.  xviii.  1,  3; 
War  ii.8,  14).  These  doctrines  distinguished 
them  from  the  Sadducees,  but  did  not  con- 
stitute the  essence  of  Pharisaism.  Pharisaism 
is  the  final  and  necessary  result  of  that 
conception  of  religion  which  makes  religion 
consist  in  conformity  to  the  law,  and  ])rom- 
ises  God's  grace  only  to  the  doers  of  the  law. 
Religion  becomes  external.  The  disposition 
of  the  heart  is  less  vital  than  tlie  outward 
act.  The  interpretation  iif  the  law  and  its 
application  to  the  details  of  ordinary  life 
accordingly  became  a  matter  of  grave  con- 
sequence, lawyers  acquired  increased  im- 
ixtrtance,  and  expositions  of  the  law  by 
recognized  authorities  grew  to  a  body  of 
precepts  of  binding  force.  .Tosephus,  who  \ 
was  himself  a  Pharisee,  describes  them  as 
not  merely  accepting  the  law  of  IMoses,  and 
interpreting  it  more  skillfully  than  others, 
but  adds  that  they  had  delivered  to  the 
people  a  great  many  observances  liy  succes- 
sion from  the  fathers  which  are  not  written 
in  till!  law  of  Moses  (.\ntiq.  xiii.  10,  6),  these 
being  the  traditional  interpretations  of  the 
elders,  which  our  Loid  |)roiiouiiced  to  be  of 
no  binding  authority  (Mat.  xv.  2,  3,  (i). 

At  first,  when  one  incurred  great  danger  in 
joining  the  part.v,  the  Phari.sces  were  men 
of  strong  religious  character.  They  were 
the  best  people  in  the  ujitioii.  Subse(iuently 
Pharisiiism  became  an   inherited   lielief  and 


Pharosh 


576 


Philemon 


the  profession  of  it  was  popular,  and  men  of 
ciiarai-'U-.r  very  iiiforior  to  that  of  the  oritiiiial 
nR-nil)frs  of  llic  sect  joined  its  ranks.  Witii 
tlie  lapst!  of  time  also  tlie  essentially  vicious 
eleuient  in  tiu;  system  developed  and  laid  the 
Pharisees,  as  eoninionly  represented  l>y  the 
nienihersof  the  sect,  open  to  scathing  ichuki'. 
John  till-  IJaptist  called  them  and  the  Sad- 
ducees  a  j^eneration  of  vipers;  and  it  is  well 
known  how  severely  our  Lord  denounced 
them  for  their  self-rifjliteousness,  their 
hypocrisy,  their  inattention  to  the  wei^'htier 
niatt^-rs  of  the  law,  while  hein;;  very  ](ar- 
ticular  as  to  minute  points,  with  other  faults 
(Mat.  V.  20;  xvi.  fJ,  11,  12;  xxiii.  1-3!)). 
They  hecame  an  intri}<uing  body  of  men 
(Antic),  .wii.  2.  4).  They  took  a  prominent 
part  in  plotting  the  death  of  Christ  (.Mark 
iii.  (i ;  .lohn  xi.  47-r)7).  Yet  thi'y  always 
numbered  in  their  ranks  men  of  perfect 
sincerity  and  the  highest  charactiT.  I'aul 
in  his  t'arly  lite  was  a  I'harisee,  and  was 
accustomed  to  brinj;  forward  the  fact  when 
he  was  reasoning;  with  his  counirymen  (.U'ts 
xxiii.  (i ;  xxvi.  i>-7;  I'hil.  iii.  '>).  His  teacher, 
Cianialiel,  was  of  the  .same  .sect  (Acts  v.  34). 

Pha'rosh.     See  I'Aiiosii. 

Phar'par  [swift]. 

Tresumably  the  less  important  of  the  two 
rivers  of  Damascus,  for  Xaaman  inentions  it 
only  second  (2  Kin.  v.  12i.  .\ccordinf;  to  the 
local  tradition,  which  can  he  traced  hack  to 
the  middle  of  tlie  sixteenth  century,  the  IMiar- 
par  is  the  Taura,  one  of  seven  canals  which 
are  drawn  olf  from  the  Ranida  as  it  ni'ars 
Damascus.  It  is  morecommon,  however,  out- 
side of  Damascus,  to  identify  the  Pharpar 
with  the  .V'wa.j,  the  only  independent  stream 
except  the  r>arada  wilhin  the  territory  of 
Damascus,  but  distant  a  ride  of  three  hours 
from  tin;  city.  It  is  formed  by  the  conllu- 
enee  of  sevei-.il  streams  which  take  their  rise 
in  mount  Hernion.  It  pursues  a  tortinms 
course  iliroiij^^h  the  jilain  to  the  south  of  the 
city  and  tinally  enters  the  most  sontlu-rly 
of  three  inland  lakes.  In  dry  weather  its 
waters  are  sometimes  abscjrbed  before  they 
even   enter  the  lak(>. 

Pha-se'ah.     See  I'askaei. 

Pha-se'lis. 

.V  cit>  of  Lycia.  on  the  gulf  of  Pami)hylia, 
with  three  excellent  harbors.  It  enjoyed 
considerable  commerce  in  early  times  (  Herod. 
ii.l7H).  It  wasindeiiendent  (1  Mac.  xv.  2:5)  un- 
til the  war  of  7S-7r>  n.  c.  when  the  Romans 
destroyed  it  becan.se  it  had  beiome  a  center 
of  oriranized  i>iracy.  It  was  rebuilt,  but  did 
not  ri.se  to  imi>ort4ince  again.  Its  ruins  exist 
near  Tekrova. 

Phas'1-ron. 

Probably  a  Pedouin  chief  (1  Mac.  ix.  (id). 

Phe'be.     See  Pn<i:ni:. 

Phe-ni'ce.     See  Pikknicia  and  Pikk.m.x. 

Phe-nl'ci-a.     See  Pii<i.M(Ia. 


PM'col,  in  A.  V.  PMchol  [possibly,  mouth 

of  all,  ('.  ('.  commanding  all]. 

Thecaptain  of  thearmy  of  ,\bimelech,  king 
of  (ierar;  present  when  treaty  was  made 
between  .\bimelech  and  Abraham,  and  be- 
tween .\bimelech  or  his  successor  with  like 
title  and  Isiiac  (Gen.  xxi.  22;  xxvi.  20). 
There  is  i\u  need  to  assume  that  he  was  older 
than  I.s:uic. 

PMl-a-derphia  [brotherly  love]. 

1.  A  city  of  Lydia,  in  Asia  Minor,  about  27 
miles  southeast  of  Siirdis,  in  the  i)lain  of  the 
Hi'rnius.  It  was  built  by  Attains  Phila- 
deli)hus,  on  a  i>art  of  mount  Tniolns.  In 
.\.  1).  17  it  was  destroyed  by  an  eartli(|Uake, 
but  was  soon  rebuilt.  It  was  tin-  seal  of  one 
of  the  .seven   churches  of  Asia  addressed  in 


Modern  riiilailelphia. 

the  book  of  Revelation  (i.  11  ;  iii.  7-13). 
Unlike  most  of  the  seven,  it  receives  com- 
m<'ndation  and  encouragement,  nnmixi'd 
with  censure.  It  is  now  ('ailed  .Mlah  Sliehr. 
and  continues  to  be  inhabited.  The  walls  of 
the  ancient  city,  which  are  still  standing, 
enclose  .several  hills,  with  the  remains  of  a 
temiile  and   other  buildings. 

2.   A  later  name  of  Kabbah  of  the  Ammon- 
ites.     .See  P.Mtli.VH. 

PM-le'mon  [Greek,  loving  or  all'ectionate 
(cji.  iiliilrniii,   a  kiss)]. 

\  convert  of  the  apostli'  Paul's  (Philem. 
]!t),  who  resided  in  the  .<ame  city  with 
Archi|)pus' and  from  which  Onesimus  had 
come,  viz.  Colos.sie  (c)i.  PhiU'm.  2  with  Vo\.  iv. 
17;  and  Philem.  10  with  Col.  iv.  !•).  There' 
was  a  chun-h  in  his  house  (PhiU'in.  2).  Paul 
calls  him  a  fellow-laborer  1 1)  and  sjieaks  of 
his  kindness  to  the  saints  (.'1-7).  As  Paul 
had  lu'ver  lieeii  in  Colossie  (cp.  Col.  ii.  1),  we 
may  suppose  that  Philemon  was  converted  in 
Kphesus  (luring  the  ajiostle's  ministry  there 
(cp.  Acts  xix.  10).  It  is  not  improbable  that 
Archippus  was  Philemon's  son  and  Apphia 
his  wife  (Philem.  2). 


Philetus 


576 


Philip 


The  Epistle  of  Paul  to  Philemon  is  the 
brief  letter  sent  hy  Paul,  in  conjunction  with 
Timothy,  to  Philemon.  Tiic  latter's  slave, 
Onesimus,  had  run  away,  i)erhai)s  takinf? 
with  him  some  of  Philemon's  money  (18, 
19)  ;  and,  having  made  his  way  to  Home, 
had  tliere  heen  converted  through  the  in- 
strumentality of  the  apostle  (10).  Paul 
M-ould  gladly  have  retained  him  as  a  free 
attendant,  hut  did  not  feel  at  liberty  to  do  so 
without  Philemon's  consent  (13,  14).  He 
doubtless  felt  too  that  Onesimus,  as  a  Chris- 
tian, ought  to  seek  the  forgiveness  of  his 
master;  and  he  was  equally  anxious  that 
Pliilemon  should  both  forgive  and  receive 
the  converted  wrongdoer.  So  he  sent  Onesi- 
nuis  back  to  Philemon,  urging  the  latter  to 
receive  him  as  a  brother  beloved  (16),  telling 
of  the  love  he  himself  bore  toward  the  con- 
vert (10,  1'2),  and  ofTering  to  repay  Philemon 
for  whatever  loss  Onesimus  had  caused  him 
(18,  19).  The  letter  is  an  exquisite  produc- 
tion. It  reveals  the  delicacy  of  Paul's  feel- 
ing and  the  graciousness  of  his  relations 
with  his  friends.  It  also  illustrates  the 
effect  of  Christianity  on  social  relationships 
generally,  the  spirit  of  love  and  justice 
which  were  destined  to  reorganize  society. 
When  Onesimus  carried  this  letter  to  Phile- 
mon, he  accompanied  Tychicus,  who  also  bore 
the  Epistle  to  the  Colossians  (Col.  iv.  7-9) 
and  that  to  the  Ephesians  (Eph.  vi.  21,  22). 
All  three  epistles  were  written  at  the  same 
time,  jirobably  A.  D.  61  or  62,  and  from  Eome. 
The  genuineness  of  the  Epistle  to  Philemon, 
though  it  is  so  brief  a  letter,  is  well  attested, 
and  it  thus  strongly  supports  the  genuine- 
ness of  the  other  epistles  with  which  it  is 
associated.  g.  t.  p. 

PM-le'tus  [worthy  of  love]. 

One  who  joined  with  Hymenseus  in  propa- 
gating the  error  that  the  resurrection  is 
already  past  (2  Tim.  ii.  17,  18). 

PMl'ip  [fond  of  horses]. 

1.  Father  of  Alexander  the  Great  (1  Mac. 
1.  1).  He  was  a  son  of  Amyntas  II.  of  Mace- 
don.  He  took  charge  of  the  government 
about  360  B.  c,  as  guardian  of  the  royal  in- 
fant, and  by  skillful  negotiations  and  success- 
ful war  delivered  the  country  from  the  dan- 
ger which  beset  it  by  reason  of  the  hostility 
of  the  PaBonians.  Illyrians,  and  Athenians. 
He  then  ascended  the  throne,  perhaps  by 
usurpation.  He  captured  Amphipolis  and 
annexed  it  to  his  dominions  in  35S,  and  cross- 
ing the  river  Strymon,  he  took  possession  of 
Thracian  territory  and  founded  Philipjii  in 
356.  These  achievements  marked  only  the 
beginning  of  his  unchecked  career  of  con- 
quest in  Greece,  by  which  he  raised  Mace- 
(iouia  from  an  obscure  state  to  be  the  domi- 
mmt  power  in  (xrecian  affairs.  He  was  as- 
sassinated in  336  B.  c,  and  was  succeeded  by 
Alexander. 

2.  Another  king  of  Macedon,  and  third  of 
the  name.     He  entered  into  an  alliance  with 


Hannibal  against  the  Konians  in  21.'5  B.  c, 
but  they  held  him  in  check  with  the  cooper- 
ation of  the  ^'Etolians.  After  seven  years  he 
was  glad  to  make  a  separate  i>eace.  In  200 
B.  c.  the  Romans  invaded  liis  kingdom.  He 
successfully  resisted  them  for  two  years,  but 
in  197  he  was  completely  defeated  (1  Mac. 
viii.  5)  by  the  Roman  general  Flaminius  at 
CynocephaUe  in  Thes.saly,  and  forced  to  con- 
clude a  humiliating  peace.  He  died  in  179 
B.  c. 

3.  Foster  brother  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes 
(2  Mac.  ix.  29),  and  one  of  his  privileged 
friends  (1  Mac.  vi.  14).  When  Antiochus 
was  in  Persia,  nigh  unto  death,  he  appointed 
Philip  regent  during  the  minority  of  the 
young  Antiochus  (1.5).  Lysias,  however, 
who  was  in  Syria,  usurped  the  position  (17). 
Philip  returned  in  haste,  and  obtained  tem- 
porary possession  of  Antioch,  the  capital 
(55,  63).  But  Lysias  succeeded  in  capturing 
the  city.  According  to  Josephus,  Philip  was 
executed  (Antiq.  xii.  9,  7).  but  ])erhaps  he 
escaped  and  fled  to  Egypt  before  the  city  fell 
(2  Mac.  ix.  29). 

It  has  been  conjectured,  on  insufficient 
grounds,  that  he  is  identical  with  Philip,  the 
Phrygian  who  was  made  governor  of  Judsea 
by  Antiochus  (2  Mac,  v.  22),  and  that  he  was 
the  master  of  the  elephants  at  the  battle  of 
Magnesia  (Livy  xxxvii.  41). 

4.  A  son  of  Herod  the  Great,  and  the  first 
husband  of  Herodias  and  brother  or  half- 
brother  of  Herod  Antipas  (Mat.  xiv.  3;  Luke 
iii.  19).  He  is  not  called  the  tetrarch,  and 
there  is  reason  to  believe  that  he  was  a  dif- 
ferent person  from  Philip  the  tetrarch,  half- 
brother  of  Herod  Antipas.  In  giving  the 
genealogy  of  a  portion  of  Herod  the  Great's 
family,  Josephus  states  that  Herodias  mar- 
ried Herod,  sou  of  Herod  the  Great  by  Mari- 
amne,  daughter  of  the  high  priest  Simon ; 
that  she  left  him  to  live  with  Antipas  his 
half-brother ;  and  that  her  daughter  Salome 
mari'ied  Philip  the  tetrarch,  son  of  Herod 
the  (freat  by  Cleojiatra  of  Jerusalem,  and 
after  Philip's  death  took  another  husband 
(Antiq.  xviii.  5,  4).  Thus,  according  to 
Josephus,  the  first  husband  of  Herodias  was 
a  different  person  from  Philip  the  tetrarch. 
The  writers  of  the  N.  T.  agree  with  Josephus 
in  that  they  make  Herodias'  first  husband  a 
brother  of  Herod  Antipas  the  tetrarch,  and 
do  not  identify  him  with  Philip  the  tetrarch, 
whom  they  also  know  (Ijuke  iii.  1).  They 
differ  as  to  his  name.  It  is  commonly  be- 
lieved that  both  authorities  are  right,  and 
accordingly  the  first  husband  of  Herodias  is 
oft<>n  designated  Him-ixI  Phili]).  For  among 
the  children  of  Herod  the  (ireat  two  sons, 
born  of  different  mothers,  were  named  after 
Herod's  father  Antipas  or  Antipater.  Three 
of  his  sons,  born  of  three  different  mothers, 
were  called  Herod  ;  one  of  whom,  however, 
had  a  second  name  Antijias,  and  was  spoken 
of  indifferently  either  as  Herod  or  .Antipas 
(.\ntiq.  xvii.  1,  3;  xviii.  5,  1;  6,  2).     One  of 


Philip 


Philippi 


the  sons  whom  his  wife  Cleopatra  of  Jerusa- 
lem bore  was  ciiiled  rhilip  ;  and  it  is  ])r()l)- 
al)lo  that  Mariainne's  son,  wlio  is  fiiiicd 
llcriid  liy  .losciiliiis,  had  the  name  of  I'liilij) 
also.  Hcnid  riiilii),  after  tlic  execution  of 
ills  lialf-l>iotiicis  Alexander  and  Aristol)ulns, 
w;is  next  in  order  of  Itirth  to  Antipater, 
llerod  the  (Treat's  tirstl)orn,  and  for  a  time 
he  was  reeofrnized  as  next  in  succession  to 
the  tiirone  (Anticj.  xvii.  '.i,  '2\  ;  hut  he  was 
passed  over  in  Jlerod's  later  wills. 

.').  Philip  the 'Petrarch.  One  of  the  two  sons 
of  lierod  the  (treat  and  Cleopatra  of  .lernsa- 
leni.  lie  was  hrought  up  at  Konie  with  his 
half-hrothers  .Vrchelaus  and  Antijias  (Anti(i. 
xvii.  1,  ;{ ;  War  i.  'Js,  1).  In  .\.  I).  -1  he  advo- 
cated the  <dainis  of  Arehelaus  to  succeed 
their  common  father,  and  was  himself  ap- 
jiointed  ))y  the  emiieror  Aunustiis  to  be  over 
Batanea.  'I'raehoiiilis,  Auraniiis,  and  certain 
parts  of  Zeno's  house  about  .lauinia  (War  ii. 
(J,  1-:J;  cp.  Antiq.  xvii.  11,  4).  He  was  still 
tetrarcli  of  the  region  of  Itunea  and  Tracho- 
nitis  in  the  lifteentli  year  of  Tiberius  Ca-sar 
when  John  the  Uaptist  bejian  his  jjublic  life 
(Lukeiii.  1).  He  married  Salome,  the  daujih- 
ter  of  Herod,  Mariamne's  son,  and  Herodias 
(Antiq.  xviii.  5,  4).  He  enlarjjed  the  town 
of  Paneas,  at  the  source  of  the  Jordan,  and 
named  it  Ciesarea.  H  was  afterwards  often 
spoken  of  as  Ca-sarea  Philii)i)i  (Mat.  xvi.  13), 
to  distinguish  it  from  Ca-sarea  on  the  sea. 
He  al.so  raised  the  village  of  Bethsaida  to  the 
di;;nity  of  a  city  and  called  it  .hilias.  in 
honor  of  .lulia.  daujihter  of  Augustus  and 
wife  of  Tiberius  (Anti(i.  xviii.  2,  1  ;  \\'ar  ii. 
9,  1).  He  reigned  thirty-seven  years,  from 
4  B.  C.  to  .\.  D.  '.i'l.  dying  in  the  twentieth 
year  of  Tiberius  Ca?.sar.  His  character  was 
excellent,  and  his  rule  was  mild  and  just 
(Antii).  xviii.  4,  (>).  His  dominions  were 
annexed  to  the  ))rovincc  of  Syria,  but  in  A.  i). 
I]7  were  assigned  t(j  Herod  Agrii)])a  I.  Coins 
of  his  have  been  found  inscribed  with  his 
title,  Te(rarchos. 

(>.  Philip  the  Apostle.  One  of  the  twelve 
aj>ostles  (Slat.  X.  .'5).  Jle  was  a  native  of 
Bethsaida.  Jesus  met  him.  won  his  faith, 
and  called  him  to  be  a  disci]>le.  He  found 
Nathamiel  and  brought  him  to  .lesus,  in  the 
conviction  that  an  iiit4>rview  with  the  Master 
woulil  convince  Nathanael  that  Jesus  was 
the  Messiah.  His  conlidence  was  justilii'd 
(John  i.  4;{  48).  When  our  Lord  was  about 
to  jierforni  the  miracle  of  feeding  the  five 
thoiisiiiid.  he  first  jiroved  Philiii,  an<l  awoke 
a  conce]itiiin  of  the  magnitude  of  the  miracle 
by  asking  Pliili]>:  "Whence  are  we  to  Imy 
bread,  that  these  may  eat?"  (.lohn  vi.  3,  (>). 
On  the  day  of  the  triumphal  entry  into  Je- 
rusalem, certain  (Jreeks  desired  to  see  Jesus, 
and  ;i|>plieil  to  Pbili]i.  who  )iiit  them  in  coni- 
muuieation  with  .lesus  (xii.  'JO-'J.'J).  In 
making  the  acciiiaintance  of  Christ,  the  dis- 
ciples had  been  making  ar-quaintance  with 
the  Father;  but  when  Christ  spoke  to  them 
about  their  having  known  aud  seen  the 
37 


Father.  Philip  appeared  not  to  understand 
and  said:  "  Show  us  the  Father,  and  it  suf- 
ficetli  us"  (xiv.  h-l'J).  He  is  named  after 
the  resurrection  as  one  of  the  apostles  who 
met  in  the  niiper  chamber  (Acts  i.  i:5).  This 
is  the  last  autlientii-  notice  we  have  of  him, 
ecclesiastical  traditions  regarding  his  future 
life  being  confused  and  contradict(jry. 

7.  Pliili]>  the  Evangelist.  He  was  one  of  the 
seven  nii'ii  of  good  report,  full  of  the  S])irit  and 
of  wisdom,  cliosen  to  look  after  the  interests 
of  the  Cireek-speaking  widows  and  jirobably 
the  poor  gi'iurally  in  the  church  at  .Jerusalem, 
and  is  mentioned  next  in  order  to  the  martyr 
Stei)lien  (Acts  vi.  .5).  If  tliis  had  been  all, 
he  would  not  have  been  called,  as  he  is  in 
Acts  xxi.  H,  an  evangelist.  Persecution  fol- 
lowed the  death  of  Stephen,  and  the  Christians 
were  .scattered  abroad.  Philip  visiti-d  Samaria, 
])reache(l  the  gos]iel.  wrought  miracles,  and 
made  many  converts.  Among  them  was 
Simon  the  sorcerer,  jiopularly  known  as 
Simon  !Magus  (Acts  viii.  .t-2.")).  Afterwards, 
by  direction  of  an  angel,  Philip  went  along 
the  road  fnjin  Jiriisalem  to  (!aza,  on  which, 
after  a  lime,  he  met,  ]ireached  to,  and  bap- 
tized the  Ethiopian  eunuch  (2()-39).  He  after- 
wards visited  Azotus  (Ashdod),  and  then 
went  on  preaching  till  lie  reached  Ciesarea 
(10).  Hewassiill  in  that  city  years  after- 
wards when  Paul  jiassed  through  it  on  his 
last  journey  to  Jerusalem;  and  the  fact  is 
noted  that  Phili])  had  four  virgin  daughters 
who  had  the  gift  of  jiropheey  (xxi.  8,  9). 

Phi-lip'pi  [pertaining  to  Philip]. 

A  Jlacedonian  city,  called  originally 
Krenides  or  ]>lace  of  small  fountains.  It 
was  within  the  limits  of  ancient  Thrace,  but 
in  '3')(i  U.  V.  Philip  II.  of  JIacedon  annexed 
the  country  as  far  as  the  river  Nestiis  and 
thus  took  in  the  town,  which  he  enlarged 
and  strengthened  and  called  after  his  own 
name.  In  its  vicinity  were  rich  gold  and 
silver  mines,  the  produce  of  which  gri'atly 
aided  Pliilij)  in  carrying  out  his  ami)itious 
jn-ojects.  In  16rt  n.  c.  the  Poman  consul 
Paiilus  ^Eniilius  inflicted  a  decisive  and  very 
sanguinary  defeat  on  Perseus,  the  last  of  the 
Macedonian  kings;  and  Philiiijii,  with  the 
rest  of  the  territory,  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  victors.  In  42  B.  v.  two  decisive 
battles  tot>k  jilace  in  the  neighborhood  be- 
tween Brutus  and  Cassins,  two  of  Cffsar's 
leading  assiissins,  and  Octavian  and  Antony, 
his  chief  avengers.  After  Octavian  had  be- 
come Augustus  Ca'sar  he  took  an  interest  in 
the  place  where  he  had  gained  the  victory, 
and  sent  a  Koman  colony  to  Philipjii.  Not 
merely  does  Luke  mention  that  it  was  a 
colony  (.Vets  xvi.  12),  but  coins  exist  with 
the  inscri|(tion,  Cnhinin  Aniiiistn.  .Jul.  I'hilip- 
pensis.  It  was  the  first  city  of  the  dislrii-t; 
not  the  capital,  which  was  Am]>liii)olis.  but 
either  the  place  of  first  imi)ortance  or  the 
first  city  reached  by  a  tniveler  from  the  sea, 
Neapolis  belonging  to  Thrace  and  not  being 


Philippians 


578 


Philistia 


attached  to  the  Roman  province  of  Mace- 
dunia  until  the  time  of  Vespasian.  About 
A.  i».  5'^  I'aiil  visited  tlie  eity,  nial<iM.i<  various 
converts,  of  wJioni  the  chief  were  Lydia  of 
Thyatira.  tlie  damsel  jiossesst'd  with  the 
spirit  of  divination,  and  the  I'hilippiau  jailer 
(Acts  xvi.  12-40).  The  secmid  of  theses  suc- 
cesses had  l)roU{;ht  on  iierseeiition  and  im- 
prisonment of  the  evangelists  or  they  would 
not  luive  had  access  to  the  jailer  to  do  him 
spiritual  good  (1  Thess.  ii.  2).  Paul  had  to 
leave  the  i)lace  abruptly  on  this  occasion, 
but  he  visited  it  again  at  a  future  jieriod, 
sailing  thence  to  Syria  (Acts  xx.  (i).  Philippi 
lies  inland  about  12  miles  northwest  of  its 
seaport  Neapolis,  the  two  being  separated  by 
a  mountain  range,  the  pass  over  which  is 
about  IfiOi)  feet  above  the  sea  level.  At  first 
Phili])pi  was  confined  to  a  small  hill  rising 
from  the  midst  of  a  plain  ;  in  the  Roman 
period  it  extended  to  the  plain.  The  river- 
side was  the  bank  of  the  (Jangites,  now 
called  Angista,  along  the  shore  of  which  the 
walls  of  the  Roman  city  ran.  The  ruins, 
consisting  of  a  theater,  columns,  etc.,  are  ex- 
tensive, the  most  interesting  being  a  gate- 
way, supposed  to  be  that  by  which  the 
apostle  went  out  to  the  riverside.  No  one 
now  lives  on  the  spot,  but  there  is  a  Turkish 
village,  named  Bereketli,  in  the  immediate 
vicinity. 

PM-lip'pi-ans. 

The  natives  or  inhabitants  of  Philippi 
(Phil.  iv.  15). 

The  Epistle  of  Paul  to  the  Philippians  is 
the  sixth  of  the  epistles  as  they  are  arranged 
in  our  N.  T.  It  was  written  by  Paul,  asso- 
ciating also  Timothy  with  him,  to  all  the 
saints  in  Christ  Jesus  which  are  at  Philippi, 
with  the  bishops  and  deacons  (i.  1).  When 
he  wrote  it,  the  apostle  was  a  prisoner  (i.  7, 
13,  14,  16).  He  was  also  api)arently  in  the 
custody  of  the  praetorian  guard  (i.  13,  R.  V.), 
and  he  sends  salutations  from  tlie  saints  that 
are  of  Caesar's  household  (iv.  22).  These 
references,  as  well  as  the  whole  tone  of  the 
letter,  make  it  clear  that  the  epistle  was 
written  from  Rome  during  the  apostle's  first 
Roman  imprisonment ;  see  Paul.  It  is  also 
most  probably  to  be  dated  toward  the  close 
of  that  ])eriod,  in  A.  D.  62  or  63.  This  fol- 
lows from  several  facts.  1.  He  had  been  for 
some  time  in  Rome  (i.  12).  2.  He  was  ex- 
pecting his  release  (i.  2.");  ii.  23,  24).  3. 
The  Philippians  had  sent  him  a  gift  (iv. 
10)  by  the  hands  of  Epa])hroditus  (ii.  25)  ; 
Epapliroditus,  however,  had  been  taken  sick 
in  Ronu',  the  riiilippians  liad  heard  of  it, 
and  Ei)ai)hr<iditus  liad  learned  of  their 
sorrow  over  his  illness  (ii.  2(i).  A  consider- 
able tinus  therefore,  had  ela])sed  since  Paul 
had  reached  the  capital.  The  ejjistle  was 
written  jjrimarily  to  acknowledge  the  gift 
which  they  had  sent.  Contrary  to  his  usual 
custom,  he  had  on  more  than  one  occasion  re- 
ceived such  gifts  from  them  (iv.  15).     But 


the  apostle  also  seized  the  opportunity  to 
tell  them  about  himself  and  to  warn  them 
against  ernu-.  It  is  the  h-ller  of  a  jjastor  to 
his  llock.  It  was  not  called  forth,  like  many 
of  his  epistles,  by  any  crisis  in  the  church. 
It  aixiuiuls  in  spiritual  advice  for  the  Chris- 
tian life.  .\t  the  same  time  it  is  valual)le 
for  the  light  it  throws  on  Paul's  situation  in 
Ronu!.  It  was  sent  by  the  hand  of  Epapli- 
roditus (ii.  25,  30)  w-ho,  having  recovered 
from  his  illness,  was  about  to  return  to 
Philippi.  It  may  be  divided  into  the  follow- 
ing sections  :  1.  Introduction  (i.  1,  2).  2. 
Gratitude  for  their  fidelity ;  exjjrcssion  of 
his  love  for  them  ;  prayer  for  their  sanc- 
titication  (i.  3-11).  3.  Account  of  how  (iod 
had  used  him,  though  a  prisoner,  to  extend 
the  gospel ;  of  the  opposition  to  him  on  the 
part  of  some,  but  of  his  own  contentment; 
of  his  wish  at  times  to  die,  but  of  his  devo- 
tion to  them  and  confidence  that  he  would 
be  spared  to  them ;  and  of  his  earnest  desire 
that  they  might  stand  firm  (i.  12-30).  4. 
Appeal  to  them  for  spiritual  unity,  through 
sclf-forgetfulness  and  love,  after  the  example 
of  Christ,  that  they  may  i>erfect  the  work  of 
.service  which  he  had  ever  set  before  them 
(  ii.  1-18).  5.  Promise  to  send  to  them  Tim- 
othy and.  if  possible,  to  go  himself  shortly; 
meanwhile  he  will  send  Epajihroditus  (ii.  19- 
30).  6.  Exhortation  to  joyfully  pursue  the 
Christian  life,  based  on  his  own  joy  in  self- 
surrender  to  Christ  and  in  the  eager  pursuit 
of  the  reward  which  Christ  offers;  to  which 
he  adds  a  warning  against  those  who  misuse 
the  freedom  of  the  gospel  that  they  may  in- 
dulge their  fleshly  appetites  (iii.).  7.  Con- 
cluding exhortations  to  individuals  and  to 
all,  the  keynotes  of  which  are  joy.  content- 
ment, holiness  (iv.  1-9).  S.  Final  acknowl- 
edgment of  the  gift  they  had  sent  him  and 
of  his  joy  in  their  love,  with  a  few  parting 
salutations  (10-23).  g.  t.  p. 

PM-lis'ti-a  [land  of  foreigners  or  immi- 
grants] . 

A  word  occurring  in  Scripture  in  poetical 
passages  of  the  O.  T.  (Ps.  Ix.  8;  Ixxxvii.  4; 
and  R.  V.  of  Is.  xiv.  29),  and  meaning  the  land 
of  the  Philistines.  It  was  in  the  southwestern 
portion  of  Canaan,  and  was  bounded  on  the 
north  by  the  plain  of  Sharon,  on  the  south 
by  the  de.sert  of  Shur,  on  the  cast  by  the 
lowland  of  .Tudah,  and  on  the  west  by  the 
Mediterranean.  Excluding  narrow  strips  of 
territory  beyond  its  projier  limits,  its  length 
maybe  estimated  at  50  miles,  and  its  breadth 
at  15.  The  greater  portion  of  it  consists  of  a 
low  i)lain,  unhealthy  in  autumn,  but  very 
fertile,  bearing  heavy  cro]is  of  grain,  as  well 
as  oranges,  figs,  olives,  and  other  fruits. 
The  coast  line  has  a  row  of  sand  duiu>s,  con- 
tinually encroaching  on  the  cultivated  di.s- 
tricts.  Of  its  five  cities,  all  imiiortaiit  in 
ancient  times,  Gaza  alone  is  still  a  large 
place.  Ekron  and  Ashdod  are  villages; 
Ashkelon  lies  in  ruins  by  the  sea ;  Gath  is  so 


Philistines 


579 


Philosophy 


much   forgotten   that  its  name    has   disap- 
peared, and  its  site  is  not  (luitc  rcrtaiii. 

Phi-lis'tlnes. 

A  trihe  or  nation  whieli  is  first  mentioned 
in  (ien.  x.  14,  and  tat)ulated  as  descended 
from  Mi/.raini;  in  other  words,  as  i)elon};ing 
to  I'-KVI'l.  Tht-y  went  I'orth  from  the  Cashi- 
hini,  and  were  a  n-miiant  of  llie  isli^  or  sea- 
coast  of  t'ajilitor  (.ler.  xlvii.  4  ;  Amos  ix.  7) ; 
see  ('AiMiTou.  Tlie  country  near  (iaza  was 
inhahite<i  first  hy  the  Avvim,  hut  settlers 
from  Caphtor  destroyed  tliese  ahorif^ines  and 
dwelt  in  their  room  (l)cnt.  ii.  'J3).  I'liilis- 
tincs  were  in  the  rejiion  ahoiit  (ierar  and 
Hecr-siieba  as  early  as  the  time  of  Ahraliam 
(Gen.  XX.  1,  2  ;  xxi.  32,  .'54  ;  xxvi.  1).  When 
the  Israelites  left  Efiypt,  their  shortest  way 
to  Canaan  would  have  heen  through  the 
I'hilistine  country,  hut  the  cniancipated 
slaves  were  not  sutlicicntly  licroic  to  light 
their  way  throiijih  the  land  of  so  warlike  a 
trihe,  and  they  were  directed  to  go  by 
another  route  (Ex.  xiii.  17,  IH).  No  steps 
wen-  taken  hy  .Joshua  to  con(jner  the  IMiilis- 
tines,  who  already  were  in  possession  of  the 
five  fortified  cities  with  which  their  names 
are  associated,  (iaza.  Ashdod,  Ashkelon,  (iath, 
and  Ekron.  each  under  a  lord  (.losli.  xiii.  2, 
:5:  .Indg.  iii.  '.'>).  The  .judge  Shamgar  slew 
(Kill  of  them  with  an  oxgoad  ('31).  Not  long 
after  tins  Israel,  on  acconnt  of  its  idolatries, 
was  sold  into  the  hands  of  the  Philistines 
(x.  (i,  7).  They  were  delivered  (11),  hut  sin- 
ning again,  came  under  the  same  domination 
for  forty  years.  Emm  this  tlu'V  were  deliv- 
ered hy  Samson,  hut  the  Philistines  ulti- 
mately i)roved  his  ruin  (xiv.-xvi.).  Early  in 
Samuel's  ]nd)lic  life  they  defeated  the  Israi-1- 
ites,  slaying,  among  others,  Ho]ihni  and 
I'hinehas,  Eli's  sons.  They  also  captured 
the  ark  of  (iod  and  kept  it  seven  months; 
hut  as  it  hrought  calamities  with  it,  tliey 
sent  it  l)ack  to  the  Israelite  country  (1  Sam. 
iv.  vi.).  Twenty  years  later  Samuel  def<'ated 
tlu'  Philistines  in  battle  at  the  same  ])lace, 
wliii'h  he  called  I'.heiiezei-.  the  stone  of  liell>, 
hecause  .lehovah  had  heliH'd  him  there  (vii. 
.'{-12).  It  was  an  overwhelming  defeat.  The 
Philistines  were  j)ermaneutly  humhled.  and 
came  no  more  witliin  the  border  of  Israel. 
Their  army  often  <-rossed  thai  border,  and 
intrencheil  il.self  in  strong  ])ositious,  and  a 
Philistine  invasion  was  a  constant  menace. 
Put  the  Ismelites  had  recovered  their  border 
fr(pin  l-'.kron  lo(!,ith,  regaining  poss<-s.sion  of 
the  .*^lie|ilielah  or  lowland,  and  the  Philis- 
tines did  not  again  dispossess  them  (vii.  1.'5, 
11).  The  |)ower  of  the  Philistines  was  never 
more  formidable  than  during  the  reign  of 
.*^aul  (x..">;  xii.!>).  lie  and  his  son  .Tonathan 
smote  tlu'm  at  (!eba,  at  Michmash.  an<l 
elsewhere  (xiii.  1  'JIJ ;  xiv.  17,  .%2  ;  xxiii.  27, 
2K  ;  xxiv.  1).  Put  they  soon  ai)peared  again, 
and  Goliath,  wliom  David  slew,  was  a  Philis- 
tine cl)am])ion  who  stood  out  from  their 
army,  then  in  battle  army  within  the  terri- 


tory of  Judah  (xvii.  1-.58;  xviii.  6;  xix.  5; 
xxi.  9;  xxii.  10).  Soon  after  this,  David 
more  than  once  encountered  the  Phili.s- 
tines  (xviii.  17-21,  2."),  27,  30  ;  xix.  H;  xxiii. 
l-.^>) ;  but,  at  last,  fearful  of  falling  a  victim 
to  Saul's  malice,  he  twice  over  took  refuge  in 
the  IMiilistine  country  (xxi.  10-1.");  xxvii.- 
xxix.  ;  Ps.  Ivi.  title).  On  the  second  occasion 
he  obtained  as  a  feudatfiry  possession  the 
town  of  Ziklag,  whii-h  lia<l  hitherto  been 
under  Philistine  authority  (1  Sam.  xxvii.  (i). 
A  glance  at  the  map  will  show  that  the  Phi- 
listines had  ])enetrated  to  the  very  heart  of 
Canaan  when  they  defeated  the  Israelites, 
slaying  .Saul  and  his  sons,  at  the  battle  of 
tiilboa  (xxviii.  4;  xxix.  11;  xxxi.  1-13;  1 
Cliron.  X.  1-14).  David  was  more  successful 
than  his  predecessor  in  rei>elling  the  inva- 
sions of  the  Philistines,  with  whom  In-  had 
several  l)attles  (2  Sam.  iii.  IS;  v.  17-2.");  viii. 
1,  12;  xix.  <>;  xxi.  15-22;  xxiii.  9-17;  1 
Chron.  xi.  12-19  ;  xiv.  H-17  ;  xviii.  1,11;  xx. 
4,  5).  After  his  death  the  Philistines  are 
less  frequently  mentioned,  as  if  their  jjower 
was  waning.  Under  Nadab,  the  son  of  .Jero- 
l)oam  I.,  and  some  other  short-lived  kings, 
tlie  Israelites  besieged  Gibbethon,  a  Philis- 
tine city  (1  Kin.  xv.  27;  xvi.  1.5).  The 
Pliilistines  sent  j)resents  to  .Teliosha()hat  (2 
Chron.  xvii.  11);  but  they  invaded  .ludah 
in  the  reign  of  his  successor,  Jehoram 
(xxi.  16),  and  also  in  that  of  Ahaz  (xxviii. 
IH).  Uzziah  and  Ilezekiah  successfully  in- 
vaded Philislia  (2  Kin.  xviii.  S:  2  Chron. 
xxvi.  (i,  7).  .Tutlgment  against  them  is  fre- 
quently threatened  bv  the  proidiets  (Is.  xi. 
14;  .ler.  xxv.  20;  xlvii.  1-7;  Ezek.  xxv.  1.5- 
17;  Anu)s  i.  G-8 ;  Obad.  19;  Zeph.  ii.  4,  o; 
Zech.  ix.  5-7).  JIany  Pliilistines  accompa- 
nied (ioi'gias,  the  Syrian  general  of  Antiochus 
P^Iiijjhanes,  in  his  invasion  of  .ludah  (1  Mac. 
iii.  41).  .ludas  Maccaba-us  afterwards  cap- 
tured Azotus  (Ashdod)  ami  other  Philistine 
cities  (v.  liH).  .lonathan  Maccaba'us  burnt 
Azotus,  with  the  temi)k'  of  Dagon,  and  the 
city  of  .\shkelon  (x.  Ki-89).  He  also  burnt 
the  suburbs  of  (iaza,  but  took  no  further 
hostili'  measures,  as  the  city  it.self  was  sur- 
rendered on  his  demand  (xi.  (iO,  (il).  The 
Philistiiu's  are  not  mentioned  by  nanus  in 
the  N.  T..  and  seem  ultimately  to  have 
merged  in  the  .Jewish  nation. 

The  Mediterranean  is  once  called  the  sea 
of  the  Pliilistines  (Ex.  xxiii.  31). 

Phi-lol'o-gus  [fond  of  words]. 
A  Christian  at  Rome  to  whom   Paul  sent 
}iis  salutation  (Rom.  xvi.  15). 

Phl-los'o-phy  [love  of  wisdom]. 

The  sjiiiil  of  jiure  philosojihy,  which  seeks 
to  ]ietielrale  to  the  es.sence  <if  tilings  in  them- 
selves, is  foreign  to  the  Eastern  mind.  The 
great  distinction  betwi'i'U  Eastern  and  West- 
ern )ihilosophy  has  been  historically  that 
oriental  reasoning  remained  in  the  sjdu-re  of 
religion  and  was  never  divor<'cd  from  reli- 
gious axioms,  while  occidental  investigation 


Philosophy 


580 


Philosophy 


came  to  be  conducted,  even  by  profoundly 
religions  minds,  in  !i  far  wider  sphere  than 
relinioii  :l'>d  by  the  leason  iinassistfd  by  the 
])ostiilates  of  relijjion.  Moral  jihilosopliy 
has  characterized  the  East,  nietaiihysics  the 
West.  For  the  bil)lical  student  the  contrast 
between  Greek  and  Hebn^w  thonght,  their 
separate  develoinncnt,  their  eventnal  contact, 
and  their  mutual  intluence  are  important. 
The  Hebrew  mind  retlected  on  the  view  of 
the  world  which  is  presented  by  revelation. 
Il  drew  wisdom  from  the  experience  of 
lorincr  generations,  which  was  handed  down 
by  the  ancients,  from  observation  of  human 
life  and  the  results  of  conduct,  and  from  the 
study  of  the  adaptations  of  nature  to  an  end. 
It  thus  gained  true  iirincijiles  for  the  govern- 
ment of  conduct,  it  sought  to  discover  to 
what  extent  religious  truth  was  approved  by 
the  test  of  human  exjierieuce,  and  it  wrestled 
with  the  ])aradoxes  of  the  moral  government 
of  (Jod,  especially  with  the  (jucstien  of  the 
sufferings  of  the  righteous  and  the  prosperity 
of  the  wicked.  From  these  varied  sources 
and  manifold  investigations  the  Hebrew  wise 
man  was  confirmed  in  the  conviction  that 
the  fear  of  (iod  is  the  beginning  of  wisdom. 
Hebrew  philosophy,  or  wisdom  as  the  Bible 
calls  it.  received  a  great  impulse  through  the 
interest  of  Solomon,  who  both  gathered  the 
maxims  of  other  men,  and  out  of  his  own 
shrewd  observation  and  varied  experience 
gave  utterance  to  new  proverbs.  The  prov- 
erbs of  Solomon  largely  concern  conduct  in 
relation  to  the  individual  and  to  (Jod.  such 
as  chastity,  temperance  in  meat  and  drink, 
self-control,  honesty,  suretyship,  behavior  in 
the  presence  of  the  mighty.  From  these 
things  Hebrew  thought  proceeded  to  view 
morality  in  larger  relations.  From  the  con- 
sideration of  apparent  excei)tions  to  its  con- 
clusions, it  advanced  to  moral  questions,  and 
looked  upon  events  not  in  their  immediate 
personal  results,  but  in  the  light  of  their  etiect 
upon  i)osterity  and  of  divin<>  retribution  in 
time  to  come.  The  Hebrew  iihilosojiher  further 
studied  nature,  and  saw  that  a  divine  pur- 
pose exists  everywhere  (Ps.  civ.  24).  Every- 
where is  the  impress  of  thought.  Intelli- 
gence is  involved  in  the  creation  and  preser- 
vation of  the  universe  (Prov.  iii.  19).  He 
found  wisdom  to  be  an  attribute  of  God, 
which  is  everywhere  revealed  in  nature.  It 
exi.sted  before  God  proceeded  to  create.  He 
personified  wi.sdom  (Prov.  i.  20-33;  viii.  12), 
and  represented  it  existing  from  everlasting, 
as  brought  forth  before  the  creation  of  the 
world,  present  with  (Jod  when  he  established 
heaven  and  earth,  ordained  to  rule  in  the 
created  universe  (viii.  22  31  ;  Job  xxviii.  12- 
27).  Wisdom  was  not  itself  a  ]M'rson.  but  it  was 
look(Ml  niion  as  objective  to  God,  as  "  thereflec- 
tion  of  ( Jod 's  plan  of  the  world,"  asthe  ])rinci- 
])le  wliirh  (rod  ordained  for  the  world.  By  lat<T 
writers  the  thought  was  d(>vr]oi)ed  and  wis- 
dom was  still  further  distinguished  from  (iod 
(Wisd.  vii.  22 -viii.  5  ;  ix.  4.  9) ;  see  Wisdom. 


(Treek  philosophy  is  usually  said  to  begin 
with  Thales  about  (J40  B.  c.  Three  main 
])(rio(ls  ar(^  distinguished:  1.  The  Jire-So- 
cratic  schools  which  arose  among  the  tireek 
colonies  of  Asia  Minor.  The  great  subject 
of  inquiry  was  the  constitution  of  the  uni- 
verse. Is  there  one  underlying  element; 
such  as  moisture,  or  the  subtle  and  all-per- 
vading air,  or  one  eternal,  infinite,  immova- 
ble, unchangeable  Being,  or  the  instantaneous 
balance  of  power?  2.  The  .Socratic  schools 
represented  by  Socrates,  Plato,  and  Aristotle, 
4H9-322  li.  c.  Athens  was  the  center  of 
philosophic  thought,  and  inquiry  was  di- 
rected to  ideas,  form  (or  essence)  of  things. 
But  it  was  not  a  barren  uieta])hysics  that 
was  cultivated;  a  lofty  morality  was  incul- 
cated. Socrates  used  inductive  reasoning  by 
which  he  sought  to  discover  the  jiermaneut 
element  underlying  the  changing  forms  of 
ajipearances  and  opinions;  and  the  truth 
which  he  thus  discovered  he  attemjited  to  fix 
by  a  general  definition  or  statement.  Aristotle 
allowed  absolute  authority  to  the  reason  alone, 
and  accepted  nothing  which  he  could  not 
])rove  by  logic.  3.  The  post-Socratic  schools. 
I'hilosophy  had  culminated  in  Aristotle,  and 
discussion  reverted  to  ethics  founded  on  met- 
aphysics. Ejiicurus,  342-270  B.  c,  declared 
that  the  character  of  actions  is  deternnned 
by  their  result,  and  that  i)ermanent  ])leasure 
is  the  highest  good.  Zeno  the  Stoic,  about 
308  B.  C,  taught  that  moral  character  resides 
in  the  act  itself,  independent  of  the  result; 
and  inculcated  the  obligation  of  absolute 
obedience  to  the  commands  of  duty.  The 
Skeptics  taught  that  certainty  is  not  attain- 
able in  human  knowledge;  and  early  mem- 
bers of  the  school  held  that  wheTi  we  are 
convinced  that  we  can  know  nothing,  we 
cease  to  care,  and  in  this  way  attain  ha])pi- 
uess. 

Alexander  the  Great  died  in  323  b.  c\.  and 
Aristotle  in  322.  Thus  when  Greek  ]thilosoi>hy 
had  i-eached  its  climax,  Greek  culture  began 
to  be  introduced  into  Palestine  and  among 
the  Jews  of  the  dispersion.  Epicureanism 
and  Stoicism  were  developed  in  Greece  duriTig 
the  jM'i'iod  of  the  first  close  contact  of  (Jreek 
and  Helirew,  but  they  exerci.sed  little  inllu- 
ence  on  Hebrew  thought  compared  with  the 
])ower  exerted  by  Plato  and  Ari.stotle.  The 
iiifluence  of  the  Socratic  schools  was  .seen  in 
the  Sadducees  ]ierha]is.  who  se(nn  like  Aris- 
totle to  have  rejected  everything  which  un- 
anled  rejison  did  not  teach,  although  they  pro- 
fessed to  be  governed  by  a  different  jirinciple. 
'l''he  influence  of  the  Socratic  schools  was  .seen 
in  the  .Mexandrian  school  of  Jewish  thinkers, 
whose  ]ironiiiuMit  rejiresentati ve  was  Pliilo.  a 
contemporary  of  Christ.  They  held  to  the 
teaching  of  Moses;  l)ut  at  the  same  time 
they  took  wliat  they  a])])roved  of  in  (ireek 
liliiioso])liy,  learning  especially  from  divine 
Plato,  and  endeavored  to  show  that  it  was 
already  taught  in  the  O.  T.  They  combined 
the  doctrines  of  the  Greek  sage  and  of  Moses 


Phinehas 


581 


Phoenicia 


into  a  new  systom,  and  removed  inconsisten- 
cies !)%•  arliit  larily  allc}'(iri/.ing  Scrij)tu  re,  even 
down  to  its  <;co};raj>liy.  Tlie  inlhience  (»f  tlic 
(irt<k  ])liiliis(ii(liy  was  seen  in  tlie  iiii]irov('(I 
nKlliods  and  cnlaiuid  s<o|ic(>r  dchnlc.  I'aiil 
advances  a  i'nrnial  pliilosupliic  ar^uiiicnt  in 
Ills  address  in  tlie  midst  of  llie  Areopajius  and 
in  the  liefjinniiin  of  liis  E])istle  to  the  lionians 
(Acts  xvii.  od;  Koin.  1.  1!),  -JO).  The  inlhi- 
ence of  (;rcci<  jihihisophy  was  seen  fnrllier 
in  borrowed  i<h'as.  siich  as  the  i>reexisteuce 
(d"  the  soul  (Wisdom  viii.  1!>,  'JO);  in  new 
words  and  new  content  of  words,  as  in  the 
nsc  of  tiie  word  form  in  the  Aristotelian 
sense  of  essence  or  snni  total  of  attritmtes 
(Phil.  ii.  (J)  :  and  in  nice  discrimination  of 
thoiijiht  and  jirccision  of  definition.  (Gnostic 
sjieciilations  later  came  from  the  East  ;  and 
the  attempt  to  combine  (Jnosticism  witli 
Chrlsliaiiity  led  I'aiil  to  combat  it  by  jire- 
seutin';  tlie  true  relation  of  Christ  to  (iod 
and  the  world  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Cok).ssians. 

Phin'e-has,  in  A.  V.  of  1  Mac.  Pblnees 
[j)erhaps  Egyptian,  pa-tnliKi.  the  nejiro 
(I'etrie)].  A  Hebrew  etymology  is  not  aji- 
pareut. 

1.  Son  of  Eleazar,  and  grandson  of  Aaron 
(Ex.  vi.  25).  He  ran  a  sjHar  through  an 
Israelite  and  a  Midianitc  winnan  who  had 
come  into  the  camp  at  Shittim  together,  this 
summary  ]iunishment  terminating  a  ])lague 
which  was  then  raging  as  a  judgment  against 
the  idolatries  and  imjiurities  into  which  the 
!Mi(lianitish  women  weic  leading  the  He- 
brews. An  everlasting  jiriesthood  was  there- 
fore jtroniised  to  him  and  liis  descendants 
(Num.  XXV.  1  18;  P.s.  cvi.  :?();  1  Mac.  ii.  'A). 
With  a  short  interrii]ition  when  the  house  of 
Eli.  of  the  lineage  of  Ithaiiiar.  olliciated  as 
liigh  jiriests,  Phinehas  and  his  sons  held  the 
oflice  until  sacrifice  ceased  with  the  destruc- 
tion of  .lenisalem  and  the  tem])le  by  the  Ro- 
mans in  \.  n.  7(1.  Phinehas  was  sent  with  ten 
princes  to  remonstrate  with  the  two  and  a 
half  tribes  east  of  the  Jordan  on  their  erection 
of  an  altar,  erroneously  supjiosed  to  be  for 
solii.sniatic  worshij)  (.Tosli.  xxii.  1.'}).  He  re- 
eeivc'd  as  his  share  of  the  j)roniised  land  a 
hill  ill  mount  Ephraiiii  (xxiv.  :5:i).  Through 
him  the  Israelites  in(|uirod  of  the  Lord 
whether  they  should  attack  the  P>enjaniites 
for  condoning  the  sin  of  the  inhabitants  of 
(iibeali  (Judg.  xx.  'JS). 

'J.  The  younger  of  l'",ii's  two  degenerate 
sons.  He  was  killed  in  the  battle  with  the 
Philistines  in  which  the  ark  of  (Jod  was 
taken  ;  and  when  the  news  of  the  catas- 
trophe arrived,  they  so  afFected  the  feelings 
of  his  wife  that  the  jiains  of  )irenKitiire 
childbirth  «'ame  u|)on  her.  and  she  died  (1 
Sam.  i.  :'.;  ii.  :M  :  iv.  11.  1<(  'J'J), 

.3.  Eather  of  a  i-ertain  Eleazar  ( Ezra  viii. 
33),  evi<lently  a  jiriest. 

Phle'gon  [burning,  .scorching]. 
A    C'hristian   at    lionie   to  whom  Pan!  .sent 
his  .sjthitation  (Kom.  xvi.    It). 


Phoe'be,  in  A.  V,  Phebe  [pure,  bright, 
radiant]. 

A  woman  who  had  been  a  servant  or  dea- 
coness of  the  church  at  Cenchnie,  the  east- 
<'rii  ])oit  of  Coiinth,  but  who  removed  tem- 
porarily or  perniamntly  to  Ivome,  Paul 
warmly  commended  her  to  the  care  and  at- 
tention of  the  Christians  there  (Kom.  xvi.  1, 
2).     See  I)K.\coNi;.ss, 

Phoe-ni'ci-a,  in  A.  V.  once  Pbenicia  (Acts 
xxi.  2),  and  twice  Phenice  (xi.  1!J;  xv.  3) 
[(ireek,  land  of  the  date  ))alm,  or  of  purjile 
dyeing,  or  of  dark  skinned  i)eo])le]. 

A  narrow  strij)  of  territory  between  the 
Medili'riauean  Sea  on  the  west  and  on  the 
east  the  crest  of  the  Eebanon  range  and  tlie 
detached  hills  running  south  from  it.  The 
northern  limit  may  be  regarded  as  Arvad. 
Southward,  after  the  .settlement  of  the  He- 
brews on  the  coast.  PlKcnicia  jtractically 
terminated  at  the  Ladder  of  Tyre,  about  14 
miles  south  of  T.vre,  although  Plio'iiicians 
still  dwelt  ill  Aclizib  and  Accho  (Judg.  i.  31). 
In  the  time  of  Christ  I'hoMiicia  extended 
southward  as  far  as  Dor,  about  IB  miles  south 
of  Carniel.  The  distance  from  Arvad  to  the 
Ladder  of  Tyre  is  about  12;")  miles.  The 
chief  cities  were  Tyre  and  Sidon,  of  which 
Sidon  was  the  first  to  rise  to  celebrity.  Phoe- 
nicia was  called  Canaan  by  the  ancient  He- 
brews (Is.  xxiii.  11 1,  and  its  inhabitants  \\cre 
reckoned  as  Caiiaanites  and  classed  with  the 
Hamitic  peoples  ((Jen.  x,  15).  This  classifi- 
cation makes  ])robal)le,  but  does  not  neces- 
sarily inii>ly,  that  they  were  of  Hamitic 
blood.  According  to  their  own  tradition, 
they  had  migrated  from  the  Erythra-an  Sea, 
by  way  of  Syria,  to  the  coast  of  Canaan 
(Heiod.  i.  1  ;  vii.  89).  According  to  Arabian 
authors,  the  migration  was  across  th<'  north- 
ern Aiabi:iii  desert.  The  Pli(enicians  thus 
traced  their  origin  to  the  neighborhood  of 
tlie  Persian  Gulf,  an  early  abode  of  the  Ham- 
itic race.  In  course  of  time  they  adopted 
the  Semitic  language.  The  territory  wliich 
the  I'litenicians  inhaiiited  had  good  natural 
harbors;  mount  Lebanon  afforded  them  an 
almost  inexhaustible  supply  of  timber,  with 
which  ships  were  constructed,  and  they  be- 
came the  most  skillful  navigators  known  to 
antir|uity.  They  not  merely  tra<le<l  with  dis- 
tant countries  accessible  by  Mediterranean 
routes,  but  thej'  colonized  sjiots  favonible  for 
commerce,  some  of  wliich  afterwards  rose 
into  inijiortance.  Their  most  celebrated 
colony  was  Carthage,  on  the  African  coast, 
near  mod(  rii  Tunis,  which  w:us  long  a  rival 
of  Rome,  by  which  it  was  at  last  destroyed. 
Of  the  Carthaginian  leaders  who  ligured  in 
the  Punic  wars,  some,  if  not  all.  had  names 
purely  Plueiiician,  and  almost  Hebrew. 
Thus,  Hannibal  me.ans  the  grace  of  |{aal. 
and  Ilasdriibal.  a  belli  '^^  Pajil.  When  our 
Lord  visited  the  coasts  of  Tyre  and  Sidon,  he 
was  within  th*-  Phn-nijian  territory  (Mat. 
XV.  21 ;  Mark  vii.  2-1,  31).    Various  Christians 


Phoenix 


582 


Pi-hahirotli 


who  were  scattered  abroad,  owing  to  the  per- 
secution which  followed  the  inartyrdoni  of 
Stephen,  found  their  way  to  Pluenieia  (Acts 
xi.  1!)).  Paul  and  Rarnahas  went  through  it 
on  their  way  I'roin  Anlioch  to  .lerusalciii  (xv. 
3).  Paul,  on  his  last  voyage  to  .lerusaleni, 
sailed  in  a  Phoenician  vessel,  which  l)rought 
him  to  Tyre  (xxi.  2,  3).  See  Tyke,  Baal, 
Jkzebkl,  and  Hiuam. 

Phoe'nix,  in  A.  V.  Phe-ni'ce  [date  palm]. 

A  haven  in  Crete  (Acts  xxvii.  12).  It  is 
now  called  Lutro,  and  is  the  only  liarbor  on 
the  south  of  Crete  which  is  safe  at  every 
season  of  the  year. 

Pliryg'i-a. 

A  large  and  inii)ortant  province  of  Asia 
Minor,  which,  after  its  original  boundaries 
were  curtailed  by  the  disseverance  from  it 
of  (4alatia,  was  bounded  on  the  north  by 
Bithynia ;  on  the  south  by  Lycia,  Pisidia, 
and  Isauria  ;  on  the  east  by  Lycaonia  and 
Galatia ;  and  on  the  west  by  Caria,  Lydia, 
and  Mysia.  The  region  is  a  high  table-land  be- 
tween the  chain  of  Taurus  on  the  south,  Olym- 
pus on  the  north,  and  Temnus  on  the  west.  Of 
its  towns,  four  are  mentioned  in  the  N.  T., 
Laodicea,  Colossse,  Hierapolis,  and  Antioch  of 
Pisidia,  which  is  reckoned  by  Btrabo  to 
Phrygia.  At  this  period  Phrygia  had  ceased 
to  be  a  province  and  was  merely  a  local 
name.  Antiochus  the  Great  settled  2f)00 
Jewish  families  from  Babylonia  and  Meso- 
potamia in  Lydia  and  Phrygia  (Antiq.  xii.  3, 
4),  and  Jews  from  Phrygia  were  present  at 
Jerusalem  on  that  day  of  Pentecost  signal- 
ized by  the  descent  of  the  Holy  Spirit  (Acts 
ii.  10).  Phrygia  was  traversed  by  Paul  oir 
his  second  and  third  missionary  journeys 
(Acts  xvi.  6;  xviii.  23). 

Phu'rah.    See  Purah. 

Phut.     See  Put. 

Phu'vah.    See  Puvah. 

Phyg'e-lus,  in  A.  V.  Phy-gel'lus. 

A  Christian  in  the  province  of  Asia  who, 
with  others,  deserted  the  apostle  Paul  in  the 
latter  part  of  his  life  (2  Tim.  i.  15). 

Phy-lac'tery  [an  amulet]. 

A  writing  consisting  of  short  extracts  from 
the  law  of  Mo.ses,  and  worn  on  the  forehead 
or  on  the  arm  (Mat.  xxiii.  .5).  The  phylac- 
tery eventually  assumed  the  form  of  a  small 
case,  made  of  ]iarchnient  or  Idack  sealskin, 
and  containing  four  coiii])artnients  in  which 
were  placed  stri]>s  of  i)archmcnt  inscribed 
with  the  passages  of  Scripture.  It  was  fas- 
tened with  straps  on  the  forehead  just  above 
and  between  tlie  ey(>s,  or  on  the  left  arm. 
When  hound  on  the  forehead,  it  is  a  frontlet; 
see  Frontlet.  The  pa.ssages  used  for  the 
purpose  were  four:  Ex.  xiii.  2-10,  11-17  ; 
Dent.  vi.  4-9,  13-22.  The  tirst  three  of  these 
were  interpreted  as  enjoining  the  custom. 
Phylacteries  are  worn  by  every  Jew  on  week- 
day mornings  during  the  time  of  prayer. 

Phy-si'cian.     Sec  Medicine. 


Pi-be'setli  [Egyptian,  Pa-bast,  abode  of  the 

goddess  Bast]. 

An  Egyptian  city  (Ezek.  xxx.  17),  in  Greek 
form  written  Bubastos  or  Bnbastis  (Herod, 
ii.  5!),  137).  It  is  now  called  Tell  P.asta,  and 
is  on  the  delta  near  Zagazig,  on  the  western 
side  of  the  Pelusiac  t)rancli  of  the  Nile.  It 
is  about  4.5  miles  noi'theast  by  north  of  mod- 
ern Cairo,  and  30  southwest  by  south  of  an- 
cient Z(tan.  Among  tlie  ruins  are  the  re- 
mains of  a  once  splendid  teini)le  of  red  gran- 
ite, dedicated  to  the  goddess  of  the  place. 

Piece. 

In  O.  T.,  when  ])iece  refers  to  money  and 
is  not  italicized,  it  denotes  a  certain  amount 
of  ])reeious  metal,  whether  coined  or  un- 
coined (Gen.  xxxiii.  19 ;  1  Sam.  ii.  .30)  The 
word  j)iece  was  chosen  by  the  translators  be- 
cause it  is  vague,  and  they  did  not  know  the 
value  of  the  money  indicated  by  the  several 
Hebrew  words.  Piece  isalsoeinijloyed  by  the 
translators,  where  the  unit  of  weight  or  the 
coin  is  not  exjiressly  mentioned  by  the  He- 
brew writer,  l>ut  where  he  ordinarily  means 
a  shekel  (Judg.  xvii.  2  ;  2  Sam.  xviii  11,  in 
A.  V.  shekel;  ep.  Dent.  xxii.  19;  1  Kin.  x. 
29,  where  both  versions  have  shekel).  In  N. 
T.  also  a  piece  of  silver  commonly  denotes 
the  shekel  or  its  equivalent  (Mat.  xxvi.  15 
with  xxvii.  9  and  Zech.  xi.  12) ;  but  in  Luke 
XV.  8  it  is  a  drachma,  worth  about  10  cents. 

Pi'e-ty. 

Filial  pietv,  dutifulne.ss  in  the  familv  (1 
Tim.  V.  4). 

Pi'geon.     See  Dove. 

Pi-ha-M'roth  [probably,  house  or  place  of 
sedge]. 

The  last  station  of  the  Israelites  on  leav- 
ing Egypt,  near  Baal-zephon  and  Migdol,  and 
on  the  sea  (Ex.  xiv.  2,  9  ;  Num.  xxxiii.  7,  8). 
The  site  is  disputed.  Brugsch  regards  the 
name  as  Hebrew,  which  tlien  might  mean 
mouth  of  the  caverns ;  and  he  identifies  it 
with  the  Serbonian  bog,  which  the  Greeks 
called  liarathra,  and  at  the  bottom  of  which 
they  re])resented  the  monster  Tyjihon  as 
lying.  But  the  name  is  doubtless  Egyp- 
tian. Keil  asserts  that  it  has  inconte.st- 
ably  been  ]neserved  in  'Ajrud.  on  the 
Pilgrim  road,  about  Ki  miles  northwest  of 
Suez.  But  tlie  two  names  have  only  one 
letter  in  common.  Naville  identifies  it  with 
Pikerehet,  or  Pikeheret.  near  Pithom  fq.  v.). 
Not  merely  is  there  a  similarity  of  sound, 
but  Pharaoh  had  a  farm  there  ;  and  theSep- 
tuagint,  instead  of  "before  Pi-hahiroth,"  in- 
serts "before  the  farm."  The  city  was  an 
important  one,  which  disputed  with  Pithom 
the  honor  of  being  the  capital  of  the  eighth 
notne,  or  district,  of  Lower  Egypt.  Its  spe- 
cial deity  was  O.siris.  Naville  believes  that 
it  was  the  same  place  as  Serapiu,  or  Serapeum, 
the  only  known  sanctuary  of  Osiris  in  that 
region.  Two  roads  ran  from  it:  the  one 
to  Clusma,  9  miles  oflf.  the  other  to  Pelusium. 


Pilate 


583 


Pilate 


Pi'late  [armed  with  a  javelin,  or  wearing 
the  jtilii.H  (ir  fflt  caj)  wliicli  was  worn  liy  a 
iiianiiniittcil  slave  as  tlic  ciiiblt  in  (if  lilnTly]. 

ronlius  I'ilatr,  fifth  Kunian  inociiiator  in 
Jii(hi-a  after  the  dejjosition  of  Arclu-laus  in 
A.  1).  <).  See  I'jtoriKATOK.  Tliroiigh  tlie  in- 
lliience  of  Sejanus  he  was  a]>])ointe(l  hy  the 
emperor  'Pilieriiis  iirociirator  of  .hidiea  ahout 
A.  U.  'J(>,  in  sneeession  to  Valerius  (Iratns. 
lie  arrived  in  Ju(hea  the  same  year.  He  was 
aeeonijianied  hy  his  wife  (.Mat.  .xxvii.  I'J). 
I-'or  a  h)n<;  time  it  was  ilhjyal  for  a  Koman 
j;t)Vernor  wlio  was  aiipoinled  io  a  danjrerons 
])ruvinee  to  take  liiswife  witli  liim.  l)nt  sinee 
the  time  of  Au{;nstus  it  was  i)irniilted  (Taci- 
tus. Ann.  iii.  '.i'.i). 

I'ihite  sent  a  detaeliment  of  troops  into 
Jeru.«alein  by  nij;lit,  earryint;  with  tlieni 
their  ensij;ns,  whii-ii  had  hillierto  always  l)een 
left  outsi(h-  the  eity.  On  these  ensiju'ns  were 
silver  eajjlcs  and  small  iniajres  of  the  em- 
peror, and  they  j^ave  j^reat  otlense  to  the 
Jews.  De]intations  went  to  Ca-sarea,  the 
official  residence  of  the  jirocnrators,  to  nrge 
the  removal  of  the  ensigns,  and  IMhite,  after 
in  vain  attenijitinK  to  intimidate  the  peti- 
tioners, was  obliged  at  last  to  comjily  with 
their  request  (Auti(i.  xviii.  3,  1  :  War  ii.  9, 
2  and  3).  Some  time  afterwards,  taking 
the  sacred  money  called  C'orl)an,  he  be- 
gan to  e.xjjend  it  in  making  an  aqueduct 
to  bring  water  into  Jerusalem  from  the  uj)- 
lands  south  of  the  capital.  The  Jews  c(m- 
sidered  that  this  was  ai)i)lying  to  secular  uses 
money  whiili  bad  been  dedicated  to  God  ; 
and  on  I'llate's  visiting  .hrusalem  they  beset 
his  tribunal  with  much  chinior  and  tumult. 
Having  been  told  beforehand  that  such  an 
occurrence  was  likely  to  ha]>)ien.  he  had 
taken  the  precaution  of  mingling  his  soldiers 
in  disguise  among  the  multitude,  armed  with 
sticks,  if  not  with  concealed  daggers.  When 
the  tumult  was  at  its  height  he  gave  them  a 
signal  to  attack  the  rioters  with  (he  sticks, 
which  they  did  so  vigorously  that  some  were 
killed,  and  the  rest,  (leeing  in  ]ianic,  tram- 
pled many  of  their  ntimber  to  death.  The 
riot  seems  not  to  have  been  ri'iiewed,  and 
the  aqiudiu-t  was  made:  but  the  afl'air  in- 
creased the  disfavor  with  which  the  ])eo)ile 
regarded  Tilate  (,\ntiti.  xviii.  3,  '2:  War  ii.  !i, 
4).  I'ilate  attemjited  to  dedicate  some  gilt 
shields  in  honor  of  the  emjieror  Tiberius  atid 
]dace  them  within  Herod's  ])alace  ;it  .lerusa- 
li'm.  'I'hey  were  inscribed  \\it\\  the  imiieiial 
name,  but  were  without  the  im|ierial  jMirtrail. 
Still  they  gave  ofl'ense.  The  peoi)Ie  apjiealed 
to  him  in  vain  to  forbear.  Then  the  inlln- 
ential  men  of  the  city  forwarded  a  ]ietition 
to  the  <'m)(eror,  who  ordered  I'ilat4>  to  take 
thi-  shields  back  again  to  Cii-sarea  (I'hilo, 
Legal,  ad  Caiiim  xxxviii.i.  In  narrating  this 
event.  I'liilo,  or  rather  .\gripi)a  I.,  in  a  letter 
which  I'hilo  ciles.  describes  I'ilate  as  a  man 
of  inflexible  dis]iosition.  and  merciless,  as 
well  as  obstinate.  He  also  says  that  he  feared 
they  might  comi)lain   to  the  emi>eror  about 


Pilate  in  respect  to  his  corruption  and  his 

acts  of  violence,  ami  his  habit  of  insulting 
peiijile,  and  his  cruelty,  ami  his  continual 
execution  of  jieojile  untried  and  uncon- 
demned,  his  never-ending  and  gratuitous 
and  most  grievous  inhumanity,  Pilate  was 
in  oflice  when  John  the  Bajttist  ami  our 
Lord  bigan  their  respective  miiiistrie,s  ( I.iike 
iii,  1).  It  was  the  custom  of  the  jirocuiators 
to  go  u])  to  Jerusalem  when  the  immense 
gatherings  to<jk  ]ilace  at  the  leading  .lewish 
festivals.  On  these  occasions  they  took  iiji 
their  residence  in  the  jialace  of  Herod.  It 
was  probably  at  one  of  these  that  Pilate  fell 
U])on  the  Galilasans,  and  mingled  their  blood 
with  their  sacrifices  (Luke  xiii.  l,-2i.  The 
Galilaans  were  a  turbulent  class  of  men, 
])rone  to  misbehave  when  they  came  uji  to  the 
festivals  (Anti(|.  xvii,  10,  -2  and  !i).  There  is 
no  reason  to  believe  that  Pilate  wonhl  have 
treated  them  as  he  did  unless  they  had  first 
broken  out  into  riot.  It  is  i)robable  that 
Herod  Antijias  took  oflense  at  the  summary 
way  in  which  his  subjects  were  slain  by 
Pilate  on  this  occasion  ;  but  whatever  may 
have  been  the  origin  of  the  variance  between 
the  two,  Herod's  ill-will  was  apjieased  by 
Pilate's  acknowledgment  of  the  tetrarch's 
jurisdiction  in  Galiltean  atl'airs  (Luke  xxiii. 
(i-l:2)  on  the  day  when  our  Lord  was  put  to 
death. 

The  character  of  I'ilate,  which  these 
various  incidents  of  his  official  career  reveal, 
is  seen  in  his  treatment  of  Jesus  also.  I'ilate 
was  a  worhlliiig  willing  enough  to  act  justly 
if  this  could  bi'  done  consistently  with  his 
interests,  and  to  avoid  criminal  acts  provided 
that  this  could  be  done  at  small  co.st ;  but  if 
heavy  payment  were  needed.  Pilate  Avas  not 
the  man  to  give  it.  His  secret  <iiiesfit)n  to 
himself  was  not,  What  is  my  duty".'  but, 
What  is  my  interest '{  He  acquitted  our  Lord 
of  evil,  was  desirous  of  releasing  him,  and 
was  aware  that  justice  re(|uired  that  this 
should  be  done;  but  he  knew  also  that  it 
would  further  increase  his  unj)o]iularity  ;  so 
to  ])lease  the  Jewish  people,  he  gave  orders  to 
.scourge  him  in  whom  he  had  just  before  de- 
clared that  he  had  found  no  crime.  Ho 
allowed  the  Koman  soldiers,  whom  a  single 
word  from  him  would  have  restrained,  to 
inflict  new  tortures  on  the  already  lacerated 
body  of  Jesus,  and  after  many  more  insults 
and  injuries  to  the  nucomiilaiiiing  siillerer, 
finally  answeri'd  Ihe  Jewish  clamors  for  the 
crucifixion  of  the  Son  of  (iod  by  giving  sen- 
fence  that  it  should  be  as  they  required 
(Mat.  xxvii.  ;  Luke  xxiii.).  Pilate's  govern- 
ment came  to  an  abruiif  end.  A  certain 
Samaritan  iK-rsiunled  his  countrymen  that 
if  they  would  go  with  him  up  mount  (ieri/im 
he  Would  show  them  where  certain  vessels 
of  the  tabernacle  had  been  hiihlen  by  Moses. 
It  was  a  mere  i>retext,  the  idotter  doubtless 
kmiwing  that  Moses  never  was  at  unaint 
Gerizim,  Hiil  multitudes  were  willing  to 
accompany  t^e  demagogtie  up  the  nn)untain. 


Fildash 


584 


Pipe 


As  they  carried  arms,  Pilate  seized  all  the 
ways  to  (Ji'riziiii  with  horse  and  foot  soldiers. 
and  attai'kiiif;  the  mass  of  the  imifcsscd 
treasure  sei-ki'rs  at  a  village  at  the  foot  of 
the  mountain,  slew  a  great  many,  securing 
others  and  sending  them  to  he  executed. 
The  Samaritans  forwarded  a  couiiilainl 
against  I'ilati'  to  his  immediate  su|ierior. 
^'itellius,  i)resident  of  Syria.  \'itellius  ap- 
pointed a  new  procurator,  and  ordered  Pilate 
to  proceed  to  Rome  to  answer  to  the  emperor 
for  his  conduct.  Before  Pilate  arrived  Ti- 
berius had  died,  :March  Kith,  a.  d.  :>7  (Antiq. 
xviii.  4,  1  and  2).  It  is  reported  that  Pilate 
was  banished  to  Vienne,  on  the  Khoue,  in 
the  south  of  France,  and  ultimately  com- 
nntted  suicide. 

Various  Acta  Pilati,  Acts  of  Pilate,  are 
extant,  but  no  two  of  them  agree,  and  all 
are  considered  to  be  spurious. 

Pil'dash. 

A  son  of  Xahor  and  Milcah  (Gen.  xxii.  22). 

Pil'ha,  in  A.  V.  Pil'e-ha  [a  slice,  plow- 
ing]. 

One  of  those  who  with  Nehemiah  sealed 
the  covenant  (Neh.  x.  24). 

PUl. 

To  take  the  skin  or  rind  off,  to  peel  (Gen. 
XXX.  38,  R.  V.  peel). 

PU'lar. 

1.  A  stone  erected  as  a  sign  of  the  holiness 
of  a  place  (Gen.  xxviii.  18),  as  a  memorial 
of  some  person  or  event  (xxxi.  45  ;  Josh, 
iv.  5-9;  1  Sam.  vii.  12;  2  Sam.  xviii.  18; 
and  see  Garrison),  or  as  a  representa- 
tive of  parties  present  (Ex.  xxiv.  4).  Isaiah 
prophesied  that  the  time  is  coming  when 
the  converts  to  the  true  faith  in  Egypt 
shall  erect  an  altar  and  a  pillar  to  the  Lord 
(Is.  xix.  19),  as  Abraham  and  Jacob  did  of 
old  in  Canaan.  The  i)illar  was  used  by  the 
heathen.  The  Canaanites  erected  pillars  in 
connection  with  the  worship  of  Baal.  The 
Israelites  were  strictly  enjoined,  in  the  oldest 
legislation,  to  break  them  and  overthrow  the 
altars  (Ex.  xxiii.  24,  R.  Y.),  and  they  were  for- 
bidden to  erect  similar  pillars  beside  the  altar 
of  the  Lord  (Deut.  xvi.  22).  Pillars,  how- 
ever, found  favor  among  the  degenerate  Is- 
raelites of  the  northern  kingdom  (Hos.  iii.  4  ; 
X.  1, 2),  and  even  in  Judah  (Mic.  v.  13,  R.  V.). 

2.  A  su])port,  much  used  in  ancient  archi- 
tecture for  u]diolding  roofs  and  curtains  (Ex. 
xxvi.  32  :  ,Judg.  xvi.  2G).  The  earth  and  the 
heavens  were  often  s])oken  of  ]ioetically  as 
sujjported  by  pillars  (1  Sam.  ii.  8;  Job.  ix. 
C) ;  xxvi.  11).  Strong  men  and  fundamental 
principles  are  figuratively  called  pillars  (Gal. 
ii.  9;  1  Tim.  iii.  15). 

Pil'low.     See  Bolster. 

Pil'tai  [characterized  1)y  deliverance]. 

A  i)riest,  head  of  the  father's  house  of 
Moadiah  in  tlie  days  of  the  high  priest  Joia- 
kim  (Neh.  xii.  17). 


{      Pine  and  Pine  Tree. 

1.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Tidhar, 
the  name  of  a  tree  in  Lebanon   (Is.  xli.  19; 

j    Ix.   13;    R.   V.    margin,    planej.     It    has   not 
I   been  properly  identified. 

2.  The  rendering  of  '£.•>  shemen,  oil  tree 
(N'eh.  viii.  15,  in  R.  V.  wild  olive).  See  Oil 
Tkkk. 

Pin'na-cle. 

A  part  of  the  temple,  the  edge  of  which 
was  at  a  great  height  above  the  ground  (Mat. 
iv.  5).  Exact  identification  is  imjio.ssihle. 
The  Greek  word  pterugion,  like  pinnacle 
which  is  used  to  translate  it,  literally  means 
a  little  wing  ;  and  it  denotes  the  fin  of  a  fish, 
the  border  of  a  garment,  or  the  end  of  the 
breastplate  (Lev.  xi.  9 ;  Num.  xv.  38 ;  Ex. 
xxviii.  26,  in  Septuagint).  It  ma.v  be  simply 
the  edge  of  the  roof  or  court.  I.,ightfoot,  in- 
fluenced by  the  meaning  of  the  (ireek  word, 
suggested  the  porch  which  projected  on  each 
side  of  the  temple  like  wings  (War  v.  5,  4). 
Others  have  thought  of  the  royal  porch 
which  adjoined  the  temple  and  towered  400 
cubits  above  the  valley  of  the  Kidron  (Antiq. 
XV.  11,  5 ;  XX.  9,  7).  The  golden  spikes 
which  were  erected  on  the  roof  of  the  temple 
to  prevent  birds  from  alighting,  have  been 
thought  of  also  as  most  nearly  resembling 
slender  towers  or  pinnacles  in  the  modern 
sense  ;  but  they  were  many,  and  the  evangel- 
ists speak  of  the  pinnacle  as  though  there 
were  but  one  (R.  V.). 

Pi'non. 

A  chieftain  of  Edom  (Gen.  xxxvi.  41 ;  1 
Chron.  i.  52),  probably  catalogued  by  the 
name    of   his  town   (Gen.   xxxvi.  40) ;    see 

PUNON. 

Pipe. 

1.  A  wind  instrument,  called  in  Hebrew 
lialil,  pierced  instrument,  and  in  Greek 
aulas.  It  existed  in  a  variety  of  forms. 
The  single  pipe  or  reed  was  held  vertically 
and  blown  by  a  mouthj)iece  at  the  end.  A 
ditferent  kind  was  held  and  blown  like  a 
flute.  The  double  pipe  consisted  of  right 
and  left  tubes,  which  were  blown  at  the 
same  time,  and  played  each  with  the  corre- 
sponding hand.  The  holes  of  a  pipe  num- 
bered two,  three,  or  four.  It  was  used  in 
orchestra  or  was  played  alone  (1  Sam.  x.  5; 
1  Kin.  i.  40),  and  it  accompanied  merry  song, 
religious  praise,  and  the  funeral  dirge  (Is.  v. 
12;  XXX.  29;  Mat.  ix.  23;  xi.  17).  See 
Music. 

2.  A  wind  instrument  of  ancient  origin, 
called  'utjdb  (Gen.  iv.  21),  which  was  used 
in  merrymaking  (.Job  xxi.  12;  xxx.  31),  and 
was  deemed  worthy  of  em]>l()ymont  in  the 
praise  of  God  (Ps.  cl.  4).  According  to  tlie 
Targums  it  was  a  pipe.  The  Vulgate  and  in 
Ps.  cl.  the  Septuagint  ex])lain  it  as  a  wind 
instrument,  the  organoii.  The  A.  V.  always 
translates  it  organ,  doubtless  in  the  sense  of 
mouth  organ  or  set  of  pipes.  The  R.  V.  uni- 
formly renders  it  pipe. 


Piram 


585 


Pithom 


It  is  uncertain  whethernefceA  (Ezck.  xxviii. 
13)  (liMiotos  a  pierced  iiistninu'nt  (E.  V.  j>ii)f) 
or  a  piTlVirateil  ficin. 

Pl'ram  [like  :i  wild  ass,  swift]. 
A  CunaaniU;  kiii^'  of  Janiiiitli,  one  of  those 
di'ftalod  l)y.losiiua  before  (iiln'on  (Josh.  x.  3). 

Pir'a-thon,  in  K.  V.  of  1  Mac.  ix.^oPhara- 
tbon  [nakedness,  prominence].      In  \.  V.  of 

I  Mac.  thi'  adjective  rharatlumi  is  used. 

A  town  in  tlie  mount  of  tlie  Amalekitos, 
in  tlie  I'lpliraiinitc  territory.  Aixlon.  the 
jud;,'e.  and  Ilenaiali,  tlic  military  ollicial, 
were  rii-atlionites  (Judj;.  xii.  13-15;  2  Sam. 
xxiii.:5n;  l  (hron.  xxvii.  11).  It  was  forti- 
fied l)y  Uacchides  (1  Mac.  ix.  ")();  cp.  Antifj. 
xiii.  1,  3).  Koliinson  identilied  it  plausibly 
with  Fer'ata,  on  a  hill  about  d  mil(>s  west  by 
soiitli  of  Shecheiii.     (Jondcr  .sujisiosts  Fer'on, 

II  miles   west  by  north  of  Shechem  ;    see 

OrilKAH. 

Pis'gah  [a  i)art,  piece,  division]. 

Tbat  part  of  the  Abarini  raufje  of  moun- 
tains near  the  northeastern  end  of  the  Dead 
Sea  (Deut.  xxxiv.  1  with  iii.  27  and  xxxii. 
4!) I.  The  Dead  Sea  was  tiiider  its  s]o]ies 
(Deut.  iii.  17).  Its  top  looked  down  0)1011  the 
desert(Num.  xxi.20).  The  field  of  Zoiibim  on 
its  top  was  visited  by  Balaam  and  Halak  (xxiii. 
14).  From  its  summit,  called  N'ebo,  a  large 
part  of  Canaan  wi-st  of  the  Jordan  was  visi- 
ble, and  from  it  Moses  viewed  the  ])romiscd 
land  (Deut.  iii.  27;  xxxiv.  1-4)  ;  see  Nkbo. 
It  was  ou  the  .southern  border  of  the 
realm  of  Sihon,  king  of  the  Amorites 
(Josh.  xii.  2,  3).  As  lati'  as  the  time  of  Kuse- 
bius,  llie  mountaiiuius  country  adjacent  to 
mount  Peor  was  called  Phasgo.  Put  the 
name  is  no  longer  attached  to  the  eastern 
mountains,  hut  seems  to  linger  in  the  rocky 
he.idland,  I\as  el-Feshkah,  on  the  opposite 
ide  of  the  sea. 

Pl'shon.    See  Eden. 

Pi-sid'i-a. 

A  district  of  Asia  Minor,  bounded  on  the 
north  by  Phrygia;  on  the  south  liy  Lycia 
and  Pamidiylia;  on  tlie  I'ast  by  Lycaonia  ; 
and  on  the  west  by  ('aria.  It  formed  a  part 
f)f  the  Roman  province  of  (lalatia.  The 
mountain  cbain  of  Taurus  runs  tlirougli  it, 
ami  its  turbulent  inbabitants  were  so  brave 
that  they  were  never  entirely  subdued  either 
by  the  Persians  or  l)y  the  Konians.  Its  chief 
town  was  Antioch,  visited  by  Paul  (Acts  xiii. 
14). 

Pi'son.     See  Eden. 

Pis'pah. 

An  .\sheriU',  son  of  Jether  (1  Chrou.  vii. 
38i. 

Pit. 

.\  large  deep  hole  in  the  ground.  It  may 
be  either  natural  or  artificial  ((ten.  xiv.  10; 
xxxvii.  2<t,  24). 

Figunitivi'ly  it  is  used  for  the  gnive  or 
death  (Job  xxxiii.   lb,  24), and  it  is  t-mployed 


thrice  to  render  8h"ol  (Num.  xvi.  30,  33  ;  Job 
xvii.  l(i) ;  see  .ShkoL. 
Pitch. 

1.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  KopJur, 
covering.  The  ark  of  Noah  was  daubed 
over  with  it,  to  render  the  junction  of 
wooden  planks  impervious  to  water  ((ien.  vi. 
14).  It  was  probably  asjihalt  from  Hit,  iu 
Babylonia.     See  P.ITI.MEN. 

2.  The  rendering  of  tlie  Hebrew  Zepheth, 
liquid.  The  ark  of  Moses  was  covered  over 
with  it  (Exod.  ii.  3).  Tlie  streams  in  the 
land  of  Edom  were  to  become  pitch  of  this 
character  (Is.  xxxiv.  9).  The  last  jiassage 
sugge.sts  that  it  also  was  asphalt  from  some 
locality.     See  P>iTfMi';N. 

Pitch'er. 

A  water  jar  of  earthenware  (cp.  .Tiidg.  vii. 
19),  in  the  East  generally  having  one  or  two 
handles.  It  is  used  for  drawing  water  at  the 
•well  and  carrying  it  home.  Ordinarily 
women  go  for  water,  carrying  the  jiitcher  on 
the  head  or  shoulder  ((Jen.  xxiv.  15,  Ki),  but 
men  sometimes  do  this  work  (Mark  xiv.  13). 
The  Hebrew  word  is  rendered  barrel  iu  1 
Kin.  xvii.  12,  where  the  vessel  was  used  for 
holding  meal.  See  illustnitions,  J.\ton  and 
Fountain  of  the  Virgin,  article  Jkkis.\i,em. 

Pi'thom  [p]gyptian  pa-tum,  abode  of  Turn 
(Turn  being  the  setting  sun,  worshiped  by 
the  Egyptians  as  a  god)]. 

One  of  the  two  store  cities  ■which  the 
Israelites  when  in  bondage  in  Egyjit  built 
for  Pharaoh  (Exod.  i.  11).  Excavations, 
made  under  the  auspices  of  the  Egyptian 
Elxploration  Fund,  liy  Edouard  Naville  at 
Tell  el-Maskhuta.  showed  this  to  be  the 
ancient  Pithom.  It  is  on  the  south  side  of 
the  sweet-water  canal  which  runs  from  Cairo 
to  Suez  through  the  wady  Tumilat.  There 
seems  to  have  been  at  the  .'^pot  an  ancient 
shrine  dedicated  to  Turn  ;  but  inscrijitions 
dug  up  indicate  that  the  city  and  fortifica- 
tions did  not  come  into  existence  till  the 
time  of  Ramses  II.,  the  Pharaoh,  it  is  be- 
lieved, of  the  oppression.  No  more  ancient 
monuments  than  his  have  been  found  in  the 
place.  To  the  northeast  of  the  temple  of 
Turn  are  extensive  subt<'rranean  buildings. 
The  walls  are  !l  feet  thick,  built  of  crude 
bricks  joined  by  thin  layers  of  mortar.  A 
most  interesting  observation  was  made  that 
some  bricks  ha<l  been  manufactured  with 
and  some  without  straw  'cji.  Exod.  v.  10-12). 
The  walls  inclosed  a  number  of  rectangular 
chamliers  not  communicating  with  each 
other,  the  only  access  to  them  being  from 
above.  Naville  believes  tbat  they  were 
storehouses  or  gnmaries,  into  which  the 
Pharaohs  gathered  the  jirovisioiis  neces,sary 
for  armies  or  even  for  caravans  about  to  cross 
the  <le.sert  into  Syria.  At  the  time  of  the 
(ireek  dynasty  Pithom  received  the  new- 
name  of  Heroopolis,  city  of  heroes,  wliich 
the  Romans  abridged  into  Ero,  as  is  proved  liy 
Ijjitin  in.scri]itions  from  the  locality.     Snyce 


Pithon 


586 


Plane 


compares  Ero  with  Egyptian  ara,  a  storehouse. 
It  was  ill  Ihc  liuul  of  (Joslicn  :  fur  tlie  Scp- 
tuasiiit  sul'Stitutcs  lleroojjolis  for  (loslicii  in 
Gcu.  xlvi.  'Jf^,  ami  tlie  Coptic  vt'rsioii,  trans- 
lated l'n)in  the  Septiiagiut,  reads  near  Pithoiii, 
iu  the  land  of  Kaniscs.  All  around  the  sacred 
huildings  of  Pithom  was  the  civil  city  of 
Thuku,  l)elieved  to  be  the  Succoth  of  Exod. 
xii.  87. 

Pi'thon. 

A  descendant  of  Jonathan  (1  Chron.  viii. 
35 ;  ix.  41). 

Plague. 

An  infliction  sent  by  God  as  a  punishment 
for  sin.  In  most  of  the  cases  mentioned  in 
the  Bil)lc  the  infliction  is  an  epidemic  or 
other  disease,  hut  it  may  ))e  also  a  judgment 
of  a  different  character.  A  disease  to  be  a 
plague  need  not  be  miraculous.  The  particu- 
lar disease  which  (lod  has  attached  as  a  pen- 
alty for  the  violation  of  this  or  that  physical 
or  mental  law  may  he  properly  called  a 
plague,  if  file  act  has  moral  quality.  And 
even  a  disease  which  arises  from  ignorance 
of  sanitary  laws  and  from  a  violation  of 
nature  in  no  wise  criminal,  and  which  in 
itself  is  without  moral  significance,  may  be- 
come in  God's  hands  an  instrument  for  the 
punishment  of  evil  doers,  God  predetermin- 
ing and  arranging  for  the  time  and  place  of 
its  outbreak  with  this  end  in  view.  What  is 
called  in  English  by  way  of  emphasis  the 
plague  is  a  highly  malignant  form  of  typhus 
fever,  due  to  neglect  of  sanitary  precautions, 
which  has  frequently  originated  at  Cairo,  in 
Egypt,  and  spread  to  Syria,  Asia  Minor,  and 
the  adjacent  regions.  It  is  probable  that  it 
has  been  used  in  times  past  as  a  chastening 
rod. 

The  first  plague  mentioned  in  Scripture 
was  that  sent  on  Pharaoh,  Abraham's  con- 
temporary, for  the  protection  of  Sarah,  the 
patriarch's  Avife  (Gen.  ,xii.  17).  The  next 
plagues  in  point  of  time  were  the  ten  in- 
flicted on  Egypt.  Tliey  were  not  phenomena 
■with  which  the  Egyptians  were  previously 
unacquainted  ;  but  in  most  cases,  if  not  in 
all,  they  were  distresses  common  to  the 
country.  Yet  tlie.y  were  not  mere  natural 
phenimiena  in  aggravated  form ;  they  ex- 
hibited unmistakably  miraculous  features; 
see  Egypt  III.  6.  The  first  consisted  in  the 
change  of  the  river  water  into  blood  or  some- 
tliing  like  it  (Ex.  vii.  11-25)  ;  the  second,  in 
the  vast  multiplication  of  frogs  (viii.  1-15) ; 
the  third,  in  lice,  sand  flies,  or  fleas,  i)roduced 
from  the  dust  (10-19);  the  fourth,  in  swarms 
of  flies  (;2()-.'>2) ;  the  fifth,  in  murrain  ou  the 
cattle  (ix.  1-7)  ;  the  sixth,  in  boils  and  blains 
on  man  and  beast  (H-12)  ;  tlu-  seventh,  in  a  de- 
structive hailstorm  (13-85);  the  eighth,  in 
locusts  brought  by  the  east  wind  (x.  1-20) ; 
the  ninth,  in  dense  darkness  (21-29)  :  and 
the  tenth,  in  the  death  of  all  tlie  firstl)orn 
(xi.  1-xii.  .30).  A  ])lagu('  was  sent  nixm  the 
Israelites  for    making   and    worsliii)ing    the 


golden  calf  (Ex.  xxxii.  35) ;  and  another  for 
murnuiring  against  the  sustenance  provided 
for  tiicm  by  (iod  (Num.  xi.  33,  34)  ;  another 
slew  I  lie  spies  who  had  brought  up  an  evil 
report  of  the  land  (xiv.  37)  ;  another  raged 
among  the  people  for  murmuring  at  the 
righteous  punishment  of  the  rebels  Korah, 
Datlian,  and  Abiram.  In  this  visiUition  11.700 
jierished  (xvi.  4()-.50).  In  another  plague 
sent  upon  the  j)eople  on  account  of  tiie  ichjla- 
tries  and  imjjurities  at  Baal-peor  24,(X)0  died 
(xxv.  9;  .Josh.  xxii.  17;  Ps.  cvi.  29,  30).  The 
infliction  of  the  emerods,  or  piles,  upon  the 
Philistines  is  called  a  plague  (1  Sam.  vi.  4). 
A  plague  or  ]iestilence,  in  which  70,000  per- 
ished, followed  on  David's  numbering  the 
l)eople  (2  Sam.  xxiv.  13-25;  1  Chron.  xxi. 
12-30).  A  plague  was  threatened  against 
Jehoram,  king  of  Judah,  and  his  people 
(2  Chron.  xxi.  14,  15). 

Sometimes  the  word  plague  is  used  of  dis- 
eases which  are  not  epidemic :  it  is  applied, 
for  instance,  to  an  issue  of  blood  (.Mark  v. 
29,  34),  to  leprosy  in  individuals  (Lev.  xiii. 
3,  5,  6),  and  even  to  the  spreading  of  some 
inferior  forms  of  vegetation  on  the  walls  of 
presumably  damp  houses  (xiv.  35). 

Plain. 

In  the  A.  V.  seven  difierent  words  are  ren- 
dered ])lain.  Three  of  these  deserve  special 
notice,  sh'phelah,  kikkar,  and  '"rabah.  The 
term  slCphelah,  or  lowland,  as  E.  V.  renders 
it,  was  the  technical  designation  for  the  dis- 
tricts of  southern  and  in  part  of  central  Pal- 
estine, between  the  higher  hills  on  the  east 
and  the  low-lying  plain  along  the  Mediter- 
ranean on  the  west.  In  Josh.  xv.  33-47 
forty-two  towns  of  Judah,  with  their  vil- 
lages, are  enumerated  as  being  within  its 
bounds.  Some  of  these  were,  however,  gen- 
erally in  Philistine  hands,  and  hence  Chad. 
19  mentions  the  lowland  of  the  Philistines. 
See  Lowland. 

Kikkar,  which  means  circle,  circuit,  was 
applied  especially  to  the  plain  of  the  .Jordan 
from  at  least  Succoth  ou  the  north  to  Sodom 
and  Gomorrah  on  the  south  (Gen.  xiii.  10, 11, 
12  ;  xix.  17,  2H  ;  Deut.  xxxiv.  3  ;  2  Sam.  xviii. 
23;  2  Chron.  iv.  17).  The  valley  as  far 
north  as  the  sea  of  Galilee  was  probably  in- 
cluded in  the  designation  (War  iv.  S.  2). 

The  word  '"rahnli,  whicli  is  rendered  jilain 
in  A.  Y.  of  Deut.  ii.  8;  iii.  17,  etc.,  is  gen- 
erally U'ft  untranslated  in  E.  Y.  See  AK.\B.'i.H. 

Plane. 

"^rhe  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  'Armon, 
naked  one  (Gen.  xxx.  37;  Ezek.  xxxi.  8). 
So  E.  Y.  and  the  ancient  versions,  except 
that  the  Se])tuagint  renders  it  ])ine  in 
Ezekiel.  The  A.  Y.,  following  the  rabbini- 
cal iiiteri)retation,  calls  it  chestnut.  The 
oriental  i)lane  tree  (Plntnnns  orientalis)  grows 
from  70  to  90  feet  high.  It  lias  palmately 
IoIkmI  leaves.  rcs(>mbling  those  of  tlu>  sycamore 
maple,  which  is  the  reason  why  the  latter  tree 
is  sometimes  called  a  idane,  and  has  the  specific 


Plaster 


587 


Poetry 


name  pneudo-phitannx.  The  (irieiital  jilant!  is 
iiKliyi'iioiis  ill  SDiitluTii  Kur()]ic  and  western 
Asia.  In  ralcslini.'  it  is  wild  by  the  side  of 
mouiitain  streams,  Ijesides  being  cultivated 
in  many  |ilaces. 

Plas'ter.    See  Moutar  I. 

Pledge.    See  Loan. 

Ple'ia-des  [daujjiiters  of  sailing,  .stars 
wliicli  inilicate  l>y  their  rising  the  time  of 
.Siifc  navigation  ;  or  jierhaps,  the  full  or  com- 
pact group]. 

The  Hebrew  word  Kiiiiah  is  llic  name  of  :i 
brilliant  star  or  constellation  (Job  ix.  !> : 
xxxviii.  151  :  and  Amos  v.  h,  in  A.  V.  the 
seven  stains),  and  in  the  o|)inion  of  the 
nuyority  of  ancient  writers  it  denotes  the 
Pleiades.  An  Ar.iljic  designation  for  the 
Pleiades  is  Thuriyija' ,  which  likewise  signi- 
fies a  comiiact  grouj>. 

The  Pleiades  are  a  cluster  of  stars  in  the 
constellation  Taurus  (the  Hull),  in  the  shoul- 
der of  the  animal.  For  some  unknown 
reason  they  were  anciently  said  to  l)e  seven  ; 
and  since  only  six  were  usually  seen,  the 
notion  arose  of  a  lust  Pleiad.  Six  stars  are 
visible  to  the  naked  eye  on  ordinary  nights, 
hut  more  may  he  seen  by  jiersons  of  very 
good  sight.  With  the  aid  of  a  telescope  a 
bundred  stars  may  be  counted.  Jose]ihus 
uses  the  setting  of  the  Pleiades  as  a  note  of 
time  {.\ntiq.  xiii.  8,  2). 

Plow. 

In  Palestine  the  plow  is  of  primitive 
character.  It  consists  of  a  jiole  or  the 
bran<']i  of  a  tree,  to  one  end  of  which   the 


ably  twelve  plows,  each  with  its  pair  of 
bullocks  and  its  num.  Klisha  being  the  last 
of  the  twelve  (1  Kin.  xix.  11),  20). 


J'low,  Plowshares,  and  Yokes, 

as  still  u.sed  in  A>ia  Minor. 

Poch'e-reth-haz-ze-ba'im  •[i)erhai)s,  cap- 
turing gazelles]. 

Founder  of  a  family,  members  of  which 
returned  from  the  Kabylonian  captivity 
(Ezra  ii.  TVi  ;  Neh.  vii.  5!)).  The  A.  V. 
divides  the  name,  makes  the  latter  part  a 
place,  and  calls  the  man  Pochereth  of  Ze- 
baim. 

Po'et-ry. 

Poetry  is  one  of  the  earliest  forms  in  wliicli 
the  literary  taste  of  a  people  begins  to  ex- 
])ress  itself.  It  is  rhythmical  and  regular  in 
form,  like  the  motions  of  the  dancer  wliich 
it    so    frequently    accompanied    in    ancient 


IMowiiiu  ami  .'^owing  in  .\ncient  Egypt. 


yoke  is  attached,  while  from  the  other  end 
a  small  branch  jirojects  or  else  through  the 
end  a  beam  is  thrust  which  is  sheathed  in  a 
thin  plate  of  iron  and  forms  tin-  share  (Is.  ii. 
4).  It  was  dragged  by  oxen  or  cows,  and 
was  guided  by  the  hand  (,Iudg.  xiv.  IH;  .Tob 
i.  II;  I-^cclus.  xxxviii.  'Z'i.  'J(i ;  Luke  ix.  (>'2). 
Such  an  implement  can  do  little  more  than 
scratch  the  surface  of  the  ground.  Hence 
the  .sjime  land  has  to  be  ))lowed  over  and 
over  again.  When  Klisha  was  jjlowing 
with  twelve  \<>ke  of  oxen  there  were  i>rob- 


times  (Ex.  xv.  20,  21).  It  is  naturally  born 
of  the  emotions,  and  is  called  forth  by  indi- 
vidual or  national  joy  or  sormw  or  deep 
concern.  The  imagination  also  and  the 
habit  of  expressing  thought  iTi  vivid  lan- 
guage borrowi'd  from  nature,  which  are  vital 
elements  in  jioetry.  come  to  manifestation 
during  the  childhood  of  a  iH'o])le.  Tin-  He- 
brews formed  no  exception  to  the  rule.  The 
words  of  Sarah  at  the  liirth  of  her  .son  have 
the  jioetic  ring  ((ien.  xxi.  <>.  7).  The  blessing 
which  .lacob  bestowed  on  his  sons  as  the  time 


Poetry 


588 


Poetry 


of  his  death  approached  was  couched  in  tlie 
sententious  and  picturesque  form  of  Semitic 
poetry  (xlix.).  Tiie  sonj;  whicli  sprang  spon- 
tiineously  from  Moses'  lii)s.  when  lie  hehekl 
the  overthrow  of  Plianioh's  host  in  tiie  sea 
and  discerned  at  once  the  moral  effect  which 
it  would  have  on  the  nations  of  ("auaan, 
was  also  an  utterance  horn  of  strong  feel- 
ing and  cast  into  the  simple  form  of  lle- 
hrew  poetry. 

Ancient  Semitic  poetry  does  not  rhyme. 
Poems  have  been  discovered  which  sliow  a 
certain  caisural  arrangement,  hut  this  feature 
is  not  essential.  Assonance,  alliteration,  and 
rhyme,  so  common  in  occidental  poetry,  oc- 
casionally occur  in  Hel)rew  poetry,  l)ut  they 
also  ar(>  not  essential  and  they  are  extremely 
rare.  Nor  is  there  a  regular  recurrence  of 
long  and  short  syllables  or  feet ;  but  the 
rhythmical  tendency  was  strongly  felt  and 
unconsciously  led  to  producing  lines  of  nearly 
the  same  number  of  syllables. 

The  essential  formal  characteristic  of  He- 
brew poetry  is  ]iarallelism.  By  this  is  meant 
that  the  sentiment  of  one  line  is  echoed  in  the 
next.    This  parallelism  is  of  various  kinds  : 

1.  Synonymous,  when  the  thought  of  the 
first  line  is  repeated  in  other  words  in  the 
second  line,  as  in  Gen.  iv.  23  : 

Adali  and  Zillah,  hear  my  voice; 
Ye   wives   of  Lamech,   hearken   unto   my 
speech. 

The  couplet : 

For  I  have  slain  a  man  to  my  wounding  [or, 

for  wounding  me]. 
And  a  young  man  to  my  hurt  [or,  for  bruising 

me], 

likewise  exhibits  synonymous  parallelism ; 
and  at  the  same  time  it  shows  the  exegetical 
importance  of  an  acquaintance  with  this 
principle,  for  Lamech  must  not  be  under- 
stood to  speak  of  two  murders.  He  men- 
tions killing  but  one  man.  This  principle 
also  enables  the  expositor  of  Scripture  to 
interpret  ambiguous  words  ;  for  example,  in 
Ps.  xxii.  20 : 

Deliver  my  soul  from  the  sword  ; 

My  darling  from  the  power  of  the  dog, 

the  parallelism  determines  that  the  darling 
referred  to  is  not  a  dear  friend,  but  means 
the  psalmist's  soul  or  his  life. 

2.  Progressive,  in  which  the  second  line 
expresses  a  new  idea  more  or  less  closely  re- 
lated to  the  lirst ;  as  in  Job  iii.  17: 

There  the  wicked  cease  from  troubling  ; 
And  there  the  weary  be  at  rest. 

3.  Synthetic  or  constructive,  in  which  there 
is  parallelism  of  structure  only,  while!  the 
thought  of  one  line  serves  as  the  foundation 
upon  which  tf)  l)uil(l  a  new  thought  ;  as  Ps. 
XXV.  12  : 

What  man  is  lie  that  feareth  tlie  I,ord? 
Him  sliall  he  instruct  in  the  way  that  he 
shall  choose  ; 


or  Prov.  xxvi.  4  : 

Answer  not  a  fool  according  to  his  folly, 
Ijest  thou  also  be  like  unto  him ; 

or  Ps.  xxiv.  9 : 

Lift  up  your  heads,  O  ye  gates ; 

Yea,  lift  them  up,  ve  everlasting  doors  : 

And  the  King  of  glory  shall  come  in. 

4.  Climactic,  in  which  the  characteristic 
words  are  repeated  ami  form  the  ladder  on 
which  the  thought  climbs  to  completion  or 
to  emphatic  reiteration;  as  in  Ps.  xxix.  5: 

The  voice  of  the  Lord  breaketh  the  cedars  ; 
Yea,  the  Lord  breaketh  in  pieces  the  cedars 
of  Lebanon ; 

and  in  Ps.  cxxi.  3,  4 : 

He  will  not  suffer  thy  foot  to  be  moved  : 
He  that  keejieth  thee  will  not  slumber; 
Behc)l(l,  he  that  kcepeth   Israel 
Shall  neither  slumber  nor  sleep. 

B.  Antithetic,  in  which  the  thought  is  made 
more  clear  by  contrast ;  as  in  Mat.  viii.  20 : 

The  foxes  have  holes. 
And  the  birds  of  the  air  have  nests : 
But  the  Son  of  man  hath  not  where  to  lay 
his  head. 

6.  Comparative,  in  which  the  thought  is 
explained  by  comparison  with  something  else 
that  is  familiar  ;  as  in  Ps.  xlii.  1 : 

As  the  hart  panteth  after  the  water  brooks, 
So  panteth  my  soul  after  thee,  O  God. 

The  verses  are  usually  distichs,  but  tristichs 
are  common,  as  may  be  seen  from  the  exam- 
ples already  cited.  Tetrastichs  and  penta- 
stichs  also  occur  (Ps.  xxv.  7 ;  xxvii.  3.  4,  9 ; 
xxxvii.  7,14,20,25,28,34.40).  The  stanza  is 
not  essential  to  poetry,  and  it  is  rare  in  He- 
brew poetry.  It  is  used  in  Ps.  xlii.  and  xliii., 
which  form  one  poem,  divided  into  three 
equal  parts  by  a  recurring  verse.  Ps.  xlvi. 
consists  of  three  groujis  of  three  verses  each, 
the  conclusion  of  each  group  being  marked 
by  Selah,  and  the  last  two  groups  closing 
with  a  refrain.  There  are  also  aliihabetical 
psalms,  in  which  the  principle  is  more  or 
less  fully  observed  of  beginning  the  suc- 
cessive verses  with  the  letters  of  the  alphabet 
in  consecutive  order  (Ps.  xxv. :  xxxiv.  ; 
xxxvii.).  Ps.  cxix.  consists  of  twenty-two 
groups  of  eight  verses  eacdi.  The  number 
of  groups  equals  the  number  of  letters  in  the 
Hebrew  alphabet,  and  the  initial  letter  of 
each  verse  in  a  group  is  in  the  original  that 
letter  of  the  alphabet  which  numerically 
corresponds  to  the  grou]).  The  boidi  of 
Lamentations  is  constructed  on  a  similar 
aljihabetical  plan  ;  .see  Lamentations. 

Poetry  is  usually  classified  as  epic,  dra- 
matic, lyric,  and  didactic.  Neither  the  epic 
nor  the  drama  is  found  in  the  Bible  :  but  the 
Book  of  .lob  has  a  semi-dramatic  form,  for 
there  is  action,  which  forms  the  basis  of 
drama,  in  the  prologue  and  epilogue,  and 
there  is  a  regular  alternation  of  speakers 
throughout.     See  also  Song  of  Songs.     The 


Poison 


589 


Fontus 


lyrics  aro  the  most  numerous  poems.  No 
periotl  of  Isniflitish  history  after  the  exodus 
is  witiiDiil  them.  Tliey  consist  of  triumphiil 
o»les  wliicii  (-('lehrate  tiie  deliveraiicu  \vroii<ilit 
by  .lehovah,  like  tin-  sonj;  cif  Moses  at  liie 
Ked  Sea,  and  the  soiifj  of  Deliorali;  ])s;Unis 
of  tlie  penitent  suiiif;  for  nierey  (»r  e.xpressing 
the  Joy  of  for^iveiH'ss  (I's.  x.xxii.  :  li.),  auil 
ol'  the  poor  and  needy  eryinf;  out  in  distress, 
eahn  in  failii,  or  praisinj;  (Jod  for  succor 
(xxxviii.  ;  and  iii.  ;  xxiii.  ;  Jial).  iii.  ;  and  I 
Sam.  ii.  1-10;  Is.  xxxviii.  ]()-2();  Luive  i. 
4G-.")) ;  p.salms  of  tlie  coming  Redeemer  and 
his  kiundoni  (I's.  ii. ;  xlv. ;  Ixxii.)  :  and 
])lainlive  eh.icies,  as  the  lanii'ut  of  David 
over  .Saul  and  .Jonathan,  the  sonys  of  mourn- 
ing for  .Imhih,  and  the  Lamentiitions  (2  Sam. 
i.  17-27  ;  I's.  xliv. ;  Ix.;  Ixxiv.). 

Poi'son. 

Any  sul)stanc,e.  vegetable,  animal,  or  miner- 
al, which  jirodnces  a  innrhid  or  deadly  etl'ect 
when  introduci'd  into  the;  animal  oi'fianisni  (■.' 
Kin.  iv.  :i!t,  10;  Kom.  iii.  l.'!).  Tiie  venom  ofser- 
pents  is  denoted  in  Hebrew  either  by  hcmah, 
heat  (l)ewt.  xxxii.  24,  o.i;  Ps.  Iviii.  4),  a  gen- 
eral word  whii-h  is  also  used  for  hot  passion 
and  the  heat  ]iroduced  by  wine,  or  by  ro'sh 
(  Dent,  xxxii.  .'5:; ;  Job  xx.  If!),  which  also  sig- 
nilies  a  hitter  herb;  see  (,t.\i.i,.  The  custom 
of  anointing  arrows  with  the  poison  of 
snakes  is  jirobahly  alluded  to  in  Job  vi.4.  It 
was  a  practice  of  great  antiijuity  ami  consid- 
erabl(>  extent  (Homer,  Odyssey  i.  2(J1,  262; 
riiny.  Hist.  Xat.  xi.  11.") ;  xviii.  1).  Vegetable 
poison  was  al.so  emjiloyed  for  this  purjiose,  as 
thai  obtained  I'rom  the  yew  tree  (Hist. Nat.  xvi. 
20).  The  (iauls  use(l  a  i)oisonous  heri>  called 
limeinii.  ])erhaps  leopard's  bane  (xxvii.  7*)). 

The  suicide  of  I'tolemy  Macron  by  ])oison, 
the  alleged  murder  of  Pberoras  by  poisoned 
food.  an<l  the  fame  of  Arabian  wonu'ii  for 
skill  in  jire|)aring  j)oisoiious  ])otions  (2  Mac. 
X.  );!:  Auti(|.  xvii.  4,  1),  .servi'  to  show  that 
the  criniL'S  prevalent  at  that  time  in  Kome 
were  not  left  uncommitted  in  Jtulah  and  the 
Eiiol  (c]i.  Mark  xvi.  iS)  ;  but  the  absi'uce  of 
direct  mention  of  them  in  the  Hihle  indicates 
that  they  were  not  common  among  the  Jews. 

Pol 'lux.     See  C'astou  and  Pollux. 

Pome'gran-ate  [apple,  having  many  grains 

or  .seeds]. 

The  jiomegranate  (Punicti  riranntum],  in 
Hebrew  culled  rimmon,  in  .\ral)ic  riimvwn,  is 
a  tree  from  12  to  l.'i  feet  high,  having  oblong- 
oblanceolat<'  entire  leaves,  without  dots. 
Here  and  there  on  the  bnuicbe.s  occasional 
thorns  are  found.  The  flowers  have  gen- 
erally scarlet  petals  proceeding  from  a  large 
leathery  calyx.  Tiie  fruit  is  about  tlie  size 
if  an  oninge.  and  lias  a  hani.  reil  rinil. 
filed  with  numerous  se<>ds  i'nvelo|)ed  in 
bright  r<'d  imlp;  hence  tlie  I'jiglish  name, 
which  means  an  apjde  witli  many  seeds. 
The  Jiulp  is  most  refreshing  to  the  taste. 
Tlie  pomegranate  is  wild  in  northern  Africa 
and  western  Asia,  and  po.ssibly  so  in  (Jilead. 


It  was  largely  cultivated  in  Palestine  in 
Scripture  times  (Num.  xiii.  23;  xx.  ,5;  Deut. 
viii.  H;  1  Sam.  xiv.  2;  Song  iv.  .3,  13;  vi.  7, 
11;  viii.  2;  Joel  i.  12;  Hag.  ii.  19).  The 
expressed  juice  of  the  fruit  made  a  jileasaut 
drink    (Song  viii.  2,  li.  V.).     Pomegranates 


Pomegraiuite. 

of  lihie,  purple,  and  scarlet  stutf  alternating 
with  bells  made  of  gold  were  ]iut  along 
the  skirts  of  the  robe  connected  with  the 
high  priest's  epliod  (Kxod.  xxviii.  33,  34; 
xxxix.  2()).  The  chaiiiters  of  the  two  jiillars 
at  the  porch  of  Solomon's  tenii)le  had  each 
around  them  a  df)uble  row  with  a  hundred 
I)omegranates  <ach  (1  Kin.  vii.  20;  2  Kin. 
XXV.  17:  2('bron.  iii.  KJ).  The  fruit  is  still 
much  cultivated  in  Palestine. 

Pom'mel. 

liouiided  portion  or  bowl  of  a  chapiter 
(2  C'hron.  iv.  12,  13;  in  li.  \.  and  in  1  Kin. 
vii.  11.  42,  bowl). 

Pon'ti-us.     See  Pilate. 

Pon'tus  [the  sea]. 

The  eastern  half  of  the  coa.st  of  Asia 
Minor  on  the  Poiitus  I'.uxinus,  or  Black  Sea, 
from  the  lirst  word  of  which  the  name  of 
the  jirovince  was  derived.  It  may  be  de- 
.scribed  as  reaching  from  the  valley  of  tlie 
Phasis  ill  Colchis  to  the  rivi'r  llalys.  and  ex- 
teniling  inland  southward  across  the  iiionn- 
taiiis  to  Cainiadocia.  About  400  it.  c.  an  in- 
dejiendent  kingdom  of  this  iiaiiu'  was  estab- 
lisiied.  Six  of  its  successive  kings  were 
called  Mithridates.  The  last  of  them  main- 
tained, till  hisdeath  in  li.'i  ii.  c,  a  Merce  struggle 
with  the  Romans,  who  reduced  the  kingdom 
to  the  position  of  a  jirotected  state,  unite<l  it 
witli  Hithynia,  and  formed  the  province  of 
Bithvnia  and  Poiitus.  Jews  resided  in  Pontus 


Pool 


590 


Poratha 


(1  Pet.  i.  1).  Jews  from  Pontus  were  at  Jeru- 
sjiloin  during  the  i)entecostal  effusion  of  the 
Holy  Sjiirit  (Att.s  ii.  9).  Aquila  the  Jew  was 
born  in  the  province  (xviii.  2). 

Pool. 

A  reservoir  for  water,  sui)iili((l  by  rain  or 
else  by  springs,  like  the  pool  of  Siloani. 
From  the  pool  the  water  was  sometimes  con- 
ducted in  channels  to  town  and  garden 
{2  Kin.  XX.  20  ;  Ecc.  ii.  G  ;  Ecclus.  xxiv.  ;>()). 
The  pools  of  Bethesda,  Siloam,  and  Gihon 
were  at  Jerusalem,  and  water  was  also  con- 
ducted to  the  city  from  the  reservoirs  at 
Etam  ;  and  there  were  i)ools  at  Hebron, 
(libeon,  Samaria,  and  Heshbon  (2  Sam.  ii  13  ; 
iv.  12  ;  1  Kill.  xxii.  38  ;  Song  vii.  4). 

Poor. 

The  unequal  distribution  of  the  blessings 
of  life  is  not  ideal  in  the  sight  of  God.  Now 
God  gave  Canaan  to  his  jieople  (Ex.  vi.  4,  8). 
Accordingly  the  Mosaic  law  provided  for  a 
general  participation  of  the  people  in  the 
ownership  of  the  land  ;  and  while  it  per- 
mitted freedom  of  .sale,  it  secured  a  readjust- 
ment of  property  and  a  return  to  each  family 
of  its  inheritance  in  Canaan  every  fifty  years 
(Lev.  XXV.  13,  23).  But  notwithstanding  all 
that  law  and  instruction  can  do,  the  poor  are 
always  present,  sometimes  through  sins  of 
their  own  or  their  ancestors,  sometimes 
through  the  inscrutable  but  wise  providence 
of  God.  The  poverty  which  springs  from 
indolence  or  personal  crime  was  theoretically 
excluded  from  Israel,  the  kingdom  of  God  ; 
and  its  poor  were  regarded  from  the  stand- 
point of  the  theocracy  as  the  unfortunate 
and  chastened  but  beloved  children  of  God. 
All  the  poor,  especially  widows,  orphans, 
and  strangers,  enjoyed  the  care  of  God  and 
the  godly,  and  all  were  specially  favored  by 
the  law.  Every  hungry  person  had  the  right 
to  pluck  and  cat  for  present  need  in  the  vine- 
yard or  grainfield  of  another  (Deut.  xxiii. 
24,  25).  Every  poor  person  was  authorized 
at  harvest  to  glean  after  the  reapers,  to  cut 
the  grain  that  was  left  standing  at  the  edge 
of  the  field,  and  to  take  any  forgotten  sheaf 
which  remained  in  the  field  when  the  harvest 
was  over.  At  the  vintage  and  in  fruit-pick- 
ing time  what  was  left  hanging  on  the 
branches  belonged  to  the  poor  (Lev.  xix.  9, 
10;  xxiii.  22;  Deut.  xxiv.  19-21).  In  the 
.seventh  year  and  fiftieth  year  the  land  was 
not  tilled,  and  what  grew  of  itself  was  not 
harvested,  but  was  free  to  all  to  eat  (Lev. 
XXV.  4-7,  11,  12).  The  poor  man  in  his  ex- 
tremity might  sell  his  services  to  a  master 
for  a  term  of  years,  but  regained  his  freedom 
in  the  year  of  release  (38-42).  If  a  loan 
were  required  by  a  poor  man,  it  was  to  be 
bestowed,  even  though  the  near  approach  of 
the  release  of  the  seventh  year  would  soon 
give  him  the  legal  right  of  not  repaying  the 
debt  (Deut.  xv.  7-10).  The  poll  tax,  which  each 
man  had  to  pay  for  the  ransom  of  his  soul  or 
life  on  the  taking  of  a  census,  was  the  same 


in  amount  for  both  rich  and  poor,  being  half 
a  shekel ;  but  in  offerings  i)resented  at  the 
tabernacle  or  temple,  a  dieaper  form  of  gift 
was  sometimes  prescribed  for  the  jioorer  wor- 
shiper (Lev.  xii.  8  ;  xiv.  21  ;  xxvii.  8).  The 
l)rosperous  were  encouraged  to  invite  the 
poor  to  the  sacrificial  feasts  and  to  remember 
them  on  other  joyous  occasions  (Deut.  xvi. 
11,  14).  There  are  many  beautiful  exanqdes 
of  kindness  shown  to  the  n(;cdy  (Job  xxxi. 
16-22).  There  were  also  warnings  in  the  law 
against  the  oppression  of  the  i)oor  (Ex.  xxii. 
21-27).  At  the  same  time,  justice  must  not 
be  violated.  A  judge  must  not  give  a  verdict 
in  favor  of  a  man  because  he  was  poor ;  the 
claims  of  justice  were  to  be  paramount  over 
everj-  other  consideration  (Ex.  xxiii.  3  ;  Lev. 
xix.  15).  The  kindly  provisions  of  the  law, 
however,  were  frequently  ignored  in  times 
of  religious  declensifjii.  and  the  inojihcts  have 
occasion  to  rebuke  hard-heartedness  and  in- 
justice toward  the  poor  (Is.  i.  23 ;  x.  2 ; 
Ezek.  xxii.  7,  29  ;  Mai.  iii.  5).  There  were 
also  abuses  of  the  good  law  itself.  There 
were  those  who  obeyed  the  letter,  but  not 
the  spirit,  who  bestowed  alms  to  be  seen  of 
men  (Mat.  vi.  1).  Many  gracious  promises 
are  made  to  the  pious  poor,  and  the  divine 
procedure  to  them  is  shown  to  be  that  of 
loving  care  (1  Sam.  ii.  6;  Job  v.  In;  xxxiv. 
28;  xxxvi.  15;  Ps.  ix.  18;  x.  14;.  xii.  5; 
xxxiv.  6 ;  XXXV.  10).  Blessings  are  also 
promised  to  the  man  who  pities  the  poor 
(Ps.  xii.  1 ;  Prov.  xiv.  21,  31 ;  xxix.  7,  etc.).  Our 
Lord  in  the  course  of  his  ministry  showed 
his  great  love  for  the  poor  (Mat.  xix.  21  ; 
Luke  xviii.  22:  John  xiii.  29,  etc.),  and  it 
was  a  special  characteristic  of  his  ministry 
that  to  the  poor  the  gospel  was  preached 
(Mat.  xi.  5;  Luke  xiv.  21-23).  The  early 
church  considered  it  one  of  its  most  sacred 
duties  to  look  after  its  poor,  and  as  far  as  its 
limited  resources  would  allow,  the  poor  also 
outside  its  communion  (Acts  ii.  45  ;  iv.  32  ; 
vi.  1-6;  xi.  27-30;  xxiv.  17;  1  Cor.  xvi.  1-3; 
Gal.  ii.  10;  1  Thes.  iii.  6). 

The  poor  in  spirit  are  the  humble,  whether 
rich  or  poor  in  this  world's  goods  (Mat.  v.  3). 

Pop'lar. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Libneh, 
white,  applied  to  a  tree  (Gen.  xxx.  37).  It 
ranked  with  trees  of  which  the  shadow  is 
good  (Hos.  iv.  13).  If  it  is  the  poplar,  the 
species  is  Populus  alba,  a  tall  tree  with  white 
wood,  and  the  leaves  white  and  cottony  on 
the  lower  side.  In  the  first  passage  the  R.  V., 
following  the  Septuagint.  has  storax  on  the 
margin,  referring  to  Siyrax  officinale,  some- 
times called  libnah  in  Arabic,  a  resinous 
shrub  from  10  to  20  feet  high,  a  native  of 
the  Levant ;  see  Stacte.  The  Septuagint 
understands  the  white  poplar  to  be  meant  in 
Hos.  iv.  13. 

Por'a-tha  [probably,  having  manv  chari- 
ots]. 

One  of  Haman's  sons  (Esth.  ix.  8). 


Porch 


591 


Potter 


Porch. 

A  walk  i)r()tt'C-k'(l  by  a  roof  supportod  by 
Iiillai"s;  a  colDmiadc  ;  a  imrticu.  'I'licrc  wen- 
()t'lt.ii  porclK'S  1(1"  this  (.liaractor  in  niyal  or 
other  mansions  (1  Kin.  vii.  )i,  7),  and  tlicre 
was  a  iiotaljlf  one  on  the  eastern  front  of 
Solomon's  temple  (vi.  .'i ;  Kzek.  viii.  lli  ;  Joel 
ii.  17).  Sometimes  there  was  a  eolonnadi-  on 
an  upper  tloor  (.IiuIk-  ii'-  ~'i)-  Ihe  porehes 
of  the  i)ool  of  Hetiiesda,  and  Solomon's  porch 
connected  with  the  second  temple,  were  also 
colonnades  (.lohn  v.  2  ;  x.  2.'5),  c;illed  in  (ireek 
slim.  The  iiorch  where  Peter's  second  denial 
took  place  was  douhtless  the  passajie  from  the 
strei't  to  the  court  of  tlie  house;  and  in  the 
parallel  passjijje  it  is  styled  the  fore-court 
(Mat.  .\xvi.  71 ;  Mark  .\iv.  G8,  K.  V.  margin). 

Por'ci-U8.     See  Fkstus. 

Por'cu-pine  [a  siiiiious  pip]. 

The  niiderinj;  of  the  K.  V.  in  Is.  xiv.  23; 
xx.xiv.  11  ;  Zcph.  ii.  14  of  the  Hebrew  A'/y)- 
imtl.  the  one  rollint;  itself  tn^'etlier.  The 
corres])ondin<i  word  in  other  Semitic  dialects 
denotes  both  the  hedfjehoji  and  the  porcu- 
pine. The  Kurojiean  porcupine  (7/v.s^r('.r  cr/.s'- 
tiilii)  is  connnon  in  Palestine,  es|)ecially  in 
the  ^'or<res  leading  down  to  the  valley  of  tlie 
.lonhin.  A  l)rush-tailed  jiorcupine  (Athcntra 
hirsi(tiroxtri.i)  lias  also  been  found  in  Judaea. 
The  \.  V.  translates  Lippod  by  bittern. 

Por'poise. 

Tiie  renderin<j;  of  Tahti.sh  in  the  R.  V.  on 
the  mar^'in  of  Ex.  xxv.  't  and  elsewhere 
where  the  text  has  seal  and  A.  V.  has  badf^er. 
Tlii^  marginal  renderinj;  follows  Niebulir's 
remark  that  th(!  name  tnhofi  is  given  to  a 
species  of  jxirpoise  by  the  Arabs  near  cape 
.Mus^endum. 

Pos'ses-slon.     See  Dkmoni.xc. 

Por'ter. 

A  gate  keeper  (1  Chron.  ix.  22,  23;  and  xvi. 
.'{■^,  ill  Ii.  V.  doorkeeper).  Keepers  were  sta- 
tioned at  the  city  gate  (2  Sam.  xviii.  2(i;  2 
Kin.  vii.  10),  at  the  doors  of  the  temjde  (1 
Chron.  ix.  22),  at  the  entrance  of  private 
houses  (Mark  xiii.  34).  When  David  organ- 
ized the  Levites  for  the  service  of  the  taber- 
nacle, lie  assigned  the  duty  of  acting  as  door- 
keeiiers  to  a  large  section  of  Ihein,  lOOd  in 
number.  They  were  not  all  needed  at  once, 
so  lie  distributed  them  into  courses,  olliciat- 
ing  in  succession  (1  Chron.  xxiii.  ."> ;  xxvi. 
1    l!ii. 

Post. 

1.  The  ujiright  timber  at  the  sideof  adimr 
(1    Kin.   vi.  ;{.■{).     A  stone  jiillar   .sometinu'S 

took  the  place  of  Wood.  .\  Hebrew  slave 
who  did  not  desire  to  emlirace  the  opjior- 
liinity  of  freedom  allorded  by  the  arrival  of 
the  seventh  year,  but  preferred  to  ri'inaiu 
ptTiuanently  in  the  master's  bous*',  allowed 
an  awl  to  be  thrust  throiigli  liis  ear  into  the 
door  or  doorjiosl  ( I'x.  xxi.  (!  ;  Oeiit.  xv.  17) 
as  a  sign  of  atta<'hment  to  the  house. 

2.  A  courier  (Ksth.  iii.  PJ ;  .lob  ix.  2.")). 


Pot.. 

The  most  fre<|nent  word  is  the  Hebrew 
sir,  a  vessel  ma<le  in  various  sizes,  large  and 
small  (2  Kin.  iv.  .'Jm,  and  of  diU'enni  ma- 
terials, earthenware  an<l  metal  (Kx.  xxxviii. 
3),  and  used  for  manifold  i)urposes.  such  as 
for  boiling  flesh  (xvi.  3;  2  Chron.  xxxv.  13  ; 
■Job  xli.  31  ;  and  l'2zek.  xxiv.  3-5,  in  K.  V. 
caldron),  for  washing  (Ps.  Ix.  H),  for  refining 
metals  (Prov.  xxvii.  21).  Tlie  term  dud 
might  also  designate  asimilar  pot  ( .Job  xli.  20  ; 
in  1  >>am.  ii.  14  rendered  kettle;  in  2  Citron, 
xxxv.  1.3  rendered  e-ildroii);  so  also  might 
kalldhath.  which  is  rendered  caldron  ■  1  Sam. 
ii.  14  ;  Mic.  iii.  3).  In  Job  xli.  20  the  word 
translated  caldron  in  A.  V.  should  be  rushes. 
Water  for  domestic  purposes  was  kei)t  in 
earthen  pots  (John.  ii.  6) ;  see  W.\TEEPOT. 

Pot'i-phar  [who  is  of  the  sun]. 

The  caiilMiii  of  Pharaoh's  guard  and  owner 
of  .losepli.  His  wife  attemiUed  to. seduce  the 
young  slave  from  the  path  of  virtue,  and 
when  she  failed,  she  induced  Potiidiar  to  im- 
prison liini  on  a  charge  which  she  knew  to  be 
false  (Gen.  xxxix.  1-20). 

Pot-i-phe'ra,  in  A.  V.  Poti-pherah  [I'.gyp- 
tian  I'rt-p-iii,  who  is  of  the  sun,  lielmiging  to 
the  sun]. 

A  priest  of  On,  or  Heliojiolis,  the  city  of 
the  sun.  He  w-as  the  father  of  .Vsenatli,  who 
was  given  in  marriage  to  Jo.seph  (t4en.  xli.  45- 
50;  xlvi.  20). 

Pot'ter. 

( )ne  who  makes  earthenware  pots  and  sim- 
ilar vessels.  Tlie  clay  was  trodden  by  foot 
of  man  to  reduce  it  to  a  ])aste  (Is.  xli.  25; 
Wisd.  XV.  7).  It  was  then  placed  on  a  hori- 
zontal wheel,  before  which  the  jiotter  sat, 
turning  the  wheel  with  his  hand  as  ho 
shaped    the   vessel,    or    keeping    the   wheel 


Ijisteru  I 


in  motion  with  his  foot,  while  he  fash- 
ioue(l  the  revolving  clay  with  his  hand 
and  arm.  The  finished  work  was  glazed  and 
baked  in  a  furnace  (Jer.  xviii.  3,  4  ;  licclus. 
xxxviii.  2f),  30).    The  ability  of  the  potter  to 


Potter's  Field 


592 


Prayer 


mold  tlie  clay  into  any  shape  he  desired  is 
used  in  Is.  xlv.  9 ;  Jer.  xviii.  5-12  ;  Kom.  ix. 
20-25  to  illustrate    God's   sovereignty  over 


Potters  at  the  Kiln  in  Ancient  Egypt. 

man.  God,  of  course,  in  the  exercise  of  sov- 
ereignty acts  only  in  accordance  with  his  in- 
finite perfections  of  wisdom,  justice,  good- 
ness, and  truth. 

Pot'ter's  Field.    See  Aceld.^.m.'v. 

Pound.     See  Money  and  Weights. 

Pow'der. 

Tlie  fine  particlosinto  which  any  substance 
is  crushed  or  grouTid  (ICx.  xxxii.  20).  Pul- 
verized spice  of  any  kind,  intended  to  be 
burnt  as  incense  {Song  iii.  (J). 

Prse-to'ri-um    [belonging    to  a    pnetor]. 

The  tent  of  a  general ;  the  official  residence 


of  a  provincial  governor ;  a  palace.     In  the 
N.  T.  it  denotes  : 

1.  The  jiaJace  occupied  by  Pontius  Pilate 
at  Jerusalem  and  where  his  judgment  seat 
was  erected  (Mark  xv.  16;  and  margin  of 
K.  V.  of  Mat.  xxvii.  27;  John  xviii.  28,  33; 
xix.  9,  cp.  13).  Some  have  understood  the 
casilc  of  Antunia  ;  but  Ilentd's  [lalace  was 
the  buihling  occu[iied  by  the  procurator. 
See  Hehod,  P.vl.vce  of. 

2.  Herod's  i)alace  at  Cffisarea,  in  which 
Paul  was  confiued  (Acts  xxiii.  3.").  K.  V. 
margin;  in  text,  palace  ;  in  A.  V.,  judgment 
hall). 

3.  Tlie  ])ra?torian  guard  at  Rome,  the  duty 
of  which  was  to  guard  the  imperial  palace 
and  its  occupant,  the  emperor  (Phil.  i.  13; 
in  A.  v.,  palace;  on  the  margin,  Caesar's 
court). 

Prayer. 

Prayer  is  communion  with  God.  It  ini- 
l)lifs  that  (jod  is  a  person,  aide  and  willing 
to  hear  us,  who  has  created  the  universe  and 
still  jireserves  and  governs  all  his  creatures 
and  all  tiu'ir  actions.  He  is  not  the  slave  of 
his  own  hiws.  He  can  produce  results  by 
controlling  the  laws  of  nature  or  cooperating 
with  tluin  as  readily  as  a  man  can;  nay 
UKtre  readily,  for  he  is  God.  He  can  influ- 
ence the  hearts  and  minds  of  men  more 
readily  than  even  a  man  can  induce  his  fel- 
low-men to  action.  God  has  foreordained 
both  the  prayer  and  its  answer.  He  has  had 
a  plan  from  the  beginning;  and  he  accom- 
plishes this  plan  both  by  the  manner  in 
which  he  established  the  universe  and  the 
laws  wliich  he  set  in  ojieration,  and  also  ))y  his 
constant  jiresence  in  the  universe,  upholding 
it  and  controlling  it. 

Prayer  is  instinctive  with  man.  In  his 
extremity  of  need  he  cries  out  to  God.  And 
God  requires  prayer  of  all  men  ;  but  to  pray 
to  God  implies  a  right  relation  to  him.  Ac- 
ceptable prayer  can  be  ofi'ered  unto  God  by 
the  righteous  only.  The  prayer  of  the 
wicked  is  abomination  unto  him  (Prov.  xv. 
29;  xxviii.  9).  Only  those  who  Iiave  for- 
saken sin  are  authorized  to  draw  nigh  unto 
God  in  prayer.  There  is  no  projiriety  in 
rel)els  against  the  authority  of  God  ajiproach- 
ing  him,  except  with  renunciation  of  tlieir 
rebellion  and  a  petition  for  pardon.  Prayer 
is  the  communion  of  the  child  of  God  with 
his  Fatlier  in  heaven.  It  consists  of  adora- 
tion, thanksgiving,  confession,  and  petition 
(Xeh.  i.  4-11;  Dan.  ix.  3-19;  Phil.  iv.  6). 
It  has  been  engaged  in  by  God's  people  from 
the  beginning. 

Pray(>r  is  thtis  the  natural  expression  of 
the  religious  feelings,  and  further  God's 
blessings  are  given  in  answer  to  prayer  (1 
Kin.  ix.  3;  Ezek.  xxxvi.  37;  Mat.  vii.  7). 
God  is  attentive  to  every  prayer  that  is 
ri^rhtly  offered  to  liini.  He  beareth  the  young 
ravens  when  tbcy  cry  ;  and  God's  ])eop!e  liave 
file  promise  that  he  will  answer  their  prayers 


Presents 


593 


Priest 


(Ps.  Ixv.  2).  James,  citing  history,  says  that 
tlic  siippliciition  of  a  riKhteoiis  man  avaiU'tli 
iiaich  ill  its  WDikiiiu  (.)as.  V.  Hi.  li.  \'.).  Christ 
sjioakiiig  to  liisiiisciph'ssaid  :  "  Wliatsocvcr  yi- 
siiall  ask  in  my  name,  that  will  I  do"  (.lohii 
xiv.  l.'i).  God's  iitM»|)h' i)n'seiit  tlieir  pclitioiis 
to  ( iod  and  h-avt-  to  iiini  to  <lfci<lr  wlittiicr  it 
is  wise  tofir.int  I  lie  i('i|ii(>t  or  not.  Tiicv  i<no\v 
tliiil  ( Jod  alone  laii  tell  whether  the  grantinj^ 
of  the  i)rayer  would  he  for  their  own  j^ood  or 
for  the  welfare  of  the  kingdom  of  (Jod  or  for 
(lod's  iilory.  The  apostli-  John,  writinj;  to 
helievers,  states  the  doetrine  of  prayer  with 
its  neee.ssary  condition  whi'n  he  says:  "This 
is  the  holdue.ss  which  we  have  toward  him, 
that,  if  we  ask  anything  aecordinji  to  his  will, 
he  hrareih  us"  (l  John  v.  It.  R.  V.).  "The 
answer  will  he  such  as  we,  if  duly  enlight- 
enu<l,  would  ourselves  desire."  God  often 
hle.s,ses  his  children  hest  when  he  denies 
their  rei|uests.  And  when  they  pniy  they 
desire  him  to  deny  their  requests  if  in  his 
sijjht  it  is  hest  to  do  so. 

We  must  pray  in  the  name  of  Christ,  be- 
cause sinful  man  cannot  a])proach  (iod.  We 
must  draw  near,  not  claiminf;  any  inherent 
ri'^'ht  of  our  own  to  come,  but  in  the  name 
of  him  who  hath  washed  us  from  our  sins  in 
liis  blood  and  made  us  to  be  jtriests  unto 
God. 

Prayer  is  addressed  to  God  in  his  fullness, 
as  the  triune  (rod.  Prayer  to  each  of  the 
three  i>ersons  in  the  Godhead.  Father,  Son, 
and  Holy  Ghost,  is  involved  in  the  ai)ostolic 
benediction:  "The  };race  of  the  Lord  Jesus 
<  hri-t,  and  the  love  of  (iod,  and  the  com- 
munion of  the  Holy  (Jhost,  be  with  you  all  " 
(2  Cor.  xiii.  11).  Many  prayers  were  ad- 
dressed to  the  risen  Christ.  Stephen  peti- 
tioned him,  Paul  rendered  thanks  to  him, 
the  reilccnied  ascribe  filory  and  dominion  to 
him  (Acts  vii.  ,59,  60;  1  Tim.  i.  12;  liev.  i. 
5,  (J). 

Pres'ents.     See  Gifts. 

Priest  [contracted  from  I,atin  presbyter, 
Greek  pre.thutrro.i,  elderly,  an  elder]. 

An  authorized  minister  of  a  deity  who,  on 
behali  of  a  community,  ofliciates  at  the  altar 
and  in  other  rites.  The  essential  ide;i  of  a 
priest  is  that  of  a  mediator  betwien  man  and 
God.  The  priests  formed  a  distinct  class  in 
the  nations  of  antic|uity  generally;  as  in 
Egypt,  Midian,  Philistia,  Greece,  Rome  ((Jen. 
xlvii.  22;  Kx.  ii.  16;  1  Sam.  vi.  2;  Acts 
xiv.  i:{). 

In  the  absence  of  a  regularly  organized 
priesthood,  priestly  functions  were  exercised 
from  time  immemorial  by  ])rivate  individ- 
ii.ils,  as  Cain,  Abel  ;  :uid  by  jiatriarchs  in  be- 
h:ilf  of  a  family  or  tribe,  as  Noah,  Abraham, 
I  -:iac.  Jacob,  .lob.  The  natural  head  of  a  body 
of  people  acted  as  jiriest.  There  were  those 
among  the  Israelites  at  the  time  of  the  exodus 
w!io  ]iossessed  this  jirerogative  by  natural 
right,  an<l  who  had  been  inlluencid  by  the 
l)re,ssure  of  increasing  priestly  duties,  arising 
38 


from  the  growth  of  the  Hebrew  population, 
and  by  the  spectacle  of  the  Egyptian  priest- 
hood, to  devote  themselves  jirofessionally  to 
]>riestly  functions  (Ex.  xix.  22).  Even  alter 
the  organization  of  the  Levitical  jiriesthood 
priestly  prerogatives  existed  outside  of  that 
order.  When  God  himself  dispensed  with 
the  mediation  of  the  ordained  ]>riesls  and 
manifested  him.self  immediately  to  a  man, 
that  man  recognized  his  right  to  offer  s:icri- 
fice  at  once  without  the  intervention  of  the 
regularly  constituted  mediators  (Judg.  vi.  18, 
24,  26;  xiii.  l(i) ;  and  when  for  jiolitical 
reasons  it  became  imjiossible  for  lho.se  who 
feared  God  in  the  northern  kingdom  to  avail 
themselves  of  the  otlices  of  the  Levitical 
priists.  the  jirimitive  law  was  recalled  and 
the  father  of  lln'  family  or  other  (lerson  in- 
dicated by  ancient  custom  erected  the  altar 
and  offered  sacrifices  to  Jehovah  (1  Kin. 
xviii.  30). 

When  the  Hebrew  nation  was  organized  at 
Sinai  a  national  .siinctuary  and  service  were 
j)rojected  on  a  noble  .scale,  such  as  lu'came  the 
e.s.sential  dignity  of  Jehovah,  and  a|ii)eared  to 
no  disadvantage  when  brought  into  com- 
paristin  with  the  purest  worship  of  the  most 
cultured  nations  of  that  age.  Priests  were 
needed  for  its  altar.  Aaron  and  his  sons 
were  appointed  to  that  ollice,  and  the  jiriest- 
hood was  made  hereditary  in  the  family  and 
restricted  to  it  (Ex.  xxviii.  1;  xl.  12-15; 
Num.  xvi.  40  ;  xvii. ;  xviii.  1-8  ;  and  cp. 
Deut.  X.  6;  1  Kin.  viii.  4;  Ezra  ii.  .']6  seq.). 
All  the  sons  of  Aaron  were  priests  unless  de- 
barred by  legal  disabilities  (Lev.  xxi.  16  seq.). 
Accordingly  when  they  are  referred  to  as  a 
cla.ss,  they  are  mentioned  cither  simply  as  the 
priests  or  as  the  priests  the  .sons  of  Aaron,  in 
allusion  to  their  descent  as  a  familj-  (i.  5;  2 
Chrou.  xxvi.  18;  xxix.  21;  xxxv.  14;  cp. 
Num.  iii.  3  ;  x.  8;  Josh.  xxi.  19  ;  Nch.  x.  38), 
or  as  the  priests  the  Levites,  in  allusion  to 
the  tribe  to  which  they  belonged  (l)eut.  xvii. 
St,  IS ;  xviii.  1 ;  Jo.sh.  iii.  3  ;  viii.  :;:> :  2  Chron. 
xxiii.  18;  XXX.  27;  Jer.  xxxiii.  H,  21  ;  cp. 
Ex.  xxxviii.  21),  or  later  as  the  jiriests  the 
I.,evites  the  sons  of  Zadok,  as  designation  of 
a  l)ranch  of  the  family  (Ezek.  xliv.  1.")  ;  cj). 
.\liii.  lit).  This  method  of  designating  the 
Jiriests,  as  will  be  seen  fmm  the  jia.ssages 
cited,  was  in  vogue  at  a  time  when  beyond 
all  question  the  distinction  between  jiriest 
and  Levite  was  firmly  established.  The  dis- 
tincti<in  is  recognize<l  in  the  history :  the 
ministers  at  the  altar  of  the  tabernacle  and 
temple  and  the  users  of  T'rim  and  Thummim 
always  belong  to  the  family  of  Aaron. 

Tlx'  duties  of  the  jiriests  were  mainly  three  : 
to  minister  at  the  sanctuary  before  the  Lord, 
to  teach  the  jieojile  the  law  of  (iod,  and  to 
inquire  for  them  the  divine  will  by  Trim  and 
ThuTiimini  (Ex.  xxviii.  .'!()  and  Ezra  ii.  ()3 ; 
Num.  xvi.  40:  xviii.  ">  :  2  Chron.  xv.  3  ;  Jer. 
xviii.  18;  Ezek.  vii.  26;  .Mic.  iii.  11).  The 
priest  was  suliject  to  sjiecial  laws  (Lev.  x.  8 
seq.);  and  in  resjrect   to  marriage,  he  could 


Prince 


594 


Proconsul 


only  take  to  wife  one  of  his  own  nation,  a 
virgin  or  a  widow  who  liad  not  hin-n  divorced, 
and  her  genealogy  in  the  ancient  records 
must  he  as  regnlar  as  thai  of  the  i>riest  him- 
self (xxi.  7 ;  Ezra  x.  18,  1!> ;  eon.  Apion.  i.  7). 
His  dress  when  on  dnty  consisted  of  1.  Short 
breeches,  reacliing  from  tlie  hips  to  the 
thighs.  2.  A  coat  fitting  close  to  tiie  l>ody, 
woven  in  one  jticce  without  seam,  at  least  in 
later  times  extending  to  the  aukle.s,  and 
which  was  gathered  ahout  the  loins  with 
a  symbolically  ornamented  girdle.  :}.  A  cap 
shaped  like  a  enj).  These  several  articles 
were  made  of  white  linen  (Ex.  xxviii.  40-42; 
Antiq.  iii.  7,  1-3).  Priests  and  others  officially 
connected  with  the  solemn  service  often 
wore  a  linen  ephod  ;  but  it  was  not  pre- 
scribed and  it  was  not  made  of  varied  and 
costly  materials  like  the  one  worn  by  the  high 
priest  (1  Sam.  ii.  18  ;  xxii.  18  ;  2  Sam.  vi.  11). 
On  the  contjuest  of  Canaan,  in  view  of  the 
present  needs  of  the  descendants  of  Aaron, 
who  were  then  doubtless  in  the  third  genera- 
tion, but  more  especially  with  a  view  to  fu- 
ture demands,  thirteen  towns  were  designated 
where  residence  and  lands  for  i)asturing  cat- 
tle were  legally  theirs  (Josh.  xxi.  10-19).  In 
the  course  of  centuries  they  increased  to  a 
numerous  body.  Accordingly  David  divided 
them  into  twenty-four  <;our.ses.  Except  dur- 
ing the  great  festivals,  when  all  the  courses 
were  employed,  each  course  officiated  for  a 
week  at  a  time,  the  change  being  made  on 
the  Sabbath  before  evening  sacrifice  (1  Chron. 
xxiv.  1-19 ;  2  Kin.  xi.  5,  9 ;  Antiq.  vii.  14,  7). 
Four  only  of  these  courses  appear  to  have  re- 
turned from  Babylon  with  Zerubl)abel  (Ezraii. 
36-.38)  ;  but  the  old  number  was  eventually 
reconstructed  {cp.  Luke  i.  5,  9).  There  were 
distinctions  in  rank  among  the  priests.  The 
supreme  pontiff  was  the  high  priest  (q.  v.). 
Next  to  him  stood  the  second  priest  (2  Kin. 
XXV.  18),  who  was  probably  the  same  as  the 
ruler  of  the  house  of  God  (2  Chron.  xxxi. 
13  ;  Neh.  xi.  11)  and  the  captain  of  the  tem- 
ple (Acts  iv.  1  ;  V.  24).  The  chief  priests  who 
are  mentioned  in  the  N.  T.  were  the  offi- 
ciating high  ])riest,  former  high  priests  still 
alive,  and  members  of  their  families. 
They  were  an  anomaly  of  the  times.  The 
law  which  regulated  the  succession  to  the 
high-priesthood  had  come  into  abeyance 
through  political  confusion  and  foreign 
domination.  High  priests  were  made  and 
unmade  at  the  will  of  the  rulers. 

Prince. 

A  jxison  of  chief  rank  or  authority  in  any 
official  relation;  as  the  king  of  a  nation  (1 
Kin.  xiv.  7),  satra])  over  a  i>rovincc  (Dan.  iii. 
2,  A.  v.),  head  of  a  tribe  (Num.  i.  IG)  or  of  a 
tribal  family  (xxv.  14),  a  .sheik  (({en.  xxiii. 
G).  a  chief  officer  over  the  servjints  of  a  king 
(Dan.  i.  7).  Prince  is  the  rendering  of  various 
Hebrew  and  (xreek  words. 

Pris'ca  and  Pris-cil'la  [old  woman  and 
little  old  woman]. 


The  wife  of  Aqiiila,  who  went  with  him  in 

his  wanderings,  and  sh(jwed  at  least  equal 
zeal  witli  lier  liiisliand  in  advancing  tlie 
Christian  cause.  Paul's  estimate  of  licr  was 
high  (Acts  xviii.  1-3,  18,  20;  Kom.  xvi.  3;  2 
Tim.  iv.  19),  and  in  three  out  of  five  verses 
siie    is    named    before    her    husband.      See 

Atil  II.A. 

Pris'on. 

A  special  place  was  set  apart  in  Egypt  for 
the  confinement  of  criminals.  It  was  under 
the  charge,  and  in  the  house,  of  a  military 
officer,  and  the  prisoners  were  often  bound 
as  well  as  kept  in  ward  ((ien.  xl.  3,  4  ;  xlii. 
10,  17).  The  i)rison  was  an  institution  among 
the  Philistines  also  ;  Samson  was  imprisoned, 
blinded,  bound  with  fetters,  and  compelled 
to  labor  (Jiidg.  xvi.  21). 

Among  the  Hebrews  there  was  a  prison  in 
Samaria  in  the  reign  of  Alial),  which  was 
under  the  charge  of  the  governor  of  the  city 
(1  Kin.  xxii.  27).  Later  there  is  notice  of 
the  detention  of  prisoners  at  Jerusalem  in 
the  court  of  the  guard  (Jer.  xxxvii.  21),  and 
in  the  dry  cistern  that  was  in  the  court 
(xxxviii.  (i) ;  but  private  houses  were  also 
used  for  the  purpose  (xxxvii.  15).  The 
prison  fare  was  bread  and  water  (1  Kin.  xxii. 
27).  In  the  Roman  period  the  jirocurator's 
palace  at  Csesarea  on  the  sea,  the  castle  of 
Antonia,  and  doubtless  the  palace  of  Herod 
at  Jerusalem,  had  rooms  where  accused  per- 
sons were  confined  (Acts  xxiii.  10,  35).  The 
prison  at  Jerusalem  into  which  Herod 
Agripi)a  I.  cast  Peter  was  protected  by  iron 
gates,  and  important  prisoners  were  bound 
with  chains  and  guarded  by  soldiers  in  the 
cell,  while  other  soldiers  kept  watch  before 
the  door  (xii.  6,  10). 

The  Mamertine  prison  at  Rome,  where 
.Tugertha  was  left  to  starve  to  death,  and 
where  according  to  tradition  Peter  was  ctm- 
fined,  is  on  the  slope  of  the  Capitoline  liill 
toward  the  forum.  It  dates  from  the  earliest 
ages  of  the  city.  It  consists  of  two  cells, 
one  over  the  other.  The  lower  one  is  19  feet 
long,  10  wide,  and  (U  high.  It  is  entirely 
underground.  It  is  vaulted,  the  walls 
gradually  contracting.  To  .judge  by  the 
slope  of  the  v/alls,  the  chamber  was  originally 
about  10  feet  in  height,  and  was  closed  by  a 
conical  vault,  arched  in  shape,  but  not  con- 
structionally  an  arch.  Entrance  to  it  was 
originally  obtained  only  tiirough  a  hole  in 
the  ceiling,  through  which  criminals  were 
let  down.  The  fioor  is  the  native  rock,  from 
which  a  spi'ing  ])ursts,  said  in  the  legend 
to  have  been  miraculously  caused  to  flow  by 
Peter  in  order  to  baptize  his  Jailers. 

Proch'o-rus  [probably,  leading  in  a  chorie 
dance]. 

One  of  the  seven  men  elected  to  look  after 
the  Creek-speaking  widows  and  probably 
the  Cliristian  poor  at  Jerusalem  (Acts  vi.  5). 

Pro-con'sul  [one  acting  for  a  consul]. 
The  governor  of  a  Koman  province  wiiich 


Procurator 


595 


Prophet 


was  administered  by  the  senate  (Acts  xiii.  7; 
xviii.  12;  xix.W,  R.  V.).  lliMvas  :iii|><(iritc(l 
l'(ir  oik;  year,  i-xcrci.scd  in  this  pniviiicc  nil 
till'  (inwcrs  of  a  consul,  and  '-.as  attended  liy 
(|Ua'^lors,  who  r(il!';ct','-i  tlii'  revenncs  ami 
jiaiil  tlieni  into  the  treasury  managed  hy  the 
senate. 

Proc'u-ra-tor  [ste\\an],  administrator]. 

'I'lie  a.u'ent  ol'  the  itonian  emjieror,  who  re- 
sided in  imjierial  (as  distiiiet  from  senatorial) 
l>rovinces,  received  tlie  revenues  and  jiaid 
them  into  tlie  emperor's  i)rivate  exchcfjuer. 
Tlie  military  uovernor  and  chief  iiuifiistrate 
was  called  jirojjra-tor  or  lejiate  ;  hut  in  the 
smaller  imperial  jiroviuces  and  sometimes 
in  parts  of  larger  ones  the  olHce  of  legate 
was  dispensed  willi,  and  tlie  entire  govern- 
ment civil  and  military  was  intrusted  to  a 
j)n)curator.  Such  was  the  case  in  Judsea. 
\Vhen  Archelaus  was  deposed  hy  the  eni- 
jieror  Augustus  in  A.  I>.  (i,  .luda'a,  Samaria, 
and  Iduma'a  were  erected  into  a  division  of 
the  jirefecture  of  Syria,  called  the  jnovinco 
of  .luda'a,  and  jilaced  under  jirocurators 
(Antiij.  xvii.  ]1,  4;  lo,  5;  Tacitus,  Annal. 
xii.  "J:};  Hist.  v.  9).  They  were  successively 
Coponius  (Antiq.  xviii.  1.1;  2,  2  ;  War  ii.  A, 
1);  Marcus  Amhivius;  Annius  Rufus.  in 
whose  time  the  I'niperor  Augustus  died; 
^'alerius  Clratus,  who  held  ollice  eleven  years 
(Antiq.  xviii.  2,  2)  ;  Pontius  Pilate,  wlio  was 
apjxiinted  hy  the  emperor  Tiberius,  dejiosed 
after  ten  years,  and  arrived  at  Rome  just 
after  the  death  of  Tiherius,> which  occuired 
in  .M:irch  :;7  (Anti(i.  .xviii.  2,  2;  4,2;  li,  ."> ; 
War  ii.  it.  2;  Tacitus,  Annal.  xv.  44;  Luke 
iii.  1);  Marullus,  appointed  by  the  emjieror 
("aius  (.\nli(|.  xviii.  (i,  11),  and  after  aTi  in- 
terval which  c<included  wilh  the  three-year 
reign  of  Herod  .\grii>pa  over  Juda'a  (.\cts 
xii.  1-23);  t'uspius  h'adus,  who  was  a]>- 
jioiuted  hy  the  emperor  Claudius;  Tiberius 
Alexaniler  (.\ntii|.  xix.  9,  2;  xx.  1,  2;  .">,  2; 
War  ii.  11,  (i)  ;  Cunianus.  a]ii)oi!ited  after  the 
death  of  Herod,  king  of  Chalcis  and  later 
recalleil  by  the  emperor  Claudius  (Antiq.  xx. 
r),2:  (i.  2  a"nd  15  ;  War  ii.  12,  1  and  (i)  ;  Felix, 
a|)point<'d  by  Claudius  (.\uti(i.  xx.  7,  1  ;  War 
ii.  12,  H;  Tacitu.s,  Hist.  v.  !»;  Annal.  xii.); 
Porcius  Feslus,  sent  out  l)y  Nero  (.\ntiq.  xx. 
8,  !» ;  War  ii.  II,  1  ;  Acts  xxiv.  27)  ;  and  on 
the  death  of  Kestus.  .\lbinus  (Anticj.  xx.  !), 
1  ;  War  ii.  14,  1)  ;  anil  linally  Cessius  Florus, 
ap]iointed  hy  Xero  shortly  before  the,  twelfth 
vear  of  his  reign  (Anti(|.  xx.  11,  1;  War  ii. 
11,  2  se(|.;  TacilMS,  Hist.  v.    10). 

As  appears  I'roui  the  cited  jiassiiges  and 
their  context,  these  procurators  were  subject 
to  the  governor  of  Syria;  hut  in  .)uda-a 
itself  their  authority  was  suiireme.  The 
Kom;in  LTMrrison  stationed  in  the  jirovince 
stood  at  their  command  ;  ail  im|>ortMnt  mat- 
ters came  before  their  judgment  .seiit  ;  tliey 
bad  the  power  of  life  and  death  (Warii.  H, 
1);  and  their  senteiir-e  was  t-xeciiled  by  tlie 
soldiers.    They  commonly  resided  at  ( 'lesjirea 


by  the  sea ;  but  they  were  wont  to  go  up  to 
.lerusalem  at  tin;  feasts  and  som(;times  to 
winter  there  (.•\nti(i.  xviii.  :{,  1),  and  they 
visited  various  cities  of  their  dominion  as 
occasion  reijuired.  When  in  .Itrusalem,  tbey 
wen;  accustomed  to  occupy  tin-  palace  of 
Herod.     .See  Hkuok,    P.m.ack  kf. 

Proph'et. 

An  authoritative  and  infallible  teacher  of 
Cifid's  will.  Speaking  of  the  order  of  j)roph- 
ets  conceived  of  as  a  unity.  Cod  jiromised  to 
raise  them  uj>  from  amotig  the  chosen  people, 
qualify  thi'in  by  j)utting  liis  words  into  tlieir 
moulli,  enalile  them  to  speak  all  tluit  lie 
coimiiaiided  them,  and  maintain  the  authority 
of  his  word  which  they  should  speak  (l)eut. 
xviii.  18,  19).  Every  iirojihet  of  Cod.  and 
preeminently  Chri.st,  was  like  unto  Moses 
(18;  Acts  iii".  22,  215),  in  similarity  of  endue- 
mcnt,  of  doctrine,  of  attitudi'  toward  the 
law,  of  didactic  work.  The  .same  authorita- 
tive and  representative  character  of  the 
projihet  is  referred  to  by  Zechariali.  Words 
are  given  to  the  lu-oplut  by  (iod  ;  the  words 
are  sent  by  his  Spirit  to  the  iirojihets,  are 
given  to  be  ttiught  to  the  peojile,  and  have 
been  accredited  in  the  ]>ast  by  their  fultill- 
nieiit  (Zecli.  i.  G;  vii.  12).  The  same  facts 
regarding  the  ])roiiIiet  are  abundantly  illus- 
trated in  individual  instances.  The  call  of 
the  projihet  came  from  (lod  and  was  often 
soul-searching  (Ex.  iii.  1-iv.  17  ;  1  Sam.  iii.  1- 
20;  Jer.  i.  4-10;  Ezek.  i.  1-iii.  1.")).  The 
word  of  the  Lord  came  to  them  in  various 
ways.  They  are  strenuously  commanded  to 
speak  and  not  keep  silence.  They  were 
accredited  by  signs,  by  the  fulfillment  of 
their  jiredictions,  and  by  their  doctrine  itself. 
Their  authority  was  rejieatedly  iijiheld  by 
divine  judgment  visited  on  the  disobedient. 

Pro])hecy  included  the  ])rediction  of  future 
events  (Is.  v.  ll-i;5 ;  x.\.xviii.  5,  (i ;  xxxix. 
(),  7;  Jer.  xx.  (i ;  xxv.  11;  xxviii.  K! ;  Amos 
i.  .');  vii.  9,  17;  Mic.  iv.  10).  Prediction  was 
an  important  jiart  of  the  jirophet's  work,  and 
it  furnished  his  credentials  in  part.  Hut  more 
imjiortaiit  still,  the  ])ro])liet  ha<l  to  deal  with 
the  ju'esent  and  the  jiast,  and  to  instruct  men 
in(4od's  ways(Is.  xii.  2(i;  xlii.9;  xlvi.9).  The 
use  of  the  English  word  jjrophet  must  not  be 
l)ermit(ed  to  unduly  emjihasize  the  jiredict- 
ive  side  of  iirojihecy.  The  English  word 
is  derived  from  the  Greek  prophrtis,  which 
means  one  who  speaks  for  another,  an  inter- 
jireter  or  ]iro('lainier,  and  one  who  speaks 
lieforehand,  a  ]iredictor.  This  twofold  mean- 
ing is  due  to  the  two  senses  of  the  iire]>osi- 
tion  /()•(),  for  and  before. 

Tlu!  Hebrew  word  mihi'.  whicli  is  traikK- 
lati'd  projihet,  means  one  who  announces.  It 
seems  t<i  have  been  a  comjireheiisivi'  general 
term  at  (irst.  'I'Ik;  active  ])arliciple  is  used 
in  another  .Semitic  language,  the  .'Vssyriiin, 
for  an  announcer.  In  the  Hebrew  Scrip- 
tures Abraham  is  called  a  lu'ojiliet  (C«'n.  xx. 
7).     Between  bini  and  Cod  there  was  direct 


Prophet 


596 


Prophet 


personal  intercourse,  with  him  was  the  secret 
of  the  Jjord,  to  him  God  revealed  himselC 
aud  his  purposes  ((Jen.  xv.  1-18;  xviii.  17), 
he  was  able  to  teach  his  descendants  the  true 
knowledge  of  (iod  (xviii.  19),  and  he  had 
power  of  intercession  with  (iod  (23-32). 
Miriam,  who  exjm'ssly  claims  lliat  the  Lord 
had  spoken  by  lier,  was  a  prophet  (Ex.  xv. 
20;  Num.  xii.  2,  6).  Aaron  as  the  spokesman 
of  Moses  is  calknl  his  prophet  (Ex.  vii.  1 ;  cp. 
iv.  II)).  The  nabi\  or  prophet,  was  a  person 
qualified  bv  God  to  be  his  .spokesman  to  men. 
And  this  is  the  fundamental  idea  which 
underlies  the  terra  as  used  in  Dcut.  xviii.  18. 
One  of  the  qualifications  was  prophetic  vision 
(1  Sam.  iii.  1).  Looked  at  in  this  aspect,  the 
prophet  was  sometimes  called  a  seer  (1  Sam. 
ix.  9,  in  Hebrew  ro'eh ;  Is.  xxx.  10,  in  He- 
brew hozeh).  And  when  this  was  the  main 
aspect  in  which  he  was  regarded  by  the 
people,  and  this  qualification  was  the  one  of 
highest  value  in  popular  estimation,  seer  was 
the  designation  in  vogue  among  the  people. 
This  was  the  case  for  a  considerable  period 
in  the  early  history  of  Israel.  Samuel  and 
Gad  and  Iddo  were  known  by  this  title.  But 
Samuel  ceased  to  be  merely  a  seer  to  whom 
the  people  resorted  when  they  would  inquire 
of  the  Lord,  desiring  to  know  God's  will  as 
to  duty,  or  seeking  direction  in  national 
affairs,  or  craving  light  upon  private  matters. 
Samuel  went  out  among  men  as  an  authori- 
tative teacher  of  the  nation  sent  by  God, 
and  this  public  proclamation  was  the  distinc- 
tive idea  in  prophecy  (1  Sam.  x.  10-13;  xix. 
20).  The  teaching  function,  as  seen  in  Mo.ses, 
became  prominent  again  ;  and  beginning  with 
Samuel  and  his  followers,  and  with  renewed 
force  several  centuries  later,  the  prophet 
became  a  constant  presence  in  the  national 
life,  an  ambassador  of  heaven  to  the  kingdom 
of  Israel,  an  authoritative  preacher  of  right- 
eousness, an  interpreter  of  past  and  present 
history  on  its  moral  side,  an  admouisher  of 
the  consequences  which  God  the  judge  has 
annexed  to  conduct,  a  forewarner  of  the  cer- 
tainty of  the  divine  judgment  on  sin,  and  a 
fosterer  of  fidelity  toward  .Tehovah.  To 
foretell  the  futun^  or  make  known  the  secret 
counsel  of  God,  as  did  Nathan  when  he  for- 
bade David  to  build  the  tem]>le  and  an- 
nounced God's  purpose  to  establish  David's 
throne,  forever  remained  functions  of  the 
prophet;  but  they  became  a  comparatively 
small  part  of  his  work.  Other  features  were 
more  constantlj'  in  evidence,  and  as  a  result 
the  restricted  name  of  seer  gave  place  again 
to  the  broader  designation  of  prophet  (1  Sam. 
ix.  9).  Samuel  was  called  a  seer  by  his  con- 
temporaries, but  his  great  successors,  whom 
God  raised  up  and  i7is]iired  to  teach  the  na- 
tion, were  commonly  designated  prophets  by 
the  men  of  their  gen(>ration.  .Seer  was  not 
banished  from  n.se,  but  the  title  of  prophet, 
which  had  never  been  entirely  disused 
(Judg.  iv.  4;  1  Sam.  x.  10-13;  xix.  20), 
was  raised   again  to  its  former  prominence 


(iii.  20).     Amos  liad  prophetic  vision  (Amos  i. 

1  ;  viii.  1 ;  ix.  1)  and  was  called  a  seer  by 
the  priest  of  Bethel  (vii.  12)  ;  but  he  was 
also  called  to  proi)hesy  on  the  basis  of  this 
prophetic  sight,  and  he  did  so  (vii.  15). 

Ivcferring  to  the  prophet's  special  endue- 
ment  from  on  high,  he  was  called  a  man  of 
the  Si)irit  (Hos.  ix.  7).  In  common  with 
other  ministers  of  (Jod,  ofiii'ial  or  i)rivate,  he 
is  a  man  <jf  God,  a  servant  of  (iod,  a  nie.s.sen- 
ger  of  the  Lord,  a  shepherd  of  (jod's  people, 
a  watchman,  an  interpreter. 

That  the  prophet  was  to  be  raised  up  from 
the  people  of  Israel  alone  did  not  prevent 
God,  who  worketh  when  and  where  he  will, 
in  caring  for  his  kingdom  to  .send  a  dream  to 
a  Philistine,  an  Egyptian,  a  Midianite,  a 
Babylonian,  a  Roman  (Gen.  xx.  6 ;  xli.  1 ; 
Judg.  vii.  13;  Dan.  ii.  1;  Mat.  xxvii.  19). 
Even  Balaam,  who  was  a  soothsayer,  and  as 
such  was  invited  by  the  king  of  Moab  to 
cur.se  Israel,  was  temporarily  used  by  God. 
These  foreigners  were  in  momentary  contact 
with  the  kingdom  of  God.  For  its  jirotec- 
tion  and  advantage  a  glimpse  of  the  future 
was  given  to  them.  They  did  not  thereby 
become  prophets,  any  more  than  did  Hagar 
or  Manoah  and  his  wife,  to  whom  the  angel 
of  the  Lord  appeared  and  afibrded  a  glimpse 
of  the  future.  They  were  not  men  of  the 
Spirit,  the  intimates  of  God. 

The  prophets  were  taught  of  the  Spirit  of 
God.  In  this  God  worked  in  accordance 
with  the  psychological  nature  of  man.  An 
audible  voice  or  an  angelic  messenger  occa- 
sionally came  (Num.  vii.  89  ;  1  Sam.  iii.  4  ; 
Dan.  ix.  21) ;  but  the  instruction  was  ordi- 
narily imparted  by  dreams,  visions,  and  in- 
ward suggestions  recognized  by  the  prophets 
as  not  of  themselves.  They  were  not  under 
^  the  permanent  influence  of  the  .Spirit.  The 
word  of  the  Lord  came  unto  them.  They 
waited  for  revelation  (Lev.  xxiv.  12).  And 
their  natural  mental  discernment  is  distin- 
guished from  the  divine  word  which  came  to 
them.  Samuel's  private  thought  is  distin- 
guished from  God's  ( 1  Sam.  xvi.  (>,  7).  Nathan 
at  first  approved  of  David's  purpose  to  build  a 
temple  for  the  Lord,  but  afterwards  told  the 
king  that  God  had  forbidden  its  construction 
(2  Sam.  vii.  3).  The  prophets  did  not  exer- 
ci.se  the  prophetic  power  at  all  times,  but 
when  (iod  told  them  to  speak. 

From  the  time  of  Samuel  the  office  was 
regularly  transmitted.  Though  the  prophets 
who  are  mentioned  by  name  are  few,  there 
were  many  anonymous  ones  (1  Kin.  xviii.  4; 

2  Kin.  ii.  7-16).  The  office  seems  not  to  have 
ceased  iintil  the  death  of  ]\Ialachi.  At  the 
approach  and  advent  of  Christ  the  tongue  of 
prophecv  was  again  loosed  ( Luke  i.  67;  ii. 
26-38).  ■  In  the  church  of  the  N.  T.  also  there 
were  prophets  (1  Cor.  xii.  28).  They  were 
not  an  order,  like  apostles  and  elders.  They 
were  men  and  women  (Acts  xxi.  9),  and  they 
were  .specially  illumined  expounders  of  God's 
revelation.     They  spake  by  the  Spirit,  occa- 


Prophetess 


597 


Proverbs,  The 


sionally  foretold  the  future  (xi.  27,  28 ;  xxi. 
10,  11),  and  taiif;ht  ami  c^xhortid  to  f;nat 
cdilicatii)ii  (I  (nr.  xiv.  :{,  l,  •J4).  Taul  ironi- 
cally K'ves  the  title  tt>  a  heathen  writer,  who 
so  correctly  descrihc<l  the  iinnionil  elianicter 
of  the  Cretans  tiiat  he  had  proven  himself 
to  that  extent  a  mouthpiece  of  the  truth 
(Tit.  i.  12). 

Tliere  were  men  who  possessed  and  exer- 
cised the  ]ir()i)luti<'  K'ft,  who  were  not  oili- 
<'ially  prophets.  |)avid  was  a  projihet;  he 
wnit<'  of  Christ;  hut  lie  was  not  a  ])rophet 
oflicially.  He  was  kinji,  and  his  writings 
were  not  assigned  a  ])lace  among  the  pro- 
plietie  Scriptures.  Daniel  had  the  gift  of 
prophecy  in  an  eminent  degree  ;  hut  lu'  did 
not  devote  his  life  to  teaching  the  peojilc;  he 
was  (illicially  a  statesman  and  governor  under 
iiahylonian  and  Persian  kings.  Jlis  writings, 
like  those  of  llavid,  were  idaced  among  the 
llagiograjiha  or  siicred  writings,and  not  with 
the  works  of  ofticial  prophets.  See  Canon. 
The  F'onner  I'rophets  and  the  Latter  Proph- 
ets iu-e  desigiuitions  in  tiie  Ilehrew  canon  for 
the  authors  respectively  of  the  historical 
hooks  of  Jisliua,  .ludges,  1  and  2  Samuel,  1 
and  2  Kings,  and  of  the  strictly  prophetical 
hooks  heginning  with  Isaiah.  The  authors 
wi're  projihcts;  anonymous  in  the  case  of  the 
Former  I'rophets,  hut  named  in  the  case  of 
the  strictly  prophetical  hooks.  The  reason 
was  that  prophecy,  not  history,  required  au- 
thentication. The  designation  does  not  refer 
to  the  time  when  the  books  were  composed, 
hut  to  the  respective  places  of  these  two 
groujis  of  hooks;  Kings,  for  example,  heing 
written  after  Isaiah,  hut  holding  a  jilace 
among  the  Former  Pro])hets.  There  were 
great  proi>hets,  like  Elijah  and  Elisha,  who  did 
notcnmmit  their  discourses  to  writing.  They 
are  t^-rnied  oral  prophets  hy  modern  scholars. 
The  literary  productions  f)f  other  prophets 
who  recorded  their  prophecies  are  cited,  ex- 
cerpted from,  and  incorporated  in  the  hooks 
of  the  Former  Prophets  and  other  Scripture. 
See  RofiK. 

Of  the  Latt<'r  Proi>hets  Hosea,  ,\mos,  and 
Jonah  labored  in  the  northern  kingdom;  the 
rest  exercised  their  oftici-  anumg  the  people 
of  .Indal)  and  P.enjamin,  either  in  Palestine 
or  in  the  land  of  exile.  Classed  chronologi- 
cally, they  are:  1.  In  the  As.syrian  jieriod, 
from  shortly  before  the  accession  of  Tiglath- 
pileser,  Tl.'i  u.  c.  to  the  decay  of  (he  Assyrian 
power,  about  G2o  B.  v.,  Hosea,  Amos,  and 
.lunah  in  the  north,  and  .Joel.  Obadiah,  Is;iiah, 
Micah,aiid  Naliiim  in  .lud.'ih.  2.  During  the 
Hiibyloiiian  period  in  .IiMlah,from  (!2.~>  it.  c  to 
the  fall  of  .leriisiilem,  in  .")(S7  li.  ('..  .leremiah, 
Hahiikkuk  and  Zeiihaniah.  :{.  During  the 
exile  in  JIabylonia.  F.zekiel  and  Daniel.  -1. 
During  the  period  of  the  restoration,  llaggai, 
/echariah,  and  Malachi.  S<eMlsH',  Naioth, 

SC'H<KII.. 

Proph'et-esB. 

1.   ,\  wunian  called  of  (iod  to  the  prophetic 


ofiBce.  Deborah  was  a  prophetess  (Judg.  iv. 
4).  The  Isratditi'S  n-sortid  to  her  for  .jiulg- 
ment,  and  the  I>ord  revealed  his  will  through 
her  to  the  nation  (.'"),  (i,  14).  lluldah  also  was 
a  prophetess.  .She  was  consulted  by  the  high 
priest  at  the  comnumd  of  the  king  in  ix'gard 
to  the  teaching  of  Deuteronomy,  and  she 
declared  the  counsel  of  the  Lord  (2  Kin. 
xxii.  12-2(11.  Four  virgin  daughters  of 
Philip  the  evangelist  prophesiid  lAcls  xxi.  9). 
2.  A  prophet's  wife,  as  is  probably  meant 
in   Is.  viii.  .">. 

Pros'e-lyte. 

In  the  N.  T. ,  a  convert  to  .ludaisnu  The 
Pharisees  com])assed  sea  and  land  to  make 
one  proselyte  (Mat.  xxiii.  15).  The  Koman 
poet  Horace  mentions  the  trait  as  character- 
istic of  the  .Jews  (Sat.  i.  4, 142  and  14:5).  Pros- 
elytes were  present  when  the  pentecostal 
eflusion  took  place  (Acts  ii.  10).  Due  of  the 
men  chosen  to  look  after  the  poor  in  the 
early  Christian  church  was  Nicolas,  a  pros- 
elyte ol'  Anlioch  (vi.  .^>).  They  were  quite 
numerous  in  Antioch  (War  vii.  3,  iJ).  At 
Damascus  great  numbers  of  women  were 
converts  to  Judaism  (ii.  20,  2).  The  cham- 
berlain of  queen  Candace  was  evidently  a 
convert  (Acts  viii.  27),  and  the  royal  family 
of  Adiabene.  east  of  the  Euphrates,  adopted 
the  Jew's  religion  (Antiq.  xx.  2-4).  At 
Antioch,  in  Pisidia,  many  proselytes  followed 
Paul  and  P.aruabas  (Aits  xiii,  4:5).  The  rab- 
bins recognized  t\\()  orders  of  proselytes.  One 
were  })roselytes  of  righteousness.  They  con- 
.sented  to  be  circumcised  and  bajitized,  and 
to  offer  .sacrifice.  They  adopted  Judaism  in 
its  entirely.  The  jiroselytes  of  the  gate  or 
of  sojourning  were  much  less  advanced. 
They  agreed  to  observe  what  were  called  the 
seven  precept^s  of  Noah  (see  Noah),  but  de- 
clined to  be  circumcised  or  to  embrace 
Judaism. 

Prov'erbs,  The. 

Ajioetical  liook  on  inactical  piety.  It  follows 
the  I'.ook  of  Psalms  in  the  Hebrew  collection 
and  also  in  the  (Jreek,  Latin,  and  English 
versions.  The  Hebrew  woitl  which  has  been 
rendered  proverb  embraces  more  than  a  max- 
im. It  includes  also  the  fable,  the  riddle, 
the  satire,  the  parable  (Num,  xxiii.  7;  Is. 
xiv.  4  ;  Ezek.  xvii.  2).  The  seveial  parts  of 
the  book  of  Proverbs  are:  1.  Title,  i.  l-fi.  de- 
scriptive of  the  entire  book;  declaring  the 
juirpose  of  the  collection  to  be  "  to  know 
wisdom  and  instruction;  .  .  .  the  words  of  the 
wi>e  and  their  dark  sayings,"  and  designat- 
ing it  the  proverbs  of  .Solomon,  son  of  David, 
king  of  Israel.  This  title,  however,  dois  not 
affirm  that  the  book  in  all  itsS  jiarts  in  from 
Solomon  (cii.  I's.  Ixxii.  20,  although  each  ]i.s;ilm 
in  the  book  is  not  thereby  aserilied  tti  David  ; 
see  titles  of  Ps.  xlii.  I.).  2.  Main  coiitc^nts.  I. 
Pniise  of  wisdom,  i.  7-ix.  IS;  ji  didjictic 
poj-m  in  the  form  of  addres,<<es  by  a  father  to 
his  son,  and  sjiecially  d«'signed  for  young 
men.     II.  The  jiroverbs  of  .Solomon,  x.-xxii. 


Proverbs,  The 


598 


Psalms,  Book  of 


16 ;  maxims  arranged  in  no  precise  order 
and  consisting  in  each  case  mostly  of  two 
contrasted  sentences.  III.  Witlioiit  lornial 
supei-scriiition,  biitwliich  may  Ix-  called  from 
the  openinji  verse,  compared  with  xxiv.  2'.i, 
the  words  of  wise  men,  xxii.  17-xxiv.  22. 
Among  these  words  is  a  ])()em  on  the  drunk- 
ard's woes.  Supplemented  by  the  sayings  of 
the  wise,  xxiv.  2;3-34,  including  an  ode  on 
the  sluggard.  IV.  Proverbs  of  Solomon 
coi)ied  out  by  the  men  of  Hezekiah,  xxv.- 
xxix. ;  having  all  the  characteristics  of  the 
popular  proverb,  and  consisting  of  pithy 
sentences  not  only  of  two,  but  also  of  three, 
four,  or  five  parallel  clauses  each.  Three 
ajipendices :  (1)  The  words  of  Agur,  xxx. ; 
enigmatical  sayings  in  which  numbers  play 
a  significant  part.  (2)  The  words  of  king 
Lemuel,  xxxi.  1-i) ;  maxims  on  practical  life 
addressed  to  him  by  his  mother.  (3)  Praise  of 
the  virtuous  woman,  xxxi.  10-31;  a  poem  in 
which  each  of  the  twenty-two  verses  begins 
with  a  letter  of  the  Hebrew  alphabet  in 
regular  order. 

The  particular  ascription  of  certain  sec- 
tions of  the  book  to  Solomon,  and  of  other 
sections  apparently  to  other  authorship,  in- 
dicates that  Solomon  was  not  the  author  of 
the  entire  work  ;  and  the  title  of  the  fourth 
section,  "These  also  are  proverbs  of  Solomon, 
which  the  men  of  Hezekiah  king  of  Jndah 
copied  out,"  is  valid  evidence  that  the  book 
of  Proverbs  did  not  receive  its  present  shape 
before  the  reign  of  Hezekiah.  The  brief  in- 
troduction (i.  l-fi)  fittingly  describes  the  en- 
tire book,  and  the  poem  in  praise  of  wisdom 
(7-ix.  18)  is  not  ascribed  to  Solomon,  and 
forms  the  preface  to  the  proverbs  of  Solomon, 
which  immediately  follow,  or  more  probably 
to  all  the  maxims  of  wisdom  which  consti- 
tute the  remainder  of  the  book.  The  intro- 
duction and  poem  may,  therefore,  be  safely 
attributed  to  the  hand  and  brain  of  another 
literary  man  than  Solomon,  and  dated  not 
earlier  than  the  reign  of  Hezekiah.  The 
second  and  fourth  sections,  chap,  x.-xxii.  16 
and  xxv.-xxix.,  or  nearly  two-thirds  of  the 
book,  are  ascribed  to  Solomon.  The  absence 
of  a  polemic  against  idolatry  has  been  urged 
as  evidence  that  the  proverbs  in  these  sec- 
tions originated  or  were  collected  after  the 
cessation  of  the  great  struggle  which  the 
prophets  carried  on  with  encroaching  heathen- 
i.sm.  It  may  with  equal  justice  be  advanced 
as  proof  that  thesi;  sections  antedate  that 
struggle.  If  till!  absence  of  ]iolemic  proves 
anything,  it  atf'onls  evidence  that  these  pro- 
verbs were  collected  either  ))efore  the  division 
of  the  kingdom  and  the  encroachments  of 
idolatry,  or  after  the  exile,  when  idolatry  had 
lost  its  attractiveness.  Th<'  language  of  these 
sections  favors,  though  it  does  not  establish, 
the  ascriptioji  to  S(ilf>m()n,  for  it  is  imre  He- 
brew. It  is  free  from  foreign  orthograiihy 
and  forms,  such  as  are  found  in  some  books 
which  were  written  imniediatel.v  bi^fore  the 
exile   or  subsequently  to   it.      Furthermore 


proverbial  literature  is  very  ancient.  It 
appeared  early  among  the  Hebrews  also  (1 
Sam.  xxiv.  13;  2  Sam.  xii.  1;  .ludg.  ix.  7). 
That  .Solomon  composed  and  collected  jtrov- 
erbs  has  early  attestation  (Prov.  xxv.  1  ;  1 
Kin.  iv.  32;  x.  1  seq. ;  Ecclus.  xlvii.  13-17). 
The  titles,  therefore,  which  attribute  the 
maxims  in  these  two  sections  of  the  book  of 
I'roveibs,  may  safely  be  regarded  as  authentic. 

Prov'ince. 

The  lendering  of  the  Hebrew  and  Aramaic 
M'd'nKth,  jurisdiction,  and  the  Greek  Epar- 
ch'in,  government. 

The  young  men  or  servants  of  the  princes 
of  tiie  i)rovinces,  who  fought  under  Aliab 
against  Benhadad  (1  Kin.  xx.  14),  were  not 
Israelites  (15).  The.v  probably  served  the 
chieftains  who  ruled  various  districts  in 
Gilead  and  the  Hauran,  and  made  common 
cause  with  Israel  in  resisting  the  encroach- 
ment of  the  Syrians  upon  the  country  south 
of  Damascus. 

The  provinces  of  the  Babylonian  and  Per- 
sian empires  were  divisions  of  the  realm  for 
administrative  purposes  (Dan.  ii.  49 ;  iii.  3). 
In  the  Pei'siau  empire  the  province  was  a 
division  of  a  satrapy  :  for  under  Darius  Ilys- 
taspis  the  empire  was  divided  into  twenty 
satrapies;  but  under  Xerxes  the  provinces, 
from  India  to  Ethiopia,  were  one  hundred 
and  twenty-seven  (Esth.  i.  1 ;  Herod,  iii.  89) ; 
see  Satrap.  After  the  exile  Judah  was  at 
first  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  governor 
beyond  the  river  (Ezra  v.  3,  6),  but  by  royal 
decree  it  was  made  a  separate  province  and 
granted  a  governor  of  its  own  (ii.  63:  v.  8). 

The  provinces  of  the  Roman  empire  were 
of  two  classes,  imperial  and  senatorial.  The 
imperial  provinces  were  under  the  direct  and 
sole  control  of  the  emperor;  they  compre- 
hended all  the  frontier  provinces  which  were 
supposed  to  need  the  presence  of  an  army  of 
occupation  to  hold  them  in  subjection  ;  they 
were  governed  by  a  military  olficer  called  a 
legate,  who  was  apjiointed  by  the  emperor ; 
their  revenues  were  received  by  imi)erial 
agents  termed  procurators,  and  were  ])aid 
into  the  private  exchequer  of  the  emiieror. 
The  smaller  imjierial  provinces,  and  parts 
of  larger  ones  like  the  subprovince  of  .Indii^a, 
wei'e  ruled  by  a  procurator  only,  the  jtresence 
of  a  legate  not  being  deemed  necessary. 
Cilicia  (Acts  xxiii.  34),  Galatia,  and  Syria, 
of  which  Judaja  was  a  part,  were  imperial 
provinces.  The  .senatorial  provinces  were 
administered  by  the  senate;  they  did  not 
require  to  be  ke]it  under  control  by  military 
force  ;  their  governor  was  styled  a  proconsul. 
He  was  attended  by  quipstors,  who  received 
the  revenues  and  paid  them  into  the  i)ubli(^ 
treasury,  which  was  managed  by  the  senate. 
Cyprus  (Acts  xiii.  4.  7),  Macedonia  (xvi.  12), 
Achaia  (xviii.  12),  and  Asia  (xix.  10)  wcro 
senatorial   provinces. 

Psalms,  Book  of. 

A  collection  of  religious  poems  which  were 


Psalms,  Book  of 


699 


Psaltery 


specially  eiiii>li)yt<l  in  the  public  worship  of 
till-  (iitii  of  l.siiui.  In  JlchifW  it  is  called 
Hook  ol'  I'raiscs.  'Plic  title  in  the  iMijilisii 
version  is  borrowed  I'roin  the  (ireek  ti-ansla- 
tion  ((•)).  Luke  xx.  42).  The  general  designa- 
tion I'salins of  David  isderived  IVoin  the  num- 
ber of  iisalnis,  seventy-three  in  all.  cxjjressly 
ascribed  to  David  iu  the  Hebrew  titles  (cp. 
lleb.  iv.  7). 

The  ])s;ilins  nunil)er  150.  They  are  divided 
into  live  books;  in  imitation,  it  is  thought, 
ot  the  livefold  division  of  the  Pentateucli  ; 
see  footnote,  rKNTATDicH.  This  division  is 
ancient.  It  is  indicated  in  the  Septuagint, 
and  is  marked  by  headings  in  the  Hebrew 
text.  Hs  existence  in  the  chronicler's  day  is, 
however,  scarcely  evidenced  by  1  Chron.  xvi. 
3o,  3(5,  compared  with  Vs.  cvi.  17,  -li"^,  as  De- 
litzsch  believes,  for  the  passage  in  the  jisalni  is 
as  jirobably  derived  from  tlie  words  in  t'liron- 
ides  as  vice  rrr-yn.  These  l)ooks  l)egin  respect- 
ively with  I's.  i.,  xlii.,  Ixxiii.,  xc,  an<l  cvii. 
Each  book  isarranged  toclose  withadoxology. 
In  the  first  l)()ok  all  the  psalms  are  attributed 
to  David  except  four  (i.,  ii.,  x.,  xxxiii.).  These 
arc  so-called  orphan  j)salnis;  that  is,  they  are 
anonymous.  In  the  Septuagint  all  except  i., 
whicli  is  introductory,  and  ii.  are  ascribed  to 
David;  x.  being  united  to  ix.  and  xxxiii. 
bearing  the  title  "To  David."  The  divine 
name  Jehovah  is  generally  employed  in  tlic 
psiilms  of  this  t)ook.  In  tlie  .second  book,  of 
tiie  thirty-one  ])salms  the  first  eight  are  a 
Collection  of  songs  of  the  sons  of  Korah. 
Seven  are  t'X])ressly  ascribed  to  them  ;  and 
xliii.,  whether  written  by  them  or  not,  was 
composed  as  the  conclusion  of  xlii.  This 
group  is  followed  by  a  psalm  of  Asaph. 
Then  comes  a  groU]i  of  twenty  ]>salms  at- 
tributed to  David  with  the  exceiition  of  two 
(Ixvi.,  Ixvii.).  Of  the  two  exceiitions,  how- 
ever, Ixvii.  is  ascribed  to  David  in  the 
Septuagint.  The  book  closes  with  an  anony- 
mous and  a  Solomonic  ])salm  (Ixxi.,  Ixxii.). 
In  this  book  the  divine  name  is  prevailingly 
I'lobim.  tioil  ;  and  two  iisjilms  duplicate  two 
of  the  first  book,  substituting  the  wonl  (Tod 
for  Jehovah  (liii.  and  Ixx.;  cp.  xiv.  and  xl. 
i:!-17).  The  third  book  contains  seventeen 
psalms.  The  first  eleven  are  attributeil  to 
Asiiph,  four  to  the  sons  of  Korah,  and  one 
oach  to  David  and  I'than.  This  collection 
of  j)salins  was  gathered  after  the  destruction 
of  Jerusalem  and  burning  of  the  tem))le 
(Ixxiv.  «,  7,  H;  Ixxix.  1).  The  fourth  liook 
likewise  contains  seventeen  psalms.  The 
first  is  ascribed  to  Moses,  two  to  David  ;  and 
the  remaining  fourteen  areanonynious.  The 
S(]ituagint  gives  eleven  to  David,  leaving 
uidy  five  anonymous  (xcii.,  c.,  cii.,  cv.,  cvi.). 
The  fifth  book  has  twenty-eight  anonymous 
])salins,  while  fifteen  are  assigned  to  Daviil 
and  one  to  Solomon.  The  ascriptions  diller 
ccin-iderably  in  the  .Sc|)tuagint.  This  col- 
lection was  made  late,  for  it  includes 
psalms  which  refer  to  the  exile  (cxxvi., 
cxxxvii.).     It  will  be  seen  that  the  composi- 


tion of  the  psalms  ranges  over  a  long  period 
of  time.  That  David  was  the  author  of 
]isilms  is  sup|iorti(l  by  abundant  early  testi- 
mony, direct  and  indirect.     See   D.wiu. 

'I'he  titles  of  the  ]isalms  are  ancient.  Tliey 
were  not  only  in  their  place  when  the  (ireek 
version  was  made,  but  they  were  old  at  that 
time;  for  musical  and  other  terms  which 
occur  were  not  nndiistood  by  the  trans- 
lators. As  they  stand,  they  are  not  infallible; 
Ixxxviii.,  for  exam))le,  having  two  titles. 

Technical  tern  is  used  a  re  Is'eginali,  a  stringed 
instrument,  and  its  plural  Neginoth ;  and 
Xehiloth,  wind  instruments  (iv.,  v.,  Ixi.). 
Terms  ])robably  musical  :  Alamolh,  maidens, 
perhajjs  maiden  or  treble  voices  (xlvi.  ;  I 
Chron.  XV.  2(\);  (iittith,  a  cither  of  (Jath, 
jjcrliaps,  or  a  march  of  the  Gittite  guard 
(viii.,  Ixxxi.,  Ixxxiv.)  ;  Selah,  an  orchestral 
interlude  or  a  change  from  puma  to  forte 
(iii.  2);  Sheminith,  the  eighth  (vi. ;  xii.  ;  1 
t'liron.  XV.  21).  Terms  indicative  of  the 
characterof  the  i)salm  :  ]\Iaschil.  a  didactic  or 
refiective  ])oeni  (xxxii.,  and  twelve  others) ; 
Michtam,  ]perha])s  eiiignimmatic  (xvi.,  Ivi.- 
Ix.)  ;  Miznior,  a  lyric  jiorm.  regularly  trans- 
lated ]isalm  (iii.,  et  ]iassim)  ;  Shiggaion, 
l)robably  a  wild  dithynimbic  (vii.  ;  Hah.  iii. 
1).  Other  terms  are  understood  to  indicate 
familiarmeludies:  Aijeleth  hash-.Shahar,  hind 
of  the  dawn  (xxii.)  ;  .lonatli  elem  reliokim, 
the  silent  dove  of  them  that  are  afar  oil", 
or,  changing  the  pronunciation  of  the  second 
word,  the  dove  of  the  distant  terebinths 
(Ivi. ):  Mahalath,  lieaviness  (liii.,  Ixxxviii.)  ; 
Muth-labben  (ix.) ;  Shosliannim  and  .Shoshan- 
nim  Eduth  and  Shushan  Eduth,  lilies  the 
testimony  (xlv.,  Ix.,  Ixxx.).  The  songs  of 
ascents  or  degrees  were  probably  designed 
for  pilgrims  going  up  to  Jerusalem. 

Psal'ter-y. 

The  usual  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Nebel, 
when  a  musical  instrument  is  intended.  In 
four  ]iassages  it  is  tninslated  viol  (Is.  v.  12, 
in  K.  V.  lute;  xiv.  11;  Amos  v.  215;  vi.  5). 
Xrbel  is  doubtless  the  Greek  vabla,  which 
was  reputed  to  be  of  Sidonian  origin;  and  it 
is  usually  tninslated  by  this  (Ireek  word  in 
the  Sei>tuagint  (1  Sam.  x.  .")  ;  2  Sam.  vi.  .") ;  1 
Chron.  xiii.  8;  xv.  Ki,  20).  The  body  of  the 
instrument  was  made  of  wood  (2  Sam.  vi.  5; 
2  Chnin.  ix.  11).  or,  later,  of  metal  (.\ntiq. 
viii.  .'?.  H).  The  strings  were  of  gut  {nihniim), 
and  their  number  in  the  common  instru- 
ment is  unknown,  but  in  a  sjiecial  variety 
they  were  ten  (Ps.  xxxiii.  2;  xcii.  3).  It 
was  tuned  to  the  so])r;ino  register  (1  Chron. 
XV.  20).  It  could  be  carried  about  wliile  it 
was  jilayed  (1  Sam.  x.  5;  2  Sam.  vi.  '>).  The 
name  p.siltery,  which  is  occasionally  given 
to  this  instrument  in  the  Sejituagint  (Ps. 
xxxiii.  2:  Ivii.  8),  has  been  thought  to  iden- 
tify it  with  the  .srt»(ic  of  the  Arabs;  but  tho 
history  of  the  .imitir  and  its  name  seems 
to  be  as  follows:  The  Assyrians  used  a 
musical    instrument    consisting    of    a    long. 


Ptolemais 


600 


Ptolemy 


low,  horizontal  body  over  which  strings 
were  stnmg.  It  was  jilayed  with  a  ])k'c-tnini. 
See  illustration  under  Mrsic.  'Hw  (irei'ks 
ad()])ted  it  as  tlie  twenty -stringed  mugadis 
and  tlie  forty-stringed  epuioneion.  I^ater  the 
maijddis  received  the  name  psnlterion,  and 
was  apparently  borrowed  witli  its  new  name 
from  the  Greeks  by  the  Araiuseans  (Dan.  iii. 
5,  if  p'sant'rhi.  does  not  rei)resent  a  diUerent 
instrmnent  liere)  and  by  tlie  Arabs.  By  the 
latter  it  was  called  suntir.  In  the  light  of 
this  probable  history  of  the  santir,  the  iden- 
tity of  its  name  with  psaltery  is  seen  not  to 
identify  it  with  the  Hebrew  iiebel.  The 
tradition  regarding  the  nebel  indicates  that 
it  was  a  kind  of  harp.  Josephus  says  that 
the  difference  between  tlie  kinura  [Hebrew 
kiiinor,  harp]  and  the  nabla  was  that  the 
former  had  ten  strings  and  was  jilayed  with 
the  plectrum,  while  the  latter  had  twelve 
notes  and  was  played  with  the  hand  (Antiq. 
vii.  12,  3).  According  to  Eusebius,  the  psal- 
ferion  was  called  nabla  by  the  Hebrews  and 
had  the  metallic  sounding-board  above  ;  and 
Augustine  on  Ps.  xlii.  describes  it  as  having 
the  sounding-board  above  the  strings,  and 
not  below  as  in  the  cither,  the  strings  of  the 
psaltery  being  stretched  between  a  curved 
arm  and  the  drum  or  resonance  box  in  which 
it  terminates  above.  IsidorusandCassiodorus 
describe  the  psaltery  as  triangular  in  shape, 
like  the  Greek  letter  delta.  If  they  do  not 
confound  it  with  the  trigonon,  which  had  a 
triangular  frame,  and  if  they  correctly  give 
the  shape  of  the  psaltery,  it  appears  to  have 
resembled  the  upright  harp  which  Assyrian 
musicians  carried  while  they  played  it.  See 
illustration  under  Music.  The  original  form 
of  the  sounding-board  and  the  arm  probably 
bore  resemblance  to  a  skin  bottle  and  its 
neck,  and  obtained  for  the  musical  instru- 
ment its  name  of  nebel,  bottle.  It  was  one 
of  the  instruments  which  the  company  of 
prophets  whom  Saul  met  were  playing  when 
he  came  in  their  way  (1  Sam.  x.  5),  and  one 
of  those  used  at  David's  removal  of  the  ark 
to  Jerusalem  (2  Sam.  vi.  5).  When  he  per- 
manently organized  the  instrumentalists  into 
an  orchestra  for  the  sanctuary,  some  were 
appointed  topt^rform  on  the  psaltery  (1  Chron. 
XV.  16,  20,  28;  xvi.  5  ;  xxv.  1,  6)  ;  and  it  was 
subsequently  in  continual  use  for  divine  wor- 
ship (2  Chron.  v.  12).  It  was  played  also  at 
festive  gatherings  (Is.  v.  12  ;  Amos  vi.  o).  It 
was  often  combined  with  the  harp  ( 1  Sam.  x.  5 ; 
2  Sam.  vi.  5  ;  2  Chron.  ix.  11 ;  Ps.  Ixxxi.  2  ; 
cviii.  2).  For  its  use  in  the  sanctuary,  see 
Music. 

Ptol-e-ma'is.     See  Accho. 

Ptore-my. 

The  name  borne  by  all  the  male  rulers  of 
Egypt  of  the  house  of  Lagus,  which  began 
with  Ptolemy  Soter,  one  of  tlie  generals  of 
Alexander  the  Great,  and  lasted  until  the 
Roman  conquest  of  Egypt  and  the  death  of 
Heopatra.     The  early   Ptolemies,  especially 


the  first  three,  were  wise  and  efficient  rulers 

and  raised  Egy])t  to  a  high  position  of  power 
and  iiilluencc.  They  held  many  foreign  pos- 
sessions, among  which  were  Pha'uicia,  Cude- 
syria,  Cyprus,  and  Cyrenaica,  and  for  a  while 
Palestine.  They  patronized  art,  letters,  and 
science,  and  raised  Alexandria,  their  capital, 
to  be  the  leading  university  center  of  Grecian 
culture.  Tlu!y  were  friendly  to  the  Jews, 
encouraging  them  to  settle  in  Alexandria, 
granting  them  special  jirivileges  and  giving 
to  many  of  them  high  civil  and  military 
positions. 

The  later  rulers  of  this  house  were,  how- 
ever, weak  and  wicked.  Wars  with  their 
neighbors  were  frequent,  revolts  on  the  part 
of  their  people  at  home  became  common, 
incest  and  the  murder  of  relatives  were  well 
known  in  the  palace,  and  the  loss  of  all  the 
foreign  possessions  heralded  the  loss  of  the 
throne  itself. 

Three  of  the  rulers  of  this  line  and  sev- 
eral men  of  humbler  rank  are  mentioned  in 
the  Books  of  the  Maccabees  : 

1.  Ptolemy  I  v.,  called  Philopator.  He  was 
suspected  of  causing  the  death  of  his  father, 
and  his  first  act  on  coming  to  the  throne  was 
the  murder  of  his  mother  and  younger 
brother.  His  whole  reign  was  a  series  of 
debaucheries  and  crimes.  Encouraged  by 
the  weakness  and  profligacy  of  Ptolemy, 
Antiochus  III.,  king  of  Syria,  made  war  on 


Ptolemy  Philopator. 

him  with  a  view  to  wresting  Phoenicia  from 
Egypt,  but  was  utterly  defeated  by  the 
Egyptian  army  at  the  battle  of  Eaphia,  217 
B.  c.  (3  Mac.  i.  1-5).  After  this  battle,  Ptol- 
emy sacrificed  in  .Tertisalem,  but  being  pre- 
vented from  entering  the  holy  of  holies,  at- 
tempted to  assassinate  all  the  .Tews  in  Alex- 
andria in  revenge.  A  somewhat  fanciful  ac- 
count of  this  is  found  in  the  Third  Book  of 
Maccabees.     He  died  in  20.")  n.  c. 

2.  Ptolemy  VI.,  called  I'hilometor.  began  to 
reign  in  181  B.  c.,attheageoPseven.  under  the 
regency  of  his  mother,  Cleopatra,  lie  reigned 
for  some  years  alone  and  for  some  years 
conjointly  with  his  brotlier,  Physcon,  called 
Ptolemy  VII.  Later,  the  kingdom  was  di- 
vided between  them,  Physcon  ruling  over 
Cyrene  and  Libya,  and  Philometflr  over 
Egypt  and  Cy])rus.  His  generals  invaded 
Syria  and  so  came  into  contact  wit'ii  Antif)chus 
Epiphaues,  by  whom  they  were  completely 


Pua 


601 


Publican 


defeated  at  Pelusium  171  B.  c.  Cyprus  also 
was  taken  hj-  Aiitiochiis,  ami  Alexjiiulria 
woiilil  doiilitlcss  lia\'e  fallen  hut  for  tlie  iii- 
terforeiiie  of  tlie  Koluaiis,  wlio  t)e;;aii  at  that 


I'tuleiiiv  riiildiiu'tor 


time  to  exercise  a  iiuasi  i)rotectorate  over 
HK.vpt.  Philonietor  interfered  frequently  in 
the  atfairs  tif  Syria,  sidint;  one  time  with  the 
lireteiider  Alexander  Halas  (1  Mac.  x.  51-57) 
and  afterwarils  with  Alexander's  rival,  De- 
metrius Nicator  (xi.  1-lM.  While  eiif^afred 
in  hatlie  in  Syria,  he  fell  fr(jni  his  horse,  and 
dieil  shortly  afterwards  from  the  etl'ects  of 
the  injury,  115  b.  c.  Ptolemy  showed  .special 
favor  to  the  .lews.  It  was  by  his  ])ermission 
that  (Inias  built  a  Jewish  ti'iujile  at  Leon- 
toiiolis  cojiied  after  the  tem]iie  at  Jerusalem. 
S.  Ptolemy  VII.,  Physcon,  also  called 
EuerKetes,  was  first  co-re{rent  with  his 
brother  Philonietor,  170-1()4  B.  c,  but  after 
the  death  of  the  latter  reigned  alone,  14.5- 
117  n.  c.  He  is  sometimi'S  reckoned  as 
Ptolemy  VIII.,  his  miihew  Eupator,  son 
of  Philonietor.  reifininK  for  a  few  days  after 
his  father's  death.  The  early  ]iart  of  his 
Tviiiu  was  a  series  of  crimes  apainst  his  own 
family  and  such  debaucliery  as  alienated 
and  disf;usted  liis  subjects,  wlio  revolted  sev- 
eral times.  Like  his  jiredecessors,  he  inter- 
fered in  the  att'airs  of  Syria,  lending  aid 
first  to  Zabinas.  and  then  a>rainst  him.  He 
is  mentioned  (1  Mac.  xv.  Ki)  as  in  corre- 
s|ion(lence  with  Rome,  and  it  is  probably  he 
who  is  meant  in  1  Mac.  i.  18. 

4.  Ptolemy,  a  general  of  Antiochns  Epi])h- 
anes  (2  Mac.  iv.  45;  vi.  8;  viii.  H).  He  took 
]iart  in  tluM-xjiedition  which  I.,ysias  orjianized 
anainst  Judas  Maccabieus  (1  Mac.  iii.  .'5^1.  It 
is  jiossible  that  he  is  identical  with  Pt-olemy 
Makron  (2  Mac.  x.  12),  who,  first  served 
I'tolemy  Philometor  in  Cyprus,  then  passed 
into  the  service  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes  and 
later  into  that  of  Antioclius  Enjiator.  Fall- 
ing' into  ilisfavor  witli  the  latter,  he  ended 
his  life  by  taking  jioison,  l(i4  u,  c. 

5.  Ptolemy,  son-in-law  of  the  hifjh  jiriest 
Simon.  He  murilered  his  fath<T-in-law  and 
two  of  his  brothers-in-law  in  the  slronj,'ho]d 
of  l»ok,  near  .lericho  (1  Mac.  xvi.  11  .se<|.). 

Pu'a.      See  Pfv.All. 

Pu'ah. 

One  of  the  Hebrew  midwives  who  dis- 
obeyed the  command  of  the  Enyjitian  kinp 
to  kill  the  male  children  at  their  birth  (Ex. 
i.  I,'-.). 


For  others  called  Puah  in  the  English  ver- 
sions, but  which  is  a  diflerent  word  in  He- 
brew, see  PUVAH. 

Pub'li-can. 

A  farmer  of  the  Roman  taxes  and  custom.s. 
lu  place  of  aiipoiniing  revenue  otKcers  to 
raise  fixed  taxes  from  the  community,  the 
Romans  and  their  deimty  jirinces  like  the 
Herods  were  accustomed  to  ]iut  up  to  auction 
the  jirivilege  of  farming  the  public  revenues, 
or  some  specified  jiart  of  them,  in  the  several 
provinces,  cities,  towns,  and  districts.  Tho.se 
who  bid  at  the  auction  were  necessarily 
wealthy  men  or  re]nesentatives  of  wealthy 
companies;  for  they  undertook  to  ]iay  a 
given  sum  into  the  treasury  iin  publicum), 
and  they  were  obliged  to  give  security  to  the 
goverinnent  for  the  sums  they  promised  to 
pay.  In  some  cases  they  in  turn  sold  the 
right  of  farming  portions  of  the  revenue  to 
subcontractors,  in  others  they  engaged  a 
number  of  subordinate  agents  to  do  the 
actual  work  of  collecting  the  taxes.  They 
themselves  were  generally  Romans  of  eques- 
trian rank,  while  their  subordinates,  of 
course,  were  of  inferior  dignity.  The  sub- 
ordinates or  actiuil  collectors  of  the  taxes 
and  customs  are  called  publicans  in  the 
English  version  of  the  N.  T.  It  was  under- 
stood that  the  farmers  Avere  to  repay  them- 
selves f<ir  their  labor  and  the  risk  they  had 
undertaken  by  taking  from  the  taxpayers  a 
fraction  more  than  they  jiaid  over  to  the 
government.  No  proper  means  were  adopted 
to  prevent  that  fraction  from  assuming  great 
proportions.  With  a  few  honoiable  excep- 
tions, the  publicans,  great  and  small,  were 
extortioners  (cp.  Luke  iii.  12,  V.i ;  xix.  8). 
They  were  nnpojiular  among  all  clas.ses  iu 
the  i)rovinces,  (■xce])t,  )ierhaps,  with  the 
Ivonian  governors,  who  often  received  jnirt 
of  the  plunder  for  conniving  at  the  o]i])res- 
sions  i)racticed.  Sometimes  the  subcontrac- 
tors, and  in  most  cases  the  subordinate  tax- 
gatherer,  in  the  con<iuered  countries  be- 
longed to  the  nativi'  impulation.  Thus 
Zaccha'Us,  a  Jew.  seems  tc)  have  been  sub- 
contractor for  the  revenues  of  Jericho  (Luke 
xix.  ],  2),  and  Matthew,  or  Levi  (also  a  Jew), 
apparently  a  tax  collector  juiid  by  the  farmer 
for  the  reveniU'S  of  Capernaum  (Mat.  ix.  f); 
Mark  ii.  14:  Luke  v.  27).  It  addid  to  the 
unpo])ularity  of  the  Jews  who  accej)ted  ollice 
as  the  agents  of  the  Roman  ]iublicans,  or 
themselves  became  farmers  of  the  ri'Venue 
from  ])articular  towns,  that  they  laised  taxes 
for  a  foreigii  and  heathen  govirnment.  They 
were  not  admitted  into  society  ;  luiy,  it  was 
considered  disrejJUtable  for  anyone  to  be 
their  friend  and  associate.  It  was  one  of 
the  charges  brought  against  our  Lord  that 
he  ate  with  publicans  and  sinners  i  .Mat.  ix. 
10-13)  and  that  he  was  their  friend  (xi. 
19).  He  honored  them  by  choosing  one  of 
their  number  as  an  apostle  (ix.  it;  x.  3). 
Quite  agreeing  with   jMijJular  opinion  as  to 


Publius 


602 


Punishment 


the  low  moral  state  of  the  average  publican 
{V.  4(i,  47  ;  xviii.  17),  ho  still  invited  Iheiii  as 
freely  as  (itheis  into  the  Cliristian  fold.  His 
kindnt»ss  touched  tlieir  hearts,  and  not  a 
few  of  them  were  baptized  (xxi.  31,  32 ; 
Luke  iii.  12;  vii.  29;  xv.  1;  xviii.  13,  14). 
He  introduced  a  penitent  publican  into  his 
parable  of  the  Pharisee  and  the  publican 
(9-14). 

Tliei"e  is  no  passage  in  the  N.  T.  in  which 
publican  signilies  the  keeper  of  a  public 
house. 

Pub'li-us. 

The  chief  man  in  the  island  of  Melita 
(Malta)  while  Paul  was  there.  His  name 
suggests  that  he  was  a  Roman.  He  gave  the 
apostle  and  his  associates  hospitality  for  three 
days,  and  was  rewarded  by  having  his  father 
miraculously  cured  of  fever  and  dysentery 
(Acts  xxviii.  H). 

Pu'dens  [bashful,  modest]. 

A  Cliristian  at  Eome  who  joined  Paul  in 
sending  salutations  to  Timothy  (2  Tim.  iv. 
21).  In  an  in.scription  found  in  that  capital, 
a  man  of  the  same  name  and  perhaps  the 
same  as  he  is  stated  to  have  been  a  servant 
of  Tiberius,  or  Claudius.  The  facts  that  in 
the  letter  to  Timothy  Pudeus,  Linus,  and 
Claudia  go  together,  and  the  poet  Martial, 
who  went  to  Kome  about  a.  t>.  66  and  abode 
there  many  years,  mentions  three  persons 
bearing  the  same  names,  have  suggested  that 
the  poet  may  have  referred  to  Paul's  three 
friends.  If  so,  Pudeus  was  an  Umbriau,  who 
became  a  centurion  and  was  sent  on  military 
duty  to  the  remote  north  ;  and  Claudia  was 
the  wife  of  Pudeus  and  apparently  of  Brit- 
ish origin,  being  probably  the  daughter  of 
king  Tiberius  Claudius  Cogidubnus,  men- 
tioned in  a  Latin  inscription  found  at  Chi- 
chester in  A.  D  1723.  With  the  sanction  of 
king  Tiberius  Claudius  Cogidubnus,  a  man 
named  Pudeus  gave  the  site  at  Chichester  for 
the  erection  of  a  temple  by  a  guild  of  car- 
penters. 

Pu'hites.     See  Puthites. 

Pul. 

1.  An  African  country  and  people.  The 
latter  are  coupled  with  Tarshish  and  Lud, 
apparently  all  three  being  skillful  in  archery 
(Is.  Ixvi.  19).  One  opinion  is  that  Pul  is  the 
island  of  Phila^  on  the  Nile  in  Upper  Egypt 
on  the  confines  of  lOthiopia.  It  is,  however, 
more  probably  a  copyist's  error  for  Put  (q.  v. ). 

2.  A    king    of    Assyria ;     see     Tiglath- 

PILESER. 

Pulse. 

Leguminous  plants  or  their  seeds,  specially 
peas  and  beans,  which  are  eminently  nour- 
isliiug.  On  these  Daniel  and  his  companions 
desired  to  be  fed  (Dan.  i.  12, 16,  R.  V.  margin, 
herbs).  Parched  pulse  is  mentioned  in  2 
Sam.  xvii.  28,  but  the  word  jiulse  is  plausibly 
supplied  by  the  translators;  it  is  not  in  the 
original. 


Pun'ish-ment. 

The  i)eualty  due  for  sin  inflicted  for  the 
satisfaction  of  justice.  So  Adam,  Eve,  and 
Cain  were  punished  by  God.  Punislimcnt  is 
not  inflicted  for  the  good  of  the  ofl'ender. 
The  destruction  of  the  men  of  Sodom  for 
their  wickedness  was  not  intended  to  benefit 
them.  The  execution  of  the  uuirderer  does 
not  aim  at  his  reformation.  Chastisement, 
not  i)unishment,  is  intended  to  reform  the  of- 
fender. Nor  is  punishment  primarily  inflicted 
with  a  view  to  the  prevention  of  crime,  al- 
though thisisa  great  end.  The  civil  authority 
enforces  law  by  penalty  for  the  protection  of 
the  state,  since  purely  moral  considerations, 
such  as  the  inherent  righteousness  of  an  act 
or  the  .sense  of  j ustice,  fail  to  prevent  men 
from  violating  the  rights  of  others.  Deter- 
ring the  evil-disposed  was  an  object  in  the 
iufliction  of  punishment  which  the  ]\Iosaic 
law  had  in  view,  but  it  was  not  the  jiriuciple 
on  which  the  law  was  based  (Deut.  xiii.  11 ; 
xvii.  13;  xis.  20;  xxi.  21).  If  the  preven- 
tion of  sin  were  the  main  end,  justice  would 
be  merged  into  benevolence  toward  the  citi- 
zens of  the  state.  Yet  the  chief  end  of  })un- 
ishment  is  not  to  restrain  the  criminal  from 
further  crime  nor  to  deter  others  from  doing 
similar  acts  of  violence.  Sin  ought  to  be 
punished  irrespective  of  the  etfect  which  the 
punishment  may  have  in  preventing  others. 
The  indignation  which  men  feel  toward  the 
otfender  himself,  when  they  witness  a  flagrant 
act  of  wrongdoing,  such  as  murder,  oppres- 
sion, or  cruelty,  and  the  demand  which  they 
instinctively  make  for  his  punishment  show 
that  they  discern  guilt  in  the  .sinner,  and 
that  they  do  not  think  in  the  first  instance 
of  the  need  of  deterring  others  from  the 
commission  of  like  crimes.  The  wrongdoer 
is  punished  because  he  deserves  to  be.  So, 
under  the  Mosaic  law,  the  state  must  execute 
justice  and  punish  the  ofl'ender,  or  be  held 
guilty  of  particriJatiug  in  and  condoning  the 
crime  (Lev.  xx.  4,  5;  Num.  xxv.  4,  11  ;  Deut. 
xxi.  8;  Josh.  vii.  11-15).  The  people  must 
cleanse  Jehovah's  land  from  the  blood  of 
murder.  The  execution  of  the  murderer 
was  an  expiation  of  the  land  (Num.  xxxv. 
33,  34  ;  Deut.  xxi.  8). 

The  majesty  of  the  law  is  maintained  only 
when  the  punishment  bears  an  adequate  pro- 
portion to  the  crime  committed,  neither  too 
little  iu)r  too  much.  The  penalty  need  not 
be,  and  seldom  is,  an  exact  equivalent.  The 
penalty  for  theft  is  not  the  restitution  of  the 
stolen  property  nor  its  exact  value  in  money. 
Enforced  restitution  does  not  clear  the  thief. 
Law  has  been  violated,  guilt  incurred,  and 
punishment  is  demanded. 

Tlie  laws  of  the  Hebrews  were  stern,  but 
the  j)uuishmeuts  were  not  cruel.  In  rare  ca.ses 
the  family  of  the  criminal  was  extirpated  by 
the  immediate  act  of  God  or  by  his  express 
command  (Num.  xvi.  32,  33;  Josh.  vii.  24, 
25  ;  2  Kin.  ix.  25,  26)  ;  but  this  extent  of 
punishment  was  recognized  as  extraordinary ; 


Puiiisliinent 


603 


Punishment 


it  was  not  iii)i)ointed  by  the  law  as  the  pro- 
scriljfd  penalty  lor  any  erinie,  and  the  law 
expressly  I'orltade  that  lathers  slmtilil  he 
punished  for  tlie  children  (Dent.  xxiv.  Ki). 
l'\»r  a  special  ease  nl'  ini|»nrity,  the  heinous- 
uess  (»f  which  was  anf;ravated  hy  the  relation 
of  the  party  ciincerned  to  the  siinctiiary  of 
(iod.  and  for  incestuonsness  of  peculiar  ah- 
horrence,  the  penalty  was  hnrnin<f  with  tire 
(Lev.  XX.  14;  xxi. 'J;  ep.  (ien.  xxxviii. -J  1 1. 
Hut  there  was  lU)  cruelty  involved.  The 
ituilty  ones  were  not  ))nrut  alive  ;  tliey  were 
lirst  stoned  to  death,  and  then  their  l)odie.s 
were  consumed  hy  tire  (cp.  Josh.  vii.  15,  2o  ; 
see  also  Dent.  xxi.  2i,  "^3).  The  hand  of  a 
Woman  who  had  usetl  it  in  a  sliameless  act 
to  assist  her  husliand  in  his  striijjjile  with  an 
adversary  was  cut  off  (Deut.  xxv.  11,  1:2). 
Was  this  undiU"  severity?  Ketaliation  for 
bodily  injury,  when  inflicted  willfully  and 
not  in  a  i|uarrel,  eye  for  eye,  tootii  for  tooth, 
was  levrali/.ed.  .So  it  was  hy  ancient  (ireek 
law  and  hy  the  Koman  laws  of  tlie  twelve 
tallies.  In  the  later  .Jewish  law  (Anti(}.  iv. 
s,  :!.">),  and  jn'rliaps  in  the  earlier  law  as  well, 
a  ransom  in  lieu  of  the  maiminjj;  mifrlit  he 
,icce|iied  hy  the  injured  jierson.  This  ex- 
I'lnjition  was  Ijaseil  on  Ex.  xxi.  '20,  'M  on  the 
l)rinciple  that,  simo  in  .so  {jreat  a  matter  as 
the  inlliction  of  death  hy  one's  ox,  a  fine 
mi},'ht  take  the  jilace  of  tlie  surrender  of  the 
owner's  life,  in  all  lesser  eases  of  iTijury  a 
tine  mi;;ht  also  l)e  accepted.  In  its  humanity 
the  Hel)re\v  administration  of  justice  com- 
parcv*  favorably  with  Roman  methods.  Un- 
like Roman  law.  the  Hebrew  ])enal  code 
did  not  authorize  the  i)unishment  of  the 
|)arricide  by  scourKini;  Iiim  to  the  ell'usion 
of  blood  and  then  sewing  him  uj)  in  a  sack 
ami  clrowning  liim  ;  nor  did  it  sanction  the 
torture  of  witnesses,  who  were  slaves,  and 
4>f  accused  jiersons  to  extract  testimony  (.Vets 
xxii.  21;  se(!  Dkalo.nicss),  the  i)unishment 
of  the  condemned  by  stocks  and  cruel  scourj;- 
injj  (Mat.  xxvii.  26;  Acts  xvi.  21;  War  ii. 
14,  !•),  the  mockery  of  those  about  to  lie  exe- 
<-uted  (Mat.  xxvii.  27-31),  cnu'ilixion  (2(i,  32, 
41;  .\ntii|.  xvii.  10,  10),  condemnation  of 
eriu)inals  to  li^'ht  with  eacli  other  as  gladia- 
tors or  with  wild  beasts  (1  Cor.  xv.  .32  ;  War 
vi.  !).  2;  vii.  2,  1),  sconrjiinn  to  death,  starv- 
ing to  deatli  (sec  I'kison).  and  burning  to 
deatli.  not  infrequently  by  clothinji  th(>  vic- 
tim in  a  shirt  steeped  in  pitch  and  settin<;  it 
on  lire. 

The  Hebrew  law  did  not  rudely  abolisli 
established  usage,  even  when  custom  fell 
sliort  of  the  standanl  erected  liv  (Jod  (see 
Si.vvK.  CoNciniNi;.  DivoKci;)  ;  it  recognized 
I  he  ]ii-ople's  hardness  of  heart  (Mark  x.  .'))  ; 
but  it  l)roiight  custom  under  law,  checked 
exces.s<>s,  reformed  abu.ses ;  it  took  solemn 
account  of  Tuan's  conce])tion  of  right  and 
justice  as  jirevalent  in  that  age,  guardecl 
against  vengeance  and  vindictiveness.  sitis- 
fie.d  the  sense  of  justice,  an<l  thus  maintaim-d 
the  august  majesty  of  law  ;  and  it  .set  higher 


standards  before  man  and  was  a  distinct  ad- 
vance toward  jierfection.  The  form  of  ]inni- 
live  justice  was  further  determined  by  the 
essential  idea  of  the  theocnicy,  which  re- 
(piired  that  not  only  crimes  against  the  .stale 
and  society,  Ixit  also  violations  of  religious 
orilinances  should  be  punished.  The  relation 
of  the  Israelites  to  their  divine  King  re- 
sulted in  God's  punishing  sin  when  man 
failed  to  do  so,  and  in  (iod's  reserving  to  him- 
self the  right  to  punish  certain  sitecilied  sins, 
e.  g.,  to  inflict  childlessness  (Lev.  xx.  4-<),  20, 
21).  Furlliermore,  thi'  administration  of 
justice  was  a  matter  in  which  the  entire 
community  was  concerned,  and  consequently 
the  people  partici])ated  in  its  execution. 
The  ]>eoi)le  stoned  the  criminal  condemned 
to  death. 

The  offenses  mentioned  in  the  penal  law 
were  : 

1.  Violation  of  the  religious  duties  of 
the  covenant.  There  were  ( 1 )  cajiital  offen- 
ses, which  the  human  tribunal  punished  with 
death.  They  were  live  :  sacrifice  to  idols 
Ex.  xxii.  20;  Lev.  xx.  2;  Deut.  xiii.  6-17 ; 
xvii.  2-7),  .sorcery,  i)rofes,sed  intercoursi'  with 
a  familiar  spirit,  sootli.saying  (Ex.  xxii.  is  ; 
Lev.  XX.  27),  jn'ofanation  of  the  Sabbath 
(Ex.  xxxi.  14,  13;  xxxv.  2),  blasphemy  (Lev. 
xxiv.  10-16),  and  false  proi)hecy.  whether 
uttered  in  behalf  of  heatlieii  deities  or  in 
the  name  of  .Jehovah  (Deut.  xiii.  15;  xviii. 
20).  The  i)enalty  was  death  by  stoning.  In- 
stances of  the  infliction  of  the  death  ])enalty 
on  persons  charged  with  these  offenses  are 
recorded  in  the  history  ;  for  sacrificing  to 
idols  (2  Kin.  x.  18-25";  xi.  18;  xxiii.  .5,  20), 
for  exorcising  the  dead  (1  Sam.  xxviii.  3.  9), 
for  profaning  the  .Sabbath  (Num.  xv.  .32-.3(>), 
fen-  blasjjliemy  (1  Kin.  xxi.  13),  for  uttering 
false  i)r(>i)hecy  (xviii.  40;  xx.  27,  28).  i2) 
Offenses  punishable  by  cutting  oir  the  offen- 
der from  his  people.  They  endangered  cov- 
enant institutions  and  the  fundamental  ordi- 
nances of  worship.  They  were  refusal  to 
receive  circumcision,  the  sign  of  the  cove- 
nant ((icn.  xvii.  14).  neglect  of  the  pasi?over, 
the  covenant  sacrifice,  and  consum])tion  of 
leavem'd  bread  during  the  feast  of  unleav- 
ened bread  (Ex.  xii.  15;  Num.  ix.  1.3i.  ])er- 
formance  of  work  and  refusal  to  fast  on  the 
day  of  atonenu'iit  (Lev.  xxiii.  29,  30),  use  of 
blood  or  fat  for  food,  since  they  belonged  to 
sacrifice  and  atonement  (vii.  25  27 ;  xvii.  14), 
offering  elsewhere  than  at  the  sanctuary 
( X vii.  4 ).  slaughtering  sicrificial  animals  with- 
out making  a  i>eace  offering,  and  eating  the 
peace  offering  after  the  ])rescribed  limit  (vii. 
18;  xvii.  it;  xix.  S),  use  of  the  holy  anoint- 
ing oil  and  the  incens(>  for  ciunmon  purposes 
(Ex.  XXX.  33,  :58),  neglect  to  purify  one's  .self 
from  defilement,  and  eatingsacrifice  in  an  un- 
clean condition  (Lev.  xxii.  3;  Num.  six.  20). 
The  )>unisliment  of  cutting  off  is  in  some 
instances  accom])anied  by  the  death  penalty 
or  by  threat  of  divine  jndgm<-nt.  When  ac- 
companied by  the  death  penalty,  the  exccu- 


Punishment 


604 


Purification 


tiou  of  the  ofl'oiuler  was  connnilted  to  man. 
The  threat  of  (liviiK'jiulgniont  reserved  the 
infliction  to  God  himself.  Tlie  question 
whether  the  piiiiisiiment  of  cuttins,'  off  in  all 
cases  imjilied  death,  even  when  the  death 
penalty  was  not  exi>ressly  aniie.Ked,  has  given 
rise  to  miieh  debate.  The  phrase  has  been 
interpreted  to  mean  exconnnunication,  as 
rabbinical  writers  understand  ;  or  loss  of  the 
rights  belon.irinfr  to  the  covenant;  or  death, 
which  in  breaches  of  th(!  ritual  was  intended 
to  be  commuted  to  banishment  or  deprivation 
of  civil  rights  .  or  death  in  all  cases,  either 
invariable  and  without  remission,  or  else 
voidable  by  re])entance  and  use  of  the  means 
of  propitiation  for  ceremonial  defilement.  It 
probaldy  means  expulsion  from  the  fellow- 
ship of  Israel  or.  as  is  otherwise  stated,  the 
congregation  of  Israel  (Ex.  xii.  15,  19;  Num. 
xvi.  9 ;  xix.  13),  and,  whether  specifically 
stated  or  not.  includes  divine  intervention 
for  the  extermination  of  the  evil-doer  (Gen. 
xvii.  14  with  Ex.  iv.  2^:  Lev.  xvii.  10;  xx. 
3,  5,  6 ;  xxiii.  30).  Accidental  breach  or 
mere  neglect  did  not  involve  this  dire  pun- 
ishment. Only  when  a  person  ofiended  with 
high  hand  and  showed  bold  contempt  for  the 
hiw  was  he  cut  otl"  from  his  people  (Num.  xv. 
30,  31). 

2.  Unchastity.  (1)  Abominations  that  de- 
file the  people'  and  the  land.  The  penalty 
was  death.  They  were  adultery  and  the  se- 
duction of  a  betrothed  virgin,  not  a  slave 
girl  (Lev.  xx.  10  ;  Deut.  xxii.  21-27),  unnat- 
ural lust,  both  beastiality  and  sodomy  (Ex. 
xxii.  19  ;  Lev.  xx.  13,  l."),  Iti),  ince.stuous  re- 
lations with  mother-in-law  or  daughter-in- 
law  (11,  12,  14).  Unchastity  on  the  part  of 
a  priest's  daughter,  since  it  defiles  at  the  same 
time  the  father  who  was  set  apart  to  holy 
service,  was  punished  not  only  by  death,  but 
also  by  burning  the  body  (xxi.  9).  (2)  Un- 
clean, but  less  re])Ugnant,  conjugal  relations 
were  punished  by  cutting  the  oS'enders  off 
from  their  people  or  by  childlessness  (Lev. 
XX.  17-21).  (3)  The  hand  of  a  woman, 
which  was  used  in  a  shameless  and  unchaste 
act  to  distress  the  adversary  of  her  husband, 
was  to  be  cut  off  (Deut.  xxv.  11,  12).  (4)  Un- 
cha.stity  which  is  neither  adulterous,  un- 
natural, nor  incestuous.  The  seduction  of  a 
virgin  entailed  marriage,  the  payment  of  the 
usual  price  for  a  wife,  and  in  certain  cases  a 
fine  (Ex.  xxii.  16,  17)  ;  and  the  ravisher  was 
obliged  to  marry  the  maid  and  pay  her  father 
fifty  shekels,  and  forfeit<:>d  the  right  of  di- 
vorce (Deut.  xxii.  28,  29). 

3.  Insubordination  to  the  constituted  au- 
thorities. The  penalty  was  death.  (1)  Im- 
piety toward  parents:  striking  or  cursing 
father  or  mother  (Ex.  xxi.  15,  17;  Lev.  xx. 
9),  incorrigil)ility  coupled  with  habitual 
drunkenness  (De"ut.  xxi.  18-21).  (2)  Re- 
fusal to  submit  to  the  decree  of  the  priest  or 
judge  (xvii.  12).  (3)  Treason,  which  is  not 
treated  in  the  law.  but,  according  t«  the  his- 
tory, was  punished  by  death  and  confis(;ation 


of  property  (1  Sam.  xx.  31  ;  xxii.  16  ;  2  Sam, 
xvi.  4  ;  xix.  29  ;  1  Kin.  ii.  8,  9  ;  xxi.  13,  15). 

4.  Crimes  against  the  person,  life,  charac- 
tt'r,  and  property  of  another.  (1)  Willful  nnir- 
derand  man-stealing  were  punished  by  death 
(Ex.  xxi.  12, 16  ;  Deut.  xxiv.  7) ;  see  .Mukdek. 
(2)  Hodily  injury,  inflicted  intentionally 
or  through  carelessness,  was  punished  accord- 
ing to  circumstances  by  compen.sation  or  re- 
taliation, an  eye  for  an  eye,  a  tooth  for  a 
tooth  (Ex.  xxi'  18-36).  (3)  A  false  witness 
incurred  the  penalty  of  the  crime  for  which 
the  accused  was  on  trial  (Deut.  xix.  16,  19), 
and  a  false  accusation  against  a  young  wife's 
honor  was  i)unishcd  by  chastisement,  a  fine 
of  100  shekels,  and  fcufeiture  of  the  right  of 
divorce  (xxii.  13-19).  (4)  For  injury  to  i)rop- 
erty  the  law  required,  according  to  circum- 
stances, either  simple  compensation  or  a  fine 
paid  to  the  owner  and  auiounting  to  several 
times  the  value  of  the  stolen  goods  (Ex. 
xxii.  1-15). 

The  punishments  recognized  by  the  Mosaic 
law  were  death,  chiefly  by  stoning,  and  in 
extreme  cases  the  burning  or  hanging  of  the 
body  ;  chastisement,  the  stripes  not  to  exceed 
forty  (Deut.  xxv.  3)  ;  retaliation,  compensa- 
tion, which  is  scarcely  a  punishment,  and 
fine ;  forfeiture  of  rights ;  and  in  a  special 
case  the  loss  of  a  hand.  Death  was  some- 
times inflicted  by  the  sword,  spear,  or  arrow, 
but  without  the  forms  of  Hebrew  law  and  in 
extraordinary  cases  (Ex.  xix.  13  ;  xxxii.  27; 
Num.  xxv.  7 ;  1  Kin.  ii.  25).  The  sword  of 
the  magistrate  did  not  symbolize  Hebrew 
judicial  authority.  Imprisonment,  chains, 
and  stocks  were  used  by  the  authority  of 
priests  and  kings,  but  they  were  not  an  in- 
stitution of  the  early  days  of  the  Hebrew 
nation  (Ezra  vii.  26;  Jer.  xx.  2;  Acts  v.  40). 

Pu'non  [perhaps,  darkness  or  fog]. 

A  station  of  the  Israelites  in  the  wilder- 
ness not  long  before  their  arrival  in  Moab 
(Num.  xxxiii.  42,  43).  Probal)ly  the  small 
town  called  Phainon  by  Eusebius.  in  the 
desert  east  of  mount  Seir,  between  I'etra  and 
Zoar;  cp.  Pinon. 

Pu'rah,  in  A.  Y.  Phurah  [bough]. 

The  servant,  doubtless  armor-bearer,  of 
Gideon   (.ludg.  vii.  10,   11). 

Pu-ri-fi-ca'tion. 

Under  the  ]\[osaic  law  these  were  of  four 
kinds:  1.  Purilication  from  uncleanness  con- 
tracted by  contact  with  a  corpse  (Num.  xix. ; 
cp.  v.  2,  3).  Tiot  a  carcase  (Lev.  v.  2).  For 
this  puri>ose  the  ashes  of  a  heifer  were  re- 
quired, a  female  animal  as  in  the  case  of  the 
sin  offering  for  the  common  people.  It  was 
necessary  for  the  heifer  to  be  red.  the  color 
of  blood  in  which  the  life  resides;  to  be 
without  blemish,  and  never  to  have  been 
used  in  the  service  of  man.  It  was  slain 
without  the  camp,  its  blood  was  sprinkled 
toward  the  sanctuary,  and  the  carcase  was 
burned  together  with  cedar,  hy.ssop,  and 
scarlet.     The  ashes  were  gathered  and  pre- 


Purification 


603 


Purple 


served  witliout  the  can)]).  When  needed, 
they  were  iiiiii;,'l(('.  witli  livin;;  water;  ai)d  a 
elean  jiersoii.  wiili  a  Inincli  of  liysso]), 
si)rii)kled  them  upon  the  iiiieh'an  im  the 
tliird  aixl  seventh  day.  It  only  remained 
for  tl)e  defiled  to  wash  his  clf)thesaiid  l)athc, 
ill  onler  to  be  ei-i-emoiiially  clean.  The  de- 
lileiiHiit  of  a  Nazirile,  whose  eoiisecration 
li:i(l  heeii  iiiterriiiited  hy  contact  with  a 
<  or|ise,  was  of  jjreater  uionient,  for  lie  was 
s|iccially  dedicated  to  ceremonial  jmrity. 
After  a  week's  se]>aiation,  on  the  seventh 
<iay  he  shaved  oil'  his  hair,  tin-  sifjn  of  his 
vow.  On  the  ei}i;hth  day  he  hroujiht  the 
same  otl'erinps  as  a  man  who  had  been  deli  led 
hy  an  issue  or  as  a  mother  miyht  afti'r  child- 
birth (Num.  vi.  9-1-i).  A  fiuWt  oll'erinj:  fol- 
lowe<l  (ver.  I'Jl,  preparatory  to  liis  reinstate- 
ment as  a  Na/.irite  ;  cp.  the  guilt  oll'ering  of 
the  leper. 

2.  I'urilication  fron)  niicleannes.s  due  to  an 
issue  (Lev.  xv. ;  c]i.  Num.  v.  2,  3).  On  the 
seventh  day  after  recovery,  the  unclean  ]ier- 
.son  after  bathing  in  living  water  and  wasli- 
ing  the  raiment  was  clean  ;  and  on  the  eighth 
day  he  rejiaired  to  the  sanctuary  and  offered 
two  doves  or  young  i)igeons,  one  for  a  sin 
olfering,  the  other  for  a  burnt  od'i'ring.  Un- 
cleanness  due  to  contact  with  a  ]>eison  having 
an  issue,  or  with  anything  rendered  unclean 
by  such  a  person,  was  in  ordinary  cases 
<'leansed  by  a  bath,  the  uncieanness  remain- 
ing until  t'vening  (Lev.  xv.  5-11). 

;$.  I'lirilicatioii  of  a  mot  he  rafter  childbirth. 
After  the  days  of  uncieanness,  wliicli  were 
seven  for  a  man  child  and  fourteen  for  a  fe- 
male child,  were  over,  those  of  piiriliciition 
followed,  iliiring  which  she  tonclied  no  hal- 
lowed tiling,  lest  she  di'file  it,  an<l  for  the 
siime  reason  was  forbidden  access  to  the 
.siinctuary.  for  a  son  these  were  to  continue 
thirty-three,  and  for  a  daughter  sixty-six 
days,  after  which  she  brought  a  lamb  of  the 
first  year  or,  in  case  of  jioverty,  two  pigeons 
or  two  doves  for  a  burnt  otfcring  and  a  young 
jiigcon  or<love  for  a  sin  oU'eriiig  (Lev.  xii.  H  ; 
Luke  ii.  21-21). 

•1.  I'liritication  of  the  lejier  (I.,ev.  xiv.). 
The  candidate  for  piii'if  cation  lU'eseiited  him- 
self on  the  appoiiitiil  d.iy  at  the  gate  of  the 
cam|i.  later  at  that  of  the  city,  'i'he  iiriest 
kille<l  a  clean  bird,  holding  it  so  that  the  blood 
flowed  into  an  earthen  vessel  of  living  water. 
He  made  a  sprinkler  by  binding  a  bunch  of 
hy»op  with  .1  sc.iriet  .ord  on  a  cedar  handle, 
and  di])ped  the  sprinkler  and  a  living  bird 
into  the  bloody  water,  sprinkled  the  jierson 
undergoing  purification,  and  released  the 
bird  :  see  AzAZKi..  This  much  of  the  ritual 
was  also  |ierl'ormed  in  purifying  a  house  of 
le])rosy.  The  candi<late  was  then  i>roiionnced 
clean  :  and  having  washed  his  clothes,  shaved 
olf  all  his  luiir.  and  bathed,  he  might  ent<'r 
cani|)  or  city,  but  must  remain  outside  of  his 
habitation  se\«n  days.  *  )n  tin;  .seventh  day 
he  again  washei]  his  raiment,  shaved  and 
tmtlied.  and  was  clean.     On   the  eighth  tlay 


he  api)eared  at  the  sanctuary  with  two  male 

lambs  and  a  ewe  lamb  of  the  first  year  or,  if 
his  means  were  limiteil,  with  one  lamb  and 
two  doves  oi'  pigeons,  togther  with  a  meal 
offering  and  a  measure  of  oil.  One  he  lamb 
was  tJiken  for  a  guilt  ofl'ering.  The  i)riest 
put  .some  of  its  blood  on  the  candidate's  right 
ear.  right  thumb,  and  right  great  toe,  lledid 
likewi.se  with  some  of  the  oil,  after  sjirink- 
liug  a  little  of  it  before  the  Lord,  and  poured 
the  rest  on  the  candidate's  head.  The;  cere- 
mony was  comiiU'ted  by  offering  the  remain- 
ing lambs  or  i)igeou.s  for  a  sin  oti'eriug  and  a 
burnt  offering. 

Pu'rim  [from  Persian  pttr.  a  lot  (Esth. 
ix.  2(i)]. 

A  Jewisli  festival,  instituted  to  celebrate 
the  deliverance  of  the  exiles  in  Persia  from 
the  wholesale  massacre  of  their  race  planned 
by  Hainan.  He  had  cast  ;)»r.  or  a  lot,  to  as- 
certain a  favorable  day  for  carrying  out  his 
.scheme.  The  festival  was  kept  on  the  foui- 
teenth  and  fifteenth  days  of  the  month  Adar, 
approximately  February  (F.sth  ix.  24-28). 
Li  2  Mac.  xv.  'Mi  it  is  called  theday  of  Morde- 
cai.  Joseiihus  mentions  that  in  his  time  all  the 
Jews  in  the  inhabited  world  kejit  the  festival 
(Anti(|.  xi.  a,  1.3).  Some  have  thought  that 
the  feast  of  the  Jews  mentioned  in  .John  v.  1 
was  that  of  I'lirini  ;  but  the  statement  that 
Jesus  went  up  to  Jerusalem  is  o|iiiosed  to  this 
view,  for  Purini  was  celebrated  throiigliout 
the  land,  and  only  at  three  great  feasts  was  a 
visit  to  Jerusalem  comimlsory.  Purim  was 
not  one  of  the  three.  From  the  time  of  its 
institution  it  has  enjoyed  great  iiojiularity 
among  the  Jews.  On  the  evening  of  the  i:>th 
of  Adar,  which  they  keep  as  a  fast  day,  they 
assemble  in  their  .synagogues.  After  the  even- 
ing service  tlu'  Hook  of  Esther  is  read.  When 
the  name  of  Hainan  is  reached,  the  congrega- 
tion cry  out,  ■■  Let  his  name  be  blotted  out," 
or  '"The  name  of  tiie  wicked  shall  rot," 
while  the  youthful  worshijiers  sjiring  rattles. 
The  names  of  Hainan's  sons  are  read  all  in  a 
breath,  to  indicate  that  they  were  hanged 
simultam-ously.  Ni'xt  morning  the  peoi)le 
rejiair  again  to  the  synagogue,  and  finish  the 
day  in  mirth  and  rejoicing,  the  wealthy  giv- 
ing gifts  to  the  jtoor.  The  keei)ing  of  the 
Purim  festival  on  tlie  KUh  of  .\dar  from  age 
to  age  is  a  strong  argument  for  the  historic 
character  of  the  startling  incidents  recorded 
in  the  Look  of  Esther. 

Purple. 

A  color  which  in  ancient  and  modern  usage 
comprehends  violet  and  all  the  hues  inter- 
mediate betwei'ii  violet  and  crimson.  In  an- 
cient times  it  included  crimson  and  other 
reds  (Pliny,  Hist.  Nat.  ix.  (il,  02;  Mark  xv. 
17  with  Mat.  xxvii.  28).  Purjile  raiment  was 
costly,  and  consequently  its  use  wa.s  tlie  jiriv- 
ilege  of  the  rich  exclusively.  It  was  worn 
by  persons  of  wealth  and  high  oflicial  jiosi- 
tion  (Esth.  viii.  1.");  c|i.  Mordecai's  elevation 
to  office,  2;    Prov.  xxxi.  22,    Dan.   v.  7;    1 


Purse 


606 


Pygarg 


Mac.  X.  20,  62,  64 ;  2  Mac.  iv.  38 ;  cp.  31 ; 
Luke  xvi.  19  ;  Rev.  xvii.  4),  and  cspecially 
])>•  kiuKS,  as  by  the  kiiifilets  of  Midiaii  ( Jiid};. 
viii.  til)).  Indeed,  it  was  a  sijjn  of  royalty 
(1  Mac.  viii.  14  ;  Homer,  Iliad  iv.  144),  and 
was  put  on  Jesus  in  mockery  of  bis  claims. 
Kicli  cloths  of  purple  were  used  as  coverings 
for  the  seats  of  princely  palanquins  (Song 
iii.  10),  awnings  f(n-  the  decks  of  luxurious 
ships  (Ezek.  xxvii.  7),  and  drapery  for  idols 
(.ler.  X.  9).  It  was  largely  employed  in  the 
hangings  of  the  tabernacle  (Ex.  xxv.  4; 
xxvi.  1,  31,  3()).  and  in  the  garments  of  the 
high  priest  (xxviii.  .">,  (>,  15,  33;  xxxix.  29). 
The  Jews  interpreted  the  color  symbolically 
(Warv.  5,  4). 

Purple  dye  was  obtained  from  various  kinds 
of  shell  fisii  (1  Mac.  iv.  23 ;  War  v.  5.  4),  and 
was  yielded  by  a  thin  liquor,  called  the 
flower,  secreted  by  a  gland  in  the  neck.  The 
amount  yielded  by  each  fish  was  very  small, 
much  labor  was  required  to  collect  it  in 
qnantitj'.  and  the  price  was  correspondingly 
great.  The  larger  pur])les  were  broken  at 
the  top  to  get  at  the  gland  without  injuring 
it,  but  the  smaller  ones  were  pressed  in  mills 
(Pliny,  Hist.  Nat.  ix.  60).  Two  species  of 
Murex   were   used  by  the  ancient  Tj-rians, 


Murcx  Iruncuhcs. 

Murex  triinctdus  and  Murex  hrandaris,  and 
yielded  crimson.  The  Murex  is  common 
throughout  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  but  the 
shade  of  color  varies  with  the  coast. 

Purse. 

A  bag  for  carrying  money  (Luke  x.  4  ;  xii. 
33  ;  xxii.  3.")),  which,  however,  was  not  a 
necessity,  as  money  was  often  carried  in  the 
girdle  (Mat.  x.  9,  K.  V.  margin).  The  purse 
or  common  treasury  of  the  disciples  was  in 
charge  of  Judas  (John  xii.  6;  xiii.  29,  R.  V. 
margin,  box)  ;  the  same  word  was  used  to 
describe    it   as   that    which    designated  the 


chests  for  oflTerings  at  the  temple.  Before 
coins  came  into  use,  pieces  of  silver  and  gold 
of  various  sizes  and  shajjcs  were  tied  in  a 
bag  or  in  the  girdle,  or  rings  of  the  precious 
metal  were  strung  on  a  cord  (Gen.  xlii.  3.j; 
Prov.  vii.  20),  and  weights  and  scales  were 
carried  for  weighing  out  the  desired  quantity 
(Deut.  xxv.  13;  Mic.  vi.  11). 

Put,  in  A.  V.  Phut  in  Gen.  x.  6 ;  Ezek. 
xxvii.  10;  xxxviii.  ."J,  margin. 

A  people  related  to  the  Egyptians  (Gen.  x. 
6),  and  the  country  inhabited  by  them.  The 
prevalent  opinion  is  that  the  name  denotes 
Libya  in  whole  or  in  i):irt.  It  is  mentioned 
in  association  with  Egypt  and  other  African 
countries,  especially  with  Lubini  (Nah.  iii. 
9)  and  Lud  (Ezek.  xxvii.  10;  and  Is.  Ixvi.  19 
in  Septuagint;  between  Cush  and  Lud,  Jer. 
xlvi.  9;  Ezek.  xxx.  5);  it  is  rendered  Lib- 
yans by  the  Septuagint  in  Jeremiah  and  Ezek- 
iel ;  it  is  also  identified  with  Libya  by  Jo- 
sephus  (Antiq.  i.  6,2)  ;  and  the  western  part 
of  Lower  Egypt  is  called  in  Coptic  Phaiat. 
Another  view  is  strenuously  defended  by 
Ebers  and  Brugsch,  which  connects  I'ut  with 
Punt.  Punt  lay  south  or  southeast  of  (Jush, 
and  is  commonly  identified  with  the  Somali 
country  in  Africa,  east  of  the  straits  of  Bab 
el-Mandeb,  and  on  the  adjacent  coasts  of  Asia, 
near  Aden,  in  Arabia. 

Pu-te'o-li  [little  wells]. 

A  seai)()rt  in  Italy  which  Paul's  vessel 
reached  the  day  after  it  had  been  at  Rhegium. 
The  apostle  found  Christians  there,  and  en- 
joyed their  hospitality  (Acts  xxviii.  13). 
Founded  in  the  sixth  century  B.  c,  it  was 
originally  called  Diciearchia,  and  was  the 
ordinary  landing  place  of  travelers  to  Italy 
from  Egypt  and  the  East  (Antiq.  xvii.  12,  1 ; 
xviii.  7,  2  ;  Life  3).  It  was  on  the  southern 
shore  of  the  bay  of  Naples,  near  the  site 
where  the  modern  city  of  that  name  now 
stands.  Its  old  name  of  Puteoli  still  exists, 
little  changed,  as  Pozznoli.  The  whole 
region  round  is  volcanic,  and  the  crater  of 
the  Sdlfatara  rises  behind  the  town. 

Putli'ites,  in  A.  V.  PuMtes. 

A  familv  in  Kirjath-jearim  (1  Chron. 
ii.  53). 

Pu'ti-el  [probably,  afflicted  by  God]. 

Father-in-law  of  Eleazar,  Aaron's  sou  (Ex. 
vi.  2r>). 

Pu'vah  find  Puah;  instead  of  fir.st  form 
A.  V.  has  Phuvati  (Gen.  xlvi.  13),  Pua  (Num. 
xxvi.  23). 

1.  A  son  of  Issachar  and  founder  of  a 
tribal  family  (Gen.  xlvi.  13;  Num.  xxvi.  23; 
1  Chron.  vii.  1). 

2.  A  man  of  Issachar  and  father  of  the 
judge  Tola  (Judg.  x.  1). 

Py'garg. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew-  Dishon. 
treader  or  leapi'r,  the  name  of  a  clean  animai 
(Deut.  xiv.  .')).  The  i)ygarg  of  the  ancients 
was  a  white  rumped  antelojie.     It  seems  to 


Quail 


607 


Quicksand 


liave  been  the  addax  (Antilope  addax,  or 
Aililuj'  nnxoiimculalus).  Tin- lioriis.  which  ex- 
iht  ill  l)olli  soxt'S,  :iri'  twisted  and  riii;;fd.  It 
has  a  while  jjutcli  ou  tlie  CuiL-hcad,  and  tiie 
Iiinderi)arts  are  grayish-white.  It  i.sal)oul  the 
size  of  a  hir>;e  a.ss.  It  is  a  native  of  north- 
eastern Afriea  (ep.  Herod,  iv.  li)2),  hut  its 
ranire  extends  to  the  southeasteru  frontier  of 
I'alestine. 


Q. 


Quail. 

A  hird  wliieh  tlie  eliildren  of  Israel  twice 
(luriiij;  tiieir  joiirneyinfi  near  Sinai  jirovi- 
dciitially  liad  fur  food  in  irreat  ahuiidanee. 
In  the  wiUliTuess  of  Sin  the  hirds  eovered 
the  cauij)  on  one  eveninj;;  (Ex.  xvi.  12,  i:{)  ; 
at  the  {jraves  of  hist  they  were  driven  by 
the  sontlieast  wind  from  tlie  sea,  and  fell  in 
v;ist  (|Manlities  in  and  around  tlie  camp, 
lyinj;  in  jilaces  three  feet  deei>  (Num.  xi.  ."il- 
3-1 ;  I's.  Ixxviii.  26-31).  Each  time  it  was 
the  siiriiijr  of  the  year.  The  hird  was  called  in 
]Iel)rew  .s'/di',  and  the  .similarity  between  the 
Heliriw  word  and  the  Arabic  sahrd,  a  (juail, 
proves   that  to  be  the  bird  intended.     It  is 


ijuail  (Colurnix  dactylisonans). 

the  (|iiail  of  Eur<i])e,  iutt  of  America,  is 
called  ('titiinii.r  (Incli/lisoiiiniK,  or  roiiiniKiiis, 
and  i.s  ])laced  in  the  Tefnuniidic  or  grouse 
family,  and  the  Perdiciiue,  or  jjartridge  sub- 
family. It  is  tlie  smallest  s])ecies  of  the 
I'artridge  ty]pe,  being  only  about  71  inches 
long.  Its  general  color  is  brown,  with  biiHy 
streaks  above  and  bud"  below.  It  is  migra- 
tory, arriving  in  I'alestine  from  the  south  in 
iminen.se  numbers  in  March.  an<l  going  south- 
ward airain  at  tliea|i|iroacb  of  winter.  (Quails 
lly  rapidly  and  well,  and  take  advantage  of 
the  wind;  but  if  tlii>  wind  <lianges  its  course, 
or  the  l)irds  bi'conie  exhausted  from  long 
(light  the  whole  immense-  llock  is  ajit  to  fall 
to  tJie  ground,  where  they  lie  stunned  (cp. 
Anti<|.  iii.  1,  .">).  In  this  condition  tliey  are 
captured  in  great  (juantities  on  the  coasts 
and  islands  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea.     The 


Israelites  spread  the  quails,  which  they  could 
not  eat  at  once,  round  about  tlie  camp  (Num. 
xi.  32)  in  onler  to  dry  them  in  tlie  sun  and 
air,  as  the  Egyptians  did  with  llsh  (Herod, 
ii.  77). 

Quar'tus  [fourth]. 

A  Corinthian  Christian  who  joined  with 
Paul  in  sending  a  salutation  to  the  church  of 
Kome  ( IJom.  xvi.  23). 

Qua-ter'ni-on. 

Eoiir  united  persons  or  things;  a  guard  of 
four  soldiers  (Acts  xii.  4).  Four  quaternions, 
i.  e.,  four  eonii)anies,  each  of  four  soldiers, 
si.xteen  in  all,  were  .set  to  look  after  J'eter 
when  he  was  in  jirison  at  Jerii.sjileni.  each 
quaternion  discharging  tlie  duty  for  one 
watch  of  three  hours.  During  the  night 
watches,  two  soldiers  slept  with  the  a])ostle 
in  his  cell,  while  the  other  two  mounted 
guard  before  the  door. 

Queen. 

The  consort  of  a  king,  or  a  woman  who 
reigns  by  her  own  right.  Vashti  and  Esther 
were  queen  consorts  (Esth.  1.  !J ;  ii.  22).  Even 
after  the  death  of  the  king  her  husl)and,  the 
queen,  especially  if  mother  of  the  new  mon- 
arch, retained  respect  and  intluence  (2  Kin. 
X.  13)  ;  for  the  jiractice  of  ])olyganiy  made 
the  position  of  even  the  chief  wife  pre- 
carious, and  at  any  time  the  king  might  cajiri- 
cioiisly  jiromote  over  her  head  some  one  of 
her  rivals;  but  the  (jueen  mother,  i.  e.,  the 
mother  of  the  king,  had  an  unalterable  rela- 
tion to  the  monarcli,  and  was  often  the  most 
potent  female  personage.  Three  queens  reg- 
nant or  women  who  occuj)ied  the  throne  are 
mentioned  in  Scrijiture  :  Athaliah,  who.  after 
perjietrating  a  massacre  of  tlie  .seed  royal, 
nsurjied  the  throne  of  Judah  ;  the  (jueen  of 
Sheba  (1  Kin.  x.  1-13  ;  2  Chron.  ix.  1-12); 
and  Candace,  queen  of  the  P^thiojiians  (Acts 
viii.  27).  The  last  two,  it  is  believed,  came 
to  their  high  dignity  in  a  perfectly  legitimate 
way. 

The  queen  of  heaven  was  a  false  divinity, 
in  honor  of  whom  the  Jews  in  Jeremiah's 
time  made  cakes,  burnt  incen.se.  and  ]ioured 
out  drink  oH'erings  (Jer.  vii.  Ls;  xii  v.  l.")-30). 
Slie  was  jirobably  the  I'lirenii'ian  goddess 
Ashtoreth  (q.  v.),  jiartly  the  moon  and  jiartlv' 
the  I'lant't  \'enus  personilied. 

Quick'sand. 

A  sandbank  whiidi  moves,  quick  being  used 
in  the  nearly  ol>solete  sense  df.  Ii\iiig.  The 
([uicksands  of  which  the  siiilors  on  board 
Paul's  shijis  were  afraid  (.Acts  xxvii.  17), 
and  which  were  the  terror  of  ancient  mari- 
ners, were  two  in  number,  the  (ireater 
and  tlu'  Lesser  Syrtis,  the  former  consti- 
tuting the  southeastern,  and  the  latter  the 
southwestern  jiart  of  that  great  indenta- 
tion in  the  north  Afri<an  coast  south  ot 
Sicily.  The  (ireater  Syrtis,  now  called  the 
gulf  of  Sidra,  curves  inward  on  the  African 
coast  for  aliout  12t>  miles,  and  measures 
2(>1    miles    between    the    two    promontories 


Quirinius 


608 


Rabbah 


at  its  mouth.  It  is  shallow,  and  full  of 
quicksands.  The  Lesser  Syrtis  does  not  run 
so  far  inland.  At  its  mouth  it  measures 
about  ()!•  miles  from  the  island  of  Kerkenna 
ou  the  north  to  that  of  Jerba  on  the  south. 
It  is  (huifierous  to  navigate,  owing  to  its 
winds  and  tides.  It  is  now  called  tlie  gulf 
of  Cabes. 

Qui-ri'ni-us,  in  A.  V.  Cyrenius  ;  the  former 
being  Ibe  original  Latin  n:unc,  the  latterthe 
modilication  it  underwent  among  the  Greeks. 

A  Kuman  who  became  governor  of  Syria 
(Antiq.  xviii.  1,  1).  Under  him  an  enroll- 
ment was  made  which  led  .Josejih  to  go  with 
Mary  his  espoused  wife  to  Bethlehem.  This 
visit  to  Bethlehem  took  ])laee  in  the  reign  of 
Herod  the  (ireat,  at  the  close  of  the  year  5  or 
beginning  of  4  b.  v.  The  enrollment  was  not  a 
local  affair,  but  was  made  in  pursuance  of  a  de- 
cree of  the  Eoman  emperor  Augustus  that  all 
the  world  should  be  taxed.  This  was  the  first 
enrollment  made  when  Quirinius  was  gov- 
ernor of  Syria  (Luke  ii.  1-5,  K.  V.).  Quiri- 
nius was  made  governor  of  Syria  about  the 
time  of  the  deposition  of  Archelaus  from 
office  in  Judtea,  A.  D.  6  (Antiq.  xvii.  13,  5)  ; 
but  it  is  probable,  as  Zumpt  has  shown,  that 
he  was  twice  g(jvcrnor,  succeeding  Quintilius 
Varus  who  held  office  from  6  B.  c.  until  after 
the  death  of  Herod  the  Great  in  4  B.  c. ;  and 
that  the  enrollment  was  merely  comjileted  in 
the  time  of  his  lirst  governorship,  having 
been  begun  by  Sentius  Saturninus,  governor 
from  8  to  6  B.  c.  Saturninus  was  succeeded 
by  Varus.  The  first  enrollment  was  probably 
a  census  proper,  undertaken  to  ascertain  the 
population.  The  other  enrollment  during  the 
governorship  of  Quirinius  was  an  appraise- 
ment of  property,  was  made  in  A.  D.  6-7, 
and  was  the  occasion  of  disturbances  in 
Juda:>a.  stirred  up  by  Judas,  a  Galila?an  (Acts 
V.  37:  Antiq.  xvii.  1.3,  5;  War  ii.  8,  1).  Luke 
connects  the  first  enrollment  with  Quirinius, 
without  mentioning  Saturninus  and  Varus, 
because  it  was  commonly  spoken  of  as  the 
firstenrollmentunder  Quirinius  in  distinction 
from  the  notable  enrollment  under  him  which 
gave  rise  to  the  tumults. 

A  brief  biograjihy  of  Quirinius  is  furnished 
by  Tacitus  (Annal.iii.  48).  He  says  :  "About 
this  time  he  [the  emperor  Tiberius]  asked 
the  senate  that  the  cleath  of  Sulpicius  Qui- 
rinius [which  occurred  in  a.  d.  21]  might  be 
celebrated  l)y  i)ublic  obsequies.  Quirinius 
was  in  im  way  related  to  the  old  and  patri- 
cian family  of  the  Snli)icii,  but  was  born  at 
Lanuvium.  a  municijial  town.  As  a  reward 
for  his  military  an<i  administrative  services, 
he  obtiined  the  office  t)f  consul  under  Augus- 
tus [in  12  B.  c],  and  soon  afterwards  the 
lionor  of  a  triumph  for  having  taken  the 
strongholds  of  the  Ilomonadenses  in  Cilicia. 
While  attending  Cains  Ciesar  as  rector,  when 
the  former  was  cain|)aigning  in  .\rmenia.  he 
secretly  i)aid  court  to  Tiberius,  who  was  then 
at  Rhodes.     Tiberius  mentioned  the  fact  in 


this  letter,  praised  him  for  his  goo<i  offices, 
and  found  fault  with  Marcus  Lollinus  for 
sowing  dissensions  between  himself  and  Caius 
Cassar.  But  to  other  i)eoi)le  the  memory  of 
Quirinius  was  by  no  means  dear,  because  of 
his  persistence  in  tlie  trial  of  Lepida  [his 
wife,  whom  he  had  convicted  of  adulteries, 
poisonings,  and  treasonable  dealings,  but  who 
yet  sticceeded  in  gaining  the  compassion  of 
the  people],  and  also  of  his  sordid  avarice  in 
his  old  age,  although  very  powerful." 

Quiv'er. 

A  case  for  containing  arrows  (Is.  xlix.  2 ; 
Lam.  iii.  13).  The  Assyrian  archers  on  foot 
carried  the  quiver  on  the  back,  with  the 
opening  usually  at  the  right  shoulder,  but 
archers  who  fought  from  chariots  hung  the 
quiver  at  the  side  of  the  vehicle  :  see  illus- 
tration under  Bow  and  Eam.  The  Egyp- 
tians also  slung  the  quiver  across  the  back, 
but  they  seem  to  have  allowed  it  to  hang 
horizontally  and  to  have  drawn  out  the 
arrows  from  beneath  the  left  arm. 


R. 


Ra'a-mah,  in  R.  V.  once  Raama  (1  Chron. 
i.  9),  the  Hebrew  spelling  in  this  instance 
[shaking,  quivering,  trembling]. 

Collective  name  for  a  Cushite  people,  asso- 
ciated with  Sheba  (Cien.  s.  7 :  1  Chron.  i. 
9).  Men  of  the  two  tribes  brought  precious 
stones  and  gold  to  the  markets  of  Tyre 
(Ezek.  xxvii.  22).  Raamah  is  mentioned  in 
inscriptions  of  Sheba  as  a  place  near  Ma'in, 
in  southwestern  Arabia. 

Ra-a-mi'ah  [trembling  caused  by  Jeho- 
vah].    See  Reelai.\h. 

Ra-am'ses.    See  Rameses. 

Rata'bah,  in  A.  V.  twice  Rabbath  (Dent, 
iii.  11  :  Ezek.  xxi.  20).  the  Hebrew  form  when 
joined  with  a  following  word  [great,  i.  e.,  the 
capital]. 

1.  A  city  on  the  southern  tributary  of  the 
Jabbok,  23  miles  east  of  the  nearest  point 
on  the  Jordan.  It  was  the  chief  city  of 
the  Ammonites.  In  the  war  which  was 
waged  against  the  children  of  Ammon  to 
avenge  the  disgrace  put  ujion  the  ambassa- 
dors of  David,  Abishai  drove  the  Ammonites 
into  their  city.  In  the  following  year  Joab 
he.sieged  them.  During  a  sally  from  the 
gate,  Uriah  the  Hittite  was  killed.  That 
part  of  the  city  lying  between  the  citadel 
and  the  river,  and  called  the  city  of  waters, 
fell  into  the  hands  of  Joab,  but  the  citadel 
held  out.  David  was  then  sent  for  to  com- 
plete the  conquest  and  associate  it  with  his 
name.  He  did  so,  treating  the  vanquished 
inhabitants  with  cruel  severity  (2  Sam.  xi.  1  ; 
xii.  20-31  ;  1  Chron.  xx.  1-3).'  In  time  the 
Ammonites  recovered  the  city.  Judgments 
were  denounced  against  it  by  Jeremiah 
(xlix.    2-6)  and    Ezekiel  (xxi.    20).     It   was 


Babbath 


<J09 


Rachel 


embellished  by  Ptolemy  Philadelphus  (285- 
247  B.  <■.),  :in(l  in  his  honor  named  I'hiladel- 
jihia,  though  the  olil  name  iirvcr  cuasrd  to 
lie  nsf(!  hy  t\u'  natives.  I'liil:i<ii'i]>hia  was 
till-  eastern  limit  of  I'eiiea  (War.  iii.  3,  3) ; 
and  it  was  the  .sonthernmost  of  the  ten  cities 
of  tlic  Di'iapolis.  The  commercial  hijilnvay 
lietWfcii  l);imas(  us  and  Arabia  which  skirted 
llie  desert  j)assed  throiigli  the  city,  and  llu'n> 
was  also  a  trade  road  from  rhiladeli)hia  \>y 
w  ay  of  (ierasii  and  I'elhi  to  Hey  tliopoiis.  The 
city  was  once  the  scat  of  a  bishopric,  and 
amoiiK  the  chief  ruins  an-  tiiose  of  a  church. 
As  in  various  other  cases,  the  more  modern 
name  lias  lapsed,  and  'Amman,  a  curtailment 
of  Kahbath  Ammoii,  has  taken  its  place. 

2.  A  city,  with  dependent  villages,  in  thi; 
hill  count  rv  of  Judah  (.losh.  xv.  GO).  I'cr- 
h:i)is  its  sile  is  the  ruin  Kuhha,  about  14 
miles  west  by  south  of  15ethlehem. 

Rab'bath.     See  Kahi:au. 

Bab'bi,  and  Rabbonl. 

A  doctor,  teacher,  or  master;  a  respectful 
term  api>lie(l  hy  the  .lews  to  their  sjiiritual 
instnutnrs  (Mat.  xxiii.T;  .lohu  1.3^).  The 
later  .Jewish  schools  arc  said  to  have  had 
three  };railes  of  honor:  ran  (master),  the 
lowest;  rabbi  (my  master),  the  second;  and 
rahhoni  (my  lord,  my  master),  the  highest 
of  all.  \\'lien  John  wroie.  the  termination 
which  denotes  my  had  lost  its  esjiccial  sig- 
uiticance  as  a  possessive  i)ronoiin,  for  .lohn 
ex]ilains  rabbi  and  rabboni  as  meaning 
simply  master  (John  i.  3M ;  xx.   IG). 

Rab'bith  [multitudel. 

A  frontier  village  of  Issachar  (Josh.  xix. 
2fi).  C'onder  <l(.ul)l fully  identities  it  with  the 
present  village  of  Kaha,  among  hills  8  miles 
south  of  mount  Gilboa,  and  7  southeast  of 
Jenin. 

Rab-bo'ni.     Sec  Iv.\Rnr. 

Rab'-mag. 

A  title  of  high  office,  borne  by  Xergal- 
shareziT,  a  chief  officer  in  Nebuchadnezzar's 
army  (Jer.  xxxix.  ,'{).  Four  explanations 
have  been  offered,  none  of  which  rests  on  a 
sure  foundation.  1.  It  denotes  the  chief  of 
the  Magi.  -According  to  this  view,  the 
Median  and  rersiaii  religious  caste  was  in- 
tliiential  in  Hahylonia  in  the  reign  of  Neh- 
uchatlnez/ar,  who  h;id  a  Median  princess  for 
his  wife,  and  its  lu'ad  man  accompanied  the 
army.  The  Magi  are,  however,  called  in 
(Jreek  Mmiiii,  singular  Mikjus.  which  apjiears 
in  .Semiti<'  as  Maiiiishu,  not  as  iiiikj.  2.  It  is 
the  Hebrew  niodiHcation  of  rnbii  (w<in,  ex- 
alted jtrince,  a  title  whii'h  Nabuna'id  ascribes 
to  his  lather  anil  which  Nehuchadnezzar 
assume-;.  The  word  iimiii  is  iiut  well  umler- 
slood,  and  its  long  initial  vowel  is  a  strong 
ar;;ument  against  its  identity  with  »'«(/.  3. 
It  represi-nts  r<ih  jtiahhu,  chief  prophet  or 
soothsiiyer.  who  aiipears  from  this  passage  in 
.leremiah  to  have  accom]p.inied  the  aiiny.  as 
ilid  I  he  augurs  of  Home.  1.  Since  tmih  denotes 
a  prince,  as  does  rah,  the  eomliinat  imi  prinee- 
3".t 


prince  is  the  title  for  a  high  military  official. 
I'.ut  such  a  title  seems  scarcely  distinctive. 

Rab'-sa-ris  [ruh  shu  rvuhu,  chief  who  is 
head,  the  latter  jiart  being  modified  to  suit 
the  Hebrew  ear  into  siiris,  eunuch]. 

An  otlicial  title.  A  rab-saris  accompanied 
the  armies  of  Sennacherib  and  Nebuchad- 
nezzar (2  Kin.xviii.  IT;  Jer.  xxxix.  3).  The 
officer  at  Xebuchadnt'/zar's  court,  who  is 
called  master  of  the  eunuchs  in  the  Knglish 
version  and  whose  title  is  given  in  Hebrew 
as  rub  sarinim,  perhajis,  held  the  sami'  office 
(Dan.  i.  3). 

Rab'sba-keh  [Assyrian  rah  shak,  head 
officer,  gemial]. 

Title  of  a  mililary  official,  associated  with 
the  tartan  and  the  rab-saris  of  Sennacherib  in 
coininaiid  of  an  expedition  against  Jerusalem 
(2  Kin.  xviii.  17).  On  this  occasion  he  con- 
ducted the  parley  with  the  officials  of  Heze- 
kiah  (I'J,  2(i,  27,  37),  and  was  jpcrhaps  head 
of  the  expedition  (xix.  8). 

Ra'ca. 

.\n  .\ramaic  term  n-ln' ,  worthless:  an  ex- 
pression of  contempt  (Mat.  v.  22). 

Ra'cal,  in  .\.  V.Bachal  [trade,  commerce]. 

A  ]ilace  in  .hidah  to  which  David  sejit  some 
of  the  recovered  spoil  of  Ziklag  (1  Sam.  xxx. 
29).     Site  unknown. 

Race.    See  G.xmes. 

Ra'chab.     See  Eahab. 

Ra'cbal.     See  Racal. 

Ra'chel,  in  A.  V.  once  Rahel  (Jot.  xxxi 
15)  [ewe]. 

The  younger  daughter  of  Laban.  She  was 
possessed  of  much  personal  beauty,  and  Jacob 
fell  in  love  with  her  at  first  sight,  when  he 
met  her  at  the  well  near  Haran,  in  .Meso- 
potamia, v^'herc  she  was  watering  her  tlock. 
As  he  j)Ossessed  no  proiierty  and  it  was  cus- 
tomary to  pay  tlH>  parents  a  ]>rice  for  the 
bride,  he  served  her  lather  seven  years  for 
her,  and  then,  being  cheated  by  the  substi- 
tution of  the  elder  sister,  Leah,  who  was 
much  less  highly  favored,  served  another 
seven  for  the  younger  maiden,  the  only  one 
who  had  gained  his  atVectiuiis.  He  married 
her  also  ((icn.  xxix.  1-3(1),  an<l  she  became 
the  mother  of  .losejih  (xxx.  22-25)  and  Ben- 
jamin, ilying  when  the  latter  was  born 
(xxxv.  l(i-lS).  Sh(>  was  buried  a  little  to 
the  north  of  Ei>hrath,  better  known  as  Beth- 
lehem. The  grave  was  situated  at  a  place 
which  a  traveler  from  liethel  would  reach 
before  he  came  to  Bethlehem.  Jacob  irected 
a  jiillar  to  mark  the  spot.  This  pilhu-  long 
remained  (l!i,  20).  It  was  near  Zelzah  (1 
Sam.  X.  2).  The  reputed  site  was  alluded 
to  by  Jerome  and  the  Bordeaux  |iilgrim  in 
the  fourth  century,  and  is  accepted  as  cor- 
rect by  Jews,  Chrisiiaiis,  mid  Mohammedans. 
The  erection  called  Kut«bet  Iv;"ihil.  tomb  of 
h'achel,  is  a  small  building  like  a  mosiiue, 
with  a  dome.     It  has  an  open  apartment  to- 


Rachel 


610 


Rainbow 


ward  the  east  and  a  small  enclosure  toward 
the  west.  The  present  structure  is  of  no 
great  antiquity. 


Tomb  of  Rachel. 

The  prophet  Jeremiah  represents  Eachel 
as  weeping  for  her  children,  the  descendants 
of  her  son  Joseph,  the  people  of  Ephraim 
and  Manasseh  who  were  in  captivity  (Jer. 
xxxi.  15 ;  cp.  9,  18).  At  Ramah  was  her 
voice  heard  :  not  because  the  prophet  foresaw 
that  the  captives  of  Judah  and  Benjamin 
would  be  brought  to  Ramah  after  the  fall  of 
Jerusalem  before  being  led  into  exile  (xl.  1), 
for  Rachel  is  not  weeping  over  the  Jews ;  but 
either  because  a  town  called  Ramah  was 
perhaps  near  Rachel's  grave  (cp.  1  Sam.  x.  2  ; 
and  Ramah  2),  or  more  probably  because 
Eamah  was  a  height  in  the  territory  of 
Rachel's  remaining  children,  the  descendants 
of  Benjamin,  and  near  the  border  of  de- 
populated Ejihraim,  whence  the  desolation 
of  the  land  was  visible.  This  picture  which 
the  pro])hc't  drew  of  weeping  Rachel  found 
fulfillment  in  the  slaughter  of  the  innocents 
at  Bethlehem  in  the  land  of  Judah  (Mat.  li. 
18),  although  the  (lescendants  of  Leah,  not 
Rachel,  wejjt.  Rachel  looking  on  the  wasted 
land  of  Ephraim,  and  bewailing  her  slain  and 
exiled  children,  was  witness  that  the  process 
had  begun  which  terminated  in  the  posses- 
sion of  the  jiromised  land  l)y  foreigners,  the 
occupation  of  the  throne  by  an  Edomite, 
and  the  slaughter  of  I>eah's  children  in  the 
endeavor  to  slay  the  legitimate  king  and 
destined  saviour  of  all  Israel.  Ej)hraini,  Ben- 
jamin, and  Judah  alike.  The  picture  of 
JRachel  found  more  than  a  counterpart  in 
the  sorrow  of  the  women  of  Bethlehem.  It 
found  cfmipletion,  and  it  found  renewed 
realization.  Rachel  wcjit  again,  this  time 
with  Leah.  Rachel's  hope  for  the  return  of 
her  children  to  the  Lord  their  God  and  David 


their  king  (Jer.  xxx.  9)  was  bound  up  in 
Leah's  yearning  for  that  son  of  David  in 
whose  days  Judah  sjiould  be  saved  and  Israel 
dwell  in  safety  (xxiii.  (i).  Racliel's  cry  was 
the  tirst  wail  of  that  lamentation  which  con- 
tinued through  the  centuries  and  was  heard 
at  15ethlehem  when  a  foreign  king,  in  hos- 
tility to  the  son  of  David,  legitimate  king 
of  the  Jews,  was  able  to  send  armed  men  to 
the  city  of  David  and  slay  the  children. 
The  process  begun  when  Rachel  first  wept 
was  l)ciiig  completed.  The  prophetic  pic- 
ture was  finding  final  fulfillment. 

Rad'dai  [cutting  under,  subjugating]. 
A  son   of  Jesse,  and   brother  of  David  (1 
Chidii.  ii.  14). 
Ra'gau.     See  Reu. 
Ra-gu'el.     See  Reuel. 

Ra'hab  I.  [ferocity,  insolence, violence]. 

A  ]ioetical  name  for  Egypt  (Ps.  Ixxxvii.  4; 
Ixxxix.  10;  Is.  xxx.  7,  R^  V. ;  li.  9).  In  Is. 
li.  9  it  is  parallel  with  dragon  ;  see  Dragon. 
In  Job.  ix.  13 ;  xxvi.  12,  R.  V.,  esjjecially, 
some  interpreters  understand  a  sea  monster, 
and  some  even  discern  an  allusion  to  the 
Semitic  myth  of  the  sea  monster  Tiamat 
who  attempted  to  reduce  the  ordered  uni- 
verse to  chaos,  but  was  subdued  by  the 
sun-god  Marduk.  This  interpretation  is  not 
necessary,  but  it  is  possible.  The  inspired 
poets  and  prophets  might,  of  course,  borrow 
the  creations  of  fancy  to  illustrate  truth  ;  cp. 
Leviathax. 

Ra'hah  II.,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  once  Rachab 
(Mat.  i.  ."))  [broad]. 

A  harlot  whose  house  was  on  the  wall  of 
Jericho.  She  harbored  the  spies  sent  by 
Joshua  to  explore  the  city,  hid  them  when 
they  were  searched  for,  and,  finally,  let  them 
down  by  a  cord  on  the  outer  side  of  the  wall, 
so  that  they  escaped  to  the  Israelite  camp 
(Josh.  ii.  1-24).  When  Jericho  was  taken, 
Rahab  and  her  family  were  spared,  and  in- 
corporated with  the  chosen  people  (vi.  22-25  ; 
Heb.  xi.  31  ;  James  ii.  2.")).  It  was  jirobably 
she  who  became  the  wife  of  Salmon  and 
the  mother  of  Boaz,  and  a  link  in  tlie  chain 
of  ancestry  both  of  king  David  and  of  our 
Lord  (Mat.  i.  5). 

Ra'ham  [atfeftion,  tenderness]. 

A  man  of  Judah,  family  of  Hezrou,  house 
of  Caleb  (1  Chron.  ii.  44). 

Ra'hel.     See  Rachel. 

Rain.     See  Year. 

Rain'how. 

A  liow  appearing  in  the  part  of  the  heavens 
opiiosite  to  the  sun,  consisting  of  the  pris- 
matic colors,  and  formed  by  the  refraction 
and  reflection  of  the  sun's  rays  from  drops 
of  rain  or  vapor.  It  is  exceeding  beautiful 
(Ecclus.  xliii.  11,  12).  .\ftcr  the  flood  (iod 
selected  the  rainbow,  which  had  often  before 
been  seen  in  the  sky,  and  aiipctinted  or  conse- 
crated it  as  the  token  of  the  j)romise  that  he 


Raisin 


611 


Eamah 


would  not  again  destroy  thp  earth  by  a  flood 
((it'll,  ix.  12-17).  It  l)i'canic  the  symbol  of 
(iod'.s  I'aitliluliicss  and  of  his  beuelicence 
toward   man   (Kev.   iv.  3). 

Rai'sin.    See  Vink. 

Ra'kem  [variegated].  The  Hebrew  word 
is  el.sewliere  reiidi-red  Kekem. 

A  Mana.ssitu  (1  Cliron.  vii.  l(i). 

Rak'katb  [a  shore]. 

A  IViK-ed  city  of  Xajihtali,  and,  from  its 
etymology,  iiresiimaljly  on  the  .shore  of  the 
.sea  of  GaiiUH-  (.hisli.  .\ix.  .'5.')).  The  rabbins 
jilaee  it  where  Tiberias  now  stands. 

Rak'kon  [thinness,  or  jierhajis  a  sliore]. 

A  village  of  I)au  (Josh.  xix.  4(i).  (,'onder 
suggests  as  its  .site  Tell  er-Rekkeit,  21  miles 
north  of  the  mouth  of  the  'Aujah,  and  G 
north  of  Jojjpa. 

Ram,  I. 

1.  The  male  of  the  sliecj)  (Ezek.  xxxiv.  17)  ; 
see  illustration  under  Shkep.  It  was  used 
as  food  (Cien.  xxxi.  :iH),  might  be  brought  as 
a  burnt  otlering  or  a  peace  otlering  (xxii.  13; 
Lev.  i.  lU :  viii.  18;  and  iii.  (i ;  ix.  4),  and 
was  appointed  for  a  guilt  or  tresjiass  otlering 
(V.  1.");  vi.  (!).  Kams'  skins  dyed  red  wi're 
used,  with  other  ajijilianees,  as  coverings  ol' 
the  tabernacle  (Ex.  xxvi.  14),  and  rams' 
horns  as  war  and  a])parently  jubilee  trumpets 
in  the  tinu'  of  .Joshua  (Josh.  vi.  4-(!,  H,  1.'}). 
Till-  tw(p-hi)riie(l  ram  seen  by  Daniel  in  ])ro- 
j)hetic  vision  was  the  Medo-I'ersian  power, 
the  lirst  or  smaller  horn  that  came  uji  being 
the  empire  of  the  Medes,  the  second  or 
greater  horn  which  rose  at  a  later  period 
that  of  the  Persians  (Dan.  viii.  3-7,  20). 


Attack  nil  a  city  liy  means  of  Battering-ram  and  .Archers 


2.  The  battering-ram  was  an  instrniiient  of 
war.  used  to  beat  down  the  gates  and  walls 
of  a  besieged  city  (K/.ek.  iv.  2,  xxi.  22;  War 
V.  fi,  4'.  It  consisted  of  a  log  of  wood  iron- 
pointed,  swung  by  ropes  frotn  a  support 
above  and  genenilly  within  a  tower  (War  v. 
II.  ."ii.  In  attacking  a  fort  or  city,  it  was 
often  neccs.sary  to  throw  up  a  mound  of  earth 
to  .serve  as  an  inclined  jilane  and  enable  the 


besiegers  to  bring  the  battering-ram  and  other 
military  engines  against  the  walls  (Ezek.  iv. 
2) ,  see  also  illustration  under  Lachish. 

Ram,  II.,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Aram,  in  imi- 
tation of  the  (ireek  form  [high] 

1.  A  man  of  Jiidah,  a  son  of  Ilezron,  and 
brother  of  Jerahmeel  (liuth  iv.  1!);  1  Chron. 
ii.  'J;  .Mat.  i.  3). 

2.  A  man  of  .Jndah,  family  of  Ilezron, 
house  of  Jerahmeel  (1   ('hr<iii.  ii.  25,  27). 

3.  A  descendant  of  Huz,  I'oiinder  of  a  fam- 
ily of  the  Huzites,  and  an  ancestor  of  Elihu 
(Job  xxxii.  2).  He  has  sometimes  been  iden- 
tified with  Aram  of  (leii.  xxii.  21  ;  but  Aram 
was  not  descended  IVum  15uz  (nor  vice  versa), 
and  Aram  and  I\am  are  diOerent  names  in 
Hebrew. 

Ra'mab,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Rama,  in  imi- 
tation of  the  fireek  [a  height]. 

1.  A  town  in  Benjamin  (.losh.  xviii  25), 
not  far  from  Gibeah,  (;eba,and  Bethel  (Judg. 
iv.  .') ;  xix.  13,  14  ;  Is.  x.  2!t).  It  was  fortified 
by  Baasha.  king  of  Israel,  tf)  keej)  the  ])eoplo 
of  Judah  from  making  military  excursions 
northward  (1  Kin.  xv.  17,  21,  22;  2  Chron. 
xvi.  l-fi) :  hence  ajiiiareiitly  south  of  Bethel. 
It  seems  to  havi-  been  the  i)lace  where  the 
captives  of  Judah  were  massed  together  be- 
foif  their  deportation  to  Babylon  (Jer.  xl  1). 
The  town  was  reoccujtied  after  the  captivity 
(Ezra  ii.  2() ;  Neh.  xi.  33).  Accoiding  to  Jose- 
])hus,  Kamah  was  distant  4(lstades  from  .Jeru- 
salem (Antiq.  viii.  12,  3).  Kobinson  located  it 
at  er-Rani,  on  a  height  5  miles  north  of  Jeru- 
.salem.  His  views  have  been  generally  ac- 
cejited.  It  is  now  a  small  Arab  village,  having, 
however,  liewn  stones  and  iiagmeiits  of  i)il- 
lars,  tlie  remains  of  antiquity. 

2.  A  town  where  the  parents  of 
Samuel  lived  (1  Sam.  i.  19;  ii.  11; 
cp.  with  i.  1),  where  he  himself  was 
born  and  liad  his  residence  (vii. 
17;  viii.  4;  xv.  34;  xvi.  13;  xix. 
IH,  19,  22,  23;  xx.  1),  and  where 
lie  was  buried  (xxv.  1  ;  xxviii.  3). 
For  the  sjike  of  distinction  from 
other  towns  of  similar  name  it  was 
called  Ramathaim-zophim  (v\>.  i  1 
with  19,  etc.).  The  town  cannot 
be  located  with  certainty.  1.  It  has 
f)een  idi'iifiiied  with  Ramali  of  Ben- 
jamin. On  this  theory  tlie  place 
is  rightly  described,  so  it  is  con- 
teiide<l,  as  situated  in  the  hill 
country  of  Epliraim  (1  Sam.  i.  1), 
and  it  is  diflereut  from  the  tin- 
named  town  in  the  land  of  Ziiph 
where  Saul  first  met  Samuel  (ix.  .')  seq  ) 
Robinson  called  this  identification  in  <|ues- 
tion.  and  jirobably  justly,  although  his 
opinion  lias  not  been  followe<l  by  all  authori- 
ties. 2.  It  lay  south  of  Benj.imin.  for  (a)  Tlie 
passjige  1  .Sam.  i  1  does  not  clearly  locate 
Ramatbaim  in  the  hill  country  of  Eidiraim, 
but  ratlirr  states  that  a  ciTlain  man  of  the 
family  nf  Zuph  dwelt   in  Ramatbaim,  a  city 


Ramath 


612 


Raven 


of  the  Zophites,  who  were  a  hranch  of  the 

Kohathito  Lcvitt-s,  and  witc  railed  Eiihraiiu- 
ites  bi'cause  tlioir  assij;ned  lioinc  was  in  llie 
hill  country  of"  Eiihraiui,  whence  tliey  had 
migrated  (c'p.  Josh  xxi.  5  ;  1  Chron.  vi.  22-26, 
85,  66  seq.).  (b)  If  this  he  the  true  interpre- 
tation.  then  the  unnamed  city  where  Saul 
met  Samuel  is  douhtless  Kaiuathaiin-/.(>i)iiini, 
for  it  is  in  the  laml  of  Zuph.  This  district 
lay  outside  the  borders  of  Henjamin  (1  Sam. 
ix'  4-6).  and  south  of  Benjamin,  i.  e.,  in  such 
a  situation  that  a  person  going  from  a  city  iu 
or  quite  near  it  to  Gibeah  of  Benjamin  came 
to  Rachel's  sepulcher  on  the  borders  of  Ben- 
jamin (x.  2),  between  Bethel  and  Bethlehem 
(Gen.  xxxv.  16,  19).  (c)  It  is  now  plain  why 
Saul  did  not  know  the  jjrophet  Samuel  by 
sight,  which  could  scarcely  have  been  the 
case  had  the  prophet  resided  at  Ramah  of 
Benjamin,  only  2h  miles  from  Saul's  home 
(cp.  also  1  Sam",  viii.  1,  2).  3.  Another  loca- 
tion for  Ramathaim  may  be  sought  in  the 
territory  of  Ephraim  (Antiq.  v.  10,  2)  where 
the  Zophites  dwelt;  but  not  in  Benjamin 
and  not  the  nameless  town  of  1  Sam.  ix.  .5. 
Beit  Rima,  13  miles  northeast  of  Lydda, 
has  been  suggested.  Compare  with  caution 
Ram.\thaim. 

3.  A  town  on  the  boundary  line  of  Asher 
(Josh.  xix.  29).  Robinson's  location  of  it 
at  Rameh.  about  13  miles  S.  W.  by  S.  of  Tyre, 
has  met  with  favor. 

4.  A  fenced  city  of  Naphtali  (Josh.  xix. 
36).  It  is  believed  to  have  been  situated  at 
er-Rameh,  about  5  miles  southwest  of  Safed 
and  17  east  of  Acre. 

5.  Ramoth-gilead  (cp.  2  Kin.  viii.  28  with 
29,  and  2  Chron.  xxii.  r>  with  6). 

6.  A  village  in  Simeon  (Josh.  xix.  8 ;  in 
A.  V.  Ramath).  It  is  doubtless  the  same  as 
Ramoth  of  the  South  (1  Sam.  xxx.  27)  ;  and 
was  also  known  as  Baalath-beer  (q.  v.). 

Ra'matb  [height],  the  Hebrew  form  of 
Ramah  when  joined  to  a  following  w'ord. 

A  village  of  Simeon  (Josh.  xix.  8,  in  R.  V. 
Ramah),  known  also  as  Ramoth  of  the  South 
(1  Sam.  xxx.  27).     See  Ramah  6. 

Ra-matb-a'im,  in  A.  V.  Ram'a-them  [twin 
heights]. 

A  town  which  gave  name  to  one  of  three 
governmental  districts  which  were  detached 
from  Samaria  and  added  to  Jndsea  (1  Mac. 
xi.  34 ;  cp.  X.  30,  38).  Its  location  must  be 
sought  near  the  southern  border  of  Ephraim. 

Ra-math-a-im-zo'phim  [the  twin  heights 
(of  the  I  Znidiites]. 

The  residence  of  .Samuel's  father  (1  Sam. 
i    1) ;  see  Ramah  2. 

Ra'math-ite. 

A  native  or  inhabitant  of  any  town  called 
Hamah  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  27).  Which  of  them 
i.s  referred  to  in  the  passage  is  not  known. 

Ra-math-le'M.    See  Lehi. 

Ra-math-miz'peh.     See  Mizpah  2. 


Ram'e-ses  [Egyptian,  Ra-mesu,  son  of  the 

sun]. 

A  town  of  Egypt  in  the  most  fertile  dis- 
trict in  the  land  (Gen.  xlvii.  11).  It  was  in 
the  land  of  Goshen  (6).  By  Pharaoh's  orders, 
Joseph  located  his  father  and  brothers  there. 
The  store  city  Raamses  or  Ramses,  which  the 
Israelites  afterwards  built  for  Pharaoh  ipToh- 
ably  Ramses  II  ),  is  probably  meant  (Exod.  i. 
11) ;  see  EoYPr  III.  8.  When  the  exodus 
took  place  the  Israelites  marched  from 
Rjuneses  to  Succoth  (Exod.  xii.  37;  Num. 
xxxiii.  3). 

Ra-mi'ah  [exalted  is  Jehovah]. 

A  son  of  Parosh,  induced  by  Ezra  to  put 
away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  2.'5). 

Ra'moth  [high  places,  height]. 

1.  A  son  of  Bani,  induced  by  Ezra  to  put 
away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  29).  The 
R.  V.  reads  Jeremoth  in  the  text,  and  rele- 
gates Ramoth  to  the  margin. 

2.  A  town  of  Issachar,  assigned  for  resi- 
dence to  the  Gershonite  Levites  (1  Chron.  vi. 
73) :  see  Jarmlth. 

3.  A  town  in  Gilead;  see  Ramoth-GILEAD. 

4.  A  town  of  the  south  (1  Sam.  xxx.  27) ; 
see  Ramah  6. 

Ra-moth-gil'e-ad  [heights  of  Gilead].  See 
Mizpah  2. 

Ram'ses. 

A  method  of  anglicizing  the  Egyptian  Rn- 
mesa.     See  Pharaoh  and  Rameses. 

Ra'phah  and  Rapha  [he  has  healed]. 

1.  A  sou  of  Benjamin  (1  Chron.  viii.  2) ; 
but  he  is  not  enumerated  with  those  who 
accompanied  Jacob  into  Egypt  (Gen.  xlvi. 
21),  and  was  probably  horn  after  the  descent 
into  Egypt.  He  did  not  found  a  tribal  fam- 
ily ;  his  descendants,  if  there  were  any, 
were  included  in  other  families  of  the  Ben- 
jamites.      Compare  remarks  under  Nobah. 

2.  A  descendant  of  Jonathan  (1  Chron. 
viii.  37).  Called  iu  ix.  43  Rephaiah,  a  syn- 
onymous name. 

Ra'phon. 

A  town  of  Gilead,  besieged  by  the  Ammon- 
ites, but  relieved  by  Judas  Maccabitus  (1  IMac. 
V.  .'57).  It  was  apparently  not  far  from  Car- 
naim(43).  It  maybe  identical  with  Rapliana, 
which  was  one  of  the  original  cities  constitu- 
ting the  Decapolis,  and  was  situated  south  of 
the  sea  of  (xalilee  and  east  of  the  Jordan. 

Ra'phu  [healed,  cured]. 

A  Benjamite,  father  of  Palti  (Num.  xiii.  9). 

Ra'ven. 

A  l)ird,  black  in  color  (Song  v.  11),  om- 
nivorous, feeding  even  on  carrion  (Prov.  xxx. 
17).  and  hence  ceremonially  unclean  (Lev. 
xi.  1.5).  Noah  sent  one  forth  from  the  ark. 
It  did  not  return  to  him,  finding,  doubtless, 
floating  carcases  on  which  it  was  able  to  feed 
((4eu.  viii.  7).  It  frequents  valleys  (Pniv. 
xxx.  17),  and  makes  its  nest  in  solitary 
places  (Is.  xxxiv.  11).     By  divine  providence 


Razor 


613 


Bechah 


ravens  fed  Elijah  with  hread  and  flesh  morn- 
in}{  and  eveninj;  at  the  Itrook  Cherith  during 
the  dr()U;.'ht  and  famine  (1  Km.  xvii. 'J-T). 
'I'he  consonants  of  the  words  for  ravens  and 
Arabians  are  tiiesanie  in  llel)re\v;  and  when 
tiie  text  is  written  witiiout  vowels,  as  orij;in- 
ally,  it  is  impossible  to  determine,  if  the 
context  docs  not  decide,  whether  Arabs  or 


K.ivcu. 

ravens  are  meant.  It  is  generally  admitted 
now  that  the  Septnagint  and  Vulgate  are 
right,  and  that  the  Hebrew  writer  intends  to 
state  that  Elijah  was  fed  by  ravens.  The  bird 
referred  to  in  Scripture  is  undoubtedly  the 
ci)mmon  raven  (Conns  cora.i-),  which  is  found 
iu  every  part  (jf  Palestine.  It  is  black, 
with  steel-blue  and  purple  iridescence,  and  is 
about  2(>  inches  long.  The  name  is  broad 
enough,  howcvi'r,  to  include  other  Corridx. 
Another  species  (Ciirriix  imihiiino')  ovviivs  in 
.southern  Palestine  and  in  the  valley  of  the 
Jordan. 

Ra'zor. 

A  sharp  instrument  for  removing  the  beard 
or  hair  (Is.  vii.  20 ;  Ezek.  v.  1).  See  Knife, 
Bkaki),  Hair. 

Re-a'iah,  in  A.  V.  once  Reaia  (1  Chron. 
V.  "))  [.Jehovah  has  seen,  or  jirovided  for]. 

1.  A  son  of  Shobal,  and  descended  from 
Jndah  tlirough  He/.ron  (1  Chron.  iv.  2), 
called  in  ii.  .")2  Harodi,  ;.  p.,  the  seeing  One. 

2.  A  Keubenite  (1  Chron.  v.  r>). 

',i.  Founder  of  a  family  of  Nethinim,  mem- 
bers of  which  returned  from  captivity  (Ezra 
ii.  47  ;  Neb.  vii.  .")(»). 

Re'ba  [j)crhaps,  a  fourth  part  or  qtnirter]. 

One  of  the  live  Midianite  kings,  allies  or 
vassiils  of  Sibon,  slain  by  the  Israelites  in 
the  war  waged  by  Moses  aj;ainst  Midian, 
because  they  seduced  Israel  to  licentious 
idolatry  (Nuiu    xx\i.  S;  .Josh.  xiii.  21). 

Re-bek'ah,  Iti  N.  T.  Rebecca  (Rom.  ix.  10) 
[a  rope  with  a  noose,  i.  e..  a  young  woman 
whose  beauty  ensnares  nienl. 

A  daughter  of  liethind.  When  she  came 
with  her  pitcher  to  a  well  near  the  city  of 


Nahor,  in  Mesopotamia,  the  servant  of  Abra- 
ham, who  had  been  sent  to  obtain  a  wife  for 
Isiiac,  jiresented  himself  and  asked  jx-rmis- 
sion  to  drink  from  her  jiitcher  She  not  only 
granted  his  re(|Uest,  but  volunteered  to  draw 
water  for  liis  camels.  He  bad  asked  (iod  for 
this  very  sign  ;  her  conduct  showed  that  she 
was  of  a  generous  dis)nisition  ,  he  saw  that 
she  was  beautiful ;  and  he  at  once  gave  her 
ex|)ensive  presents,  as  for  a  future  bride.  He 
did  not  at  the  time  know  her  name,  but 
asked  what  it  was,  and  then  added  the  in- 
(liiiry  whether  he  might  lodge  at  her  father's 
house.  She  was  willing  ,  and  when  her 
brother  Laban"s  consent  had  been  obtained, 
the  delegate  took  up  his  temporary  residence 
in  their  dwelling,  and  explained  the  object 
of  his  journey  to  Mesoiiotamia.  Ho  ended 
by  ))etilioiiing  that  Kebekah  should  accom- 
I)any  him  lo  Canaan  and  become  the  wife  of 
Isaac.  Lallan  gave  his  consent,  and  the 
maiden,  adding  hers,  went  with  the  servant, 
married  Isaac,  and  became  the  mother  of 
Esau  and  .Jacob  ((Jen.  xxiv.  l-()7).  She  jire- 
ferred  .Jacob  to  Esau  ;  and  although  she  had 
the  |irn|ihecy  that  .Jacob  should  have  the  pre- 
eminence, .she  did  not  leave  the  matter  in 
God's  hiinds,  but  suggested  a  deceit  by  which 
the  younger  obtained  the  blessing  belonging 
by  birth  to  the  elder  (xxv.  2S ,  xxvii.  1- 
xxviii.  '■>).  She  died  ap])arently  while  .Jacob 
was  in  ]\Ies(ipotainia,  and  was  buried  in  the 
cave  of  Machpelah  (xlix,  31). 

Re'cah,  in  A.  V.  Rechah. 
An  unknown  place  in  the  tribe  of  Judah 
(1  Chron.  iv.  12). 

Re'cbab  [a  horseman]. 

1.  A  son  of  Rimmon.  a  Reerothite.  He 
was  a  captain  of  a  band  under  Ish-bosheth 
and  one  of  Ish-bosheth's  murderers  (2  Sam. 
iv.  2.  «)). 

2.  A  Kenite  (1  Chron.  ii.  ^^).  father  of  that 
.Tehonadab  who  was  invited  by  .Jehu  to  nioiint 
his  chariot  and  see  his  zeal  for  the  Lord 
(2  Kin.  X.  1.5.  23i,  and  who  placed  his  tribe 
under  a  rule  of  life.     See  Kkciiaisitks 

3.  Father  of  iMalchijah,  the  ruler  of  I5eth- 
haceherem  (Neh  iii.  14). 

Re'chab-ites. 

A  Kenite  tribe,  which  dwelt  among  the 
Israelites.  Their  chief  .Tonadab,  son  of 
Kechab,  commanded  them  to  abstain  from 
wine  and  all  intoxicating  li<iiH)r,  not  to  live 
in  houses,  or  jilant  or  jiossess  vineyards,  but 
to  dwell  in  tents.  The  object  of  these  regu- 
lations was  the  preservation  of  jiriniitive 
simplicity  of  maimers.  When  .Jeremiah 
tested  their  obedience  years  later  he  found 
tbeni  faithful.  A  iiromise  was  therefore  given 
them  that  tbey  should  never  want  a  man  to 
represent  them  in  all  succeeding  time  (.ler 
XXXV.  1-1}().  Professed  descendants  of  the 
sect  still  exist  in  .Mesopotamia  and  Yemen. 

Re'chah.     See  Recah. 


Red  Sea 


614 


Reed 


Red  Sea. 

The  name,  borrowed  from  the  Septuagint, 
for  the  sea  called  by  the  Hebrews  Yiun  suph, 
or  sea  of  sedjie.  Tiie  (Jreek  term,  of  wliieh 
Eed  Sea  is  tlie  literal  translation,  is  Enithra 
Thaluxsn,  often  rendered  Krythriean  Sea. 
The  name  probably  denotes  sea  of  king 
Erytliras,  a  fabulous  hero,  rei)reseutative  of 
the  red-skinned  people,  including  Edomites, 
Himyarites,  and  original  Pha'nieians;  or  else 
sea  of  the  red  land,  contrasted  with  the  black 
soil  of  Egypt  (Ebers).  Speaking  of  the  Eed 
Sea  of  modern  geography,  Dawson  says: 
"The  Eocene  and  Cretaceous  limestones  as- 
sume by  weatlieriug  a  rich  reddisli-lmiwn 
hue,  and  undei-  the  evening  sun  the  eastern 
range  glows  with  a  ruddy  radiance,  which  in 
the  morning  is  equally  seen  on  the  western 
clitfs,  while  these  colors  contrast  with  the 
clear  greenish-blue  of  the  sea  itself.  Such 
an  appearance  would  naturally  suggest  to 
early  voyagers  the  name  Red  Sea  "  (Ecjfipt  and 
Syria,  59).  By  the  designation  Erythraean 
Sea,  the  ancients  understood  not  merely 
the  Eed  Sea  as  limited  by  modern  geogra- 
phers, but  also  the  Indian  Ocean,  and  ulti- 
mately the  Persian  Gulf.  The  Hebrew  term 
Yam  snph  denotes  the  Red  Sea  of  modern 
geography,  or  at  least  so  much  of  it  as  em- 
braces the  peninsula  of  Sinai ;  for  it  lay  to 
the  east  of  Egypt  (Ex.  x.  19),  on  it  was  an 
encampment  of  the  Israelites  not  far  from 
Sinai  (Num.  xxxiii.  10,  11),  by  taking  the 
■way  of  the  Yam  fnipli  the  I.sraelites  com- 
passed the  land  of  Edom  (xxi.  4),  and  Ezion- 
geber  in  the  land  of  Edom  was  on  this  sea 
(1  Kin.  ix.  26).  The  Yam  snph  was  crossed 
by  the  Israelites,  and  the  pursuing  Egyptian 
hosts  sank  into  its  depths  (Ex.  xv.  4,  22). 
Brugsch  advocated  the  view  that  the  sea 
crossed  was  not  the  Eed  Sea,  but  the  weedy 
Serbonian  bog,  which  is  separated  from  the 
Mediterranean  by  a  narrow  isthmus.  The  gen- 
eral opinion,  however,  based  on  constant  Scrip- 
ture representation,  is  that  the  sea  crossed 
by  the  Israelites  was  the  gulf  of  Suez,  the 
most  northwesterly  prolongation  of  the  Eed 
Sea.  The  Red  Sea  is  about  1490  miles  long, 
with  an  average  breadth  of  about  150  miles. 
At  its  northern  part  it  terminates  in  two 
gulfs,  Suez  and  Akaba,  which  enclose  be- 
tween them  the  Sinaitic  Peninsula.  The  gulf 
of  Suez  is  about  IHO  miles  long  by  20  broad  ; 
but  it  formerly  extended  farther  north- 
ward, and  included,  in  prehistoric  times  at 
least,  the  Bitter  Lakes.  The  gulf  of  Akaba 
is  about  100  miles  long  by  15  in  breadth. 
The  navigation  of  the  sea  is  at  all  times 
somewhat  perilous,  from  the  sudden  changes 
of  the  wind  and  the  strengtli  with  which  it 
often  blows.  The  voyage  from  end  to  end 
was  ren<lcred  slow  by  the  ])revalent  wind  in 
tlie  northern  part  of  the  sea  blowing  toward 
'he  south  during  nine  months  of  the  year, 
and  in  tbe  southern  part  blowing  northward 
during  the  same  period.  Besides  this,  the 
mariner  has  to  be  on  his  guard  against  coral 


reefs  and  small  islands,  which  in  many 
jilaces  rise  above  the  surface  of  the  sea. 

Re-cord'er. 

An  othcial  of  high  rank  in  the  Hebrew 
government  from  the  time  of  David  on- 
ward. He  was  called  maskir,  one  who  brings 
to  mind,  an<l  jirobably  derived  his  title  from 
his  official  duty  of  recording  important 
events  and  advising  the  king  resjiecting 
them.  At  any  rate  he  held  one  of  the 
highest  offices  of  state.  He  was  numbered 
among  the  chief  officials  of  David  and  Solo- 
mon (2  Sam.  viii.  16;  1  Kin.  iv.  3).  The 
prefect  of  the  palace,  the  scribe,  and  the 
recorder  represented  Hezekiah  in  public 
business  (2  Kin.  xviii.  18,  37)  ;  and  in  the 
reign  of  Josiah  the  scribe,  the  governor  of 
the  city,  and  the  recorder  were  placed  in 
charge  of  the  repairs  of  the  temple  (2t'hron. 
xxxiv.  8). 

Reed. 

1.  Any  tall,  broad-leaved  grass  growing  in 
a  wet  place.  It  is  called  kaneh  in  Hebrew, 
kalamos  in  Greek  (Is.  xlii.  3  with  Mat.  xii.  20). 
When  an  odorous  variety  is  intended,  it  is 
translated  calamus  or  cane.  It  grows  or 
grew  in  the  Nile  and  elsewhere  in  the  water 
(1  Kin.  xiv.  15;  Is.  xix.  6;  xxxv.  7),  and  is 
so  tall  and  in  such  abundance  that  it  helps 
to  furnish  shelter  and  concealment  even  for 
the  bulky  hippopotamus  (Job  xl.  21).  It  is 
easily  shaken  by  the  wind  (1  Kin.  xiv.  15), 
and  so  fragile  that  if  one  lean  upon  it,  it  will 
break  with  a  ragged  fracture,  the  projecting 
points  entering  and  piercing  the  hand  (2 
Kin.  xviii.  21 ;  Is.  xxxvi.  6  ;  Ezek.   xxix.  6, 


Keed  (Arundu  dunau-}. 

7).  In  this  last  respect,  it  affords  a  lively 
picture  of  the  treatment  Egypt  bad  given  to 
the  Israelites  when  they  leaned  ujion  that 
power  in  .seasons  of  emergency.  It  was  a 
reed  which  the  persecutors  of  our  Lord 
thrust  into  his  hand  for  a  sce])ter,  and  with 
which   they  afterwards   struck   him  on  the 


Keelaiah 


Glo 


Rehoboam 


head  ;  and  it  was  to  this  or  another  stem  of 
thf  s:iiiie  |ilaiit  tliat  tlic  spoiiue  was  aflixod 
wliifli  they  tli|iiic(l  in  viiiff;ar  and  jiut  to  his 
lips  uMat.  xxvii.  •_'!»,  .'JO,  4'^).  Tin-  plant  ih'- 
IVrred  to  is  proljuhly  Amndo  iIoikij;  which 
^rows  in  the  Nik'  and  is  common  throufjiiout 
ralestine,  is  at  least  10  IVct  liiKh.  and  has 
leaves  as  lon>;  and  as  liroad  as  those  of  a 
sword.  It  is  cultivated  in  France,  where  its 
lonf:,  straight,  and  li};ht  stems  are  made  into 
lishinn  rods,  arrows,  leiices,  poles  for  vines. 

A  reed  stalk  was  nseil  as  a  measurinf;  rod, 
and  came  to  denote  a  lixed  li'n};tli  of  six 
lontr  cnhits  (ICzek.  xl.  ."> ;  xli.  Hi.  Likewise 
in  Hahylonia  six  ciiltits  made  a  reed  or  binii. 

2.  Tlie  reiideriiif;  in  Jer.  li.  32  of  the  He- 
brew '"(Htm,  a  marsh.  It  does  not  seem  to 
he  a  iilant,  and  is  translated  marsh  ou  the 
marjiin  of  the  li.  V. 

Re-el-a'iah  [treml)lin<jcansed  by  Jehovah]. 

One  of  the  leading  men  who  accompanied 
Zerubbabel  and  Jeshua  from  Babylon  (Ezra 
ii.  2).  Called  in  Neh.  vii.  7  by  the  synony- 
mous name  of  Kaamiah. 

Re-fln'er. 

One  who  refines  the  procions  metals,  as 
silver  or  gold,  by  causing  them  to  pass  re- 
])eatedly  tlircjugh  the  furnace  till  their  dross 
is  taken  away  (Zech.  xiii.  9;  ep.  Ps.  xii.  (i). 
It  is  said  that  the  refiner  knows  when  the 
jtrtR'ess  is  comi>lete  by  seeing  his  imagi.'  re- 
flected in  the  i)recioiis  metal  juirilied.  (iod 
is  compared  to  a  refiner  of  silver,  by  which 
is  meant  that  he  casts  his  jieople  into  the 
furnace  of  aflliction.  till  they  are  refined 
and  imrilied  (Mai.  iii.  2,  3).'  Then  they 
clearly  reflei't  his  image  in  their  souls. 

Refuge.    See  City  OF  Rkfige. 

Re 'gem  [friend]. 

.\  man  of  Judah,  a  son  of  .Tahdai  <1  Chron. 
ii.  17). 

Re-gem-me'lech  [friend  of  the  king]. 

A  man  sent  from  Hethel  with  comjianions 
to  init  a  (|Uestion  to  the  priests  regarding 
fasting  (Zech.   vii.  2). 

Re-ha-bl'ah  [Jehovah  is  comprehensive]. 
Son  of  l^liezer,  and  grandson  of  Moses  (1 
Chron.  xxiii.  17;  xxiv.  21;  xxvi.  25). 
Re'hob  [an  open  space,  a  broad  street]. 

1.  A  place  situated  toward  Ilamatb;  see 
Beth-kkhoh. 

2.  A  town  on  the  boundary  line  of  the  ter- 
ritory of  Asher  (.losh.  xix.  2S),  perhai>s  the 
sjime  as  Hehob.  which  belonged  to  .\sher  i  IJDi. 
From  Kehob  the  Caiuianites  were  not  ex- 
pelled (Jiulg.  i.  ."Jl).  Kehob  was  assigned  to 
the  Levites  (.Fosh.  xxi.  31  ;  1  Chron.  vi.  7.")). 
The  site  is  unknown. 

3.  Father  of  lladadezer,  king  of  Zobah  (2 
Sam.  viii.  3,  12). 

4.  A  Levite  who  .sealed  the  covenant  (Neh. 
X.  11). 

Re-ho-bo'am,  in   \.  V.  of  X.  T.  Roboam 
[the  people   is  enlarged]. 
Son  of  king  Solomon  by  Naainah.  an  .\iu- 


monitess,  one  of  his  wives  (1  Kin.  xiv.  31). 

Although  son  of  a  wise  father,  he  was  him- 
self a  man  of  small  mind.  On  the  death  of 
Solomon  about  i'.'il  li.  c,  rei)resentatives  of 
all  the  twelve  tribes  jjromiitly  assendiled  at 
the  central  city  of  Sluchem  to  make  Re- 
hoboam, who  was  liis  lawful  successor,  king. 
Various  causes  more  uv  less  remote  had  led 
U>  jealou>y  and  a  growing  coldness  between 
Judah  and  the  tril)es  to  the  north  and  east; 
see  History.  Recently  the  jieople  had  suf- 
fen'd  under  grievous  taxation  levied  to  sup- 
port Solomon's  splendor,  and  oiijiortunity 
was  taken  to  lay  tlie  grievances  of  the  ])eo]ile 
before  the  future  ruler.  The  sptjkesman  was 
Jeroboam,  an  able  man  who  had  been  told 
by  the  iirojihet  Ahijah  that  he  should  become 
king  of  ten  tribes,  and  on  account  of  this 
destiny  or  of  some  premature  attempt  ou  lii.s 
l)art  to  bring  about  the  fulfillment  of  the 
projjhecy,  had  been  comjielled  to  flee  to 
Egyi)t  from  Solomon,  but  had  been  recalled 
by  the  jieople  when  Solomon  died.  The 
popular  demand  was  that  taxation  might 
now  be  somewhat  lightened.  Rehoboam 
asked  three  days  for  deliberation.  He  con- 
sulted the  old  men  who  had  till  lately  been 
counselors  of  his  father,  who  advised  him  to 
accede  to  the  request  and  sjjcak  good  words 
to  the  petitioners,  and  assuretl  him  that  the 
people  would  then  be  his  servants  forever. 
He  next  consulted  the  young  men  who  had 
grown  up  with  him,  and  they  urged  him  to 
.say  to  the  i)eople :  "My  little  finger  is 
thicker  than  my  father's  loins.  And  now 
whereas  my  father  did  lade  you  with  a 
heavy  yoke,  I  will  add  to  your  yoke :  my 
father  chastised  you  with  whips,  but  I  will 
chastise  you  with  scorpions.'"  It  indicated 
the  mental  caliber  of  Rehoboan)  that  he 
rejected  the  counsel  of  the  sages,  and 
when  the  jjcople  reassembled,  uttered  the 
words  of  transcendent  folly  which  his  young 
comjianions  had  jiut  into  his  mouth.  The 
effect  was  instantaneous.  Ten  out  of  the 
twelve  tribes  renounced  their  allegiance  to 
Rehoboam,  dejiarled  to  their  tents,  and  were 
forever  lost  to  the  house  of  David.  The 
king  sent  after  them  Adoram,  who  was  over 
till'  trilmte,  a])i)arently  with  ;i  more  concili- 
atory message;  but  it  was  too  late.  The 
unhappy  amba.s.sador  was  stoned  to  death, 
on  which  his  master,  fearing  that  the  next 
missili's  would  be  directi-d  against  himself, 
hastily  mounted  his  chariot,  and  <lrove  to 
Jerus;ilem  (1  Kin.  xii.  1  20 ;  2  Chron.  x. 
1-19).  Jiulah  and  a  large  i>art  of  nenjamin, 
together  with  the  .Simeonites,  were  left  him. 
He  broufiht  together  a  great  army  to  attempt 
the  subjugation  of  the  revolti'd  tribes,  but 
the  )iroiihet  Sheinaiah  forbade  the  enterpri.se 
(1  Kin.  xii.  21-24;  2  Chron.  xi.  1-4).  He 
therefore  contented  himself  with  fortifying 
a  number  of  cities  in  .ludah  and  Benjamin 
(.■)  121.  'I'he  erection  of  the  golden  calves  by 
his  rival  at  Bethel  and  l)an  drove  south- 
ward  alniic^t    the   whole    body  of  the   priests 


Rehoboth 


616 


Eephaim 


and    Levites,  which  greatly  increased    the 

stri-njith  of  the  kingdom  of  Kchohoam;  but 
after  three  years  he  hiiiisi'lf  lajised  into  idol- 
atry (1  Kill,  xiv  21  21  ;  2  Cliroii.  xi.  K5-17  ; 
xii.  1)  in  tlie  fiflli  year  of  liis  reigu,  Sliisliak, 
kill};  of  I^gypt,  invaded  liis  kingdom,  eaptiu"- 
ing  some  of  tiie  feiued  eities,  ultimately  Uik- 
iiiii  .lenisalem  itself,  and  jilundering  the  tem- 
ple and  the  palace  (1  Km.  xiv  25-28;  2 
C'lirou.  xii.  2-12)',  see  Pharaoh,  liehoboam 
had  eighteen  wives  and  sixty  concubines, 
twenty-eight  sons  and  sixty  daughters  (21). 
Abijah  his  son  claimed  that  at  the  time  of 
his  great  mistake  he  was  young  and  tender- 
hearted ;  in  reality,  he  was  at  that  time  forty- 
one  years  old.  He  reigned  seventeen  years, 
and  died  about  915  b.  c,  leaving  his  sou, 
Abijah.  to  ascend  the  throne  (1  Km.  xiv.  21, 
31  -.'  2  Chron.  xii.  13,  16). 

Re-ho'hoth  [broad  places,  streets;  figura- 
tively roominess,  freedom]. 

1.  A  well  dug  by  Isaac  in  the  valley  of 
Gerar.  Since  the  Philistine  herdsmen  did 
not  claim  it,  as  they  had  its  two  predecessors, 
he  named  it  Rehoboth,  meaning  room  (Gen. 
xxvi.  22).  Robinson  identified  the  valley  as 
the  wady  Ruheibeh,  a  day's  journey  south 
of  Beer-sheba;  but  he  could  find  no  wells. 
Stewart  met  with  one,  which  was  subse- 
quently seen  also  by  Rowlands.  Palmer  and 
Drake  fell  in  with  a  second  one,  which  had 
previously  escaped  notice  from  having  been 
covered  by  fallen  masonry. 

2.  A  suburb  of  Nineveh  (Gen.  x.  11)  ;  see 
Rehoboth-ir. 

3.  A  town  "by  the  river"  (Gen.  xxxvi. 
37;  1  Chron.  i.  48).  "The  river"  commonly 
denotes  the  Euphrates.  Chesney  suggested 
as  its  site  Rahabeh,  3  miles  from  the  right 
(the  west)  bank  of  the  river,  8  miles  below 
the  mouth  of  the  Khabour.  There  is  a  castle 
at  the  spot,  with  extensive  ruins  around. 
Four  or  five  miles  lower  down,  and  on  the  east- 
ern bank,  is  a  second  Rahabeh,  called  Raha- 
beh Malik  (Royal  Rahabeh).  One  or  other 
is  ])robably  the  proper  site,  but  it  is  not  i)Os- 
sible  to  decide  on  their  relative  claims.  Jew- 
ish tradition  is  in  favor  of  the  second. 

Re-ho'botli-ir  [open  spaces  or  markets  of 
the  city]. 

A  city  which  formed  part  of  the  great  city 
Niuevcli  or,  as  we  would  say,  (ircater  Nine- 
veh (Gen.  X   11  ;  in  A.  V.  the  city  Rehoboth). 

Be'huin  [beloved]. 

1.  A  chancellor  of  Persia  in  the  country 
beyond  the  river,  who  in  the  time  of  Ar- 
taxerxes  complained  against  the  .Tews  for  re- 
building the  temple  (Ezra  iv.  8.  <)). 

2  One  of  the  jiriiicipal  men  who  returned 
with  Zerubbahel  from  Babylon  (Ezra  ii.  2). 
Called  in  Neh.  vii.  7,  probably  by  a  copyist's 
error,  Nehum. 

3.  A  chief  of  the  priests,  who  returned 
with  Zerubbahel  from  Babylon  (Neh.  xii.  3, 
7).  In  the  next  generation  a  father's  house, 
occupying  the  corresponding  position  in  the 


enumeration,  bears  the  name  Harim  (ver.  15). 
One  of  these  names  has  ])robably  been  mis- 
written   by  transp(jsing  tlii'   Hebrew   letters. 

4.  One  t)f  tho.se  who  with  Nelu'ijiiah  .sealed 
the  covenant  (Neh.  x.  25). 

5.  A  Levite,  son  of  liani.  He  repaired 
part  of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  iii.  17). 

Ke'i  [friendly,  sociable]. 
One  who  did  not  join  in  Adonijah'sattempt 
to  usurp  the  throne  (1  Kin.  i.  8). 

Reins. 

The  kidneys.  They  were  supjiosed  hj'  the 
ancient  Hebrews  and  others  to  be  the  seat  of 
longing  and  desire  (Ps.  vii.  9;  xvi.  7  ;  xxvi. 
2;  Ixxiii.  21 ;  Prov.  xxiii.  16;  Jer.  xii.  2). 

Re'kem  [variegation]. 

1.  One  of  the  five  kings  of  Midian,  allies  or 
vassals  of  Silion,  slain  in  the  war  waged  by 
Moses  against  the  Midianites  i)ecause  they 
had  seduced  Israelites  to  licentious  idolatry 
(Num.  xxxi.  8  ;  Josh.  xiii.  21). 

2.  A  son  of  Hebron,  a  descendant  of  Caleb 
(1  Chron.  ii.  43). 

3.  A  city  of  the  Beujamites  (Josh,  xviii. 
27).     Site  unknown. 

Rem-a-li'ah  [Jehovah  hath  adorned]. 

Father  of  king  Pekah  (2  Kin.  xv.  25). 

Re'meth  [probably,  a  high  place]. 

A  frontier  town  of  Issachar  (Josh.  xix.  21). 
See  Jarmutu. 

Rem'mon  and  Rem-mon-metli'o-ar.  See 
RiMMON  1  and  2. 

Rem'phan.     See  Rephan. 

Re'pha-el  [God  hath  healed]. 

A  Levite,  son  of  Shemaiah,  of  the  family 
of  Obed-edom,  and  a  doorkeeper  of  the  sanc- 
tuary (1  Chron.  xxvi.  7). 

Re'phah  [riches]. 

An  ancestor  of  Joshua  and  probably  son 
of  Beriah  (1  Chron.  vii.  25). 

Re-pha'iah  [Jehovah  hath  healed]. 

1.  A  man  of  Issachar,  family  of  Tola  (1 
Chron.  vii.  2). 

2.  A  descendant  of  Jonathan  (1  Chron.  ix. 
43).  Called  in  viii.  .37  Rapha,  a  synonymous 
name,  he  hath  healed. 

3.  A  captain  of  the  Simeonites,  who  made 
a  successful  exiiedition  against  the  Amalek- 
ites  (1  Chron.  iv.  42,  43). 

4.  A  son  of  Hur  and  ruler  of  half  the  dis- 
trict about  Jerusalem,  who  aided  in  repair- 
ing the  wall  (Neh.  iii.  9). 

5.  The  founder  of  a  family  which  is  loosely 
registered  with  the  royal  descendants  of 
David,  and  is  presumably  a  collateral  line 
sprung  from  David  (1  Chron.  iii.  21). 

Reph'a-lm,  in  A.  V.  twice  Rephaims  (Gen. 
xiv.  5;  xv.  20)  [probably,  giants]. 

1.  A  people  of  large  stature  who  in  ancient 
times,  even  before  the  arrival  of  Abraham, 
dwelt  in  Palestine,  east  and  west  of  the  Jor- 
dan (Gen.  xiv.  5;  Deut.  ii.  11,  20  :  and  Gen. 
XV.  20;  Jo.sh.  xvii.  15;  2  Sam.  xxi.  16). 


Rephan 


-617 


Reuben 


2.  A  valley  near  Jerusalem  and  Bethlehem 
(Aiitiq.  vii.  4,  1  ;  2  Sam.  xxiii.  l.'{,  14),  i)re- 
sumahly  once  iiiliahited  l>y  the  Ke]ihaim.  It 
was  situated  south  of  the  valley  of  llinnom 
(Josh.  xv.  M;  xviii.  Hi).  Tin-  I'iiilisliiies 
twice  assemhled  there,  anil  hoth  times  were 
defeated  by  David  r2  Sam.  v.  lH-22  ;  xxiii. 
i:{ ;  1  Chrou.  xi.  15;  xiv.  !t).  It  was  very 
fertile  ( Is.  xvii.  5).  It  is  considered  to  he  the 
valley  which,  comnu'iicinj;  at  the  soutlicru 
extremity  of  that  of  llinnom,  runs  south- 
southwest  for  aiioul  :{  miles,  or  half  way 
to  Hethlehcm.  Thomson  mentions  that  it  is 
stony  and  uneven,  anil  declines  rai)idly  to- 
ward the  west.     Its  fertility  still  continues. 

Re'phan,  in  A.  V.  Remphan. 

A  gi)(l  who  has  a  star  associalcd  with  him, 
and  who  was  worshiped  hy  the  Israelites  iu 
the  wilderness  (Acts  vii.  -I'.i).  The  j)assage  is 
quoted  from  the  ().  T.  The  name  represents 
Jxdiphdii,  a  corrupt  transliteration  in  tlie  Sej)- 
tua^int  of  Ktiirini,  which  was  a  name  of 
Saturn  amoiiK  the  Syrians,  and  was  under- 
stood to  he  the  fjod  t'hiun  (Amos  v.  2()J.  In 
view  of  this  extremely  i)rohal)le  origin  of  the 
name  Kephan,  the  ])roiiosed  identification  of 
it  with  an  Egyptian  god  Kenpu  falls  to  the 
ground. 

Reph'i-dim  [expau.ses,  stretches]. 

A  camjiiiig  ground  of  the  Israelites  in  the 
wilderness  i)etween  the  wilderness  of  Sin  and 
Sinai  (Ex.  xvii.  1;  xix.  2;  Num.  xxxiii.  12, 
lo).  There  was  no  water  ohtainahle,  and  the 
peoj)le  murmured  till  Moses,  accomjianied  hy 
elders,  went  forward  to  lloreh  ]>y  divine 
commaiul  and  smote  a  rock,  from  which 
water  at  once  i.ssued  (Ex.  xvii.  5,  (j).  The 
water  flowed  down  the  waily  to  the  camji  of 
the  Israelites  and  supi)lied  them  during  their 
sojourn  at  mount  Sinai  also.  Kei)hi(lim  was 
the  scene  nf  the  battle  with  Amalek,  when 
Moses  with  ui)lifted  h;iiul  ]iointeil  to  .lehovah 
as  the  ensign  under  which  Israel  fought  (Ex. 
xvii.  K-lti).  The  situation  is  not  properly 
determined.  Rohinson,  and  afti'r  him,  hut 
independently,  \\'ilsi>n,  fixed  it  at  tlie  sjiot 
where,  a  wall  of  rocks  called  \\'ati'iyah,  run- 
ning northeast  and  southwest,  apjiroaches  the 
wady  esh-Sheikh  ;  while  Hurckhardt,  Stanley 
and  others  locate  it  in  the  bt-autiful  and  com- 
jiaratively  well-watered  wady  Feiran.  See 
Mi;i;ii!Aii. 

Re'sen. 

A  city  of  Assyria,  a  suhurh  of  Nineveh, 
and  ])art  of  the  complex  of  towns  known  as 
the  great  city.  It  was  situated  between 
Nineveh  and  Calah  ((Jen.  x.  11,  12),  and, 
therefore,  it  is  not  the  town  Kesh-cni,  north 
of  Diir-sharrukin.  Its  exact  situation  is  un- 
certain. 

Resh. 

The  twentieth  letter  of  the  Hebrew  alpha- 
bet. English  K  comes  from  the  .sjime  source, 
and  represents  it  in  anglicized  Hebrew 
names.     It  heads  the    twentieth  section  of 


Ps.  cxix.,  in  which  section  each  verse  of  the 
original  begins  with  this  letter. 

Copyists  exjierienced  .some  dillicultj-  in  dis- 
tinguishing resh  from  ilaleth  (ij.  v.). 

Re'sheph  [a  flame]. 

A  descendant  of  Ephraim  and  jirobably 
son  of  lieriah  (1  C'hron.  vii.  2")). 

Re'u,  in  A.  V.  once  Ragau  (Luke  iii.  3i5) 
[friend]. 

A  descendant  of  Eher  and  an  ancestor  of 
Abraham  ((len.  xi.  18-2(1). 

Reu'ben  [behold  a  .son]. 

1.  Jaeoi>'s  eldest  son,  the  first  by  his 
wife  Eeali  ((ien.  xxix.  :51,  :52  ;  xxxv.  2'.i  ; 
xlvi.b;  1  t'hron.ii.  1 ;  v.l).  Keuben  wasguilty 
of  gro.ss  misconduct  (Cien.  xxxv.  22)  ;  but 
when  his  brothers  ))lotted  to  kill  Joseph, 
Iveuben  came  forward  with  the  iirojiosal  to 
cast  him  into  a  ]ii(,  designing  to  restore  him 
eventuallj-  to  his  father.  He  was  not  with 
them  when  Jose])h  was  sold  to  the  Midianite 
Ishmaelites,  and  was  greatly  moved  when, 
visiting  the  pit,  he  found  it  em]ity  (xxxvii. 
21-29).  When  the  brothers  found  themselves 
in  trouble  in  Egypt  twenty  years  later, 
Keuben  was  quick  to  remind  his  broihers  that 
he  had  not  concurred  in  their  ])lot  to  take 
Joseph's  life  (xlii.  22-24).  When  .lacob  was 
reluctant  to  send  Benjamin  to  Egyjit,  Keuben 
offered  two  of  his  sons  as  jjledge  that  he 
would  bring  Beiijaniin  home  again  in  safety 
(:57).  Keuben  had  four  sons  in  all:  Hanoch, 
Phallu,  Hezron,  and  Carmi  (Gen.  xlvi.  8.  9; 
Ex.  vi.  14;  1  Chron.  v.  3).  Jacob,  when 
about  to  die,  pronounced  Keuben  to  be  un- 
stable as  water  and  declared  that  he  should 
not  have  excellence.  By  his  heinous  deed 
he  had  forfeited  the  birthright  (Gen.  xlix. 
3,4). 

2.  The  tribe  formed  by  descendants  of 
Keuben,  and  the  territory  in  which  they 
dwelt.  The  tribe  was  divided  into  four  great 
tribal  families,  the  posterity  of  Keuben'sfour 
sons  (Num.  xxvi.  5-11).  Its  prince  at  the 
beginning  of  the  sojourn  in  the  wilderness 
was  Eli/.iir  (Num.  i.  .') ;  ii.  10;  vii.  .■i(f-.';.") ;  x. 
18).  At  that  time  the  tribe  numbered  4(i,r)0() 
fighting  men  (i.  2(»,  21) ;  at  the  second  census 
thirty-eight  years  later,  they  had  decreased 
to  r.i.T-Ht  (xxvi.  7).  The  iUubenite  chief 
was  head  of  the  camp  made  iiji  of  the  three 
tribes,  Keuben,  Simeon,  and  (lad,  the  aggre- 
gate militarj-  strength  of  which  was  l.")l,4r)0 
(Num.  ii.  10,  lO).  The  spy  from  the  tribe 
wasShammiia.son  of  Zaccur  (xiii.  4),  Da  than, 
Abirani,  and  On,  who  joined  the  Eevite 
Korah  in  revolt  against  Mosesand  .\aron,  were 
Keubenites  (xvi.  1-5(1 ;  xxvi.  }>;  Dent.  xi.  (i)  ; 
see  KouMi  4.  After  the  battles  with  Sihon 
and  ( >g.  the  (Jadites  and  Ueiibenites.  with 
whom  half  the  tribe  of  .Maiiesseh  joined, 
being  rich  in  catth',  |ietitioned  Moses  to  be 
allowed  to  settle  east  of  the  Jordan,  that 
region  being  well  adapted  for  flocks  and 
herds.  Their  request  was  granted  on  condi- 
tion that  they  would  send  the  greater  num- 


Reuel 


618 


Revelation 


ber  of  their  warriors  across  the  Jordan  to 
help  thiiir  brcthnMi  in  llic  wiir  witli  tlie 
Canauiiites  (Num.  xxxii.  1-12;  .losli.  xviii.7). 
They  did  so,  and  took  jiart  in  all  of  Jo.sluia's 
wars  in  Canaan  (Josh.  iv.  12).  Afterwards 
they  returned  with  honor  to  tlieir  own  ter- 
ritory :  l)iit  the  erection  of  a  memorial  altar 
by  them  and  their  Israelite  brethren  east  of 
Jordan  led  to  a  temjiorary  niisunderstand- 
iiij;  which  nearly  involved  them  in  civil  war 
(xxii.  l-:54).  The  Reubenites  took  no  part  in 
the  contest  with  Sisera,  and  were  referred  to 
reproachfully  in  Deborah's  song  (Judg.  v.  15, 
Ki).  They  .joined  in  war  witli  the  Hagar- 
ites.  in  which  tliey  prevailed,  the  victors 
making  a  great  slaughter  of  the  enemy, 
and  living  in  their  territory  to  the  time  of 
the  captivity  (1  Chron.  v.  18-22).  Ezekiel 
allotted  them  a  jilace  in  the  reoccupied 
Canaan  (Ezek.  xlviii.  6,  7),  and  named  a 
gate  after  them  in  the  restored  Jerusalem 
(31).  When  the  book  of  Revelation  records 
the  sealing  of  the  144,000,  it  as.sigus  Eeuben 
a  quota  of  12,000  (Rev.  vii.  5).  The  boundary 
of  the  territory  of  Reuben  was  on  the  east 
the  C(juntry  of  the  Ammonites,  on  the  south 
the  river  Arnon  (Num.  xxi.  24),  on  the  west 
the  Dead  .Sea  and  the  river  Jordan  (Josh, 
xiii.  23),  while  on  the  north  the  boundary 
line  ran  from  the  Jordan  south  of  Beth- 
nimrah  to  Heshbon  (Josh.  xiii.  17,  26 ;  xxi. 
37;  and  Num.  xxxii.  36;  Josh.  xiii.  27). 
Included  in  these  limits  were  Aroer,  on  the 
edge  of  the  valley  of  Arnon,  and  the  city 
in  the  middle  of  the  valley,  all  the  plain 
by  Medeba,  Heshbon  and  its  subordinate 
towns,  Dibon,  Bamoth-baal,  Beth-baal-meon, 
Jahaz,  Kedemoth,  Mephaath,  Kiriathaim, 
Sibmah,  Zereth-shahar,  Beth-peor,  the  slopes 
of  Pisgah,  Beth-jeshimoth  ;  in  short,  the 
southern  part  of  the  Ammonite  kingdom 
which  had  been  ruled  over  by  Sihon  (Josh, 
xiii.  15-23).  The  four  cities  of  Bezer, 
Jahaz,  Kedemoth,  and  Mephaath,  with 
their  suburbs,  were  assigned  to  the  Mera- 
rite  Levites  (Josh.  xxi.  7,  36,  37  ;  1  Chron. 
vi.  63,  78,  79) ;  the  first  of  these,  Bezer,  was 
a  city  of  refuge  (Josh.  xx.  8;  1  Chron.  vi. 
78).  The  Reubenites  liad  an  exposed  posi- 
tion, the  Moabites  l)eiug  in  their  immediate 
vicinity,  while  dest'rt  marauders  could  in- 
vade their  territory  both  from  the  east  and 
the  south.  If  the  list  of  Reubeuite  cities 
given  in  this  section  be  compared  with  those 
in  Moabite  possession  incidentally  mentioned 
in  Is.  XV.,  xvi.,  Jer.  xlviii.,  and  on  the 
Moabite  stone,  it  will  be  seen  that  in  the 
times  of  Mesha  and  thes(>  ])rophets  Reuben 
had  its  limits  greatly  curtailed  by  IMoabite 
conquest.  The  whole  territory,  which  is  a 
table-land  quite  capable  of  cultivation,  is  now 
desertetl  by  its  settled  inhabitants,  and  is 
given  up  to  the  nomad  and  plundering  tribes 
of  the  desert. 

Reu'el,  in  A.  V.  once Raguel  ( Num.  x.  29)  in 
imitation  of  the  ({reek  form  [friend  of  trod]. 


1.  A  descendant  of  Esau  and  also  of  Ish- 
mael  ((ien.  xxxvi.  2-4). 

2.  Moses'  fatlier-in-law  (Kx.  ii.  18).  See 
Jkthko. 

3.  A  Benjamite,  a  son  of  Ibnijah  (1  Cbrou. 
ix.  8). 

4.  A  Gadite,  father  of  Eliassiph  (Num.  ii. 
14) ;  see  Deuel. 

Reu'mah  [exalted]. 

A  concubine  of  Nabor,  Abraham's  brother 
(<ien.  xxii.  24). 

Rev-e-la'tion  [an  unveiling].  It  is  derived 
from  the  Latin  revelatio,  unveiling;  hence 
to  reveal,  to  expose  to  sight,  and,  meta- 
phorically, to  disclose  to  the  mind  truth 
otherwise  unknown.  Greek  Apokalupsis ; 
whence  English  Apoiitlj/pse. 

In  the  ().  T.  the  noun  revelation  does  not 
occur ;  but  the  verl>  reveal  is  used  in  the 
sense  of  making  known  secrets  (e.  g.  Prov. 
xi.  13)  and  then  of  God's  disclosure  of  his 
will  to  man  (e.  g.  Deut.  xxix.  29;  Is.  xxii. 
14:  Dan.  ii.  19,  22,  28;  Amos  iii.  7).  In 
the  N.  T.  revelation  is  used  for  the  disclosure 
by  God  or  Christ  or  the  Spirit  of  truth  con- 
cerning divine  things  previou.sly  unknown 
(r.  (/.  Rom.  xvi.  25;  1  Cor.  xiv.  6,  26;  2  Cor. 
xii.  1  ;  Gal.  i.  12;  Rev.  i.  1)  or  of  duty  spe- 
cially required  (Gal.  ii.  2),  and  then  for  the 
manifestation  or  appearance  of  persons  or 
events  previously  concealed  from  sight  (e.  g. 
Rom.  ii.  5;  1  Pet.  i.  13).  In  theology  reve- 
lation means  the  communication  of  truth  by 
God  to  man,  and  is  usually  applied  to 
such  communications  as  have  been  conveyed 
through  supernatural  agencies. 

The  Revelation  of  St.  John  the  Divine  is 
the  last  book  of  the  N.  T.,  also  called,  from 
the  Greek,  the  Apocalypse.  The  name  is 
given  to  it  because,  as  its  opening  words 
state,  it  is  a  disclosure  of  the  future,  and, 
therefore,  preeminently  a  revelation.  Its 
author  describes  it  as  a  communication  con- 
cerning "things  which  must  shortly  come  to 
pass,"  which  God  gave  to  Jesus  Christ,  and 
which  Christ  gave  by  his  angel  to  his  ser- 
vant John,  to  bo  in  turn  communicated  to 
the  church  (Rev.  i.  1-3).  The  work  is  ad- 
dressed to  seven  churches  of  the  Roman 
province  of  Asia :  Ephesus,  Smyrna,  Perga- 
mum,  Thyatira,  Sardis,  Philadelphia,  and 
Laodicea  (4,  11),  the  number  seven  being  se- 
lected probably  because,  as  tlie  sacred  num- 
})er,  it  signitied  c<im])leteness,  and  thus  indi- 
(■ated  that  the  hook  was  really  addressed  to 
the  whole  church.  The  author  calls  himself, 
after  tlu'  manner  of  the  Hebrew  pro])hets 
(('li.  Is.  i.  1 ;  Joel  i.  1  ;  Amos  i.  1,  etc.),  simply 
John  (Rev.  i.  1,  4.  9;  xxii.  8),  and  relates 
that  the  visions  of  the  book  were  seen  by 
him  wlien  confined  in  the  island  of  Patmos 
"for  the  word  t)f  (iod  and  the  testimony  of 
Jesus"  (i.  9).  Patmos  lies  off  the  south- 
western coast  of  Asia  Min()r.  and  John  had 
been  banished  to  it  because  he  was  a  Chris- 
tian.   This  points  to  a  period  of  persecution 


Revelation 


619 


Revelation 


by  the  Roman  government.  The  opening 
vision  was  of  tlie  exalted  Clirist,  wlio  is  rep- 
rest-ntfd  in  a  symbolic  portraiture  as  stand- 
ing in  the  midst  of"  seven  golden  candlestirks 
wliicli  represent  the  seven  elinrclies  !l(l  "JO). 
Christ  givis  to  tlwseer  mess;iges  to  the  seven 
chiirehes,  and  alter  that  follows  a  succession 
of  other  visions.  'I'he  revelation  is  siiid  to 
have  heen  given  nn  the  Lord's  day  (H)),  hy 
which  we  are  iluiihtless  to  understand  the 
first  day  of  the  week.  The  visions  described 
are  of  a  highly  symbolical  character.  Many 
of  the  figures  and  much  of  the  language  are 
taken  from  the  < ).  T.  ]iro|ihets,  especially 
from  Daniel  and  Kzekiel,  and  the  meaning 
cannot  hit  understood  without  constant  refer- 
ence to  them. 

Examining  the  book  more  closely,  we  find 
that  after  the  introduction  (i.  l-.'i)  and  silwta- 
tion  {A-X),  it  consists  of  seven  chief  divisions, 
extending  to  xxii.  7,  after  which  the  book 
closes  with  an  ejiilogue  (8-21).  These  divi- 
sions constitute  in  fact  seven  visions,  or  series 
of  visions,  and  ai'e  themselves  subdivided 
usually  into  .seven  jiarts.  Each  series  opens 
with  a  vision,  which  i>resents  as  a  whole  the 
idea  of  the  .series,  and  which  is  then  followed 
in  most  instances  by  a  sevenfold  rei)resenta- 
tion  of  its  I'lements.  These  visions  are  iirob- 
ably  not  to  be  understood  as  representing 
events  which  were  to  follow  one  another  in 
history  in  the  order  of  time,  but  as  symboli- 
cal jiortraitures  of  certain  religious  truths  or 
princijiles  which  were  to  be  realized  in  the 
experience  of  the  church.  The  whole  is  in- 
tended for  the  church's  (Mimfort  and  warning 
amid  the  conllicts  of  timi'  and  in  ]ire])aration 
for  the  .second  coming  of  lu'r  J^ord  (i.  7,  8; 
xxii.  7,  10,  17,  20).  The  seven  series  of 
visions,  which  show  the  analysis  of  the  book, 
are  the  following : 

1.  The  vision  of  the  glorified  Christ  amid 
his  church,  followed  bj'  seven  messsiges  to 
the  seven  churches  of  Asia  (i.  9-iii.  22). 
Here  the  main  thought  is  of  instruction, 
warning,  and  encouragement  for  the  church 
in  her  present  condition. 

2.  The  vision  of  (lod,  jiresiding  over  the 
destinies  of  the  univi-rse  and  adored  by  all 
creation,  and  of  the  exalted,  but  redeeming, 
Lamb  of  (Jod,  who  holds  in  his  hand  the 
sealed  book  of  the  divine  decrees  (iv.,  V.),  fol- 
loweil  by  the  breaking  of  the  seals  in  seven 
visions,  whereby  is  jiortrayed  the  sevenfold 
pnr])ose  of  (Jod  from  the  going  forth  of 
Christ  to  con()Uer  unto  the  last  judgment 
(vi.  1-viii.  1).  Metween  the  sixth  and  seventh 
seals  an  episode  is  introduced,  which  shows 
the  siifety  of  (he  jK-ople  of  (lod  amid  the 
judgment   which  befalls  the  world   (vii.). 

.'{.  The  vision  of  the  trumpets  (viii.  2-xi. 
111).  It  ojiens  with  the  vision  of  an  angel 
offering  the  jniiyers  of  the  siiints  to  (Jod 
(viii.  2  ()).  Then  each  trumjiet  is  followed 
hy  a  vision  of  destructi(»n  ujion  the  sinful 
world,  ending  again  with  the  last  Judgment. 
Between  the  sixth  and  .seventh  trumj)ets  an 


cpi.sode  again  is  introduced,  descriptive  of 
the  preservation  of  the  witnes.sing  church 
(X.  1-xi.  14).  The  main  thought  here  api)ears 
to  be  that  in  reply  to  the  i)rayers  of  the 
Siiints  for  (iod  to  vindicate  his  truth,  they 
are  shown  the  desolations  which  befall  the 
sinful  world  amid  which  they  are  to  bear 
their  testimony. 

4.  The  vision  of  the  church,  under  the 
figure  of  a  woman,  bringing  forth  the  Christ, 
against  whom  the  dragoTi.  or  Satan,  wages 
war  (xii.).  followed  bj'  visions  of  the  beasts, 
which  Satan  will  use  as  his  agents  (xiii.),  of 
the  militant  church  (xiv.  l-.'j),  and  of  the 
advancing  stages  of  Christ's  con()Uest  (*i-20). 
This  may  be  called  the  vision  of  conflict. 

5.  The  vision  of  the  vials,  or  bowls, 
containing  the  last  i)lagues,  or  judgments 
of  (Jod  (xv.,  xvi.).  The  opening  vision  (xv.) 
de]iicts  the  trium]di  of  the  saints,  while  the 
seven  bowls  represent  the  sevenfold  judg- 
ment of  God  on  a  wicked  world   (xvi.). 

().  The  vision  of  the  harlot  city,  Babylon 
(xvii.),  followed  by  the  victory  of  Christ 
over  her,  and  over  his  enemies  in  league 
with  her,  ending  again  in  the  last  judgnu-nt 
(xviii.  1-xx.  15).  Between  the  sixth  and  sev- 
enth scenes  of  this  triunij)!!  an  ejiisode  is  in- 
troduced (xx.  1-10),  which  isjirobably  descrip- 
tive of  the  comi)lete  safety  and  sjjiritual  de- 
liverance of  Christ's  peoi)le  throughout  the 
whole  period  of  the  age-long  battle.  Some 
.scholars,  however,  ])lace  the  division  between 
the  sixth  and  seventh  series  of  visions  at 
xix.  11. 

7.  The  vision  of  the  ideal  church,  the 
bride  of  Christ,  or  new  .Jerusalem  ixxi.  1-s  , 
followed  by  a  description  of  her  glory  (!t- 
xxii.  7). 

That  the  author  of  the  book  of  the 
Revelation  was  .John  the  a])ostle  has  been 
the  constant  tradition  of  the  church  from 
the  earliest  time.  It  is  specifically  so  stated 
by  Justin  ^lartyr  in  the  middle  of  the 
second  century.  It  is  cfinfirmed  also  by  a 
comi)arison  of  the  book  with  the  Gospel  and 
First  Ejiistle  of  .lohn,  for  all  three  books 
have  in  common  many  doctrinal  ideas  and 
many  more  peculiarities  of  language.  The 
Revelation,  indi'i'd,  is  less  smoothly  written 
than  the  (iosjjcl  or  Epistle  :  but  that  is  jiartly 
becau.se  of  its  subject,  which  led  the  author 
to  employ  unusual  expressions  in  his  de- 
scrijitions,  and  partly  because  he  was  bent  on 
rei)eating  and  combining  the  language  of  the 
older  )>roiiliets.  Some  scludars.  indeed,  both 
ill  ancient  and  modern  times,  have  cotitended 
that  the  Kevelalion  and  theGosjiel  could  not 
have  been  written  by  the  sjime  jierson.  But 
further  examination,  as  well  as  the  sti'adfast 
tradition  of  the  church,  makes  the  division 
of  authorship  both  iiiiprobable  and  unneces- 
sary. .\s  to  the  date  of  Ki'Velation,  two 
principal  o])inions  have  been  held.  Gne  as- 
signs it  to  the  year  or  two  iinmediately  pre- 
ceding the  fall  of  Jeru.salem  in  a.  n.  70. 
This  was  after  the  jiersecution  of  the  Chris- 


Revenger 


620 


Rhodes 


tians  by  Nero  had  broken  out,  and  it  is  sup- 
posed that  the  terrors  of  tlie  fall  of  Jerusa- 
leni,  combined  with  (hose  of  the  Neronian 
]ifrsccutiou,  provide  many  of  the  lurid 
litiiircs  used  by  the  seer.  Most  rationalistic 
critics  also  accept  ap])roxiinately  this  date, 
and  see  in  Revelation  no  insjiired  j)rophecy 
at  all,  but  only  a  human  vaticination  sug- 
jjested  by  the  calamitii's  of  the  ajje.  Hut  the 
traditional  opinion  has  ever  assijjned  Revela- 
tion to  the  close  of  tiie  rei{,'n  of  Domitian, 
A.  D.  9(j.  The  testinu)ny  is  strong  that  John 
was  imprisoned  in  I'atnios  by  Domitian,  and 
returned  to  Ephesus  after  that  tyrant's  death. 
It  is  unlikely  that  so  spccilic  and  unanimous 
a  tradition  should  he  mistaken.  The  condi- 
tion of  the  seven  churches  likewise  suits  the 
later  date  better  than  the  earlier  ;  the  style 
does  not  require  the  Revelation  to  precede 
the  (Tospi'l,  nor  are  most  of  the  reasons  ad- 
vanced for  the  earlier  date  satisfactory  to 
tho.se  who  believe  in  the  inspiration  of  the 
book. 

The  interpretations  of  Revelation  have 
been  innumerable.  Four  general  classes  of 
interpretation  may,  however,  be  distin- 
guished. (1)  The  prajterist  interpretation, 
which  regards  the  work  as  a  description  of 
wdiat  was  taking  place  when  the  book  was 
written.  This  view  destroys  its  prophetic  char- 
acter, and  is  certainly  to  be  rejected.  (2)  The 
futurist  interpretation,  which  sees  in  the 
book  predictions  of  events  yet  to  be  fultilled. 
This  view  is  met  by  the  difticulty  that  all 
prophecy,  and  this  one  in  particular,  closely 
connects  itself  with  the  situation  of  the 
church  and  prophet,  to  whom  it  was  given. 
(3)  The  historico-prophetical  interpretation, 
wdiich  sees  in  the  vi.sions  a  successive  por- 
trayal of  the  events  of  Christian  history. 
The  dilficulty  with  this  view  is  that  few  ex- 
positors can  agree  on  the  details  of  the  ful- 
fillment, and  that  it  disregards  the  contem- 
poraneous character  of  the  seven  series  of 
visions.  (4)  The  spiritual,  symbolic  inter- 
pretation, which  regards  the  visions  as  figu- 
rative portraitures  of  certain  truths  or  prin- 
ciples, destined  to  find  their  place  in  the 
history  of  the  church,  and  the  contemplation 
of  which  in  pictorial  representation  is  in- 
tended to  encourage  and  comfort  Chri.st"s 
peojile  until  he  comes  again  in  glory  and  to 
.judgment.  While  no  expositor  can  feel  sure 
that  he  has  under.stood  the  meaning  of  all 
the  contents  of  the  Revelation,  the  last 
method  of  interpretation  has  the  advantage 
of  directing  the  attention  of  readers  to  cer- 
tain large  and  important  truths,  under  the 
form  of  pictures,  thus  nuiking  this  most 
mysterious  book  of  Scripture  practically 
helpful.  G.  T.  p. 

Re-ven'ger.     See  Avenger  of  Blood. 

Re'zeph  [a  hearthstone  for  cooking  upon, 
a  ]>iivement]. 

A  place  which  the  rabshakeh  boasted  that 
the  Assyrians  had  destroyed  (2  Kin.  xix.  12; 


Is.  xxxvii.    12).     It   is  doubtless  the  town 
Rasiippa,  long  residence  of  an  Assyrian  gov- 
ernor, the  modern   Rusafa,  some  miitrs  west 
I    of  the   Eu])hrates  on  the  route  to  I'almyra. 

Re-zi'a.     See  Rizia. 

I 

Re'zin. 

1.  A  king  of  Damascus.  About  738  B.  C. 
he  paid  tribute  to  Tiglath-i)ileser,  king  of 
Assyria.  Four  years  later,  in  the  time  of 
Ahaz,  he  .joined  with  Pekali,  king  of  Israel, 
in  an  effort  to  capture  ,Terus;dcm  and  i)1ace  a 
creature  of  their  own  ujion  the  throne  <d' 
David.  They  failed,  after  eliciting  from 
Isaiah  a  celebrated  jirophecy  (Is.  vii.  1-ix. 
12).  On  this  campaign,  before  attem]iting  to 
unite  bis  troops  with  those  of  Pekah,  Rezin 
marched  to  Elath  on  the  gulf  of  Akaba  and 
took  the  town  from  .Judah  {2  Kin.  xvi.  (J). 
The  aid  of  Tiglath-pileser  had  been  pur- 
chased by  Ahaz ;  and  the  Assyrian  king, 
after  chastising  the  Philistines  for  their  par- 
ticipation in  the  hostilities  against  Judah, 
marched  against  Damascus,  besieged  it  dur- 
ing the  years  733  and  732  B.  C,  ravaged  the 
surrounding  district,  finally  captured  the 
city,  and  slew  Rezin  (7-9,  and  Assyrian  in- 
scriptions). 

2.  Founder  of  a  family  of  Nethinim,  mem- 
bers of  which  returned  from  the  captivity 
(Ezra  ii.  48;  Neh.  vii.  50). 

Re'zon  [importance,  ju-inceliness]. 

A  son  of  Eliada,  and  a  subject  of  Hadad- 
ezer,  king  of  Zobah.  When  David  cap- 
tured Zobah,  Rezon  gathered  a  band  of  men, 
seized  Damascus,  and  founded  the  Syrian 
kingdom,  with  which,  while  it  lasted,  the 
Israelites  had  continual  relations,  hostile  or 
friendly  (1   Kin.  xi.  23-25). 

Rhe'gi-um. 

A  city  of  Greek  origin  on  the  coast  of 
Italy,  oppo.site  to  Messina  in  Sicily.  Paul's 
vessel  touched  at  Rhegium  after  having 
made  a  circuit  from  Syracuse  (Acts  xxviii. 
13).  Rhegium  is  now  called  Reggio,  and  is 
the  capital  of  Calabria.  It  is  a  town  of  con- 
siderable size,  and  exports  oranges,  lemons, 
wine,  oil,  etc. 

Rhe'sa. 

A  descendant  of  Zerubhabel,  and  an  an- 
cestor of  Christ  (Luke  iii.  27). 

Rbo'da  [a  rose  busbl. 

A  servant  girl  of  Mary,  the  mother  of 
Mark.  When  Peter,  after  having  been 
miraculously  released  from  prison,  knocked 
at  the  door  of  the  gate  of  Mary's  house, 
Rhoda  was  sent  to  see  who  was  there.  On 
hearing  I'j'ter's  voice,  she  was  elated  with 
jo.v,  and,  forgetting  in  her  excitement  to  let 
him  in,  ran  back  to  tell  that  it  was  Peter. 
The  apostle  had  for  some  time  to  continue 
the  knocking  before  he  could  gain  admit- 
tance (Acts  xii.  13-16). 

Rhodes,  in  A.  V.  of  1  Mac.  xv.  23  Rhodus 
[a  rose  bush]. 

An   island   off  the  coast  of  Caria,   in   the 


Bibai 


621 


Bimmon 


southwest  of  Asia  Minor.  It  is  about  45 
miles  Idiiji  by  H  broiid,  and  is  rciiiarkablc  for 
its  oraiif;!'  and  citron  jirovcs.  The  island  was 
at  the  junction  ofjircal  commercial  mutes  for 
(•oastinf,'  vessels,  and  becanii'  a  commercial 
center  which  ranked  with  .-Mexandria  anil 
Carlliaiie.  Its  cajdtal,  also  calleil  Khodes, 
was  famed  for  its  Colossus,  a  fireat  li^lit  house, 
said  to  have  been  70  cubits,  or  about  10.") 
feet,  high.  It  was  erected  between  :{00  and 
2^H  ».  c.  The  Ivbodiaiis  wvn-  s<-nii-inde- 
pendent  under  tlie  Romans  (1  Mac.  .xv.  2I>), 
e.\eei)t  during  nine  years  in  the  reign  of 
Claudius,  !)eginning  .\.  D.  44,  ami  again 
in  the  time  of  X'espasian.  The  vessel  in 
which  I'aul  sailed  to  I'alestine  from  Assos 
tttuohed  at  Rhodes  (Acts  xxi.  1)  wliicli  was 
then  a  si)lendid  city.  As  the  Rhodians 
long  remained  unsubdued  by  the  Romans, 
so,  led  by  the  knights  of  St.  .lohn,  wlio  in 
A.  n.  l.'UO  liad  jiossessed  themselves  of  the 
island,  they  defii-d  the  power  of  the  Turks 
till  ir)2"2,  wlien  they  had  to  .surrender  on 
terms,  the  knights  being  allowed  to  transfer 
themselves  to  the  isle  of  Malta.  Since  that 
time  Rhodes  has  remained  subject  to  the 
Turks. 

Rl'bai  [contentious]. 

A  Ben.jamite  of  (iibeali.  and  the  father  of 
Ittai,  one  of  David's  mighty  men  (2  Sam. 
xxiii.  'J!»;  1  Chron.  xi.  31). 

Rib'lah  [fertility]. 

A  town  in  the  land  of  ITamatb  ('2  Kin. 
xxiii.  .■{:{;  xxv. '21).  The  I",gy])tians  were  en- 
cam])ed  there  when  .TehoahaiS  was  brought  in 
as  a  ]irisoner  (xxiii.  .'53).  When  Zedekiah 
was  captured  after  liis  escape  from  Jerusa- 
lem, lie  was  brought  to  Nebuchadnezzar, 
then  encamiied  at  Riblali,  who  jint  out  his 
eyes,  and  luid  him  bound  to  be  carried  to 
Babylon.  His  sons  and  the  princes  of  .ludah 
were  also  slain  at  Riblah  (xxv.  (i,  7,  21  ;  .ler. 
xxxix.  .")-7;  Hi.  !»  11,  27).  Ruckingham,  in 
iWlf).  met  will)  ruins  at  a  jdace  called  li\-  him 
Rubla,  but  now  more  generally  siielied  Rib- 
leh,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Orontes,  about 
3fi  miles  north  by  east  of  Ha'al-bek,  in  the 
midst  of  the  great  i>lain  of  Co'lesyria,  very 
suitable  for  I  he  encam|inient  of  a  gnat  army, 
and  with  easy  access  southward  or  north- 
ward if  commotion  arose.  The  ruins  consist 
of  low  mounds  surrounded  by  the  remains 
of  old  bnildiTigs.  It  is  extremely  doubtful 
whether  it  is  i<lentieal  with  Rlblnh  on  the 
iioithern  boundary  of  I'alestine,  east  of  .\in 
(Num.  .\xxiv.  1 1 ). 

Rid'dle. 

In  biblical  usage,  any  dark  saying,  of 
which  the  meaning  is  not  at  once  clear  ;ind 
must  bediscovered  by  shrewd  thought  (Num. 
xii.  H,  in  Yl.  V.  dark  speeches;  I'rov.  i.  (i, 
R.  V.  margin).  It  may  be  a  jianible  (I's. 
xlix.  4;  Ixxviii.  2;  in  E.  V.  dark  siiying), 
and  be  ]iroposed  merely  in  f>rder  to  arousi; 
attention  and  start  in<|niry,  and  make 
the    truth    mure    vivid    and    imprcsslM-.    the 


propounder  intending  to  give  an  explanation 
immediately  (l^zek.  xvii.  2-24)  ;  or  the  riddle 
may  be  set  forth  for  men  to  guess,  as  the 
riddle  of  Samson  and  those  of  Solomon  and 
Hiram  to  which  .losejihus  refers  (,ludg.  xiv. 
12-l!t;  Antii].  viii.  5,  3).  The  riddle  of 
Samson  was  jiroposed  in  verse.  It  was  not 
proiterly  a  riddle  at  all,  since  the  discovery 
of  its  nu'aning  was  not  within  the  realm  of 
jio.ssibility  for  the  I'hilislines.  It  was  not 
guessable,  for  they  were  not  acquainted  with 
the  facts  on  whicli  it  was  based. 

The  (ireeks  aiul  Romans  were  fond  of  the 
riddle  or  enigma.  One  of  the  most  cele- 
brated was  ]iut  into  the  mouth  of  the 
monster  named  the  sphinx,  which  had  been 
sent  to  ravage  the  territory  of  Thebes.  She 
asked:  "What  animal  goes  on  four  feet  in 
the  morning,  on  two  at  noon,  and  on  three 
in  the  eveiiiugV"  After  many  had  failed, 
<E(li]ius  answered  that  it  was  man,  who  in 
infancy  creeps  on  all  fours,  at  maturity 
walks  on  two  feet,  and  in  old  age  u.ses  a 
staff.  Tliereui)on  the  sjihinx  flung  herself 
to  the  ground  and  i)erished. 

Rie,  obsolete  spelling  of  Rye.     See  SrEl.T. 

Rim'mon  I.,  in  A.  V.  twice  Remmon  (.losh. 
xix.  7,  13) ;  in  R.  V.  once  Rimmono  (1  Chron. 
vi.  77)   [a  pomegranate]. 

1.  A  Kenjamite,  whose  two  sons  were  cap- 
tains under  Ish-boshcth,and  became  bis  mur- 
derers (2  Sam.  iv.  2). 

2.  A  town  in  the  south  of  Judah  near  Ain 
(Josh.  XV.  32;  1  Chron.  iv.  32;  Zech.  xiv.  lOi. 
so  near  indeed  as  to  form,  apjjarently,  one 
community  with  it  (Neb.  xi.  2})).  It  was 
soon  transferred  with  Ain  and  other  towns 
to  Simeon  (Josh.  xix.  7).  It  is  identified 
with  the  ruin  Umin  er-Runumiin,  about  10 
miles  northeast  by  north  of  Beer-sheba. 

'.i.  A  border  town  of  Zebulun,  but  assigned 
to  the  Levitcs  (Josh.  xix.  13;  1  Chron.  vi. 
77;  and  Josh.  xxi.  3.'i,  where  Dinniah  is 
doubtless  a  misreading,  resh  being  mistaken 
for  daleth,  q.  v.).  Methoar  in  A.  V.  of  Josh. 
xix.  i:>  is  improju'rly  regarded  as  ]iart  of  the 
name;  whereas  it  descrilji's  the  boundary  as 
"stretching"  to  Neah.  The  name  of  the 
town  is  ])reserved  in  Rummaneh.  a  village 
(J  miles  north,  slightly  east,  of   Nazareth. 

3.  A  rock  near  (iibeah,  where  (iOO  van- 
(luishi'd  Henjamites  took  refuge  and  re- 
mained four  months  (.ludg.  xx.  4.">  47;  xxi. 
R>).  It  is  i)robably  the  tlctached  limestone 
eminence  .'U  miles  east,  slightly  north,  of 
Bethel.  It  is  separated  from  all  apj)roach 
on  the  south,  the  north,  and  the  west  by 
ravines,  and  has  caverns,  in  which  the 
refugees  may  have  lived.  The  name  still 
lingers  in  iiammun.a  village  on  the  summit. 

Rim'mon  II.  [thundenr]. 

.\  Syrian  god,  who  had  a  temi>le  at  Damas- 
ciis,  in  which  Naaman  and  his  royal  master 
were  accustomed  to  bow  themselves  for  wor- 
shij)  (2  Kin.  v.  IH).  In  .\ssyria  Rimmon,  or 
l{;tmman  as  his  name  was  |ironounced  there, 


Rimmono 


fi22 


Rock-badger 


was  numbered  ainoiiK  the  twelve  great 
deities.  He  w;is  tlu'  liod  of  rain  and  storm, 
liglitniiif?  and  thunder.  Sometime.s  lie  was 
dreaded  as  tlie  destroyer  of  erops  and  the 
scatterer  of  the  harvest,  and  at  others  was 
adored  as  the  h)rd  of  fecundity.  He  was 
identical  with  Hadad,  the  supreme  god  of 
the  Syrians.  The  two  names  are  combined 
in   lladad-Kimnion. 

Rim'mo-no.     See  Rimmon. 
Rim-mon-pe'rez,  in  A.  V.  Rimmon-parez 

[pomegranate  of  the  breach  or  cleft]. 

A  eamjiing  ground  of  the  Israelites  in  the 
wilderness  (Num.  x.xxiii.  19,  20).  Situation 
unknown. 

Ring.     See  Orn.4ment  and  Seal. 

Rin'nah  [;i  wild  cry,  a  shout]. 

A  man  of  .ludah,  a  son  of  Shimon  (1  Chron. 
iv.  20). 

Ri'phath. 

A  people  descended  from  Gomer  (Gen.  x. 
3;  in  1  Chron.  i.  (j  Diphath :  see  D.a^leth). 
Josephus  identifies  them  with  the  Paphla- 
gonians  (Anti(}.  i.  6,  1).  The  name  is  per- 
haps preserved  in  the  Eiphtean  mountains, 
which  were  supposed  by  the  ancients  to  skirt 
the  northern  shore  of  the  world. 

Rls'sah  [a  ruin,  or  dew,  rain]. 

A  camping  ground  of  the  Israelites  in  the 
wilderness  (Num.  xxxiii.  21,  22).  Exact 
situation  unknown. 

Rith'mab  [broom,  plant]. 

.\  caui])ing  ground  of  the  Israelites  in  the 
wilderness  (Num.  xxxiii.  18,  19) ;  perhaps 
hard  by  Kadesh  in  the  wady  known  as  Abu 
Retemat,  the  equivalent  of  the  ancient 
name ;  see  Kadesh  1. 

Riv'er. 

Of  several  words  translated  river,  only 
three  require  mention  here:  1.  Nahar,  a 
stream,  in  Greek  potamos,  applied  to  the 
largest  rivers  known  to  the  Hebrews,  as  the 
Tigris  and  Euphrates  (Gen.  ii.  14  ;  Rev.  ix. 
14),  the  Abana  and  Pharpar  (2  Kin.  v.  12), 
the  Jordan  (Mark  i.  5),  and  the  afHuents 
of  the  Upper  Nile  (Zeph.  iii.  10).  The  river 
or  the  great  river  usually  denotes  the  Eu- 
phrates (Gen.  XV.  18;  xxxi.  21).  2.  NoImI, 
sometimes  a  perennial  stream  like  the  Jab- 
bok  (Dent.  ii.  37),  but  usually  a  winter 
torrent,  the  bed  of  which  is  dry  in  summer; 
a  wady.  See  Brook.  3.  Y''or,  a  stream, 
used  almost  exclusively  of  the  Nile  and  its 
mouths,  and  sounding  much  like  the  native 
Egyptian  name  of  that  river  (Gen.  xli.  1  ;  2 
Kin.  xix.  24;  Ezek.  xxix.  3).  It  once  de- 
notes the  Tigris  (Dan.  xii.  5-7 ;  cp.  x.  4,  R. 
V.  margin). 

Riv'er  of  E'gypt. 

1.  The  Nile,  and  siiecifically  its  most  east- 
ern channel,  the  I'eiiisiac  branch  ((^en.  xv. 
18)  ;  see  Shiiior.  In  this  ])assage  the  two 
great  rivers,  the  Nile  and  the  Euphrates,  are 
named    broadly   as    the   boundaries   of    the 


promised  land.  The  brook  of  Egypt  or 
wady  (d-'Arish  was  commonly  regarded  as 
the  southwestern  limit  of  Palestine;  but  the 
country  between  this  wady  and  the  east- 
ern branch  of  the  Nile  was  mainly  de.sert, 
and  the  Nile  was  virtually  on  the  boundary 
of  Egypt.  The  passage  means  that  the  de- 
scendants of  Abraham  should  i)().sse.ss  the 
land  as  far  as  Kgypt.  The  distinction  be- 
tween the  Nile  and  the  wady  el-'Arish  is 
well  established  ;  for  th(!  f(n"mer  is  a  nahnr 
and  the  latter  a  nahal. 

2.  A  great  wady  or  nahal,  uniformly  called 
in  the  U.  V.  the  brook  of  Egypt.  It  was  the 
southwestern  border  of  Canaan  (Num.  xxxiv. 
5;  1  Kin.  viii.  (Jo;  2  Kin.  xxiv.  7),  and  the 
limit  in  the  same  direction  of  the  tribe  of 
.ludah  (Josh.  xv.  4,  47).  It  was  known  to 
the  As.syrians  by  the  same  name  as  to  the 
Hebrews,  and  likewise  as  a  boundary-.  It  is 
the  wady  el-'Arish,  a  watercourse  nominally 
dry,  but  which  after  heavy  rains  runs  north- 
ward from  the  desert,  being  fed  by  tribu- 
taries, one  of  which  passes  Kade-;h-barnea. 
It  falls  into  the  Mediterranean,  about  50 
miles  south  of  Gaza. 

Ri-zi'a,  in  A.  V.  Rezia  [delight]. 

An  Asherite,  a  son  of  Ulla  (1  Chron.  vii. 
39). 

Riz'pah  [a  hot  stone] . 

A  daughter  of  Aiah  and  concubine  of  Saul. 
On  her  account  the  quarrel  arose  between 
Ish-bosheth  and  Abner,  which  resulted  in 
Abner's  going  over  to  David  (2  Sam.  iii.  6-8). 
Her  children,  Armoni  and  Mephibosheth, 
were  put  to  death  during  the  famine  which 
arose  in  David's  reign  on  account  of  Saul's 
treatment  of  the  Gibeonites  (2  Sam.  xxi.  8- 
11). 

Road. 

An  inroad,  a  raid,  an  incursion  into  an 
enemy's  country  (1  Sam.  xxvii.  10,  in  R.  V. 
raid).  This  sense  is  now  obsolete  in  ordinary 
language.  When  a  road  in  the  modern  sense 
is  intended,  the  A.  V.  and  R.  V.  generally 
use  the  term  way,  or  sometimes  path.  See 
Palestine  5. 

Rob'ber.     See  Thief. 

Ro-bo'am.    See  Rehoboam. 

Rock. 

Rocks  were  found  nearly  everywhere  in 
the  hilly  and  mountainous  districts  of  Pales- 
tine. Some  had  definite  names,  as  the  rock 
of  Oreb  (Judg.  vii.  25),  the  rock  of  Etam 
(xv.  8).     See  Oreb,  P^tam. 

Rock-badg'er. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  f^haphan,  on 
the  margin  of  the  R.  V.,  where  c«ney  ai)])ears 
in  the  text.  The  animal  intended  by  the 
Hebrew  word  is  small  and  wary,  dwells 
among  the  rocks  (Ps.  civ.  IS;  Prov.  xxx. 
24,  2()),  and  chews  the  cud,  but  does  not  jiart 
the  hoof  (Lev.  xi.  5;  Deut.  xiv.  7).  The 
corresponding  name  iu  the  dialect  of  south- 
ern Arabia  denotes  the  Hyrax  syriacus,  the 


Rodanim 


623 


Eomans 


s(j-<;ino(l  rock-badger.  The  hyrax  looks  like 
a  ral)t)it  or  hadyi-r,  hut  lias  more  affinity  to 
liir  riiiii(iccri)S  and  (lie  tapir;  indfcd,  its 
slriK'tmr  is  so  anomalous  that  it  lias  i)ccn 
yivcu  a  wiioki  (trdor,  JI;/nifoi<lf(i,  to  ilscll'. 
It  moves  its  jaws  as  if  it  were  diewiiiK  the 


Koek-hadger  (lli/id    ^fi/rinnis). 

eud.  hut  it  does  not  really  ruminate.  The 
species  si/rincns  is  found  in  the  peninsula  of 
Sinai,  northern  ralestine,  and  the  region 
niunil  the  Dead  .Sea.  Its  fur  is  tawny,  with 
a  yellow  spot  on  the  hack.  It  lives  in  clefts 
of  rocks,  hut  does  not  scoop  out  a  hole. 
Small  parties  meet  together,  with  a  sentinel 
on  some  eminence  to  give  warning  of  danger. 
It  is  rarely  seen  except  in  the  morning  and 
evening,  when  it  comes  forth  to  IVi'd. 

Rod'a-nim  [a  plural  form,  Rodanites], 

A  i)eo])le  descended  from  Javan  (Hehrew 
text  of  1  C'hron.  i.  7;  and  Septuagint  and 
Samaritiin  te.xt  of  Gen.  x.  4).  If  Rodanim  is 
the  correct  reading,  the  peo])le  of  Rhodes 
and  of  the  neighhoring  islands  of  the  ^Egean 
Sea  are  jirohahly  intended.     See  DoD.VNi.M. 

Roe. 

A  deer  {('ajtirohts  rnpnrn,  the  Crrviin  mpre- 
iihis  of  Liunanis)  which  is  de.scrihed  under 
Roi'.nicK  "J  (2  Sam.  ii.  IS;  1  ("hroii.  xii.  S,  in 
U^•\t\■l•\v  .fhi ;  and  Prov.  v.  1!>,  A.  V..  in  He- 
hrew !in'"liiU)  ;  see  G.\ZKI,I.K  and  Doi;. 

Roe'buck. 

1.  The  rendering  in  A.  V.  of  the  Hehrew 
W<(  in  Deut.  xii.  ].">,  22;  xiv.  5;  xv.  22;  1 
kin.  iv.  2:5.      R.  V.  suhstitntes  ga/elle  ((j.  v.). 

2.  TIk!  remlfring  iti  R.  \.  nf  the  Hehrew 
Ynhinnr.  The  animal  was  ceremonially  clean 
an(l  used  for  food  ( Dent.  xiv.  ."> ;  1  Kin.  iv. 
2:{,  in  A.  \.  fallow  di'cr).  Etymology  indi- 
cates that  its  color  was  reddish.  According 
to  .Arahian  authurities,  it  casts  its  Imrns 
every  year,  which  is  characteristic  of  deer. 
In  northern  (ralilee  the  name  ynhmur  is  still 
given  to  tin*  roehiM'k  {('{iprroliiM  cnpnra,  or 
('rmisriiiireiiliis).  In  I'Jirope  it  is  a  small  deer 
ahout  two  fret  high  at  the  shniildcr.  hut 
in  .\sia  it  attains  to  a  larger  si/.e.  In  summer 
it  is  dark  reddish-hrown,  in  wintt-r  yellowish- 
gray.  It  has  a  large  iiat<h  nf  white  on  the 
rump.  The  antlers  are  ahout  a  foot  long, 
with  three  points.  It  is  wild  over  a  great 
jwirt  of  iMiropi'  and  .Asia.  in  Palestine  it  is 
fouiul  on  mount  Carniel  and  mount  Lehanon. 


By  many,  however,  the  yahmtir  is  identified 
with  th(^  huhale,  one  of  the  hovine  anteloj)es. 
It  is  about  the  si/c'  of  a  large  stag,  has  a  long 
head,  a  narrow  forehead,  and  redilish  or  pale 
hrown  hair.     Its  flesh  is  most  .savory. 

Ro'ge-lim  [place  of  fullers  or  si)ie.s]. 
A   town   in   Gilead   where   Kar/.illai    lived 
(2  Sam.  xvii.  27;  xix.  31).     Site  unknown. 

Roh'gah  [clamor]. 

.\n  Asherite,  familv  of  Heriah,  house  of 
lleher  (I  C'hron.  vii."  :}1). 

Roll. 

'i'lie  sheet  of  pai>yrus  or  the  parchment  on 
which  docnnienls  were  frt(|inntly  written  in 
ancient  times  was  rolled  up  or  wountl  around 
a  stick,  like  a  modern  ma]),  and  thus  consti- 
tuted a  roll  (.ler.  xxxvi.  2)  or  a  volume!  in 
the  original  .sense  of  the  term  (Ps.  xl.  7. 
A.  V.)  ;  see  Rook.  The  word  rendered  roll 
in  Is.  viii.  1.  A.  V.,  should  he  translated 
tablet. 

Ro-mam-ti-e'zer  [I  have  exalted  heli>J. 

A  singer,  a  son  of  Heman  (1  Chron.  xxv.  4). 
He  obtained  the  twenty-fourth  lot  among  the 
courses  of  the  singers  CJl). 

Ro'mans. 

1.  Inhabitants  of  Rome  (1  Mac.  viii.  1; 
Acts  ii.  10,  "sojourners  from   Rome,"  R.  V.). 

2.  Those  who  represent  the  Roman  gov- 
ernment (John  xi.  48;  Acts  xxv.  IG;  xxviii. 
17). 

.3.  Tho.se,  wherever  horn  or  of  whatever 
race,  who  ]>osses.sed  the  rights  of  citizenship 
in  the  Roman  empire  (.Acts  .xvi.  21,  :57.  :iS ; 
xxii.  2."),  2(i,  27,  2S»).  By  the  Porcian  Law, 
which  was  so  named  because  it  was  pro- 
posed and  carried  by  P.  Porcius  La-ca,  a 
tribune  of  the  iieojile,  24s  n.  c,  it  was  de- 
clared that  no  magistrate  had  the  right  to 
hind,  scourge,  or  kill  a  Roman  citizen.  The 
life  of  one  so  privileged  could  not  he  taken 
away  exci'])t  by  a  decision  of  the  whole 
people  met  in  the  ciimilid  niilinKtld.  a  gen- 
eral assembly  of  the  peojile,  voting  in  divi- 
sions called  centuries.  If  a  magistrate  or 
ruler  of  any  kind  gave  orders  to  sc(»urge  one 
entitled  to  the  jirolection  of  this  law.  the 
latter  had  only  to  utter  the  woiils,  "I  am  a 
Roman  citizen, "'  and  all  procedure  was  stayed 
till  the  i)eoi>le  had  decided  on  hisca.se.  When 
the  i)ower  fornu'rly  ])ossessed  by  the  jieople 
was  transferred  to  the  em]>eror,  it  was  to 
him  that  the  light  of  ajipeal  lay.  The  iirivi- 
leges  of  Roman  citizeiishii)  were  first  limited 
to  residents  in  R'ome  itself:  then  they  were 
extended  to  various  Italian  tribi'sand  cities; 
then  to  the  greater  part  of  Ital>'  ;  then  to 
])laces  beyond  the  Italian  jieninsula  ;  and  .si) 
on  and  on  till,  it  is  .sjiid,  Caracalla  (A.  D.  211- 
217)  confern'd  them  0)1  every  inhabitant  of 
the  Roman  empire.  During  the  transition 
period  individuals  who  had  rendered  service 
to  Rome  might  be  declared  citizens,  or  the 
l>rivilege  might  be  purchased  for  nn)ney,  even 
in  towtis  or  districts  which  were  not  as  yet 


Romans,  Epistle  to  the 


624 


Romans,  Epistle  to  the 


enfranchised.  Sometimes  also  manumitted 
slaves  were  granted  citizcMishi]).  These  ex- 
])l:iniiti(>ns  make  it  easy  to  iiiKh-rstand  iiovv 
Paul,  thoufjli  of  Jewish  descent  (I'liil.  iii.  5), 
could  still  be  a  Roman  citizen  ;  and  how 
(laudius  Lysias  thought  it  worth  his  while 
to  purchase  the  privilege  for  a  great  sum  of 
iiKiiiey  (Acts  xxii.  ifS)  ;  and  liow,  when  he 
had  given  orders  that  Paul  should  be  scourge<l, 
and  was  informed  by  tlie  centurion  that  the 
apostle  was  :i  Roman  citizen,  procedure!  was 
imnudiately  stoi>iK'd  (25-2!)).  One  can  also 
uiiderstaiid  tlie  alarm  <if  the  authorities  at 
riiiliiipi  when  they  had  taken  the  responsi- 
bility of  having  I'aiil  and  8ilas  openly  beaten, 
and,  to  make  matters  worse,  uncondemned, 
without  first  tiiking  means  to  ascertain 
whether  or  not  they  were  Roman  citizens 
(xvi.  3f)-38).  It  will  appear  also  that  Paul 
simply  exercised  his  legal  right  when  he 
took  his  appeal  to  Cffisar;  that  is,  to  the 
Roman  emperor  (xxv.  11). 

Ro'mans,  E-pis'tle  to  the. 

The  first  of  .St.  Paul's  epistles  according  to 
the  order  in  which  they  are  placed  in  our 
N.  T.  In  order  of  composition,  however,  it 
was  the  sixth,  since  it  was  written  from 
Corinth,  as  appears  from  the  salutations  (cp. 
xvi.  23  with  1  Cor.  i.  14  and  2  Tim.  iv.  20), 
and  from  the  fact  that  it  was  carried  to  Rome 
by  Phffibe,  a  servant  or  deaconess  of  the  church 
at  CenchresB  (Rom.  xvi.  1),  which  was  near 
Corinth  (Acts  xviii.  18) ;  and,  if  so,  it  must 
have  been  written  during  the  visit  to  Greece 
mentioned  in  Acts  xx.  2,  3.  That  was  in  the 
winter  of  A.  D.  57-58.  The  apostle  had  long 
wished  to  visit  Rome  (Rom.  i.  10-12;  xv. 23), 
and  it  was  his  purjjose,  his  work  in  the  east 
having  been  finished  (xv.  23),  to  visit  the 
capital  on  his  way  to  Spain  (28).  Before 
doin*;  so,  however,  he  was  determined  to  re- 
turn to  Jeru.salem  to  present  the  gifts  of  the 
gentile  churches  (25,  26).  Not  knowing, 
however,  what  might  be  his  fate  on  this  dan- 
gerous journey  (30-32;  Acts  xx.  22),  he  sent 
this  letter  to  the  Christians  at  Rome,  where 
he  had  many  friends  (cp.  Rom.  xvi.),  for,  as 
the  apostle  of  the  gentiles,  he  considered  the 
church  at  Rome  to  ))e  under  his  care  (xv.  15, 
16),  although  he  had  never  visited  it.  The 
theme  of  the  epistle,  which  is  one  of  the 
most  elaborate  ever  written  by  him,  was 
naturally  determined  by  the  controversies 
through  which  he  had  passed  and  by  the 
need  of  stating,  formally  and  comjjletely, 
the  gospel  which  he  preached  among  the 
gentiles.  It  is  a  full  presentation,  therefore, 
of  the  way  of  salvation.  Hence  its  sui)reme 
importance.  That  he  addressed  it  to  the 
Christians  at  Rome  indicates,  no  donltt,  his 
appreciation  of  the  influence!  which  the 
church  of  the  world's  metropolis  would  exert, 
and  the  coTise(|uent  nec(>ssity  of  establishing 
it  in  the  faith  that  it  miglit  resist  the  assaults 
of  error.  The  epistle  may  be  analyzed  as 
follows:    After   the   salutation    (i.   1-7)   and 


statement  of  his  interest  in  them  (8-15),  he 
ejjitomizes  the  character  of  his  gospel  and, 
in  doing  so,  gives  the  theme  of  the  epistle: 
"The  gospel  is  the  power  of  (Jod  unto  sal- 
vation to  every  one  that  believeth.  For 
therein  is  the  righteousness  of  God  revealed 
from  faith  to  faith"  (16,  17). 

He  then  jiroves  the  universal  need  of 
righteousness  (i.  18-iii.  20).  He  first  shows 
that  the  gentile  world  is  in  a  state  of  .sin  and 
just  condemnation  (i.  18-32),  and  then  that 
tihe  .Tewish  world  is  uo  exception,  but  is  like- 
wise guilty  before  God  (ii.).  To  the  objection 
that  this  destroys  the  privileges  of  the  Jew, 
he  replies  by  showing  that  their  privilege 
consisted  in  being  the  trustees  of  revelation, 
but  that  their  own  Scriptures  declared  them 
to  be  sinful  (iii.  1-19),  so  that  there  is  no  ex- 
ception to  the  universal  guilt.  In  fact,  the 
law  only  increases  the  consciousness  of  sin 
(20). 

He  then  states  the  righteousness  which 
God  has  i)rovided  for  every  believer  through 
the  redemptive  and  sacrificial  work  of  Christ 
(iii.  21-30),  and  proves  that  this  way  of  salva- 
tion is  that  taught  in  the  O.  T.  (31-iv.  25),  that 
it  is  the  basis  of  Cliristian  experience  (v.  1-11 ), 
and  that  it  proceeds  upon  the  same  principle 
of  moral  government,  on  which  God  acted 
when  he  dealt  with  mankind  in  the  person 
of  their  first  head  and  representative,  Adam 
(12-21). 

The  apostle  then  refutes  three  objections 
which  would  be  brought  against  his  doctrine 
of  salvation  by  the  work  of  Christ  for  us  re- 
ceived through  faith  alone.  The  first  objec- 
tion is  that  on  this  doctrine  men  may  con- 
tinue in  sin  and  yet  be  saved,  to  which  he 
replies  no,  because  faith  in  Christ  involves 
vital  union  with  him,  whereby  the  believer 
rises  with  Christ  into  a  new  moral  life  (vi.  1- 
14).  The  second  objection  is  that  Paul's  doc- 
trine of  deliverance  from  the  law  released 
men  from  moral  obligation,  to  which  he  re- 
plies no,  because  the  believer  accepts  a  new 
and  higher  obligation,  whereby  he  devotes 
himself  to  the  will  of  God  (vi.  15-vii.  6).  The 
third  objection  is  that  Paul's  doctrine  makes 
the  law  of  (iod  an  evil  thing,  to  which  he 
replies  no,  for  the  reason  that  the  law  cannot 
save  is  not  that  the  law'  is  evil,  but  that  man 
is  sinful  and  cannot  keep  it  (7-25). 

Having  refuted  objections,  he  shows  (viii.) 
that  on  the  basis  of  Christ's  redemptive  work 
provision  is  made  for  the  spiritual  renewal, 
complete  sanctification,  and  final  glorification 
of  those  who  are  in  Christ,  and  who.  being 
chosen  and  called  by  God,  will  certainly 
enjoy  the  perfect  fruition  of  God's  love. 
Having  thus  stated  the  gospel  way  of  salva- 
tion, the  apostle  ])roceeds  to  adjust  it  to  the 
fact  that  Israel,  the  chosen  people,  had  as  a 
nation  rejected  it.  He  does  this  by  teaching 
that  the  saving  jiromise  of  God  had  never 
been  made  to  tlie  Jews  as  a  nation.  l)ut  only 
to  the  "election,"  the  true  seed  of  Abraham, 
whom  (>od  had  cliosen  (ix.  1-13),  and  he  jus- 


Rome 


625 


Kose 


tifies  from  Scripture  this  doctrine  of  sover- 

elKii  i-lection  (It-'Jit);  tlicu,  fiirtlicr,  that  the 
rcjfctidli  ol'  tlic  .lews  was  due  tu  Ihtir  ict'nsal 
of  till-  vory  way  of  salvation  laiif^lil  hy  tlicir 
own  Scriiitiirfs  (3()-x.  21),  yet  that  the  re- 
jection of  Israel  was  not  coniph-te,  for  the 
jiruuiiscd  remnant,  tlie  election,  did  l)elieve 
(\i.  1  1(1),  and,  tinaliy,  that  in  the  end  the 
.lews  will  ln'  eonveileil,  and  with  the  >;enlih's 
trust  in  the  i)roinised  Kedeeiner  (ll-:5fi). 

The  I'est  of  the  epistle  consists  of  an  ex- 
hortation ti(  Ciiristian  livinf;  (xii.),  to  tlie 
perforinancc  of  civil  :ind  social  duties  Ixiii.), 
and  to  Christian  charity  and  unity  (xiv.  1- 
XV.  I'.i),  endintc  with  personal  messages  and 
salutations  (14-xvi.  27).  G.  T.  p. 

Rome. 

The  date  7.")3  r.  f.  is  accei>ted  by  the  hest  au- 
thorities for  the  traditional  foundinf;  of  Home 
hy  Koinulus,  who  i)eeanie  its  first  king.  The 
little  kingdom  grew  in  size  and  importance, 
ali.sorhing  its  immediate  neighhors  through 
the  reigns  of  seven  kings,  until  the  tyranny 
of  Taniuinius  Suj)erhus  drove  the  people  to 
take  the  government  into  their  own  hands 
and  estahlish  a  reimhlic.  In  the  beginning, 
the  jiower  was  entirely  in  the  hands  of  a  few 
jiatrician  families,  the  jjleheians  merely  ai;- 
(juie.scing  in  measures  taken.  The  ]>lel)s, 
however,  demanded  and  ohtaini'd  privilege 
after  ]irivilege  until  every  Roman  citi/en 
had  a  voice  in  the  government.  I)urin<i  the 
]period  of  the  rejiulilic,  Rome  extended  her 
iioundarii-s  ;it  liist  overall  Italy,  ai'd  finally 
over  the  whole  known  world. 

Koine's  first  contact  with  Asia  occurred  1!)0 
i:.  r.,  when  the  Roman  army  defeated  An- 
tiochiis  the  (ireat.  king  of  Syria,  at  the  battle 
of  Magnesia,  and  Rome  a.ssuniod  a  protectorate 
over  certain  cities  in  Asia  Minor  (cp.  1  Mac. 
i.  10).  Most  of  Rome's  con(iuests  after  this 
were  of  a  jieaeeful  nature,  other  nations 
willingly  acknowledging   her  sni)eriority. 

In  (i;{  I!,  f.  .)u(b,ea  became  formally 
subject  to  Rome,  being  taken  by  I'omiiey 
after  lie  liad  reduced  the  Seleucidan  kingdom 
to  tlu^  level  of  a  province.  It  was  requin-d 
to  pay  tribute,  but  was  left  for  a  time  under 
native   rulers. 

.Meantime,  several  parties  jealous  of  each 
other  Iiad  been  growing  up  in  the  state.  As 
the  result  of  an  internal  jKjlitical  struggle, 
the  triumvirate  of  Ca-Siir,  Poni]iey,  and 
<  rassus  was  formed  to  rule,  but  by  the  death 
of  ('rassus,  and  the  defeat  of  Romjiey  in  a 
civil  struggle,  the  jiower  fell  into  the  hands 
of  Ciesiir  aIoin>.  This  did  luit  last  long. 
( 'ii'Siir  was  murdered  by  hisenemies  in  II  H.  c, 
civil  war  a^'ain  broke  out.  a  s<'cond  triumvi- 
rate was  formed  by  Antony,  Octavian,  and 
I.epidus,  and,  like  the  tirst,  was  soon  reduced 
to  one  man,  Octavian.  Full  of  ambition, 
'•clavian  had  himself  ])roclainH-(l  emperor 
\vith  the  title  of  Augustus,  and  the  Roman 
empire  began. 

It  was  during  the  riign  of  .\u;;iistus  that 
40 


Christ  was  born;  during  that  of  his  successor 
Tiberius,  that  the  crucifixion  took  place. 
The  niarl,\nlom  of  .lames  the  brother  of 
.lobn  took  place  in  the  reign  of  the  emi)eror 
Claudius  ( .■(ets  xi.  2H;  xii.  1,2).  It  was  to  the 
emperor  Nero  that  Paul  ajipealed  (xxv.  11). 
The  destruction  of  Jerusalem  iirophesied  by 
our  Lord  (Mat.  xxiv.;  Mark  xiii.  ;  Luke  xix. 
41—11;  xxi.  .")-;{ti)  was  acconijilisbed  in  the 
year  a.  d.  70  by  Titus,  who  afterwards  he- 
canie  emi)eror. 

When  the  emiiire  \\as  at  its  greatest  size 
it  extended  IJUOO  miles  from  east  to  west,  and 
2000  from  north  to  soutli,  and  contained  a 
population  of  about  120,000,000. 

Weaki'ued  by  excesses  and  corruj)tion 
within,  and  attacked  by  enemies  without, 
the  emjiire  began  to  fail,  receiving  its  first 
.serious  check  on  the  fnial  se]iaratien  of  the 
eastern  empire  in  .'i9.'>,  and  coming  tinallj-  to 
an  end  by  the  cai)ture  of  Rome  I  y  tlie  (ioth 
Odoacer  in  47li. 

During  the  decline  of  Rome's  civil  power 
the  Christians  there  had  been  growing  in 
])Ower  and  inlluence.  Although  it  had  been 
the  jiolicy  of  Jiiome  to  tolerate  the  religions 
of  her  eon(|Uered  jieojiles,  the  Christians  were 
persecuted  almost  from  the  first.  This  was 
due  mainly  to  two  causes  :  their  nncomjjro- 
niising  attitude  toward  all  heathen  rites  and 
religions,  and  their  unceasing  efforts  to  make 
converts.  Tlu^  jjcrsecutions  were  especially 
severe  under  Nero,  who  attem])ted  to  throw- 
on  the  Christians  the  blame  for  some  of  his 
own  nefarious  deeds.  Persecutions  were  also 
very  severe  und(>r  Doniitian.  but  notwith- 
standing constant  im])risonmeTit  and  death 
the  Christians  continued  to  grow  in  numbers 
and  influence  until  the  church  in  Rome  and 
the  bishoiiof  Rome  became  no  incolisideiable 
factor  in  the  general  growth  of  Christianity. 
The  Christian  religion  was  ofiicially  adopted 
and  declared  the  religion  of  the  state  by  the 
em])eror  Constantine  early  in  the  fourth  cen- 
tury. 

Roof.     See  llousf:. 
Room. 

1.  A  chamber  or  otlu'r  ajpartment  in  a 
house  (Acts  i.  13).     See  Hoisk  and  Palace. 

2.  In  A.  V.  room  is  also  used  in  the  .sense 
of  place  or  position  in  society,  a  meaning 
which  is  now  obsolete  (Mat.  xxiii.  (i;  Luke 
xiv.  7,  H;  XX.  -Ki).  l'pi>ennost  or  chief  room 
is  the  translation  of  the  Cireek  pmtokHsia, 
first  place  for  reclining;  see  Mkai.s.  The 
scribes  and  Pharisees  wiTc  censured  for  seek- 
ing the  ]ilace  of  honor  at  feasts,  desiring  to 
recline  on  the  most  important  couch.  R.  ^■. 
sul)stitutes  jilace  or  seat  for  room,  when  used 
in  this  obsol(>te  .sense. 

Rose. 

The  niiderini;  of  tlii'  Hebrew  ll"hiissi'lrtli 
(.Song  ii.  1  ;  Is.  xxxv.  1),  in  the  Knglish  ver- 
sions and  by  sever.il  .lewisb  scholars  of  the 
Middle  .Ages.  Modern  inter])reti'rs  are  di- 
viiled  in  opinion.  The  nio.st  imjxirtant  sugges- 


Rosh 


626 


Rumah 


tions  are  the  following :  1.  Some  expositors, 
incltuling  Tristram,  following  the  T:irf,Mim 
of  Sonj;  ii.  1,  and  sonu'tiiiics  ajiiicalinf;  to  a 
doiihtful  etymology,  understand  the  beauti- 
ful, white  sweet-seented  nareissus  {ynrcissus 
tttzetta),  common  in  spring  in  the  i)lain  of 
Sharon  and  in  the  hill  eountry.  2.  A  Syriac 
word,  seemingly  kindred  to  the  Hebrew 
name,  denotes  eolchieum  and  the  crocus, 
which  are  strikingly  alike  and  which,  when 
the  rainy  season  sets  in,  carpet  the  fields 
with  bright  flowers.  The  prevalent  opinion, 
perhaps  represented  by  R.  V.  margin,  is  that 
meadow  saffron  (Colchicum  antitmnale)  is 
meant,  with  its  pale  lilac  flowers.  3.  An  A.s- 
syrian  word  still  nearer  to  the  Hel)rew  form, 
refers  to  marsh  plants,  so  that  the  Hebrew 
has  been  understood  i)y  some  interpreters  of 
late  to  denote  Ci/perus  nyriacus,  known  also 
as  Ci/periis  pai>j/nts.  which  grows  on  the  Nahr 
el-'Aujah  in  the  plain  of  Sharon  and  in  other 
marshy  districts  of  Palestine.  It  flowers 
toward  the  end  of  autumn. 

The  true  rose  is  a  native  of  Media  and 
Persia.  It  was  early  transplanted  to  the 
countries  on  the  Mediterranean,  and  grows 
on  the  mountains  of  Palestine.  The  maid 
who  recognized  the  voice  of  Peter  at  the 
gate,  was  named  Rhoda,  a  rose  (Acts  xii.  13) ; 
and  the  true  ro.se  is  probably  intended  in 
Wisd.  ii.  8  ;  Ecclus.  xxiv.  14  ;  xxxix.  13  ;  1.  8, 
where  the  Greek  word  is  used.  Tristram, 
however,  judges  from  its  growing  at  Jericho 
and  by  the  waters,  that  the  oleander  is  meant 
in  these  passages. 

Rosh  [in  Hebrew  a  head,  a  chief,  a  prince]. 

1.  A  son  of  Benjamin,  who  went  down  to 
Egypt  with  Jacob  and  his  sons  (Gen.  xlvi. 
21).  He  did  not  give  rise  to  a  tribal  family 
(Num.  xxvi.  38),  because  probably,  like  Er 
and  Onan  of  .Tudah,  he  died  without  issue. 

2.  A  northern  jieople  mentioned  with 
Meshech  and  Tubal  (Ezek.  xxxviii.  2,  3: 
xxxix.  1,  both  R.  V.  text).  Gesenius  be- 
lieves Rosh  to  be  the  Russians,  though  they 
are  nowhere  else  mentioned  by  this  or  any 
similar  name  for  centuries  afterwards.  The 
text  of  the  A.  Y.  and  the  margin  of  the  R.  V. 
render  Rosh  "chief  prince,"  in  which  case 
Rosh  as  a  proper  name  disappears. 

Ru'by. 

1.  The  ])lural,  rubies,  is  the  rendering 
of  the  Hebrew  P'niniii),  which  occurs  only  in 
the  plural.  The  margin  of  the  R.  V.  has 
coral,  red  coral  or  pilaris.  The  name  may 
signify  branches  and  thus  aptly  describe 
coral ;  but  this  .signification  is  not  estab- 
lished. It  was  ruddy  in  hue  (Lam.  iv.  7), 
and  was  i)recious  (.lob  xxviii.  18;  Prov.  iii. 
15).  'Hie  color  is  a  good  reason  for  not  re- 
garding it  as  a  pearl.  The  true  or  oriental 
ruby  is,  like  the  sapphire,  a  variety  of 
corundum.  It  is  a  clear,  bright  gem,  rich 
red  in  color.  The  spinel  ruby  is  a  deep  red, 
and  the  balas  ruby  a  rose-red,  varietj'  of 
spinel. 


2.  The  marginal  rendering  of  the  Hebrew 

'Odem.  red  gem  (Ex.  xxviii.  17;  Ezek.  xxviii. 
13).  In  the  text  it  is  translated  sardius, 
which  is  the  better  rendering. 

Rue. 

A  plant,  in  Greek  pegauon,  of  which  the 
Pharisees,  careful  about  minute  points,  were 
scrupulously  accurate  in  paying  tithes  (Luke 
xi.  42).  It  is  Ruta  grnreoleiiit,  a  half  shrubby 
plant,  two  or  three  feet  high,  with  pinnate 
bluish-gn^en    leaves,    all    dotted    over  with 


Rue. 

odoriferous  glands  and  yellowish  corymbose 
flowers,  mostly  with  eight  stamens.  Its  odor 
is  very  powerful.  It  is  a  native  of  the 
Mediterranean  region.  It  was  cultivated  in 
Palestine  as  a  medicine,  and  perhaps  as  a 
condiment  for  food.  Had  it  been  wild,  it 
would  not  have  been  a  tithable  plant. 

Ru'fus  [red]. 

A  son  of  that  Simon  of  Cyrene  who  was 
compelled  to  bear  the  cross  of  Christ  (Mark 
XV.  21 ).  He  may  have  been  the  same  as  the 
Rufus  at  Rome  to  whom  Paul  sent  a  saluta- 
tion (Rom.  xvi.  13). 

Ru-ha'mah  [she  hath  obtained  mercy]. 

One  of  the  symbolical  names  with  which 
the  children  of  Judah  and  Israel  shall  event- 
ually greet  each  other  (Hos.  ii.  1). 

Ru'mah  [height,  high  place]. 

The  place  to  which  the  father  of  .Tehoia- 
kim's  (pieen  belonged  (2  Kin.  xxiii.  3G).  An 
ancient  opinion  is  that  it  was  the  same  as 
Arumali  iji  the  neighborhood  of  Shechem. 
It  niav,  howt'ver,  have  been  the  town  in 
Galilee  (War  iii.  7,  21). 


Rush 


627 


Sabbath 


Rush. 

Till'  R'udcriiiK  of  the  Hebrew  Gomn'  in  Job 
viii.  11  aud  Is.  xxxv.  7.     See  I'ai'YRI's. 

Rust. 

A  corrosive  or  <listiniiriii<;  iiccretion,  in 
(ireek  ios.  which  denotes  the  rnst  of  iron, 
the  verdif^ris  of  l)i-,is.s,  the  tarnish  on  };old 
and  silver  (Jas.  v.  '.i).  The  Cheek  word  hrvsix, 
eatinji,  corrosion,  is  used  in  Mat.  vi.  19,  20. 

Ruth  [jtossibly,  sightly]. 

A  Moahitess  married  first  to  .Mahlon  of 
Hethlehein,  who  wassojonrniii),'  in  .Moah  with 
his  jiarcnts  and  lirnther  because  of  a  famine 
in  .hidah.  The  three  men  died.  liuth  left  her 
native  laixl  and  accompanied  her  mother-in- 
law  Naomi  to  Hethleheni.  While  jileaning 
in  the  field  of  Boaz,  a  kinsman  of  Naomi's 
deceased  husband,  siie  found  favor  in  his 
eyes.  Custom  re(|uired  a  kinsman  of  Malilon 
to  marry  Kuth  ;  and  Boaz  took  lier  to  wife, 
after  one  nearer  of  kin  than  he  liad  refu.sed. 
liy  this  marriatje  IJuth  ln'canu'  an  ancestress 
of  David.  The  transaction  between  Boaz  and 
Kuth  was  not  a  levirate  marria^je  (Deut.  xxv. 
710;  cji.  Kuth  i.  ll-13i.  for  Boaz  was  not  a 
brother  of  Bulb's  deceased  husband.  Custom 
reijuired  that  when  the  widow  of  a  childless 
man  desired  to  sell  his  estate  if  there  was  lU) 
brother,  then  the  neare.st  of  kin  and  heir  to 
the  deceased  should  l)uy  or  redeem  it  of  the 
widow  (iv.  15,  4,  91.  The  iirojierty  was  thereby 
retained  in  the  family.  Custom  was  also 
urjient  that  the  kinsman  voluntarily  assume 
levirate  duties  or  take  the  woman  to  wife, 
if  he  would  not  thereby  endanger  his  own 
inheritance  (ill.  9;  iv.  .").  fi).  It  was  consid- 
ered ma^iuaninious  to  do  so,  and  a  mark  of 
loyalty  to  the  family.  A  .son  born  of  such 
union  was  legally  the  son  of  the  deceased 
(iv.  .">,  10.  11,  17)";  and  doubtless  ultimately 
received   the  firstboin's  rii.'ht  in    tlu'  estate. 

In  the  Hebrew  collection  the  Book  of  Kuth 
is  placed  amonj;  the  rolls  which  were  pub- 
licly read  on  sjiecified  annivt'rsaries;  be- 
<'ause.  its  scenery  being  the  harvest  field,  it 
was  read  at  I'eiitccost,  the  harvest  festival. 
In  the  Se])tuanint  and  in  Josephus' enumi-ra- 
tion  of  the  canonical  books  it  stands  im- 
mediately aft»'r  Judges,  as  in  the  English 
version.  Tlie  events  recorded  occurred  in 
the  days  of  the  jinlges  (i.  1),  (iO  years  or 
more  before  David's  birth  (iv.  2\,  -J'J).  The 
marriage  of  a  ])ious  Israelite  with  a  Moahitess 
is  recounted,  and  the  issue  of  the  marriage  is 
an  ancestor  of  David,  .\fter  the  t'xile  such 
a  marriage  would  have  been  regarded  as 
discreditable,  and  would  not  have  been  in- 
vented. The  narrative  is,  accordingly,  his- 
torical. Its  historical  character  receives 
conlirmation  from  the  a|ppr<iiu-iateness  of 
the  I'vent  to  the  period,  for  about  that  tinu' 
friendly  intercourse  prevailed  betw<en  Israel 
aud  Moab  (1  Sam.  xxii.  .'!,  ••).  The  event  is 
related  without  dis:ipprobation  and  without 
explanation  or  a)>ology;  an  indication  that 
it  was  committed  to  writing  before  tlie  exile. 


The  language  is  also  as  pure  as  admittedly 
early  writings,  such  as  Judges  v.  The  book 
did  not  receive  its  final  literary  form  until 
a  considerable  time  after  the  event  ;  for  it 
explains  the  drawing  off  of  the  shoe  in  mat- 
ters of  attestation  as  a  custom  of  former 
times  (iv.  7),  and  it  brings  down  the  geneal- 
ogy to  David. 
Rye.    See  Spelt. 


S. 


It   of  the  title  being 
ix.  29  with  I.S.  i.  9; 


Sab'a-oth  [in  Hebrew,  hosts,  armies]. 

The  Lord  of  Sabaoth    is  the  sime  as  Lord 
f>f  Iwjsts,  the  second   j>ai 
left  untranslated  (Kom. 
Jas.  V.  4).     See  Lord. 

Sa'bat.     See  Shebat. 

Sab 'bath  [rest]. 

The  divinely  instituted  day  of  rest,  or- 
dained for  all  men.  (iod  having  completed 
the  work  of  creation  in  six  days  ceased  from 
creative  work  on  the  seventh  day.  And  (iod 
blessed  the  seventh  day,  and  hallowed  it; 
because  that  in  it  he  rested  from  all  his  work 
which  he  had  made  in  a  creative  manner 
(Gen.  ii.  1-3)  ;  see  Creation.  The  next  ref- 
erence to  a  division  of  time  into  periods  of 
seven  days  occurs  in  the  account  of  the 
flood,  when  Noah  was  forewarned  of  the  ini- 
minem-e  of  the  storm  a  week  before  it  broke 
in  its  fury,  and  again  when  he  sent  forth  the 
biids  at  intervals  of  .seven  days  to  discover 
tlirough  them  the  stage  of  water  (den.  vii. 
4  ;  viii.  Id,  12).  But  it  is  not  only  in  this 
express  mention  of  the  week,  but  also  in  the 
entire  chronology  of  the  flood,  when  inter- 
l)reted  according  to  its  own  iM-incii)les,  that 
the  hebdomadal  division  of  time  is  found  to 
have  existed  at  that  earl.^■  date.  The  events 
are  measured  by  intervals  of  the  week  both 
in  the  Hebri-w  narrative  and  in  the  Assyrian 
account;  see  Flood.  And  what  is  more, 
there  is  rejieated  evidence  that  the  seventh 
day  was  regardi'd  as  a  season  of  divine  be- 
nevolence toward  man.  According  to  both  ac- 
counts, and  reckojiing  from  the  day  when  the 
flood  began,  the  divine  imwi'r  which  caused 
till'  storm  was  restrained  at  the  close  of  a  sixth 
day,  and  the  first  day  that  dawned  fair  and 
beautiful  was  a  .seventh  day  ;  and  the  day 
when  the  inmates  of  the  ark  were  permitted 
to  di.senibark,  and  when  they  offered  .sac-ri- 
ficcs  of  thanksgiving,  was  likewise  a  seventh 
day.  A  glance  at  the  chrom)logy  will  show 
that  not  improbably  Noah  dispatched  the 
bjrds  in  <'onnei'tion  with  the  conventional 
seventh  day  because  it  was  a  day  of  divine 
favor. 

From  the  days  of  Noah  until  the  exodus 
there  is  ini  express  mention  in  flie  Hebrew 
re<'ords  of  a  siinctification  of  the  seventh  day 
by  rest  from  labor  and  by  religious  worship. 
There    is   no   reason    whv  there   should   be. 


Sabbath 


628 


Sabbath 


There  was  no  event  specially  to  emphasize 
the  daj'.  And  probably  in  that  a^c  the  Sab- 
bath was  somewliat  li'ss  sliarjily  marked  off 
from  tlie  otlier  days  of  tlic  wt'ck,  even 
among  llic  jicoplc  oT  (Jod,  tlian  it  was  later; 
for  tlic  nomad  sliri)bfrds  lia<l  certain  labors 
which  must  be  jjert'ornied,  and  tlie  Israelites 
in  Kgypt  were  not  their  own  masters  and 
could  not  rest  on  the  seventh  day  :  but  when 
the  nation  was  ori;aiii/,i'd  at  Sinai  a  diti'crent 
mode  of  life  was  adopted,  the  people  were 
able  to  frame  their  own  laws,  they  formed 
an  indeiK'iident  community,  they  led  eamp 
life  in  the  wilderness  and  exchauj^ed  it  for  the 
settled  life  of  a.uricnlturists  and  traders,  and 
as  a  natural  result  rest  on  the  Sabbath  made 
a  greater  outward  diti'erence  than  it  had  done 
before.  Still,  in  both  the  Hebrew  and  Baby- 
lonian literature  relating  to  the  period  before 
the  exodus  there  are  incidental  references  to 
a  period  of  seven  days  (Ueu.  xxis.  27,  28). 
These  are  doubtless  to  be  understood  in  the 
sense  in  which  we  use  the  term  week,  reck- 
oning seven  days  from  any  date  we  ])lease. 
At  any  rate  time  was  fre(piently  measured 
by  periods  of  seven  days.  Several  causes 
doubtless  contributed  to  make  this  custom 
general,  among  others  the  i)hasing  of  the 
moon.  But  over  and  beyond  the  appropri- 
ateness of  a  lunar  subdivision  of  the  lunar 
month,  there  was  the  conception,  traceable  in 
the  narrative  of  the  Hood,  that  the  seventh 
day  was  one  of  divine  rest  and  favor  toward 
men. 

It  is  disputed  whether  the  name  Sabbath 
was  used  for  the  recurring  seventh  day  in 
Assyria  and  Babylonia.  A  day  of  propitiat- 
ing the  gods  was  called  by  a  name  which 
may  be  pronounced  shabatfu,  Sabbath.  But 
other  pronunciations  are  equally  possible, 
and  yield  a  sense  which  satisfies  the  given 
description  of  the  day.  There  is  no  evidence 
that  it  was  a  jiarticular  day  of  the  week  or  a 
day  when  labor  was  suspended.  Tablets, 
copied  in  the  reign  of  Ashurbanipal,  about 
650  B.  c,  show  that  the  seventh,  fourteenth, 
nineteenth,  twenty-first,  and  twenty-eighth 
days  of  each  mouth  were  regarded  as  inaus- 
picious for  certain  specified  acts.  These 
unlucky  days,  it  will  be  observed,  are  not 
connected  with  the  phasing  of  the  moon  ; 
for  it  does  not  quarter  on  the  nineteenth 
day,  and  in  months  of  thirty  days,  as  were 
those  in  question,  it  would  only  occasionally 
quarter  on  the  seventh  day.  The  unluckiness 
of  the  day  was  connected  with  the  number 
seven.  Not  only  was  the  recurring  seventh 
day  ill-fated,  but  also  the  nineteenth,  that  is 
the  forty-ninth  day,  the  seventh  seventh  day 
reckoned  from  the  first  day  of  the  i)receding 
month.  These  recurring  .seventh  (hiys  were 
not  days  of  natioTuil  rest  when  the  tablets 
were  in  force;  a  few  specified  acts  only  were 
dangerous  on  those  days.  Business  and  toil 
proceeded  as  usual.  The  most  that  can  at 
present  be  claimed  is  that  if  thes(^  tablets 
))ear  witness  to  the  Sabbath  at  all,  they  tes- 


tify to  the  degradation  of  the  nobler  concep- 
tion of  an  earlier  age.  They  do  not  per- 
])etuate  the  thought  which  is  cliscoverable  in 
even  the  Assyrian  narrative  of  the  Hood. 
Theyare  not  uj)  to  the  standard  of  the  fourth 
commandment  as  ])roniulgated  in  Israel  cen- 
turies before  at  Sinai,  and  familiar  in  all  its 
loftiness  to  the  Israelites  of  the  time  of  Jere- 
miah, who  was  a  younger  contemporary  of 
Ashurbanii)al. 

As  in  these  tablets,  so  among  the  Hebrews, 
it  was  not  the  moon  which  determined  the 
Sabbath  ;  for  among  the  Hebrews  it  was  not 
the  seventh  day  only  which  was  sacred,  but 
the  (lay  which  began  and  which  consecrated 
the  seventh  month,  and  the  entire  seventh 
year,  and  the  completion  of  the  seventh 
seventh  year.  And  these  seasons  were  all 
associated  with  the  idea  of  rest,  of  worship, 
of  liberty,  of  good  will  to  man,  and  of  divine 
favor-. 

The  first  occurrence  of  the  name  Sabbath 
in  the  Hebrew  i-ecords  is  in  Ex.  xvi.  23. 
The  Israelites  had  not  reached  mount  Sinai, 
nor  had  the  ten  commandments  been  spoken 
from  its  summit,  but  in  the  wilderness  of 
Sin  when  manna  began  to  be  given  a  double 
amount  fell  on  the  sixth  day  ;  and  Moses 
said:  "This  is  that  which  the  Lord  hath 
spoken.  To-morrow  is  a  solemn  rest,  a  holy 
sabbath  unto  the  Lord  :  bake  that  which  ye 
will  bake, . . .  and  all  that  remaineth  over  lay 
up  for  you  to  be  kept  until  the  morning."  None 
fell  on  the  morrow,  and  Moses  said  in  regard 
to  what  had  been  kept  over :  "  Eat  that 
to-day  ;  for  to-day  is  a  sabbath  unto  the 
Lord :  to-day  ye  shall  not  find  it  in  the  field. 
Six  days  ye  shall  gather  it;  but  on  the  sev- 
enth day  is  the  sabbath,  in  it  there  shall  be 
none"  (23-2(3;  cp.  5). 

Shortly  afterwards  the  commandment  re- 
quiring tlu'  Sabbath  to  be  kept  was  promul- 
gated with  nine  other  laws  liy  Jehovah  at 
Sinai,  and  afterwards  written  by  the  finger 
of  God  on  tables  of  stone  (Ex.  xxxi.  18; 
Deut.  ix.  10).  Like  its  companion  laws,  it 
was  of  i)er])i'tual  oldigation.  It  commences, 
"  Remember  the  sab])ath  day  to  keep  it 
holy,"  the  word  remember  being  appropri- 
ately used,  since  the  people  did  not  now  for 
the  first  time  learn  that  the  Sabbath  existed. 
In  repealing  the  laws  forty  years  later  at 
Shittim,  ;\Ioses  recalls  the  faVt'that  the  Lord 
their  God  had  commanded  them  to  observe  the 
day ;  and  then  instead  of  stating  the  reason  for 
the  ordination  of  the  Sabbath,  he  assigns, Teho- 
vah's  deliverance  of  his  ]ieo]ile  from  bondage 
or  labor  in  Kgy|)t  as  the  reason  why  Israel 
sjiecially  is  uncler  obligation  to  keep  the  day 
of  rest  instituted  by  (Jod  (Deut.  v.  1'^).  The 
Sa])bath  was  to  be  kejit  by  a  lioly  convoca- 
tion for  the  worship  of  the  Lonl  i  Lev.  xxiii. 
3:  cp.  Ezek.  xlvi.  3),  and  should  be  a  sign 
showing  that  God  was  their  sanctifier  (Ex. 
xxxi.  13).  The  doctrine  clearly  was  that 
the  day  was  ordained  by  God  ;  that  it  was 
established  as  a  day  of  i)hysical  rest  and  re- 


Sabbath 


629 


Sabbath 


freshnieiit  for  man ;  that  the  obligation  to 
kfi'i>  il  arises  from  (Jod's  own  example,  his 
eoniiectin;,'  a  lilessiii-;  witli  it,  and  liis  ex- 
plicit eommand,  and  tliat  his  redenijition  of 
iiis  people  lays  them  under  special  ol)lif;ation 
to  set  tlu-  day  a]iarl  ;  that  it  is  to  he  ohserved 
hy  (iod's  people  as  a  S.ililiath  unto  him,  and 
is  to  include  a  holy  as>end)laf;e  lor  wdrshiji. 
It  was  a  reminder  <if  (iod's  com|)lacency  in 
the  coiitemjilation  of  his  finished  work,  aiul 
of  .lelio\ah's  ri'demption  of  his  peojile  from 
E^yjitian  service.  In  the  tahernacle  and 
tem|ile  worship  the  iireeminence  of  the  Sah- 
hath  over  the  othi'r  days  of  the  week  was 
shown  hy  the  olferin^r  upon  it  of  two  lambs, 
while  one  was  sacrificed  on  an  ordinary 
week  day  (Num.  xxviii.  !»,  IH).  The  twelve 
cakes  of  showhread  were  also  to  he  jiresented 
on  that  day  ( Lev.  xxiv.  5-!-!;  1  C'hron.  ix. 
'^2).  In  enforcing  the  law.  no  fire  was  al- 
loweil  to  he  lit  by  an  Isnielite  in  his  habita- 
tion on  the  Sal)l)aili  day  ;  anyone  doiiiji  work 
on  it  was  to  he  jmt  to  death  ;  and  one  who 
gathered  sticks  on  the  Sahhath  in  the  wilder- 
ness was  in  fact  stoned  to  death  (Ex.xxxv.  3; 
Num.  XV.  :i2-3fi)  ;  see  riMsiiMENT.  Isaiah 
(Ivi.  2-();  Iviii.  Inland  Jeremiah  (xvii.  21- 
27)  strongly  counsel^]  the  keeping  of  the 
day.  A  psalm  or  song  was  comiiosed  for 
the  Sahhath.  in  which  delight  is  exjiressed 
in  tin-  worship  vl'  Jehovah  and  thought  is 
directed  to  God's  works  of  creation  (Ps. 
xcii).  Ezekiel  complains  that  the  Sabbaths 
had  to  a  large  extent  been  imifaned  or  ])ol- 
luled  (Ezek.  xx.  12,  24;  xxii.  S,  2(i ;  xxiii. 
3h).  In  Nehemiah's  time,  traders,  espe- 
cially tho.se  of  Tyre,  continually  brought 
merchandise  to  Jerusalem  for  sale  on  the 
sacred  day,  till  Nehemiah  jiereniptorily  for- 
bade the  i)ractice  to  be  continued,  and  took 
strong  measures  against  those  whoattemi)ted 
to  disregard  his  directions  (Neh.  x.  31 ; 
xiii.  15-22).  At  the  commencement  of  the 
war  of  indi'pendc'uce  under  the  Maccabee 
family,  the  Jews  were  of  (pjiinion  that  they 
had  no  right  to  defetid  themselves  on  the 
Sabbath  if  they  were  attacked  by  an  enemy. 
Tiie  cam])aign  therefore  began  with  the 
slaughter  of  luod  unresisting  Jews,  consist- 
ing of  jiatriots  and  their  families.  The  sur- 
vivors resolved  in  future  to  defend  them- 
selves if  they  were  directly  attacked  on  the 
s'liTcd  day,  l)Ut  not  to  engage  in  offensive 
o))erations  (1  Mac.  ii.  31  11).  Even  then 
they  were  at  a  disadvantage  with  the  gen- 
tiles, who  labored  under  no  such  restriction. 
The  latter  jiushefl  on  siege  and  other  oi)era- 
tions  on  the  Sabbath  unmolested,  jirovided 
they  ahsfaiiM-d  from  directly  attacking  the 
.lews.  I'omjiey  raised  his  hunks  and  mounted 
his  battering-rams  against  .Feiusaleni  on  the 
Sahbath  without  any  inlerfiTeiice  from  the 
inhabitants,  but  delayed  the  effort  to  breach 
the  walls  till  the  s;icred  day  was  over  (.\nti(|. 
xiv.  1,  2  and  3i.  In  the  time  of  our  Lord 
the  Pharisees  a]iiili<'d  the  law  to  the  nuist 
trivial    nets,    and    forbade    many    works   of 


necessity  and  mercy.  They  denounced  Jesus 
because  he  heah'd  sick  people  on  the  Sahbath, 
though  if  ox,  or  ass,  or  sheep  fell  into  a 
pit  on  that  day,  they  did  not  consider  it  at 
all  unlawful  to  take  him  out  without  delay. 
They  also  led  forth  the  animals  to  be  watered 
Just  as  on  ordinary  week  days  (Mat.  xii.  9- 
13;  Luke  xiii.  Kt-17).  It  was  not  merely  to 
hi'aling  on  the  Sabbath  that  they  objected. 
When  the  discii)les  of  Jesus,  ]>a.ssing  on  the 
Sabbath  through  the  grain  fields,  jilucked 
!<ome  of  the  ears,  and,  rubbing  them  in  their 
hands,  ate  them,  being  hungry,  the  Pharisees 
denounced  this  as  though  it  were  in  essence 
the  sameas  reai)iug,  threshing,  and  grinding. 
Our  Lord  made  a  notable  rejdy  :  "The  sah- 
bath was  made  for  man,  ami  not  man  for  the 
sahbath  :  so  that  the  Son  of  man  is  Lord 
even  of  the  sabbath"  (Mark  ii.  23  28).  The 
Sahhath  was  instituted  for  the  benefit  of 
mankind,  its  obligation  lasts  as  long  as  man 
has  the  same  needs  as  at  creation,  the  Son 
of  man  is  not  the  slave  of  the  Sabbath,  but 
its  lord. 

The  day  for  synagogue  worship  was  the 
seventh  day  of  the  week.  Saturday  (Mat. 
xii.  9.  10;  Acts  xiii.  14).  The  apostolic  Chris- 
tian church  from  the  beginning  held  assem- 
blages for  worship  on  the  first  day  of  the 
week,  which  was  the  day  on  which  Christ 
rose  from  the  dead  for  our  justification  (Acts 
ii.  1,  ])robably ;  xx.  7).  On  that  day  the 
ajiostle  Paul  directed  the  Christians  of 
tialatia  and  Corinth  to  make  their  weekly 
contriliution  to'  the  charities  of  the  chnieli 
(1  Cor.  xvi.  1,  2).  It  was  designated  the 
Lord's  day  (Rev.  i.  10) ;  see  Lokd's  Day. 
This  day,  like  the  former  ai)pointnient  of  the 
sevi'nfh  day,  sets  ajiart  <ine  whole  day  in 
seven  to  be  a  Sabbatli  unto  the  Lord.  It  is 
equally  a  reminder  of  the  Lord's  redemjition 
of  his  i)eoi)le.  It  is  accompanied  by  the  same 
evidence  of  divine  favor  in  the  form  of 
]ihysical   and  s]iiritual  blessings. 

The  Sahbath  of  the  land  was  a  year  in 
which  the  land  of  Canaan  had  a  i^olemn  rest. 
It  came  round  once  every  seven  years.  In 
it  the  ground  was  not  sown  or  reaped,  nor 
the  vineyard  ]iruned,  nor  its  fruits  gatheri'd 
in.  The  sjiontaneous  growth  of  field  and 
orchard  was  free  to  all.  In  the  S.ihbatic  yi'ar 
also  the  creditor  released  the  Ilebri'W  debtr)r 
from  his  obligation  and  freed  the  Hebrew 
slave  (Ex.  xxiii.  10,  11  ;  Lev.  xxv.  3-7;  Dent. 
XV.  1-18;  Neh.  X.  :{1).  On  the  completion 
of  seven  such  Sabbatic  years,  that  is,  at  the 
end  of  forly-nim-  years,  the  trumi>et  was 
blown  t<t  )>roclaim  liberty  throughout  the 
land,  and  the  yiar  of  jnbile  was  ushered  in 
(Lev.  xxv.  H-10);  see  Jinii.i:.  Reliable 
historical  notices  of  the  ob.servance  of  tJie 
Sabbatical  yi'ar  are  the  covenant  of  Nehe- 
miah's time  (N<h.  x.  31),  the  l.">Oth  year  of 
the  Seleucidan  em  or  KM  1(;:$  H.  <".  (1  Mac. 
vi.  4!l.  .".:{;  cp.  Anti(i.  xii.  i>,  ")),  the  17Hth  Se- 
leucidan year  or  13(>-13.')  n.  v.  (Anti(|.  xiii.  H, 
1  ;   War  i.  2,  4  i,   the  decree  issued  hy  Ccesar 


Sabbath 


630 


Sackcloth 


exempting  the  Jews  from  tribute  duriiiK  the 
Sabbatic  year  (Aiitiq.  xiv.  10,  (> ;  cp.  Tacitus, 
Hist.  V.  4),  the  year  38-37  B.  C.  (AHli<i.  xiv. 
16,  2  ;  XV.  1,  2),  auil  the  year  before  tlie  fall 
of  Jerusalem,  A.  d.  (i8-(J9  (Talmud).  See 
also  Autiq.  xi.  8,  5.  If  the  Israelites  dis- 
obeyed God's  laws,  they  were  to  be  carried 
into  captivity,  the  land  lying  desolate,  hav- 
ing rest  and  being  left  to  enjoy  its  Sabbaths, 
or  the  rest  whicli  the  Israelites  had  not  al- 
lowed it  on  their  weekly  and  septennial  Sab- 
baths (Lev.  xxvi.  34-43).  Jeremiah  prophe- 
sied that  the  i)eople  should  be  punished 
for  their  idolatry  by  the  desolation  of 
their  land  and  their  bondage  to  the  Baby- 
lonians for  seventy  years  (Jer.  xxv.  7-11). 
The  chronicler  also  connects  the  captivity 
with  the  disobedience  of  the  people  and  the 
jiolhition  of  the  temple;  and  he  adds  that 
they  were  .servants  unto  the  Babylonians  for 
seventy  years,  as  Jeremiah  had  foretold  they 
should  be,  until  the  land  had  enjoyed  her 
Sabbaths  ;  for  as  long  as  she  lay  desolate  .she 
kept  Sabbath,  to  fulfill  three  score  and  ten 
years  (2  Chron.  xxxvi.  14,  16,  20,  21). 
It  must  not  be  inferred  from  these  words  that 
the  people  had  ignored  the  Sabbatic  year  ex- 
actly seventy  times,  or  that  the  neglected 
Sabbatic  years  were  continuous  ;  and  it  is  not 
stated  that  the  Sabbatic  year  was  neglected. 
Doubtless  it  had  been  neglected  sometimes, 
for  an  idolatrous  and  disobedient  people 
would  scarcely  obey  an  injunction  when 
obedience  would  apparently  involve  pecuni- 
ary loss. 

Evidently  any  period  of  time  which  was 
kept  as  a  Sabbath  could  be  called  a  Sabbath. 
Not  only  were  the  seventh  day  and  the  sev- 
enth year  Sabbaths,  but  also  the  day  of  atone- 
ment on  the  tenth  day  of  the  seventh  month 
(Lev.  xxiii.  32). 

A  Sabbath-day's  journey  was  a  journey  of 
limited  extent  proper,  in  the  estimation  of 
the  scribes,  on  a  Sabbath  day.  The  expres- 
sion occurs  in  Acts  i.  12,  where  this  is  stated 
to  be  the  distance  between  mount  Olivet  and 
Jerusalem,  or  from  Jerusalem  to  a  place  on 
the  mountain  from  which  Bethany  was  visible 
(Luke  xxiv.  50).  If  the  measurement  be  made 
from  the  eastern  gate  of  Jerusalem  (the  Jew- 
ish method  of  reckoning)  to  the  site  of  the 
church  of  the  Ascension,  crowning  the 
mount  of  Olives,  the  distance,  as  the  crow 
flies,  will  be  about  2250  English  feet;  but  in 
actual  travel  it  will  be  considerably  more. 
According  to  Josephus,  the  mount  was  dis- 
tant 6  or  7  stades  from  the  city  (Antiq.  xx.  8, 
6;  War  v.  2,  3).  The  regulation  of  the  Sab- 
bath-day's journey  had  its  origin  in  the  in- 
junction not  to  leave  the  camp  on  the  Sab- 
bath (Ex.  xvi.  29).  It  was  reckoned  at  2000 
cubits,  partly  on  the  erroneous  interpretation 
of  Num.  XXXV.  5,  according  to  wliich  the 
district  pertaining  to  a  I^evitical  city  ex- 
tended 2000  cubits  from  the  wall  on  every 
side,  and  partly  on  the  belief,  derived  from 
Josh.  iii.  4,  that  the  camp  of  the  Israelites 


was  2000  cubits  from  the  tabernacle,  to  which 
of  course  they  might  go  on  the  Sal>bath.  A 
man  might  travel  on  the  Sabbath  within  the 
city  where  he  resided  as  far  as  its  limits  al- 
lowed, be  the  city  never  so  large. 

Sa-be'ans. 

The  iieople  of  Sheba  (Is.  xiv.  14),  a  nation 
far  ott'  (.loel  iii.  8)  ;  also  the  people  of  Seba 
(Is.  xiv.  11  ;  cp.  Ezek.  xxiii.  42). 

Sab'tah  and  Sabta. 

A  C'ushite  people  ((leu.  x.  7  ;  1  Chron.  i.  9), 
probably  of  southern  Arabia.  The  important 
city  of  Sabbatha  or  Sabota  in  the  (country  of 
the  Chatramotites  (Hadraniaiit)  is  .strongly 
advocated,  but  the  ideiititication  is  doubtful. 
Gesenius  suggests  Sabat,  Saba,  or  Sabai,  near 
the  modern  Arkiko,  an  Abyssinian  town  on  a 
bay  of  the  Red  Sea. 

Sab'te-ca,  in  A.  Y.  Sabtecha  and  Sabte- 
cbah. 

A  Cushite  peojile  (Gen.  x.  7  ;  1  Chron.  i.  9), 
probably  of  southern  Arabia.  More  precise 
geographical  details  cannot  be  given. 

Sa'car  [merchandise]. 

1.  A  Hararite,  father  of  one  of  David's 
mighty  men  (1  Chron.  xi.  35).  In  2  Sam. 
xxiii.  33  Sharar.  . 

2.  A  son  of  Obed-edOTn  (1  Chron.  xxvi.  4). 
Sack'but. 

A  medifeval  wind  instrument,  having  a 
long  bent  tube  of  brass  with  a  movable  slide 
for  changing  the  pitch  of  the  tone,  as  in  the 
trombone.  The  instrument  referred  to  by 
this  name  in  the  English  version  of  Dan.  iii. 
5,  belonged  to  an  entirely  different  class.  It 
was  a  stringed  instrument.  It  is  called  in 
Aramaic  saWka',  which,  if  Semitic,  ])r<)bably 
describes  the  lacing  of  the  strings.  The  name 
is  evidently  identical  with  the  Greek  sum- 
hi(l-e,  which  was  an  instrument  of  music 
.somewhat  like  the  harp  or  lyre,  but  with 
o!dy  four  strings.  Strabo  athrms  that  the 
Greek  word  is  of  barbarian,  i.  e.  oriental,  ori- 
gin ;  and  Athenieus  states  that  the  instru- 
ment was  invented  by  the  Syrians. 

Sack'cloth. 

A  coarse  cloth,  of  a  dark  color,  usually 
made  of  goat's  iiair  (Eev.  vi.  12).  It  was 
called  in  Hebrew  snh,  from  which  the  Eng- 
lish word  is  derived.  It  was  worn  customarily 
by  mourners  (2  Sam.  iii.  31 ;  2  Kin.  xix.  1,  2), 
often,  if  not  habitually,  by  prophets  (Is. 
XX.  2 ;  Rev.  xi.  3),  and  by  captives  (1 
Kin.  XX.  31  ;  cp.  Is.  iii.  24).  The  garment 
of  sackcloth  probably  resembled  a  sack,  with 
openings  made  for  the  neck  and  arms,  and 
slit  down  the  front.  It  was  cast  about  the 
loins  (Gen.  xxxvii.  34;  1  Kin.  xx.  31),  and 
girded  on  (2  Sam.  iii.  31  ;  Ezek.  vii.  18;  Joel 
i.  8)  ;  and  was  usually  worn  over  other  rai- 
ment (Jon.  iii.  6  ;  cp.  2  Sam.  xxi.  10),  but 
sometimes  next  to  the  skin  (1  Kin.  xxi.  27  ; 
2   Kin.  vi.    30;  Job  xvi.  15;  Is.  xxxii.   11). 

The  cloth  was  also  used  for  making  sacks, 
which  were  known  by  the  same  name  as  the 
material  (Gen.  xlii.  25;  Josh.  ix.  4). 


Sacrifice 


631 


Saffron 


Sac'ri-flce.    See  Offerings. 

Sad'du-cees. 

A  .Ifwisli  pHrty,  tJio  opponents  of  the 
I'liariscc's  (Aiiliii.  xiii.  Id,  t>).  Tlicy  were 
cDiiiIiaratively  lew  in  niiiriher,  hut  tliey  were 
educated  men,  and  mostly  wealtliy  anil  of 
^oo<i  ]iosition  (il)id.  ;  xviii.  1,  4).  'flie 
name.  jiid;4ed  hy  the  ortlioj;rai>hy,  is  derived 
Irom  Zadok,  which  was  often  written  Sad- 
doiik  in  (ireek.  The  rahhins  way  that  the 
])arty  took  its  name  from  it.s  founder  Zadok, 
who  lived  aliout  ;5()0  B.  <.'. ;  hut  since  it 
ajipears  that  the  memliers  and  adherents  of 
the  highest  jiriestly  aristocracy  constituted 
the  i)arty,  it  is  now  generally  helieved  that 
the  name  refers  to  the  hi^^h  i)riest  Zadok, 
who  otliciated  in  David's  reign,  and  in  whose 
family  the  higli-jiriestliood  remained  until 
llie  iiolilical  confusion  of  the  Maccali;ean 
times,  his  desct-ndants  and  ]iartisans  iieing 
Zadokites  or  Sadducees. 

In  opposition  to  the  Pharisees,  who  laid 
great  .striss  on  the  tradition  of  the  elders, 
the  Sadducees  limiteil  their  creed  to  the  doc- 
trines which  thev  found  in  the  sacrt'd  text 
itself.  They  held  that  tlie  word  of  the 
written  law  was  alone  hinding  (Antiq.  xiii. 
10,  (i).  They  maintained  the  right  of  j)rivate 
interpretation  (xviii.  1,  4).  I'hey  held  to 
the  letter  of  Scripture,  even  when  it  led  to 
severity  in  the  administration  of  justice  (xx.9, 
li.  In  distinction  from  the  Pliarisees,  they 
<lenied  :  1.  The  resurrection  and  future  retri- 
liution  in  Sheol.  asserting  that  the  sotil  dies 
with  the  l)ody  (Mat.  xxii.  '2;5-3.'5;  Acts  xxiii. 
«;  Antiq.  xviii.  1,  4  ;  War  ii.  8,  14).  2.  The 
existence  of  angels  and  sjiirits  (Acts  xxiii. 
8).  '.i.  Katalistn  :  contending  for  the  freedom 
<if  the  will,  teaching  that  all  onr  actions  are 
in  our  own  ]iower,  so  that  we  are  ourselves 
the  causes  of  what  is  good  and  receive  what 
is  evil  from  our  own  folly,  and  allirming  that 
(lod  is  not  concerned  in  our  doing  good  or 
not  doing  what  is  evil  (Antii).  xiii.  .">,  9;  War 
ii.  M,  141.  In  denying  innnortality  and  tlie 
resurrection,  they  were  relying  on  the  ah- 
sence  of  an  exiilii'it  statement  of  these  doc- 
trines in  the  .Mosait-  law,  and  they  failed  to 
liolil  the  faith  of  the  i)atriarchs  regarding 
Sheol.  which,  though  it  was  undeveloju'd,  yet 
contained  the  germs  of  the  later  liililical  doc- 
trine of  the  resurrection  of  the  hodyand  a 
future  retrihiitioii.  The  ])atriarchs  inniiies- 
tioiiahly  helieved  in  the  continued  existence 
of  the  soul  after  death.  In  athnning  that 
there  is  neither  angel  nor  sjiirit,  the  Saddii- 
<'ees  were  setting  themselves  against  the 
elalxn-ate  angelology  of  the  Jndai.sm  of  their 
time;  hut  tliey  went  to  tlie  other  extreme, 
and  again  fell  short  of  the  te.'iching  of  the 
law(Kx.  iii.'_':  xiv.  !!•).  They  iirol)al)ly  at 
tirst  emidiasized  the  truth  thatCiod  directs 
alfair^  with  resjiect  to  man's  conduct.  ]>nn- 
ishing  or  rewariling  in  this  life  aci'ording  as 
man's  deeds  are  good  or  evil.  If  they  actii- 
ttlly   taught,  as  Josephns    afhrins  they  did, 


that  God  is  not  concerned  in  our  doing 
good  or  refraining  from  evil,  they  rejected 
the  clear  teaching  of  the  Mosaic  law  which 
they  i)rofessed  to  helieve  ((Jen.  iii.  17:  iv.  7; 
vi.  iJ-7).  It  is  jnohahle  that  they  hegan  hy 
denying  what  is  not  exjiressly  taught  in  the 
letter  of  Scripture;  hut  as  they  yielded  more 
fully  to  (ireek  intlueiice.  they  ado])ted  the 
l)rinciples  of  the  Aristotelian  philosophy, 
and  refu.sed  to  accept  any  doctrine  which 
they  could  not  jirove  hy  ])ure  rea.son. 

As  to  the  origin  and  growth  of  the  Saddu- 
cees, Schiirer  suggests  that  the  priestly  house 
of  Zadok,  which  was  at  the  head  of  atl'airs 
in  the  fourth  and  third  centuries  i!.  c.  under 
the  Persian  and  (irecian  kings,  began,  un- 
consciously jierhaps,  to  i)lace  political  above 
religious  considerations.  In  the  time  of  PZzra 
and  Xehemiah  the  family  of  the  higli  ])riest 
was  worldly  and  inclined  to  resist  the  strict 
se])aration  of  Jew  from  gentile.  Sei-  Ei.iA- 
sim?  r>.  In  the  time  of  Antiochus  Epiph- 
anes  a  large  number  of  jjriests  were  friendly 
to  (Jreek  culture  (2  Mac.  iv.  14-16),  and  the 
high  jiriests  .lason,  Menelaus,  and  Alcinnis 
were  pronounced  Ilellenizers.  The  jteople 
took  a  determined  stand  under  the  Macca- 
bees for  i)Urity  of  Israel's  religion  ;  and  when 
this  jiarty  triuiuiihed  and  the  Maccabees  se- 
cured the  liigh-]iri(sthood,  the  Zadokites 
were  forced  into  retirement  and  driven  to 
politics,  and  they  continued  to  ))e  ready  to 
neglect  the  customs  and  traditions  of  the 
elders  and  favor  (Jreek  culture  and  influ- 
ence, .lohii  Hyrcamis.  Aristobuhis,  and 
Alexander  .laniueus  (i:i,")-7H  B.  c.)  favored 
the  Sadducees,  and  the  conduct  of  political 
afl'airs  was  largely  in  their  hands  under  the 
Koniaus  and  tlie  Ilerods,  for  the  high  jtriests 
of  this  iieriod  were  Sadducees  (Acts  v.  17 ; 
Anti(|.  XX.  »,  1).  The  Sadducees,  as  well  as 
the  Pharisees,  who  visited  John  the  Baptist 
in  the  wilderness,  were  addres.sed  by  him  as 
a  generation  of  vijiers  (j\Iat.  iii.  7).  They 
joined  with  the  Pharisees  in  demanding 
from  our  Lord  a  sign  from  heaven  (Mat.  xvi. 
1-4),  and  Jesus  warned  his  disci])les  against 
both  ((i-12).  The  Sadducees  attem]>ted  to 
embarrass  him  by  juitting  to  him  an  ensnar- 
ing question  regarding  the  resurrection,  but 
lie  refuted  their  arguments,  and  reduced 
them  to  silence  (xxii.  2.'3-33i.  They  joined 
with  the  jiriests  and  the  captain  vt'  the 
temple  in  jjci-secuting  Peter  and  John  (Acts 
iv.  1-22).  Koth  Phari.sees  and  Sadducees 
were  in  the  sanhedrin  which  tried  Paul, 
and  the  a]i()stle,  taking  note  of  the  fact, 
cleverly  set  them  at  variance  with  each  other 
(xxiii.  ii-lO). 

Sa'dOC  [Hebrew  Sadok.  just,  righteous]. 
An  ancestor  of  Christ,  who  livid  after  the 
exile  (Mat.  i.  14). 

Saf  fi-on. 

A  flagrant  idant  (Song  iv.  14).  called  in 
Hebrew  knrkom,  in  Arabic  Inrhim.  It  is  the 
salfron  crocus  {Crocus  sa(ivus),  a  native,  appa- 


Sala 


632 


Salt 


rently,  of  northern  Italy  and  of  western 
Asia.  From  a  rcnioti'  jn-riod  of  aiiti<iuity  it 
has  been  hirgely  cultivated  in  southern  Imi- 
rope  and  Asia.  The  (lowers  are  li,t;lit  violet 
in  color,  veined  with  red.  The  dried  stigmas, 
pulverized  or  pressed,  yield  a  yellow  dye. 
Clothing  and  rooms  were  sprinkled  with 
water  scented  with  saffron,  olive  oil  perfumed 
with  it  was  used  as  an  ointment,  htod  was 
spiced  with  it,  and  it  was  employed  in  medi- 
cine. 

Sa'la  and  Salah.     See  Shelah. 

Sara-mis. 

A  city  on  the  east  or  southeast  coast  of 
Cyprus,  traditionally  reported  to  have  been 
built  by  Teucer,  from  the  island  of  Salamis, 
off  the  coast  of  (Greece.  It  contained  syna- 
gogues of  the  Jews,  in  which  Paul  on  his 
first  missionary  journey  preached  (Acts  xiii. 
4,  5).  The  place  was  subsequently  named 
Constantia,  and  is  now  called  Famagusta. 

Sa-la'tM-el.     See  She.\ltiel. 

Sal'e-cali,  in  A.  Y.  Sal'cah  and  Sal'chah 
[lierhai)s.  a  road]. 

A  city  oi  Bashan,  near  Edrei  (Deut.  iii. 
10:  Josh.  xii.  5;  xiii.  11).  It  was  on  the 
boundary  of  Og's  kingdom,  and  afterwards 
constituted  the  northern  limit  of  the  Gadites 
(1  Chron.  v.  11).  It  is  now  known  as  Sal- 
khad,  a  slight  modification  of  the  ancient 
name,  35  miles  east  of  Edrei,  and  66  east, 
very  slightly  north  of  the  Jordan,  opposite 
to  Beth-shean,  in  Samaria. 

Sa'lem  [complete,  peaceful,  peace]. 

A  natural  abbreviation  of  the  name  Jeru- 
salem, the  city  or  foundation  of  peace  (Ps. 
Ixxvi.  2;  and  probably  Gen.  xiv.  18).  See 
Melciiizedek  and  Shalem. 

Sa'lim  [perhaps,  Aramaic  sh'lhn,  com- 
pleted]. 

A  place  near  whi(di  were  the  waters  of 
.^non  (John  iii.  23) ;  see  tEnon. 

Sal'lai  [perhaps,  exalted]. 

1.  A  chief  of  a  family  of  Benjamites  who 
resided  at  Jerusalem  (Neh.  xi.  8). 

2.  A  father's  house  among  the  priests  after 
the  captivity  (Neh.  xii.  20)  ;  see  Sallu. 

Sal'lu  [elevation,  exaltation]. 

1.  A  Benjamite,  a  soti  of  Meshullam  and  a 
chief  of  a  family  resident  at  Jerusalem  (1 
Chron.  ix.  7;  Neh.  xi.  7). 

2.  A  chief  of  the  priests  who  came  from 
Babylon  with  Zerubbabel  (Neh.  xii.  7).  In 
the  next  generation  a  father's  house,  which 
occn])ies  the  same  position  in  the  correspond- 
ing catalogue,  bore  the  name  Sallai  (ver.  20). 
One  of  the  two  names  has  probably  been 
misread,  the  difference  being  merely  that 
between  a  jod  and  a  van  (<i.  v.). 

Sal'ma.     See  Salmon. 

Sal'mai,  in  A.  V.  Shalmai,  in  R.  V.  of 
Ezni  ii.  46  Sbamlal ;  the  forms  being  con- 
fused in  the  Hebrew  text  itself. 

Founder  of  a  family  of  Nethinim,  mem- 


bers of  which  returned  from  captivity  with 

Zerubljabel   (Ezra  ii.  16;   Neh.  vii.  48). 

Sal'mon  or  Salmah  or  Salma. 

Father  of  Boaz.  lie;  was  a  man  of  .Tudah, 
descended  through  Perez,  Jlezron,  and  Kam 
(Kuth  iv.  18-21 ;  Mat.  i.  4  ;  Luke  iii.  32).  lu 
the  Hebrew  text  of  Kuth.  iv.  20,  not  21,  the 
form  Salmah  is  used,  of  which  Salma  is  the 
later  orthography  (1  Chron.  ii.  11).  He  lias 
sometimes  been  thought  to  have  been  the 
ancestor  of  the  inhaldtants  of  Bethlehem, 
mentioned  in  1  Chron.  ii.  51,  54.  But  the 
genealogy  of  Salma,  ancestor  of  the  Bethle- 
hemites,  is  traced  back  by  the  line  of  Caleb, 
not  of  Ram.  The  different  liiu'age  probably 
indicates  a  different  person  :  though,  of  course, 
genealogies  may  intertwine.  For  Salmon  of 
Ps.  Ixviii.  14,  see  Zalmon. 

Sal-mo'ne. 

A  jiromontory,  constituting  the  most  east- 
erly portion  of  Crete.  It  still  retains  its 
ancient  name  (Acts  xxvii.  7). 

Sa'lom.     See  Salu. 

Sa-lo'me  [probably,  whole,  perfect,  integ- 
rity, peace]. 

The  wife  of  Zebedee,  and  the  mother  of 
James  and  John  (cp.  Mat.  xxvii.  56  with  Mark 
XV.  40  and  xvi.  1).  She  was  one  of  the 
Christian  women  who  from  a  distance  saw 
the  crucifixion  (Mat.  xxvii.  56),  and  who 
went  to  the  sepulcher  of  our  Lord  on  the 
resurrection  morning  with  sweet  spices  to 
anoint  his  body  (Mark  xvi.  1). 

Salt. 

Salt  of  poor  quality  could  he  scraped  up 
on  the  shore  of  the  Dead  Sea,  when  the 
salty  water  had  evaporated,  or  be  cut  from 
the  neighboring  cliffs.  It  was  used  in  Canaan 
and  the  adjacent  regions  as  a  condiment  and 
preservative  for  animal  food  (Job  vi.  6 ; 
Ecclus.  xxxix.  26).  Under  the  law,  it  was 
presented  with  ofl'erings  of  all  kinds  (Lev. 
ii.  13;  Ezek.  xliii.  24;  Anti(|.  iii.  9,  1).  Salt 
land  is  unfruitful  (Job  xxxix.  6),  and  when 
a  captured  city  was  doomed  to  utter  destruc- 
tion the  final  step  sometimes  was  to  sow  it 
with  salt.  Abimelech  thus  treated  Shechem 
(.Tudg.  ix.  45).  Salt  preserves  from  corrup- 
tion and  renders  food  palatable,  and  is  there- 
fore used  figuratively  for  the  true  disciples 
of  Jesus,  who  by  their  precepts  and  exam- 
ple raise  the  moral  tone  of  societv  (Mat.  v. 
13;  Mark  ix.  .50;  Luke  xiv.  34).  Salt  is  also 
used  for  wholesome  character  and  speech 
(JIark  ix.  50  ;  Col.  iv.  6).  Salt  when  expo.sed 
to  the  rain  and  sun  or  stored  in  damp  houses 
is  apt  to  lose  its  taste  and  become  useless.  It 
cannot  be  used  like  much  other  refuse  as  a 
fertilizer,  for  it  is  good  for  nothing  (Mat.  v. 
13;  Luke  xiv.  35).  During  the  convulsion 
in  which  the  guilty  cities  of  the  i)lain  were  de- 
stroyed. Lot's  wife,  lingering  in  the  doomed 
region,  perished,  and  was  transformed  into  a 
pillar  of  salt  (Gen.  xix.  26;  Wisd.  x.  7; 
Antiq.    i.    11,    4).     She   was   probably   over- 


Salt,  City  of 


633 


Salutation 


'A-helnied  by  a  sliower  of  salt  or  incriisted 
with  SSI  It. 

A  covenant  of  salt  was  a  covinant  of  per- 
iiiaiicnt  coiitimiaiKu  and  inriHtual  ol)li{<a- 
lidii  (Lev.  ii.  13;  Num.  xviii.  I'J ;  2  Clirou. 
xiii.  r,j. 

Salt,  Cit'y  of. 

\  city  ill  the  wildorncss  of  .liidali.  It  is 
iiicntiom'd  along  witli  Eii-jjcdi  on  the  shore 
(if  till'  l)i-:id  Soa,  from  wliicli  therefore,  jire- 
siiniahly,  it  was  not  far  distant  (Josh.  xv.  1)2). 
Exact  sittiatiiin  unknown. 

Salt.  Val'ley  of. 

A  valley  in  which  the  army  of  Da- 
vid slew  1S,(HK)  men  of  Aram  (2  Sam. 
viii.  115)  or  rather  Edom  (14;  1  Chron. 
xviii.  12  ;  ep.  1  Kin.  xi.  15-17;  Ps.  Ix.  title)  ; 
si'e  D.M.KTii.  Aniaziah,  king  of  Judah,.slew 
lo.ooo  Kdoniiles  in  tlu'  valley  of  Salt,  and 
then  took  their  capital.  Sela  (2  Kin.  xiv.  7; 
2  Chron.  xxv.  11).  The  natural  locality  in 
which  to  look  for  the  valley  of  Salt  is  at  the 
southern  end  of  the  Dead  Sea,  where  there 
is  a  range  of  hills  ;")  miles  in  length,  con- 
sisting of  layers  of  siilt,  an<l  between  this 
chain  aiul  the  sea  is  a  valley  6  or  8  miles 
long.  It  is  against  this  identification,  how- 
»vir,  that  the  Hebrew  word  f/c'  ai)i)lied  to 
it  is  the  aiiiirojiriate  one  for  a  glen  rather 
than  a  broad  valley.  It  may  have  bei'U  a 
gorgt'  descending  from  the  Edtmjite  hills,  in 
the  direction  of  the  salt  range. 

Salt  Sea. 

The  name  given  in  the  O.  T.  to  what  is 
now  geiuM-ally  called  the  Dead  Sea  (Gen.  xiv. 
:{ ;  Num.  xxxiv.  '.i,  12;  Dent.  iii.  17;  Josh. 
XV.  2.  5).     See  DkaD  Sea. 

Salt'wort. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Mallunh,  sa- 
line jilant  (.lob  XXX.  4  ;  in  A.  V.  mallows). 
It  was  used  as  food  by  the  very  poor.  Two 
genera  of  jilants  are  commonly  so  designated, 
StiliroDiiii  and  Sulsuht,  but  neilluT  is  suitable 
for  food.  The  iilaut  intended  is  proba])ly 
some  other  chenopod,  as  s]>iiuich  or  better 
sea  jmrslanc  (Afyiplcx  hdlimun).  Tins  latter 
is  a  bush.  It  grows  abundantly  in  siilt 
marshes  along  the  Mediterranean  and  on  ihv 
sliores  of  tlie  Dead  Sea.  Its  small,  thick, 
.sour  leaves  would,  in  extreme  need,  furnish 
a  miserable  food. 

Sa'lu  [elevated,  exalted]. 

A  Simeonite,  father  of  Zimri  whom  Phinc- 
has  slew  (Num.  xxv.  14;  iu  A.  V.  of  1  Mac. 
ii.  2<!  Sal(iui). 

Sal-u-ta'tion. 

.\mong  the  Hebrews  .salutation  on  meeting 
consisted  in  tlie  exi>ression  of  good  wishes  or 
a  solemn  blessing.  The  forms  most  jirevalent 
w<'r(^ :  1.  "  Hlessed  be  thou  of  the  I.ord,"  or 
"God  be  gracious  unto  thee,"  or  the  e(|uiv- 
alent  (Gen.  xliii.  2!t :  Ilutb  iii.  l(t ;  1  Sam.  xv. 
i:}).  2.  "The  Lord  be  with  thee."  to  which 
the  rejoinder  wa.s,  "The  Lord  ble.ss  thee" 
(Ruth  ii.   4).     .3.   "Peace  he  unto  thee,"    or 


"  Peace  be  upon  thee,"  peace  meaning  wel- 
fare (Luke  xxiv.  '.Hi}.  This  was  the  conmion- 
estof  all  salutations,  and  is  still  in  use  among 
the  .lews.  The  reply  is:  "  Ujion  thee  be 
]uace."  If  the  occasion  made  the  words  aji- 
jjrojiriate,  the  form  was:  "  Pea<e  be  unto 
thee,  and  to  thiue  hou.se"  (1  Sam.  xxv.  6; 
Luke  X.  5).  4.  "Hail!"  a  common  saluta- 
tion in  the  Greek  i)eri(id  (Mat.  xxvi.  49; 
xxvii.  2!);  xxviii.  'J;  Luke  i.  28).  5.  "Let 
the  king  live  forever"  was  the  salutation 
addressed  by  a  subject  to  the  Hebrew  mon- 
arch (1  Kin.  i.  31),  and  was  employed  in  the 
Babvlonian  ami  Persian  courts  (Xeh.  ii.  3; 
Dan',  ii.  4  ;  iii.  i) ;  v.  10;  vi.  (i.  21). 

At  ]nirting  a  blessing  was  invoked  (Gen. 
xxiv.  (JO;  xxviii.  1  ;  xlvii.  10  ;  Josh.  xxii.  6), 
which  eventually  assumed  the  conventional 
form,  "tio  in  ])eace,"  or  "  Earewell  "  (1  .Sam. 
1.  17;  XX.  42;  2  Sam.  xv.  !»;  I^lark  v.  34; 
Acts  xvi.  3(i)  ;  and  the  rej()inder  to  a  superior 
might  be,  "  Let  thy  servant  find  grace  in  thy 
sight"  (1  Sam.  i.  18). 

Abraham  and  Lot  rose  tqt  to  meet  passing 
strangers,  liowed  before  them  to  the  earth, 
and  pressed  hospitality  ujKm  them  ((ien. 
xviii.  2  ;  xix.  1)  ;  Boa/,  exchanged  greeting 
with  his  reajKrs  (Kuth  ii.  4)  ;  travelers  on 
the  road  saluted  workmen  in  the  field  (Ps. 
cxxix.  8)  ;  members  of  a  family  greeted  each 
other  in  tlie  niorniug  and  after  long  sejiara- 
fiou  (Ex.  iv.  27  ;  Prov.  xxvii.  14).  The  salu- 
tation was  often  withheld  from  men  of  a  dif- 
ferent religion  (Mat.  v.  47) ;  and  rightly  so, 
when  it  was  ajit  to  lead  to  fellowship  and  to 
imjily  a  wish  for  the  success  of  a  bad  cause 
(2  John  11).  Mes.sengers  might  be  charged 
to  salute  no  man  by  tlie  way  (2  Kin.  iv.  29  ; 
T.,uke  X.  4),  for  the  formality  incident  to  of- 
fering a  greeting  and  receiving  a  response  in- 
volvi'd  delay.  The  bow  was  not  a  mere  nod, 
but  ]irofound  obeisiince  or  jirostration  ;  and 
in  defirential  greeting  a  rider  dismounted 
from  his  beast  or  left  bis  chariot  (1  Sam.  xxv. 
23;  2  Kin.  v.  21). 

Letters  in  Palestine,  before  the  conquest 
of  the  country  by  the  Hebrews,  and  in 
Egy]it.  always  began  with  salutations.  The 
greetings  are  all  framed  on  the  same  model. 
A  son  begins  a  letter  to  his  father  thus  :  "  To 
Dudu,  my  lord,  my  father,  s]ieaketh  thus 
A/iru  thy  son.  thy  servant.  At  the  feet  of 
my  father  1  jirostrate  myself.  I'nto  the  feet 
of  my  fatluT  may  there  be  jieace."  A  sub- 
ject addresses  his  liege,  the  king  of  Egy]it, 
aft<'r  this  manner:  "To  the  king  my  hud, 
my  god,  my  sun-god.  si)eaketb  thus  Yaiialii 
thy  servant  and  tlie  dust  of  thy  feet.  At  the 
feet  of  the  king  my  lord,  my  god,  my  sun- 
god.  .sevcTi  times  seven  times  I  prostrate  my- 
self." The  governor  of  a  district  writes  to 
his  eqiuils  :  "To  the  kings  of  (  aiiaan,  ser- 
v:ints.  my  brothers,  thus  the  king."  .\nd 
Pharaoh  begins  a  letter  to  a  neighboring 
monarch  with  the  words:  "To  Kallinia-Sin, 
king  of  Karduniyiisb,  my  brother,  sjieaketh 
thus  Nibnuariya  [.\menophis  iii.]   the  great 


Samaria 


634 


Samaria 


king,  king  of  Egypt,  thy  brother.  To  me  is 
peace  [vveTfare].  May  peace  be  to  thee  and 
thy  house,  to  thy  children,  magnates, 
horses,  chariots,  in  thy  land  may  there  be 
abundant  peace." 

The  usual  epistolary  salutation  in  the 
Greco-Ronian  period  in  Palestine  was  briefer, 
more  direct,  more  businesslike,  and  in  it 
the  name  of  the  writer  commonly  stands 
lirst.  "  King  Alexander  to  his  brother  Jou- 
atlian,  greeting"  (1  Mac.  x.  18).  "King 
Demetrius  unto  the  nation  of  the  Jews, 
greeting  "  (25  ;  and  .so  Acts  xv.  23  ;  xxiii.  26  ; 
Jas.  i.  1).  The  letter  was  frequently  con- 
cluded with  a  salutation,  derived  from  Latin 
usage,  "Farewell"  (Acts  xv.  29;  xxiii.  30). 
To  the  brief  salutation  after  the  Latin  man- 
ner, the  Hebrews,  following  their  own  cu,s- 
toms,  often  added  a  prayer  for  peace  (2  Mac. 
i.  1).  Their  salutation  also  was  often  elab- 
orate (1-5),  and  the  old  order  was  frequently 
observed  (ix.  19.  20).  The  salutations  with 
which  Paul  begins  his  letters  are  equally 
manifold  (Kom.  i.  1-7).  In  the  epistles  to 
Timothy  he  wishes  his  true  child  in  the  faith, 
grace,  mercy,  and  peace  ;  but  his  usual  greet- 
ing is,  "  Grace  unto  you  and  peace,"  and  he 
was  apt  to  close  his  letters  with  salutations 
from  himself  and  others  (1  Thes.  i.  1 ;  v.  26- 
28,  his  first  letter). 


Shemer ;  and  as  it  expressed  the  idea  of 
watching,  guarding,  keeping,  it  suggestidan 
approjiriate  designati(jn  for  a  city  on  a  hill. 
Accordingly  Omri  called  the  city  Shum'roii, 
place  of  watch  (1  Kin.  xvi.  24).  Tlie  emi- 
nence which  the  city  crowned  was  some- 
times denominated  the  mountain  of  Samaria 
(Amos  iv.  1 ;  vi.  1).  It  stood  in  the  midst  of 
a  fertile  valley  (Is.  xxviii.  1).  The  site  was  so 
well  chosen  that  the  city  eoutinued  to  be  the 
caiiital  of  the  kingdom  to  the  captivity  of  the 
ten  tribes,  the  successive  sovereigns  reigning, 
and  at  their  death  being  buried,  there  (1  Kin. 
xvi.  28,  29;  xx.  43;  xxii.  10,  37,  51,  etc.). 
Scarcely  was  Samaria  built  before  hostilities 
arose  between  Benhadad  I.,  king  of  Syria, 
and  Omri.  The  former,  if  his  sou  spoke  the 
truth,  had  the  advantage,  and,  to  please  the 
victor,  Omri  had  to  make  streets  in  Samaria 
for  Syrian  merchants  (1  Kin.  xx.  34).  Dur- 
ing the  reign  of  Ahab,  Omri's  son  and  suc- 
cessor, the  city  was  unsuccessfully  besieged 
by  Benhadad  II.  (1-21).  In  or  near  the  cap- 
ital was  a  pool,  on  the  side  of  which  the  royal 
attendants  washed  the  blood-stained  chariot 
in  which  Ahab's  body  was  brought  home  from 
Ramoth-gilead  (xxii.  38).  In  the  days  of 
probably  Joram  it  was  unsuccessfully  be- 
sieged by  Benhadad  II.  (2  Kin.  vi.  8-vii.  20). 
The  elders  of  Samaria,  afraid  of  displeasing 


Sebustieh,  anciently  Samaria,  as  seen  from  the  east-northeast,  with  Mountains  of  Ephraim  in  the 
background  and  the  Mediterranean  Sea  in  the  distance. 


Sa-ma'ri-a. 

1.  The  capital  of  the  ten  tribes  during  the 
longest  period  ol  their  history.  It  was  built 
or  commenced  by  Omri,  king  of  Israel,  on  a 
hill  purchased  for  two  talents  of  silver  or 
about  $3900.     The  former  owner's  name  was 


Jehu,  obeyed  his  order  to  murder  Ahab's 
seventy  sons  (x.  1-10).  All  along  from  the 
commencement  of  the  city  it  had  been  a 
l>lace  notorious  for  its  idolatry.  Ahab  had  led 
the  way  in  this  heathen  worship  by  rearing 
a  temple  and  an  altar  to  Baal  (1  Kin.  xvi. 


Samaria 


635 


Samaria 


32),  and  as  in  his  reign  reference  is  made  to 
40()  jjropliets  of  the  Asherah  who  ate  at 
Jezihel's  table  (xviii.  19),  it  is  pr<)l)ahle  that 
the  idol  so  named  remained  till  .Icliii's  reifjn 
(2  Kin.  xiii.  (i).  Attendant  on  tills  idolatry 
•was  great  corriii)tion  of  morals  (Hos.  vii.  1--H  ; 
xiii.  16;  Amos  iv.  1  ;  viii.  14).  Affainst  these 
idolatrons  practices  Klijah  worked  (1  Kin. 
.wiii.).  Klislia  made  the  city  his  headi|iiar- 
ters  (2  Kin.  v.  ;{-!)  ;  vi.  :i'J}.  And  doubtless 
llosea  lal)ored  there.  Samaria  and  the  king- 
dom were  threatened  with  judgment  l)y  many 
prophets  (Is.  vii.  9;  viii.  4;  Jer.  xxxi.  5; 
Ezek.  xvi.  4(1,  r>l,  5.3,  .")."> ;  xxiii.  315 ;  Hos.  viii. 
f),  fi ;  xiii.  K)  ;  Amos  iii.  12  ;  Mic.  i.  5-9).  At 
length,  the  menaced  infliction  came.  The 
siege  was  begun  by  the  Assyrians  under  Shal- 
nianeser,  724  v.  C,  and  three  years  later,  in 
722,  the  city  was  captured  by  the  king  of  As- 
syria (2  Kin.  xvii. :{-()).  The  glory  of  the  cap- 
ture is  claimed  by  Sargon,  Shalmaneser's  suc- 
cessor, wlio  in  that  year  ascended  the  throne ; 


province  of  Syria.  Ciabinius  fortified  it  anew 
(Antiq.  xiii.  15,  4;  xiv.  4,  4;  5,3).  It  was 
rebuilt  and  refcjrtiiied  by  Herod  the  Great, 
who  called  it  Sel)aste,  a  (!reek  word  corre- 
siionding  to  Augustus,  the  title  of  his  patron, 
tlie  lirst  Konian  emperor  (xv.  H,  ,5).  At  Sa- 
maria the  evangelist  Philip  labored  success- 
fully (.Acts  viii.  5-8),  and  the  doubtful  con- 
version of  Simon  ]Mag\is  to(jk  jjlace  '9-]:!). 
To  fiillfjw  uji  riiiiip's  success,  I'et'cr  and  John 
came  for  a  time  from  Jerusalem  (14-25).  The 
site  lias  been  thoroughly  identified  as  es-Se- 
bustieh,  a  village  and  ruin  on  a  hill  (>  miles 
northwest  of  Shechem,  in  tlie  center  of 
I'alestine.  The  sides  ari'.  steej),  the  summit 
a  table-land  about  a  mile  frtnu  east  to  west. 
There  are  broken  columns,  large,  sometimes 
carved,  stones,  evidently  from  important 
buildings,  and  heaps  of  rubbish.  Some  of 
this  dehris  has  descended  from  higher  to 
hiwer  levels,  recalling  the  prophecv  of  Micah 
(i.  fi). 


P%^  ^^"^.^ 


s^'-  '  -  ""•-:*)  t;-t''- ''  ■^'."'^.'^cj?-'?*' V "*      -  ♦'-  "-  '* 


Herod's  Colonnade  at  .'^ebustieh. 


see  Saroon.  The  conquerors  repeopled  the 
town  with  foreigners  (24 )  ;  see  S,vmai{it.\n. 
In  :{;{2  or  '.i:U  K.  c.  Alexander  the  Creat  took 
Samaria,  and  transferred  its  inhabitants  to 
Shechem,  placing  Syro-.Macedonians  in  their 
room.  About  the  year  109  k.  v.  Samaria  was 
besiegefl  by  John  Hyrcanus,  who  drew 
around  it  a  wall  of  circunivallation  hO  slades 
or  about  9  miles  in  extent.  The  city  held  out 
for  a  year,  but  was  ultimately  forced  by  fam- 
ine to  surrender.  'I'he  victor  deniolisbed 
it  entirely,  attempting  tu  elliu  call  jiroofs  that 
a  furtiticfi  I'ity  had  ever  stood  on  the  liill 
(.■\ntiq.  xiii.  19,  2  and  .'5 ;  War  i.  2,  7  and  H). 
It  Wiis  again  inhabited  in  tin;  time  of  Alex- 
ander Jannieus.     I'ompey  annexed  it  to  the 


2.  The  territory  occupied  by  the  ten  tribes, 
or  the  kingdom  of  Israel  personified  (1  Kin. 
xiii.  .'52;  xxi.  1  ;  2  Kin.  xvii.  24  ;  Neb.  iv.  2; 
Is.  vii.  9;  Jer.  xxxi.  5;  Kzek.  xvi.  4(i ;  Amos 
iii.  9).     See  Isr.\el. 

3.  The  district  of  Samaria,  occupying  cen- 
tral Palestine,  between  (Jalilee  on  the  north 
and  .huUea  on  the  soutli  (1  Mac.  x.  SO). 
.Iosej)lius'  descri])tion  of  its  limits  iW'ar  iii. 
3,  4,  and  5)  is  not  v»'ry  int«'lligible,  but  he 
makes  it  plain  that  (he  northern  limit  pas.xcd 
through  "a  village  that  is  in  the  great  idain 
called  (Jinea."  This  is  aiii>arently  En-gan- 
nim  (.losh.  xix.  21  ;  xxi,  29  i.  at  the  southern 
angle  of  the  ]>lain  of  Esdraelon.  The  .south- 
ern limit  was  the  toparchy  Acrabattene,  some 


Samaritan 


636 


Samaritan 


6  or  7  miles  south  of  Sbechem.  Samaria  ex- 
teiuled  to  the  .Tonhm  on  the  east,  but  did  not 
reach  tlie  .Mediterranean  on  the  west.  Acelio 
l)eluiif;ed  to  Juda-a.  The  Talniiid  makes 
.\titil)atris  the  western  limit.  It  eomjire- 
hended  the  old  territories  of  Manasseh  west 
of  the  Jordan,  and  of  Ephraim,  with  a  por- 
tion of  Issachar  and  P.enjamin.  Pompey,  in 
(>3  B.  c,  attached  it  to  the  jjrovince  of  Syria 
(.\ntiq.  xiv.  4,  4).  In  A.  n.  (J  the  emi)er(n- 
Augustus  erected  Judiea,  Samaria  and  Idu- 
ma;a  into  a  division  of  the  prefecture  of 
Syria,  called  the  province  of  Judaea,  and 
placed  it  under  procurators  (xvii.  13,  5;  cp. 
11,  4),  and  this  arrangement  obtained  in  the 
time  of  our  Lord. 

Sa-mar'i-tan. 

In  tlie  only  passage  in  which  the  word  is 
found  in  the  O.  T.  (:i  Kin.  .xvii.  29)  it  means 
an  individual  belonging  to  the  old  kingdom 
of  northern  Israel.  In  later  Hebrew  litera- 
ture it  signifies  an  inhabitant  of  the  district 
of  Samaria  in  central  Palestine  (Luke  xvii. 
11).  How,  then,  did  the  Samaritan  nation- 
ality or  race  arise?  When  Sargon  captured 
Samaria,  he  carried  into  captivity,  by  his 
own  account,  27,280  people.  That  he  left 
many  Israelites  in  the  land  is  evident.  Find- 
ing that  the  remaining  Israelites  were  re- 
bellious, he  began  a  systematic  course  for 
their  denatioTialization.  He  introduced  col- 
onists from  Babylonia  and  Hamath  (2  Kin. 
xvii.  24)  and  Arabia,  who  continued  to  prac- 
tice idolatry  in  their  new  home.  The  popula- 
tion of  the  country  had  been  thinned,  and  the 
cultivation  of  the  .soil  interrupted,  by  these 
wars,  so  that  opportunity  was  afforded  for 
wild  beasts  to  multiply,  which  God  used  as  a 
scourge.  Lions  killed  some  of  the  idolaters. 
The  newcomers  concluded  that  they  did  not 
understand  how  to  worship  the  particular 
gf)d  of  the  country,  and  they  informed  the 
king  of  Assyria.  He  sent  them  a  priest  from 
among  the  captive  Israelites,  who  took  up 
his  residence  at  Bethel  and  ))egan  to  instruct 
the  people  regarding  Jehovah.  He  was  un- 
able to  persuade  them  to  abandon  their  an- 
cestral idolatry.  They  erected  images  of 
their  gods  on  the  high  places  of  the  Israel- 
ites, and  combined  their  idolatries  with  the 
worship  of  Jehovah  (2r)-3:5).  This  dual  wor- 
ship they  kept  ui>  until  after  the  fall  of  Je- 
ru.salem  (34-41).  Esarhaddon  continued  the 
policy  of  his  grandfather,  Sargon  f  Ezra  iv.  2), 
and  the  great  and  noble  Asnapper,  perhaps 
Ashurbanipal,  comi)leted  the  work  by  adding 
to  the  population  people  from  Elam  and  else- 
where (9,  10), 

The  new  province  of  the  Assyrian  empire 
was  weak,  and  Josiah  or  his  agents  traversed 
its  whole  extent,  everywliere  destroying  the 
high  places  witli  which  it  abounded  (2  Chron. 
xxxiv.  fi,  7).  The  idols  were  still  on  these 
high  places,  but  it  is  probable  that  idolatry 
was  decreasing  under  the  influence  of  the 
Israelites   who   remained    in    the   land    and 


through  the  teaching  of  the  priest.s.  And 
this  act  of  Josiah's  was  another  blow  to  it. 
Several  decades  later  some  among  the  Samari- 
ums wen-  in  the  habit  of  visiting  the  temple 
at  Jci'usalcm  for  worsliijt  (Jer.  xli.  5).  When 
Zerul)l)abi'l  led  l)ack  liis  baud  of  exiles  from 
Babylonia  to  Jerusalem,  the  Samaritans 
asked  permission  to  participate  in  the  erec- 
tion of  the  temi)Ie  on  the  ground  that  they 
had  worsJiijied  the  (iod  of  Israel  ever  since 
the  time  of  Esarhaddon  (Ezra  iv.  2). 

There  was  early  a  repugnance  on  the  part 
of  most  of  the  Jews  to  social  and  religious 
association  with  the  Samaritans,  and  this 
fei'ling  developed  into  intense  antipathy  as 
years  rolled  on  (Ezra  iv.  3  ;  Ecclus.  1.  25,  26; 
Lukeix.  52,  53  ;  John  iv.  9).  The  Samaritans 
were  neither  of  pure  Hebrew  blood  nor  of 
uncontaminated  worship,  Josephus  (Antiq. 
ix.  14,  3)  says  that  when  the  Jews  were  in 
prosperity,  the  Samaritans  claimed  that  they 
were  allied  to  them  in  blood  ;  but  when  they 
saw  them  in  adversity,  they  declared  that 
they  had  no  relationship  to  them,  but  were 
descended  from  the  Assyrian  immigrants. 
When  the  otfer  of  the  Samaritans  to  assist 
in  rebuilding  the  temple  was  rejected  by 
Zerubbabel,  Jeshua,  and  their  associates,  the 
Samaritans  made  no  further  efforts  at  con- 
ciliation, but  did  their  be.st  with  other  ad- 
versaries to  prevent  the  completion  of  the 
work  (Ezra  iv.  1-10)  ;  they  also  opposed  the 
rebuilding  later  on  of  the  walls  of  Jerusalem 
by  Neheniiah  (Neh.  iv.  1-23).  Their  leader 
on  the  latter  occasion  was  Sanballat,  the 
Horonite.  It  was  he  whose  son-in-law  was 
put  out  of  the  priesthood  by  Nehemiah  ;  and 
the  father-in-law  probably  founded  the  Sa- 
maritan temple  on  mount  Gerizim.  which  he 
designed  for  the  use  of  the  expelled  digni- 
tary ;  see  S.\nb.\ll.\t.  Henceforward  fugi- 
tives from  discipline  at  Jerusalem  were  ac- 
customed to  go  to  the  rival  edifice  on  mount 
Gerizim  where  they  were  sure  of  obtaining  a 
warm  welcome  (Antiq.  xi.  8,  7).  During  the 
persecution  under  Antiochus  Epiiihanes  they 
declared  tliat  they  were  not  of  the  same  race 
as  the  Jews,  and  gratified  the  tyrant  by  ex- 
pressing a  desire  that  their  temple  on  mount 
Gerizim  might  in  future  be  dedicat(>d  to 
Jupiter,  the  defender  of  strangers  (2  Mac.  vi. 
2).  About  129  B.  c.  John  Hyrcanus  took 
Sbechem  and  Gerizim,  destroying  the  Sa- 
maritan temple  (.\ntiq.  xiii.  9,  1)  ;  but  the 
worshipers  continued  to  offer  their  adora- 
tions on  the  summit  of  the  hill  where  the 
sacred  edifice  had  stood.  They  did  so  when 
our  Lord  was  on  earth  (.John  iv.  20,  21). 

In  the  time  of  Christ  their  theological 
tenets  did  not  essentially  ditl'er  from  those 
of  the  Jews,  and  especially  of  the  Sadducean 
sect.  They  shared  with  them  the  expecta- 
tion of  a  coming  Messiah  (John  iv.  25).  They, 
however,  accepted  no  more  of  the  O.  T.  than 
the  Pentateuch.  The  main  cause  for  the 
Samaritans'  receiving  the  gospel  so  gladly 
when  Philip  preached  to  them  was  the  mira- 


Samaritan  Pentateuch 


637 


Sampsames 


cles  which  he  wrought  (Acts  viii.  5,  6) ;  hut 
aiKithcr  mi(loiil>tc(lly  was  that,  tiiiliko  J\i(hi- 
i.siii,  Cliristiaiiit V  Collowi'il  the  cxainiili'  and 
teacliin;;  of  its  foiiiidiT  and  udiiiittcd  Sa- 
maritans within  its  pale  and  to  the  same 
jirivilem-s  as  tliose  possessed  l)y  the  Jewish 
converts  (Luke  x. 'Jil-:!?  ;  xvii.Ki-lH ;  Jolm 
iv.  1  I'J).  Ahont  !")()  Samaritans  still  exist  at 
and  around   Nahlus,  the  ancient  Shechem. 

Sa-mar'it-an  Pen'ta-teuch. 

Tile  Samaritans  possessed  the  Pentateuch 
in  llehn-w.  It  was  (iuot<-d  hy  Jerome,  Kuse- 
hiiis,  and  otlu'r  Christian  fathers.  In  A.  I). 
l()l(i  rielro  (hlla  \'alle  imrchasetl  a  copy  I'rom 
the  Samaritans  of  Damascus,  which  was 
placed  in  l(>2'.i  in  the  lihrary  of  the  Oratory 
in  Paris.  Hy  the  end  of  the  eijihteenth  cen- 
tury fifteen  other  cojiies,  more  or  less  com- 
jdete,  had  naclied  luirojie,  and  the  numher 
has  since  heen  increased.  Morin,  or  Moriiius, 
who  first  studied  it,  considered  the  f^amaritan 
text  vastly  sui)erior  to  that  of  the  Masoretes. 
Controversy  on  the  subject  went  on,  with 
occasional  intervals,  for  nearly  two  ci'iituries, 
till,  in  I'^l.'i,  the  fireat  Hebrew  scholar  (Jese- 
ijius,  who  had  made  a  very  careful  examina- 
tion of  the  Samaritan  text,  proved  it  to  he 
far  inferior  to  that  of  the  Hebrew  Masoretes, 
and  of  small  critical  value.  Most  of  the 
Samaritan  rolls,  containinj,'  the  whole  or  a 
part  of  the  Pentateuch,  are  sujjiiosed  not  to 
he  older  than  the  tenth  century  of  the  Chris- 
tian era  :  one  or  two  in  the  custody  of  the 
Samaritans  at  Nahlus,  the  ancient  Shechem, 
are  consideri'd  to  he  older.  The  several 
rolls  are  in  tlie  Samaritan  character,  that  on 
the  Maccahiean  coins,  which  was  also  that  of 
the  Hebrews  before  they  intro(luce(l  the 
present  s(|uai'e  letters.  'I'he  Samaritan  text 
fre(|uently  differs  from  the  Hebrew  text  of 
the  Masoret<'s.  In  Dent,  xxvii.  4  we  read 
that  Moses  directed  the  i)eoi>le  when  they 
passed  the  Jordan  to  set  uji  certain  stones  in 
mount  I'^bal,  iilaster  them,  and  writ*'  on  them 
tlie  law.  Here  the  Samaritans  liave  suhsti- 
tut<'il  (teri/.im  for  IChal,  to  inci-ease  the  ven- 
eration for  their  sjicred  mountain.  There  are 
various  other  less  im]iortant  variations;  see 
CnKoNoi.ofJV.  Most  of  them  are  manifestly 
due  to  the  liaste  of  the  scril)es  or  to  altera- 
tions which  they  deliberately  made  In 
alioiit  'JiMil)  ].laces  the  text  aKrees  with  that 
of  the  Sepiuaf,'iMt  ajiainst  the  Hebrew  read- 
ings, which  indicates  that  the  (Jreck  trans- 
lators used  a  Hebrew  text  much  like  that 
j)os.se.s.se(l  \>\  the  Samaritans.  .\n  interestinf; 
inquiry  is:  .\t  what  date  and  how  did  the 
Sliimaritans  obtain  this  Pentaleuch  ?  An  old 
and  still  widely-received  oj)inion  is  that  tliey 
did  so  by  transcribing:  copies  of  the  sacred 
volume  which  had  existed  amoni;  tliem  ]irior 
to  the  disru])tiiin  of  the  monarchy,  under 
Itehoboam  '.•.'il  it.  c.  .\nolher  view  is  that 
the  volume  was  circulated  among  tliem  liy 
the  jiriest  who  was  .sent  to  instruct  the 
heathen  colonists  brought  from  A.s.syria  to 


repeople  Samaria  after  its  original  inhab- 
itants had  been  carried  captive,  about  722 
B.C.  A  third  o]iinion  is  that  the  Samaritan 
Pentateuch  was  carried  from  Jeru.salem  by  a 
renegade  ]iriest  about  the  time  that  the  tem- 
l)le  was  built  on  mount  (ieii/im.  The  form 
of  the  letti-rs  and  the  alteration  already 
mentioned  of  Ebal  intotierizim  in  tin- sacred 
text  allord  a  certain  slight  snp]iort  to  the 
thinl  hyi>othesis.  At  any  rate  the  change 
was  made  after  Geri/.im  had  become  tlie 
scene  of  temjile  worshi]>. 

The  Samaritan  Pentateuch  must  not  he 
confounded  with  the  Samaritan  versif)n  of 
the  Pentateuch,  nia<le  into  the  dialect  of  the 
Samaritans  early  in  the  Christian  era.  They 
I)o.s.sess  an  Arabic  tran.slation  also,  made  in 
the  eleventh  or  twelfth  century,  a  book  of 
.losliua,  founded  on  the  canonical  book  of 
the  sjime  name  and  written  about  the  thir- 
teenth century  .\.  D.,  and  some  other  litera- 
ture. 

Sa'mech. 

The  fifteenth  letter  of  the  Hebrew  alpha- 
bet. No  letter  of  the  Knglish  ali)habet  orig- 
inally corresi)onds  to  it,  and  s  is  forced  into 
.service  in  anglicizing  Hebrew  names  which 
contain  it,  as  Jo.seph.  It  heads  the  fifteenth 
section  of  Ps.  cxix.,  in  which  .section  each 
verse  of  the  original  begins  with  this  letter. 

Sam-gar-ne'bo  [Shumgir-Nabu,  be  gracious, 

Nebo !] 

One  of  Nebuchadnezzar's  yirinces  who  en- 
tered .Jerusalem  (Jer.  xxxix.  o). 

Sam'lab  [a  garment]. 

A  king  of  the  Edomites,  a  native  of  Mas- 
rekah  ((ien.  xxxvi.  '.id,  37). 

Sa'mos  [a  height  by  the  seashore]. 

An  island  about  f<()  miles  in  circumference 
ott"  the  coast  fif  Asia  Minor,  south  liy  west 
of  Ei)he.sus,  and  nearly  oj)posite  to  the 
])romontory  of  Trogyllium.  After  the  defeat 
of  Antiochus  the  Great  by  the  Romans  at 
Magnesia,  in  liiO  n.  c,  it  was  independent 
(1  Mac.  XV.  23)  ;  but  it  was  under  the  influ- 
ence of  Pergamos,  and  aloni;  with  Pergamos 
it  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Ivomans  in 
134  B.  C.  At  the  time  Paul  reached  it  (Acts 
XX.  l.'i),  it  still  enjoyed  the  autonomy  con- 
ferred upon  it  by  the  Komans  in  lit  H.  c.  Its 
inhabitants  were  noted  for  commercial  enter- 
jirise.      Many  of  their  coins  still  exist. 

Sam-o-thra'ce,  in  A.  V.  Sam-o-thra'ci-a 
[Sanios  of  Tlir;ice]. 

An  island  in  the  archijH'lago  off  the  coast 
of  Thrace  and  o]i])osit<'  the  mouth  of  the 
Hebrus.  It  has  an  area  of  about  30  square 
miles,  and  has  in  it  a  mountain  .'jddO  feet 
high.  Paul's  ves.sel  made  a  straight  course 
to  the  island  from  Troas,  in  .\sia  Minor  (Acts 
xvi.  11). 

Samp'sa-mes. 

.\  country,  nitber  than  a  king,  which  was 
friendiv  to'Uome  (1  Mac.  xv.  23).  Not  iden- 
tified. " 


Samson 


638 


Samson 


Sam'son  [sunny,  little  sun,  perhaps,  de- 
stroyer]. 

One  of  the  most  eminent  of  the  Hchrew 
judffes.  He  was  the  son  of  a  Danite  caUed 
Manoah,  was  born  at  Zorah,  within  the  limits 
of  the  southern  territory  of  Dan,  and  liad 
hisl>irtli  and  liis  subsequent  career  announced 
betiireliand  to  Ills  parents  by  tlie  an^^el  of  the 
Lord.  He  was  a  Nazirite  from  Ids  hirlli, 
no  razor  coming  upon  his  liead,  and  no  wine 
or  strong  drink  entering  into  liis  mouth.  As 
long  as  he  sulnnitted  to  these  restrictions  he 
was  capable  of  heroic  achievements  against 
the  Philistines  (Judg.  xiii.  1-24J.  Circum- 
stances conspired  at  this  time  to  sejjarate 
Judah  and  Dan  from  the  rest  of  the  Hebrews 
and  to  compel  these  two  tribes  to  act  alone. 
They  were  at  the  mercy  of  the  Philistines, 
who  had  promptly  embraced  the  opportunity 
to  oppress  them.  Isolated,  Judah  was  able 
to  do  little  more  than  harass  the  oppressors 
by  bold  deeds  and  stratagems.  The  Spirit 
of  the  Lord  early  moved  Samson  to  com- 
mence his  lifework  in  the  camp  of  Dan  (25) ; 
but  almost  from  the  outset  he  showed  one 
conspicuous  weakness  in  his  character.  He 
was  the  slave  of  ]iassion.  He  was  betrothed 
to  a  Philistine  woman,  a  native  of  Timnath  ; 
but  she  married  another  man,  and  in  revenge 
Samson,  aided  x^erhaps  by  his  friends,  caught 
300  jackals  or  foxes,  tied  them  together  in 
pairs  by  the  tails,  with  a  burning  torch  be- 
tween, and  turned  them  loose  amidst  the  rip- 
ened grain  of  the  Philistines  (xiv.  1-xv.  5). 
The  Philistines  invaded  Judah  and  demanded 
that  Samson  be  delivered  unto  them.  He 
])ermitted  his  craven  countrymen  to  bind 
him  in  whom  they  failed  to  perceive  their 
deliverer.  But  when  he  was  about  to  be 
surrendered  to  the  uncircumcised  Philistines 
the  Spirit  of  the  Lord  came  mightily  upon 
him,  and  he  snapped  the  ropes  asunder.  The 
Philistines,  amazed  at  his  display  of  strength, 
feared  him.  He  seized  the  jawbone  of  an 
ass,  and  as  the  Philistines  turned  to  flee,  he 
pursued  them  and  slew  a  thousand  men  in 
round  numbers.  They  fell  in  several  heaps. 
Samson  acknowledged  that  the  work  was  of 
God,  and  confessed  his  own  need  of  help  lest 
he  die  of  thirst.  God  in  his  providence 
caused  a  spring  to  give  forth  its  water.  The 
men  of  Judah  now  recognized  him  as  their 
deliverer  (fi-20).  Afterwards  he  fearlessly 
went  to  Gaza,  and  there  he  fell  into  sin.  The 
(iazites  thought  that  their  o])portunity  had 
coTue  to  .seize  him,  and  they  shut  the  city 
gates  ;  but  at  midnight  he  came  to  the  gate, 
and,  finding  it  closed,  laid  hold  of  its  doors 
and  plucked  them  and  the  ])ar  away  and 
carried  them  to  the  top  of  a  hill  in  the  direc- 
tion of  Hebron.  An  entanglement  with  the 
woman  Delilah,  from  the  valley  of  Sorek, 
caused  his  ruin.  Ry  direction  of  her  country- 
men, she  importuned  him  to  tell  her  in  what 
his  great  strength  lay.  At  first  he  gave  her 
deceitful  answers,  but  at  last  he  revealed  the 
secret.     If  his  head  were  shaved,  he  would 


become  weak  as  another  man.  The  Philis- 
tines at  once  shaved  his  head,  and  found 
that  his  strength  had  departed.  They  there- 
fore put  out  his  eyes,  and  made  liim  grind  in 
the  prison  house  at  Gaza.  They  brought  him 
out  to  exhibit  him  to  the  people  on  occasion 
of  a  great  festival  and  public  Siurifice  to 
their  god  Dagon.  His  hair  had  by  this  time 
begun  again  to  grow,  and  he  was  again  ful- 
filling his  Nazirite  vow.  The  great  temple 
was  full  of  people,  and  some  three  thousand 
more  were  on  the  roof.  Samson  knew  the 
structure  of  the  building,  for  he  had  been  in 
Gaza  before  when  he  possessed  his  sight.  He 
asked  the  lad  who  attended  him  to  let  him 
rest  himself  against  the  two  middle  pillars 
on  which  the  roof  was  supported,  and  grasp- 
ing them  he  prayed  to  God  for  one  more 
manifestation  of  favor  and  the  gift  of  strength 
that  he  might  be  avenged  on  the  Philistines. 
He  then  dragged  the  pillars  from  their  posi- 
tion, brought  down  the  roof  and  perished  with 
a  multitude  of  his  foes  (xvi.  1-31).  Notwith- 
standing the  defects  in  his  character,  the  N.  T. 
names  him  with  those  Hebrew  heroes  whose 
animating  principle  was  faith  (Heb.  xi.  32). 

Samson  had  the  strength  of  a  man  in  a 
preternatural  degree.  When  the  Spirit  of 
the  Lord  impelled  him  from  time  to  time,  he 
accomplished  his  great  deeds.  His  strength 
did  not  reside  in  his  long  hair.  His  unshorn 
locks  were  the  external  evidence  of  his  rela- 
tion to  God,  a  public  profession  that  he  was 
acting  as  the  servant  of  the  Lord.  When  he 
allowed  his  hair  to  be  cut,  he  broke  his  vow, 
and  it  is  significantly  said  that  the  Lord 
abandoned  him.  His  marvelous  strength 
failed  when  God  left  him,  and  it  returned 
when  God  granted  his  prayer.  His  preter- 
natural strength  was  a  sign,  testifying  to  the 
men  of  Judah  that  this  Nazirite  was  indeed 
called  of  God  to  deliver  them  from  their 
enemies,  and  bearing  witness  among  the 
Philistines  to  the  sui>eriority  of  the  servant 
of  Jehovah. 

Various  attempts  have  been  made  to  group 
the  deeds  of  Sam.son.  Ewald,  led  by  a 
favorite  theory  of  his.  thought  he  could  dis- 
cover a  drama  in  five  acts.  In  fact  tlie  nar- 
rative itself  describes  five  grouiis  of  related 
deeds.  1.  Those  that  resulted  from  his 
wooing  of  the  woman  of  Timnath  ;  namely, 
his  rending  the  lion,  slaughter  of  thirty 
Philistines  at  Ashkelon,  release  of  the  jack- 
als bearing  burning  torches  among  the 
ripened  grain  of  the  Philistines,  and  a  defeat 
of  the  Philistines  M'ho  had  liurned  the  woman. 
2.  The  events  at  the  rock  of  Etam,  when  his 
fellow-countrvmen  asked  permission  to  de- 
liver him  into  the  hands  of  the  Philistines, 
and  he  broke  his  bonds  t)f  rope  in  the  jiresence 
of  the  uncircumcised,  slew  a  thousand  of 
their  number  with  the  jawbone  of  an  ass, 
and  by  prayer  obtained  water  to  quench  liis 
thirst.  3.  The  visit  to  (iaza,  when  he  car- 
ried off  the  doors  of  the  city  gate.  4.  His 
passion    for   the    Philistine  woman  Delilah, 


Samuel 


639 


Samuel 


when  he  hroke  the  seven  green  withes 
wherewith  she  had  hound  him  :ind  then  the 
nine  eonis  willi  whii  li  slie  next  hound  liiin, 
and  tore  away  tlie  weh  with  wiiieii  .she  iiad 
wovt-n  liis  locks.  .">.  A  i)lind  slave  at  (Jazji, 
when  he  jiuiled  down  the  jiillars  on  which  the 
roof  of  Dajion's  temple  rested.  'I'lie  jiarticu- 
lar  aeliievenients  in  the;  live  xroiiiis  are 
t  widveasiMUiinerated.  Samson's  name  may  he 
interpreted  as  nieaninjj;  sunny,  and  a  strenu- 
ous ell'ort  has  heen  made  hy  Ivoskolf,  Stein- 
tlial,  and  others  liki'  minded,  to  connect  tliiin 
\\ilh  the  twelve  lalmrs  of  Hercules  or  with 
the  Kahylonian  Izduhar  or  otherwise  with 
the  sun-}jod  Shamash.  Jlercules  wandered  in 
.search  of  adventures,  sK^w  a  lion,  slept,  was 
sold  as  a  slave,  immolated  himself  volun- 
tarily. Izduhar  overcame  the  lion,  rejected 
the  advances  of  Islitar,  the  j;od(less  of  love. 
Jlercules  is  a  sun-myth.  The  story  of  Izdu- 
har is  the  history  of  an  ancient  king  of 
I'.rech  emhellislied  with  legend  and  wrought 
^iiit  into  an  epic  in  twelve  parts;  see  NiM- 
H(ii).  liUt  with  neither  the  sun-god  nor  the 
king  of  Erech  is  Siimson  to  be  identified ; 
for — 1.  The  ancient  Hebrew.s  themselves  a.s- 
signed  Samson  to  a  time  well  within  their 
historical  period,  in  the  generation  hefore 
Samuel  and  Saul.  2.  Tlie  Hebrew  account 
of  Samson  states  definitely  the  jilace  of  his 
birth  and  his  deeds,  and  gives  the  location 
of  his  grave.  3.  The  enumeration  of  twelve 
labors  is  a  matter  of  some  imjiortanee  to 
those  who  would  identify  Samson  with  Her- 
cules or  Izduhar,  Juit  in  itself  the  number  is 
not  of  conse<|uence.  And  the  number  twelve 
is  not  .so  readily  made  out.  The  cry  of  Sam- 
son to  (iod  for  drink  can  .scarcely  l)e  called  a 
labor  of  Samson's.  The  narrative  sjieaks  of 
other  deeds  of  .'samson  which  it  does  not  s]ie- 
cify  (.Indg.  xiii.  'S>),  showing  that  the  narrator 
<li(l  not  think  of  twelve  achievement.s  only. 
4.  While  tlu^  strength  wbich  Samson  exer- 
cised was  the  gift  of  (!<jd  and  was  not  in- 
herent in  him  as  a  man.  while  it  failed  when 
he  was  left  t()  himself,  yet  it  was  jireter- 
natunil  in  the  sense  that  what  he  accom- 
jplished  by  it  might  luive  been  a  work  of 
nature,  l)ut  was  not.  In  most  of  the  exam- 
jiles  atl'onled  of  it.  it  fitids  ]iarall(ls  in  huinan 
annals.  Oavid  willuiut  a  weaipon  slew  a  lion 
and  a  bear;  .Foiiathan  and  his  armor-))earer, 
anil  Klea/.arand  Shammah  and  Abishai  each 
single-liaiidetl  iierformeil  prodigies  of  valor 
e<|Ual  to  Samson's  1 1  .*sani.  xiv.  1  17;  2  Sam. 
x.xiii.  !)  rj,  IS),  anil  modern  history  jtresents 
other  parallels.  The  nature  of  th(^  feat.s  jier- 
furmed  in  earrjing  oil"  the  doors  of  tiaza's 
irate  and  in  dragging  the  two  cnlumns  from 
their  jposition  caiinot  be  determined  until 
information  is  at  hand  regarding  I  he  struc- 
ture of  these  i)articular  doors  and  the  archi- 
tecture of  Dagon's  temple.  'I'lii-  deeds  may 
have  been  superhuman  and   miraculous. 

Sam'u-el,  in  A.  V.  once  Shemuel  (1  Chron. 
vi.  33)  [name  of  God]. 


The  earliest  of  the  great  Hebrew  prophets 
after  Moses  and  the  last  of  the  judges.  His 
fattier,  i'^lkaiiah,  was  a  Levite,  family  of 
Kohath.  house  of  Izhar  (see  Elk.\n.\u  4); 
he  was  a  Zophite,  Ix'cause  de.s<;ended  through 
Zojihai  or  Zuph  (1  Sam.  1.  1  ;  1  Chron.  vi. 
■J(i,  '.i't)  ;  and  he  was  a  man  of  the  liill 
country  of  K)diraini  or  an  Ejdirainiite,  be- 
cause the  family  had  luen  assigned  resi- 
dence in  that  tribe  (Josh.  xxi.  ."> ;  1  Chron. 
vi.  (JG).  Elkanah  lived  in  Kamah  or,  as  it 
was  calli'd  to  distinguish  it  from  other  towns 
of  the  name,  h'amathaim  of  the  Ziijibitesd 
Sam.  i.  I,  I'J;  ii.  11).  He  had  two  wives, 
reninnah  and  Hannah.  Hannah  liad  no 
child  and  jirayed  earnestly  to  (iod  that  she 
might  give  birth  to  a  boy,  vowing  that  if  lier 
]irayer  were  answered  the  infant  should  be 
devoted  for  life  to  .Jehovah,  ajijiarently  as  a 
Nazirite,  for  she  added,  "There  shall  no 
rairor  come  u])on  liis  head  "  (cp.  Num.  vi. 
l-o).  Her  petition  was  granted.  She  named 
the  bo.v  Sanniel  ;  and  when  he  was  weaned 
she  brought  him  to  the  tabernacle  at  Sliiloli, 
and  put  him  in  cliarge  of  the  high  priest, 
Eli,  to  train  him  for  his  sacred  duties  (1 
Sam.  i.;  ii.  1-17).  \Vhile  yet  a  child  he 
ministered  before  (iod,  clad  in  the  sinijile 
lini'U  ejiliod  which  was  worn  by  ordinary 
priests  wlien  engaged  in  the  sjinctuary  and 
even  by  laymen  (ii.  IM.  He  lived  at  the 
tabernacle,  sleejting  in  some  ehandier  con- 
nected with  it,  o]iened  the  doors  of  the  sanc- 
tuary in  the  morning,  and  otherwi.se  assisti'd 
Eli  in  his  ministrations  (iii.  1,  3,  15).  He 
had  not  advanced  beyond  early  boyhood 
when  .lehovali  revealed  to  him  the  ajiiJroacli- 
ing  doom  of  Eli's  house  for  the  foolish  in- 
dulgence which  the  iather  had  shown  to  liis 
unworthy  sons  (iii.  1-18).  Jose])liiis  .s;iys  that 
Samuel  was  twelve  years  old  at  this  time 
(Antiq.  v.  10,  4).  His  statement  is  about 
right ;  but  his  authority  for  it  is  unknown. 
Hy  the  time  that  tlu'  child  liad  reached  man- 
liood  all  Israil,  from  Han  cwu  to  Heer-sheba, 
knew  that  he  was  established  to  bi'  a  jirojihet 
of  Hie  Lord,  for  the  Lord  revealed  liiniself 
to  Samuel  in  Shiloli  (1  Sam.  iii.  '20,  21).  Scum 
afterwards  the  judgmt-nt  threatened  against 
Eli  and  liis  house  began  by  the  death  of  Eli's 
two  sons  in  battle,  the  caiiture  of  the  ark  by 
the  Philistines,  and  the  death  of  Eli  on  liear- 
ing  the  fatal  news  (iv.  1-22).  Tlie  ark  was 
soon  restored  to  tlie  Israelites;  but  it  was 
kejit  in  .seclusion  and  placed  fur  safe  keejiing 
with  a  pro])er  guardian  at  Kirjatb-jeanni 
until  the  peojile  should  be  sidritually  ]ire- 
pared  to  receive  it.  Samuel  was  an  «<■- 
credited  proidiet  and,  since  the  death  of  Eli, 
the  chief  religions  aiitliorily  in  the  land. 
He  addressi'd  himsi'lf  to  the  work  of  reform- 
ing the  jieojile.  Twenty  years  after  the 
restonilion  of  the  ark  he  found  lln'  moril 
condition  of  the  natinii  im|iroved,  and  lie 
convoked  an  assembly  at  .Mizpali.  near  the 
place  where  the  ark  had  bec-n  lost,  to  make 
confession   of  sin,  to  fast  before  the  Lord, 


Samuel,  Books  of 


640 


Samuel,  Books  of 


and  to  beseech  a  return  of  his  favor.  The 
Philistines  gatln-rcd  tlieir  forces  to  battle 
when  they  heard  of  this  assembly  ;  l>ut 
Samuel  exliorted  tlu^  people  to  i)ray  for  dt^- 
liverauce,  and  he  himself  besought  the  Lord 
for  Israel.  A  thunderstorm  discomfited  tlii' 
Philistines,  the  Israi'lites  discerned  the  hand 
of  (}od,  embraced  tlii'  oi>])ortunity,  pursued 
the  enemy,  and  gained  such  a  victory  over 
the  Philistines  as  deterred  those  pertinacious 
foes  from  again  invading  the  laud  while  Sam- 
uel wasat  the  head  of  aflairs  (1  Sam.  vii.  3-14) ; 
see  Piiii,isTiNi:s  and  Samuel,  Books  ok. 
This  signal  deliverance  indicated  that  God 
had  raised  up  Samuel  to  be  judge,  in  the 
usual  sense  of  defender  and  director.  Like 
Deborah,  and  more  fully  like  Moses,  Samuel 
was  accredited  iirojihet  and  judge.  In  the 
discharge  of  his  duties  he  went  annually  in 
circuit  to  Betliel,  Gilgal,  and  Mizpah ;  but 
his  residence  was  at  Ramah,  where  a  com- 
pany of  prophets  gathered  about  him  to  be 
at  his  service  in  the  work  of  reform  (vii. 
15-17;  xix.  18-20).  Here  he  built  an  altar 
to  the  Lord ;  for  God  had  forsaken  Shiloh, 
the  ark  was  in  necessary  seclusion,  the  cov- 
enant was  in  abeyance  because  the  Israelites 
had  broken  it  by  their  idolatries  and  sacri- 
lege, and  he  was  Jehovah's  representative ; 
see  Altak.  During  the  years  of  his  vigorous 
administration  the  land  enjoyed  freedom 
from  foreign  domination.  When  he  was  old 
he  made  his  two  sons  judges  at  Beer-sheba. 
They  jjroved  themselves  unworthy  of  their 
high  trust,  taking  bribes  and  perverting  jus- 
tice. Their  misconduct  and  the  threatening 
attitude  of  the  surrounding  heathen  nations 
produced  the  request  on  the  part  of  the 
Israelite  elders  and  people  for  the  institution 
of  kingly  government ;  and  Samuel  was  di- 
vinely commissioned  to  anoint  first  Saul, 
and  when  he  was  rejected,  David  ;  see  the  de- 
tailed account  in  Samuel,  Books  of.  Samuel 
died  while  David  was  a  fugitive  from  Saul  in 
the  wilderness  of  En-gedi.  He  w'as  buried 
in  his  house  at  Kamah,  all  Israel  lamenting 
his  loss  (xxv.  1).  On  the  night  before  the 
battle  of  Gilboa,  Saul  desired  the  woman 
with  the  Aimiliar  spirit  at  En-dor  to  call  up 
Samuel  from  Sheol  (xxviii.  3-25);  see  Saul. 
Heman,  one  of  David's  singers,  was  a  grand- 
son of  Sanuiel  (1  Chron.  vi.  33,  R.  V. ;  cp.  28). 
Samuel  is  in  the  list  of  O.  T.  heroes  whose 
animating  principle  was  faith   (Heb.  xi.  32). 

Sam'u-el,  Books  of. 

Two  books  of  the  O.  T.  They  were  orig- 
inally one,  as  appears  from  the  Masoretic 
note  to  1  Sam.  xxviii.  24,  which  states  that 
this  verse  is  the  middle  of  the  book.  They 
are  treated  as  one  by  .Tosejihus  in  his  enu- 
meration of  the  books  of  the  ().  T.,  and  in  He- 
brew manuscri])ts.  The  division  was  intro- 
duced into  thi>  printed  Hebrew  Bible  in  1517, 
and  was  derived  from  the  Septuagint  and 
Vulgate.  As  SaTuucl  is  the  leading  person 
during  the  first  half  of  the  period  covered. 


as  he  was  one  of  the  greatest  of  the  proi)bets 
that  Israel  ever  had,  the  organizer  of  the 
kingdom,  th(^  agent  in  the  .selection  of  both 
Saul  and  David  for  the  throne,  and  the  coad- 
jutor of  Saul  so  long  as  the  king  remained 
faithful  to  his  theocratic  obligations,  the  book 
appropriately  bears  Samuel's  name.  As  it 
contains  the  liistory  of  the  first  two  kings, 
it  is  divided  in  the  Septuagint  into  two  books, 
and  called  First  and  Second  of  Kingdoms; 
and  the  two  books  which  continue  the  his- 
tory, and  are  known  in  the  English  version 
as  First  and  Second  Book  of  the  Kings,  are 
called  Third  and  Fourth  of  Kingdoms  in  the 
Septuagint.  Jerome  substituted  Book  of 
Kings  for  Book  of  Kingdoms  in  his  Latin 
version. 

The  work  is  divisible  into  three  sections : 
1.  Samuel,  the  jirophet  and  judge  (i.-vii.), 
including  his  birth  and  early  life,  the  causes 
which  led  to  his  call  to  the  prophetic  othce 
(iii.  20),  and  which  left  him  as  prophet  in 
possession  of  the  sole  authority  and  opened 
the  way  for  his  judicial  administration  (iv.), 
his  reformatory  work,  and  the  attestation  of 
his  right  to  the  judgeship,  which  was  afl'orded 
by  the  deliverance  of  Israel  from  Philistine 
oppression  by  his  hand  (vii.  1-12).  Summary 
of  his  administration  (13-17).  2.  Saul  the 
king  (viii.-xxxi.),  including  (a)  The  popular 
demand  for  a  king  in  Samuel's  old  age  and 
Samuel's  promise  to  accede  to  it  (viii.),  the 
interview  between  Samuel  and  Saul  and  the 
anointing  of  Saul  in  private  (ix.  1-x.  16),  the 
public  assembly  called  by  Samuel  at  Mizpah, 
and  the  selection  of  Saul  by  lot  (17-2*)), 
the  dissatisfaction  of  a  portion  of  the  people 
(27),  the  occasion  which  won  the  people  for 
their  divinely  appointed  king  and  his  induc- 
tion into  office  (xi.),  Samuel's  farewell  ad- 
dress (xii.).  (b)  Revolt  against  the  Philis- 
tines, and  Saul's  failure  to  observe  his  theo- 
cratic obligations  (xiii.),  the  feat  of  Jonathan, 
leading  to  the  rout  of  the  Philistines  (xiv.  1- 
4(j),  summary  of  Saul's  wars  (47,  48),  his 
family  (49-51),  the  particulars  of  one  of 
these  wars,  that  with  Amalek.  in  which  Saul 
again  and  in  aggravated  manner  shows  his 
contempt  for  his  theocratic  obligations  (xv.). 
Then  follows  (c)  An  account  of  the  latter 
years  of  Saul's  reign,  with  special  reference 
to  the  relations  between  the  king  and  David 
(xvi.-xxxi.) ;  Saul  having  been  rejected  by 
God,  Samuel  by  divine  direction  anoints 
David  (xvi.  1-13),  Saul  troubled  by  an  evil 
sjiirit  summons  David  as  harpist  to  court 
(14-23),  David  slays  Goliath  and  becomes  a 
permanent  attache  of  Saul's  court  (xvii.  1- 
xviii.  5).  jealousy  of  Saul  and  his  attempts 
on  David's  life  "(fi-xix.  17),  fiight  of  David 
from  court  and  his  wandering  life  (18-xxvii 
12),  invasion  of  the  Philistines  and  Saul's 
in(|niry  of  the  wonuui  with  the  familiar 
siiirit  (xxviii.),  David,  expelled  from  the 
Philistine  camp,  j)ursues  a  marauding  band 
of  Amalekites  (xxix.,  xxx.),  battle  of  (iillioa 
and    death    of    Saul    (xxxi.).     3.   David    the 


bamuel,  Books  of 


(;4i 


Samuel,  Books  oi 


king  (2  Sam.  i.-xxiv.).  Announcement  of 
Saul's  deatli  to  David  (i.).  contest  for  the 
throne  lietwccii  David,  supported  l)y  tlie  men 
of  Jiidali,  and  Ish-ltoslieth  as  liead  of  tlie 
otlier  tril)es  (ii.-iv.),  David  made  king  Ijy  all 
Israel  (V.  l-'S),  his  reign  (4-xxiv.).  Sec 
D.vviiJ. 

The  author  of  the  donhle  book  was  a 
|ini]iliet,  for  it  is  ])laee<l  amonj;  the  ])r()iiliets  in 
llie  Ilehrew  canon.  Samuel  wrote  a  hook  and 
laid  it  up  hel'ore  ihe  Lord  (1  Sam.  .\.  'St),  and 
jiart  of  the  douhle  hook  may  he  derived  from 
the  History  of  Samuel  the  Seer  (1  Chron. 
x.xi.x.  "Jit);  hut  .scareely  half  of  the  hook 
<-ould  have  come  from  his  ju-n,  for  he  died 
hefore  the  end  of  Saul's  reign  (1  Sam.  xxv.  1). 
It  was  written  after  David's  death  (2  Sam. 
V.  r>).  An  allusion  to  the  kings  of  Jndah 
prohahly  indicates  that  the  hook  was  not 
comideted  until  after  the  division  of  the 
Israelites  into  the  kingdoms  of  Judah  and 
Israel  (1  Sam.  xxvii.  (i),  hut  the  distinction 
between  Israel  and  Judah  existed  in  the 
time  of  David  (xi.  8;  xvii.  5-2  ;  xviii.  6;  2 
Sam.  iii.  Id;  xxiv.  1).  From  Jer.  xv.  1 
it  has  hien  inferred  that  Jeremiah  was  ac- 
(juainted  with  1  Sam.  xii.  Tliere  is  no  refer- 
ence to  the  captivity,  and  it  is  universally 
helieved  that  the  hook  was  composed  before 
tlie  fall  of  .leru.salem. 

There  were  several  documents  relating  to 
the  jieriod  treated  in  the  book,  such  as  the 
History  of  Samuel  tlie  Seer,  the  History  of 
Natliau  the  rroi)het,  and  the  History  of  (iad 
the  Si'cr  (1  Chron.  xxix.  20),  hut  the  author 
doi's  not  mention  tlie  sources  whence  he  de- 
rived his  inft)rniation,  as  do  the  authors  of 
Kings  and  {'hronicles,  and  it  is  uncertain 
what  records  he  used.  Wellliausen  presents 
an  analysis  of  the  books  and  their  sources 
>.  I'l-oleijomrtKi-^).  1.  Samuel  as  a  youth.  He 
is  in  training  for  the  jiriesthood,  and  he 
foretells  the  collapse  of  the  government 
which  <'xisted  before  the  kingdom  was  estab- 
lished (1  .Siiin.  i.-iii.).  The  story  was  in- 
v<-nted  after  Sainuel's  career  had  made  him 
noted.  <'lia]i.  ii.  1-10  is  an  addition  of  un- 
known origin,  and  verses  27-:)<iare  a  Deuter- 
onomistic  but  jireexilic  insertion  (jip.  12G, 
281,415;  ep.  Kittel  ii.  2!t,  .\nni.  «).  2.  Ac- 
<'ount  of  the  fall  of  the  house  of  Kli  (iv.-vi.) ; 
but  iv.  l"i'' is  an  aildition  (p.  2.>li.  .'5.  Saul's 
elevation  to  the  throne.  There  are  two  ac- 
(■ounts  of  this,  (a)  According  to  one  account, 
Saul  was  jirivately  ajijiointed  king  by  Samuel, 
who  is  a  seer,  and  uses  bis  authority  to  arouse 
Saul  to  the  help  of  Isniel  (ix.  1  x.  Kii  :  but 
ix.  !»  is  a  gloss,  and  x.  M  is  from  a  later  hanil. 
Samuel  bade  Saul  to  await  the  fitting  oj)j)or- 
tiinity  to  ('(mie  forward  (x.  7),  and  about  a 
month  later  (ver.  t.'7''.  K.  V.  margin)  the 
I'piiui-tiiiiily  is  atfonlcd  by  the  investment  of 
.labesb-gilead  by  the  .\ninioiiites.  Saul  sum- 
mons the  i)eo]de  to  arms,  leads  them  against 
the  foe,  is  victorious,  is  hailed  as  deliverer, 
and  is  taken  to  (iilgal  and  made  king  (xi.); 
hut  verses  12  11  are  an  int«'rpolation  by  the 
41 


author  of  viii.  and  x.  17  seq.,  intended  to 
harmonize  this  account  with  his  own.  The 
riiilistines  in  Israel  and  their  defeat  by  Saul 
and  Jonathan  (xiii.,  xiv.,  exce])t  that  xiii. 
7-1"),  with  X.  H,  are  from  a  later  hand,  but  older 
than  ehaj).  vii.).  (b)  According  to  the  other 
account,  Samuel  called  the  jieople  to  repent- 
ance (vii.  2-4).  Then  he  summoned  them  to 
Miziiah,  near  Jerusalem,  to  jnay  for  relief 
from  the  o]i]iressitjii  of  the  I'hilistiiics.  The 
riiilistines  fell  ujion  the  a.ssembly,  but  were 
routed  and  driven  from  the  borders  (.5-14). 
Samuel  administiTed  the  government  suc- 
cessfully until  he  became  old  ( 15-17).  Samuel 
having  grown  old  and  his  sons  jiroving  ill- 
titted  to  rule,  the  elders  of  Israel  ask  for  a 
king,  desiring  to  cast  oft'  the  rule  of  (4od 
and  become  like  other  nations  (viii.).  Saul 
was  accordingly  chosen  king  by  lot  at  Mizpah 
(x.  17-27"),  and  Samuel  deiivcicd  a  farewell 
address  (xii.).  4.  (hap.  xv.  isa  secondary  pro- 
duction. It  is  the  original  from  which  xiii. 
7-15  is  cojiied,  and  it  is  closely  related  to 
xxviii.  3-25.  5.  There  are  two  c(im](lete 
documents  about  David,  which  supplement 
each  other.  The  fir.st  is  contained  in  1  Sam. 
xvi.-2  Sam.  viii.  The  second  account  em- 
braces 2  Sam.  ix.-l  Kin.  ii.  It  is  mutilated 
at  the  beginning,  but  is  otherwise  intact,  ex- 
cept that  2  Sam.  xxi.-sxiv.  are  additions. 
The  first  account  enibt)dies  a  history  fif  David 
from  his  anointment  by  Samuel  to  his  iliglit 
from  Saul.  It  is  connected  with  1  Sam.  xiv. 
52  in  xvi.  14.  David,  as  a  brave  man,  reeom- 
niinded  by  bis  skill  in  ])layiiig  the  harp, 
comes  to  Saul's  court  and  is  made  his  armor- 
bearer  (xvi.  14-23)  ;  but  ver.  14  shows  marks 
of  the  redactor.  Something  followed  this 
originally,  telling  of  wars  with  the  Philis- 
tines, but  (luite  dill'ereiit  from  the  fight  be- 
tween David  and  (iolialb.  which  now  stands 
here.  In  the  conflict  with  the  I'hilistines 
David  acquits  himself  with  distinction,  is  pro- 
moted ste]t  by  steji,  and  is  given  the  king's 
daughter  to  wife  (xviii.  (J-.'JO) ;  but  the  rellec- 
tionson  Saul  are  due  to  a  late  reviser.  Chap, 
xviii.  20",  Se])tuagint,  is  continued  in  the  ref- 
erence to  the  ]ioinilar  ajijilatise  which  is  ac- 
corded David,  and  which  arouses  the  jealousy 
of  Saul,  so  that  in  a  fit  of  madness  he  hurls 
a  sjiear  at  David  (xix.  it,  lOi.  After  discuss- 
ing the  matter  with  Jonathan.  David  fled. 
Ssiul  slew  the  jiriests  at  Nob.  because  their 
chief  had  befriended  David  (xxi.  2-7,  E.  V. 
l-(i :  xxii.  ()-23).  The  fugitive  gathered 
a  band  of  desperate  men  about  him  and 
abode  in  the  wilderness  of  .Iiidah  (xxii. 
1-5).  There  are  various  additions  to  this 
continuous  history  of  David.  The  anointing 
of  David  (xvi.  l-l.'i),  which  deiiends  on  the 
legend  of  the  battle  of  the  she]ilierd  boy 
with  (ioliath  (xvii.  1  xviii.  5l.  Saul's  jiur- 
pose  to  slay  David  is  urged  by  Jonathan  as  a 
reason  why  David  should  hide  himself  (xix. 
1-7),  which  is  a  late  addition,  for  it  shows 
aci|uaintani-e  with  cliaji.  xvii,  .\fter  Saul 
had  hurled  his  sjiear  at  David,  the  latter  fled 


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642 


Samuel,  Books  of 


for  the  first  time  (xix.  8-10).  But  David  is 
still  at  home,  and  with  the  aid  of  his  wife 
L'scapi'S  a  second  tiini',  llccinfi  to  Saniuel  in 
Kaiuah  (xix.  11-:J1) ;  but  verses  18-24  are 
corrupt  and  were  unknown  to  the  author  of 
XV.  3i).  Verse  18  seems  to  look  hack  to  xvi. 
i-13.  David  is  in  Gibeah.  The  kin;^  misses 
him  at  the  feast;  and  wIumi  the  deadly 
hatred  of  Saul  is  proven,  David  liually  tlees 
for  good  (xx.) ;  but  this  account  is  impossible 
in  its  present  scttiufr.  David  at  Nob  obtains 
the  sword  of  Goliath  from  tlie  high  priest 
(xxi.  8-10,  E.  V.  7-9).  For  fear  of  Saul 
David  tlees  that  day  to  Achish,  kiug  of 
Gath  (11-lf),  E.  V.  10-15).  The  account 
of  David's  life  in  the  wilderness,  a  fu- 
gitive from  Saul  (xxiii.-xxvii.),  contains 
three  additions  to  the  early  document, 
namely,  xxvii.  7-12;  xxvi.  1-25;  and  xxiii. 
14-xxiv.  23,  E.  V.  22.  The  last  two 
are  parallel.  Chapter  xxvi.  was  placed  be- 
fore chapter  xxvii.  on  account  of  xxvi.  19, 
and  the  passage  xxiii.  14-xxiv.  23  was  placed 
before  xxv.  to  avoid  juxtaposition  with 
xxvi.  Chapter  xxviii.  1,  2  is  the  immediate 
continuation  of  chapter  xxvii.,  and  is  itself 
continued  in  xxix.-xxxi.  Verses  3-25,  Saul's 
interview  with  the  woman  of  En-dor,  is 
closely  related  to  xv.,  which  is  the  original 
from  which  xiii.  7-15  is  copied.  Neither 
XV.  nor  xxviii.  belongs  to  the  fundamental 
tradition.  Each  is  a  prelude  to  the  events 
that  follow. 

Biblical  critics  of  all  schools  are  agreed 
that  the  author  of  the  Books  of  Samuel  de- 
rived the  material  for  his  history  from  various 
sources,  and  all  critics  would  rejoice  to  have 
these  sources  definitely  determined.  But  all 
are  not  agreed  that  Wellhausen's  analy.sis, 
which  is  essentially  that  of  the  divisive 
school,  is  successful  nor  that  his  method  is 
legitimate.  The  analysis  is  based  upon  con- 
tradictions whicli  are  alleged  to  exi.st  be- 
tween certain  parts  of  the  narrative.  To 
this  allegation  of  contradictions  and  conse- 
quent evidence  of  diversity  of  documeut  it 
is  rejilied  : 

I.  The  author  saw  no  contradictious  be- 
tween these  sejiarate  parts. 

II.  The  argument  tliat  contradictions  exist 
in  the  account  rests  upon  a  special  private 
exposition  of  the  narrative,  and  upon  a 
maiiii)u1ation  of  the  text,  which  combine  to 
produce  inconsistencies.  Other  interpreta- 
tion is  valid  which,  without  etlbrt.  shows  a 
consistent  narrative  throughout.  1  Sam.  vii. 
13,  14  is  said  to  be  irreconcilably  contradic- 
tory to  all  else  that  has  been  transmitted. 
Subsequently  we  find  the  dominati"i>  of  the 
Philistines  in  no  wise  overthrown  :  I'ley  not 
only  continue  to  press  acro.ss  the  liorders  in 
Samuel's  lifetime,  but  they  arc  in  iiossession 
of  the  Israelites  land,  one  of  their  officials 
dwells  at  Gibeah  of  Benjamin  (Wellhausen). 
Driver,  with  more  caution,  says:  "The  con- 
sequences of  the  victory  at  Eben-ezer  are  in 
vii.  13  generalized  in  terms  hardly  reconcil- 


able with  the  subsequent  history :  contrast 
the  i)ieture  of  the  I'hilistines'  a.scendancy 
innni  (liately  afterwards  (x.  5;  xiii.  3, 1'J),  etc." 
Till'  jiassage  does  not  aliirm,  as  Wellhausen 
assumes  it  does,  that  the  Israelites  captured 
Ekron  and  Gath.  They  may  have  done  so; 
the  passage  states  that  Israel  recovered  pos- 
session of  its  ancient  territory.  The  I'hilis- 
tines came  no  more  as  occupants  within  the 
border  of  Israel,  but  Israel  delivered  ii.s 
border  from  Ekron  to  Gath  out  of  the  hand 
of  the  I'hilistines  (vii.  13,  14  ;  cp.  border,  Jer. 
xxxi.  17).  The  liand  of  the  Lord  was  against 
the  I'hilistines  all  the  days  that  Samuel  ruled 
(ver.  13);  all  his  day.s  being  equivalent,  as 
the  expression  frequently  is  in  Scripture,  to 
his  administration.  The  Philistines,  how- 
ever, repeatedly  crossed  the  border  of  I.-^rael 
afterwards.  They  did  so  before  Samuel 
died.  They  even  placed  otticers  in  towns  of 
Judah  for  the  collection  of  tribute,  as  David 
did  in  Damascus  (2  Sam.  viii.  (j ;  in  E.  V., 
garrisons).  But  they  did  not  settle  iu  the 
country  again,  nor  did  they  expel  the  He- 
brews who  inhabited  it  (as  Judg.  i.  34-36). 
By  the  victory  at  Eben-ezer  Samuel  de- 
livered the  Israelites  from  the  dominion  of 
the  Philistines  and  recovered  the  borders  of 
Israel,  and  during  his  vigorous  administra- 
tion the  dread  of  his  name  deterred  the 
Philistines  from  renewing  their  invasions, 
and  his  presence  inspired  the  Israelites  wdth 
confidence  ;  but  when  he  grew  old,  and  began 
to  relinquish  the  reins  of  government  to  his 
inefficient  sons,  the  people  lost  heart  at  the 
thought  of  their  inveterate  enemies.  Samuel 
was  too  old  to  lead  them  to  battle,  his  sons 
were  despicable,  the  Ammonites  and  the 
Pliilistines  were  as  mighty  as  ever  and  only 
biding  their  time.  The  .senility  of  a  ruler, 
or  the  accession  of  a  new  and  untried  king, 
was  usually  the  opportunity  for  which  a 
waiting  foe  watched.  Nahash  the  Ammonite 
may  have  already  begun  to  harass  the  Israel- 
ites across  the  .birdau  ( I  Sam.  xii.  ]2),  though 
this  interpretation  is  not  absolutely  necessary. 
"Make  us  a  king,"  the  elders  of  Israel  said 
to  Samuel,  "that  he  may  go  before  us  and 
fight  our  battles"  (viii.  5-20).  The  claim  of 
a  foreign  ])rince  to  suzerainty  over  a  ])eople 
might  be  ignored  for  years ;  but  in  time, 
when  the  former  lord  became  strong  enough, 
he  himself  visited  the  refractory  with  an 
army  and  punished  tliem.  or  else  trusting  to 
the  fear  which  his  ])rowess  had  begun  to  in- 
sjiire,  on  noting  the  weakness  and  heljiless- 
ness  of  his  former  tributaries,  he  sent  his 
ofllicials  to  iiu|uire  why  the  tribute  had  been 
withheld,  and  to  receive  it  aucM"  If  the 
demand  was  acceded  to,  the  domestic  gov- 
enmu'iit  of  the  sul)jeet  people  was  not  dis- 
turbed. This  latter  course  the  Philistines  ])Ur- 
siied.  When  the  inability  of  Israel  to  ott'ci 
resistance  became  evident,  ]H'rha|>s  after  the 
reji'ction  of  Samuel  by  the  reiMcseiitatives  of 
the  peojile  was  known,  tin-  I'hilistines  as- 
serted their  authority  (ix.  Itj),  seut  oflicials 


Samuel,  Books  of 


C43 


Samuel,  Books  of 


into  thu  couutry  (x.  5),  and  ullimately,  as  a 
l>recauti()nary  nii-asurc,  i)crliiii)i  not  until 
Saul  was  iiroeiaiuicd  kin<;  at  Gilg&l,  went  so 
I'ar  as  to  loriiid  liivs  i)i  tlio  forges  lest  the 
]>raeliles  slmulil  provide  tLerjsclves  with 
wi-apons  (xiii.  I'J-'J'J). 

When  the  c'ders  of  Israel,  dismayed  hy 
the  strt-njith  of  the  hostile  nations  hy  which 
they  were  surrounded,  di-niamled  a  kin;;,  the 
a^;ed  Samuel  was  hurt  at  the  slight  whi<h 
was  aiijiarenily  ]iut  ujion  him  ;  hut  he  was 
divinely  informed  that  the  iKojile  were  not 
rt'jeetihj;  him,  hut  through  lack  of  faith 
were  reimdiating  the  rule  of  (he  invisihlc 
King,  and  he  was  instructed  to  accede  to  the 
]ioiiular  re(inest.  Accordingly  lie  dismissed 
the  elders  with  the  ])romise  that  he  would  do 
as  they  desired  (1  Sam.  viii.). 

Shnrtly  after  this  (iod  revealed  to  the 
I>ro|ihet  that  a  man  of  Henjamin  should  come 
to  him,  and  that  he  should  anoint  this  Ben- 
jamite  to  he  king  and  the  delivenr  from  the 
I'hilistines  ( 1  Sam.  ix.  Ki).  When  Saul  arri\  cd 
Sanaiel  entertained  him,  and  in  the  evening 
the  two  sat  on  the  liousetoj)  and  communed 
together.  The  snhject  of  their  con  vendition  is 
not  liard  to  divine.  The  )iri)]ihet  told  ,Sanl 
of  his  call  to  <leliver  l.srael  from  the  newly 
reimjiosed  yoke  of  the  I'hilistines,  instructed 
him  out  of  his  experience  how  to  meet  the 
foe,  and  informed  him  upon  wliat  conditions 
lie  might  have  (iod's  lulp  in  war.  On  the 
morrow,  hefore  Saul  left,  Samuel  i)rivately 
anointed  him,  gave  him  .several  signs  hy 
which  he  should  know  of  a  surety  that  God 
had  called  him  to  the  work,  and  dismissed 
him  with  the  charge  to  he  governed  hy  jirovi- 
dential  indications,  "and,"  said  the  iirojdiet, 
"go  tlown  to  Ciilgal  and  tarry  .seven  days  till 
I  Come  and  show  thee  what  tlioti  shalt  do  " 
(x.  7,  H).  The  meaning  of  this  charge  must  he 
gathered  from  the  honseto]i  conference  and 
from  tlie  event  fix.  Ki-if);  xiii.  H).  Saul  was 
not  to  jiidclaim  himself  king  nor  to  attemi)t  to 
free  the  nation  from  I'hilistine  domination 
tintil  circumstances  indicated  the  time,  and 
then  Ik'  was  to  make  (iilgal  tlie  rendezvous 
and  wait  seven  days  for  tlu^  ]pj-o]ihet  to  come  to 
oiler  sicrifice,  to  entreat  the  favor  of  the  Lord 
on  the  undertaking,  and  to  instruct  him  (x. 
K;  xiii.  1-2).  The  ohject  of  this  delay  at  Gil- 
gal  was  to  declare  puhlicly  tliat  Uw.  king  was 
merely  the  vicegerent  of  heaven,  to  show 
the  jieiiple  that  Saul  recognizee',  that  his  loyal 
authority-  did  not  include  tlie  priestly  oilice, 
that  king  and  jirojihet  must  work  together. 
It  was  clearly  the  idea  of  the  two  men  that 
they  should  coojierate.  Satil  ohserved  the 
]>rinciple  that  underlay  this  advi<-e.  For  a 
time  lie  exalted  the  luoiihet  and  lankcd  him- 
self only  as  a  <(ilal)orer  (xi.  7),  and  he  felt 
that  he  needed  to  know  the  will  of  the  Lord 
through  the  jnoiihet  (xxviii.  ]">)  ;  and  Samuel 
for  his  jiart.  when  Saul  was  estahli>hed  on 
the  throne,  jiurjiosid  still  to  assist  the  jieojile 
of  (iod  (xii.  2:>),and  I'Ven  after  SauTs  sin  and 
(iod's   rejection  of  him   Samuel   went   iiji    to 


Giheah  of  Henjamin,  wlierc  Saul  held  court, 
to  assist  him  in  the  administration  of  the 
kingdom  hy  instructing  him  as  to  God's  will 
(xiii.  I.'-)). 

As  directed  hy  Samuel,  Saul  retunied  to 
his  father's  house.  The  signs  occurred,  and 
esjiecially  wlien  he  met  a  hand  of  iirojihets, 
liro]>hesying  as  they  jiassed  the  station  of 
the  I'hilistine  ollicial,  the  Sjiirit  of  the  Lord 
smote  him  there,  and  he,  too,  jirojihesic d. 
His  countrymen  were  worshi])ing  (iod  while 
their  enemies  triunijihed  over  them.  He  dis- 
cerned the  anomaly  and  inuphesied.  The 
man  was  awakening  to  the  religiousasjiect  of 
his  appointed  work  (1  Sam.  x.  9-13). 

Samuel  now  fulfilled  his  promi.se  to  the 
reiiresentatives  of  the  nation.  He  did  not 
Use  his  authority  to  jilace  Saul  on  the  throne  ; 
the  matter  was  too  delicate  and  the  i.ssuestoo 
great.  He  summoned  the  peo])le  to  IMizjiah 
and  the  choice  was  left  to  God.  The  lot  was 
east  hefore  the  Lord,  and  Saul  was  chosen,  a 
man  of  line  aii]iearance,  titled  to  call  forth 
ihv  admiration  and  win  the  confidence  of  the 
]ieo])le  ;  a  man  of  the  trihe  of  Benjamin,  the 
l)ordcr  trihe  lietween  north  and  south,  in 
order  to  avoid  the  ancient  and  growing  dis- 
siiision  in  the  nation.  The  choice  was  puh- 
licly committed  to  (iod  in  order  to  .secure  the 
allegiance  of  the  i)ioiis  part  of  the  people  for 
the  divinely  apjiointed  king.  The  j  eojile 
shouted  "Ciod  .save  the  king,"  and  the  king- 
dom was  formally  estahlislied  (1  Sam.  x.'J4, 
Sj).  The  jirecautions  taken  hy  Samuel  were 
fully  justified  hy  the  event.  The  selection, 
although  made  hy  (iod  himself,  did  not  ap- 
prove itself  to  all  the  people;  there  were 
jealousies,  and  the  diss;itislied  asked  in  dis- 
dain, "How  shall  this  fellow,  out  of  one  of 
the  smallest  families  of  a  small  trihe,  save 
us?"  (-27).  But  Saul  quietly  retired  to  his 
father's  house,  accemjianied  hy  certain  men 
of  valor,  to  hide  liis  time  and  await  devel- 
ojiments.  He  made  no  claim  to  the  throne 
in  the  face  of  disatl'ection  ;  he  did  not  hegin 
a  civil  war  to  secure  the  crown  :  hut  he  let 
the  matter  droi>  until  (iod  should  change  the 
heart  of  the  iieojile  and  place  him  on  the 
throne  witliont  shedding  the  hlood  of  his 
hrethren.  He  devoted  himself  to  attending 
to  his  lather's  estate. 

About  a  month  elapsed  in  this  manner  (1 
Sam.x.27,  R.  V. margin).  Nahasli  the  Amnmn- 
ite  had  pushed  his  invasion  almost  to  the  Jor- 
dan and  was  now  liesieging  .lahesh  in  (iilead. 
'I'he  people  of  that  town  w cie  in  sore  stniits. 
Nahash  imi)osed  ignominious  conditions  of 
surrender,  as  a  taunt  to  all  Israel.  The  men 
of  .hihesh,  however,  s<'cured  a  week's  res])ite 
in  order  to  send  messengers  into  all  tlie 
c'oasts  of  Israel.  Some  of  these  messengers, 
or  all  of  them,  came  to  (iiheah  and  made 
known  their  distress.  Saul  was  in  (he  field 
hut  when  he  returned  and  learned  (he  ex- 
tremity of  his  f<llow-coiinlrymen,  and  the 
rejnoach  ollen<l  to  Israel  i)y  their  heathen 
toe,   the  Sjiirit  of  (iod   came  mightily  upon 


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644 


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him,  and  he  sent  through  all  the  borders  of 

Israel  calling  the  ]>eoiilc  to  follow  him  and 
Samuel.  They  responded  as  oiu-  man.  Saul 
led  tliem  to  vietory,  raised  tlu-  siege  of  Ja- 
besh,  and  put  Nahash  to  flight  (xi.  1-11). 
The  I'liilistines  had  no  eause  to  forbid  the 
relief  of  Jahesh  in  (iiload  ;  on  the  contrary, 
it  was  to  tiu'ir  advantage  that  the  eoiintry 
tributary  to  them  sliould  be  kept  intact.  The 
same  story  of  subject  peoples  being  left  by  tlie 
sovereign  state  to  settle  theirowinlomesticdis- 
]>utcs  and  light  out  their  quarrels  with  their 
neighbors  is  familiar  in  tlie  annals  of  Assyria 
ami  Egypt.  Flushed  with  victory  and  proud 
of  their  leader,  the  i)eoiile  asked  :  "  Who  is  he 
that  .said,  Shall  Saul  reign  over  us?  bring 
the  men  that  we  may  ])Ut  tliem  to  death." 
Saul  forbade  slaughter,  and  at  Samuel's  sug- 
gestion tlie  i)eople  went  to  Gilgal,  which  was 
not  far  off,  renewed  the  kingdom  and  made 
Saul  king,  and  this  act  being  accomplished, 
Samuel  formally  delivered  the  government 
into  Saul'.s  hands  (xi.  TJ-xii.  25). 

Saul  was  now  king,  but  the  work  which  he 
had  been  raised  up  to  do  was  only  begun. 
The  Annnonites  were  driven  from  the  bor- 
ders, but  the  Israelites  still  sufl'ered  the  hu- 
miliation of  subjection  to  the  Philistines. 
They  managed  indeed  their  own  internal 
alTairs;  they  had  a  king  of  their  own  with 
a  royal  guard  of  three  thousand  men  ;  but 
they  jiaid  tribute  to  the  Philistines,  must 
tolerate  Philistine  officials  in  their  borders, 
and  were  compelled  to  keep  their  forges  idle. 
Saul  was  biding  his  time.  Two  years,  accord- 
ing to  the  i)resent  (juestiouable  Hebrew  text, 
passed  by,  when  the  opportunity  arrived. 
Jonathan  smote  the  Philistine  official  at  Geba, 
and  the  Philistines  assembled  their  armies  to 
avenge  the  insult  and  (|uell  the  insurrection. 
The  time  for  action  had  come;  Saul  blew  the 
trumpet  for  war,  and  the  Israelites  assembled 
after  him  at  Gilgal.  This  was  what  Samuel 
had  charged  him  to  do  (1  Sam.  xiii.  1-7).  Well- 
hausen  excludes  the  interview  between  Sam- 
uel and  Saul  at  Gilgal  from  the  original  nar- 
rative as  being  a  late  addition.  He  bases  his 
exclusion  of  it  on  the  change  of  place  be- 
tween verses  4  and  Ifi.  Wellhausen  identi- 
fies Gibeah  of  Benjamin  with  Geba  of  Benja- 
min (vers.  3,  4,  Iti).  He  may  be  right  in  so 
doing,  for  the  two  names  are  confused  also 
in  the  text  of  Judges.  But  he  does  not  ac- 
curately give  the  statements  of  the  Hebrew 
account.  "At  the  beginning  of  the  narra- 
tive," he  says,  "  Saul  is  at  Gibeah,  and  there 
the  Philistines  seek  for  him,  stopping  before 
the  place  because  they  meet  with  resistance 
there.  Suddenly  it  is  silently  assumed  (xiii. 
7)  that  Saul  has  remained  at  (lilgal  siiu'e  his 
selection  as  king."  In  view  of  verse  4,  this 
is  misrepresentation  on  the  part  of  Well- 
hausen. What  the  passage  plainly  says  is 
quite  different.  Saul's  troops  were  in  Mich- 
mash  and  P>etliel  and  Jonathan's  in  Gib(»ah 
of  Heujamin  when  Jonathan  smote  the  Phi- 
listine official  in  Geba  (2,  3).    Then  Saul  blew 


the  trumpet  and  the  people  gathered  together 

after  him  to  Gilgal  (3,  4;  cp.  7).  According 
to  the  analysis  of  Wellhausen,  xiii.  l-fi  is 
continued  in  verse  l(j,  "  Now,  as  for  Saul  and 
Jonatlum  and  the  i)eoi)le  that  were  found 
with  them,  they  were  dwelling  in  Geba  of 
Benjamin  and  the  Philistines  had  encamped 
in  Michmash."  This  is  straightforward  and 
consistent;  but  Wellhau.sen  continues:  "In 
xiii.  16  the  reader  again  has  the  impression 
that  Saul  had  been  long  at  Gibeah  with  his 
men,  when  the  enemy  pitched  their  camp 
oi>posite.  Only  thus  can  the  contrast  be- 
■tweeu  the  circumstantial  particijjle  and  the 
inchoative  perfect  be  understood."  But  the 
statement  of  Wellhausen  is  again  inaccurate. 
The  narrative  had  left  the  Philistines  at 
Michmash  (ver.  5)  and  Saul  at  Gilgal  accord- 
ing to  Wellhausen's  analysis  (ver.  4),  and 
still  at  Gilgal,  if  verse  7  be  included  in  the 
narrative.  Now  it  states  that  Saul  and  his 
meu  were  abiding  at  Geba  of  Benjamin, 
but  the  Philistines  had  encamped  in  Mich- 
mash. The  same  difficulty,  if  difficulty 
it  be,  lies  against  the  narrative  which  Well- 
hausen calls  original,  as  against  the  narrative 
which  appears  in  the  present  Hebrew  text. 
This  simply  means  that  the  section  which 
Wellhausen  omits,  verses  7  to  15,  is  in  place, 
which  tells  of  the  events  at  Gilgal,  and 
concludes  by  saying  that  Samuel  arose  and 
went  up  from  Gilgal  unto  Gibeah  of  Ben- 
jamin ;  and  Saul  after  having  numbered  his 
troops,  was  with  Jonathan  and  these  meu  at 
Geba  of  Benjamin.  The  dejiarture  from 
Gilgal  is  exjtressly  stated  with  regard  to 
Samuel,  and  it  is  not  necessary  explicitly  to 
repeat  it  in  regard  to  Saul  and  his  meu,  it  is 
understood  of  itself.  And  the  author  used 
the  participle  to  indicate  the  continuing  cir- 
cumstance that  Saul  was  abiding  at  Geba. 

The  passage  is  intelligible  with  the  present 
Hebrew  text.  The  supposed  difficulty  like- 
wise vanishes  when  the  text  is  emended  by 
the  aid  of  the  Septuagint.  The  Greek  trans- 
lation has  an  additional  clause,  and  Driver 
conjectures  that  the  original  text  read : 
"  And  Samuel  arose  and  gat  him  up  from 
Gilgal  [and  went  on  his  way.  Ami  the  rest 
of  the  ])eople  went  up  after  Saul  to  meet  the 
men  of  war;  and  they  came  from  Gilgal]  to 
(xibeah  of  Benjamin  and  Saul  numbered," 
and  so  forth.  "The  omission  in  the  Maso- 
retic  text  is  evidentiv  due  to  the  recurrence 
of  '  from  Gilgal '  "  (  Text  of  Samuel,  ]>.  78).  In 
view  of  verse  16  this  new  text  ju.stities  Well- 
hausen's identification  of  Gibeah  and  Geba 
in  this  chapter:  but  it  implies  that  verses  7 
and  H'"  form  an  integral  ]iart  of  the  original 
narrative.  .\nd  this  result  Driver  accepts, 
rejecting  Wellhausen's  exclusion  of  x.  8  and 
xiii.  7-15.  from  the  original  narrative  (In- 
froductiotfi,  ji.  176).  Tlius  either  with  the 
Masoretic  text  U))on  which  the  English  ver- 
sion is  based,  or  with  the  text  as  emended 
by  the  aid  of  the  Septuagint,  the  entire  chap- 
ter is  a  unit. 


Samuel,  Books  of 


645 


Samuel,  Books  of 


Jiut  while  1  Sam.  xiii.  is  a  unit  in  itself,  it  is 
assertod  to  l>c  distinct  in  autliiirsliip  from 
cliiii>.  xv.  ;  for  in  tlii'sc  two  (.•liaplcis  tliorc 
is  a  doul)le  and  c-ontradictory  ai-coiint  of 
SiUil's  rc'Jfctioii  t)y  (lod.  But  the  assertion 
cannot  stand  examination.  Samuel  indeed 
twice  rel)uked  Saul  at  (Jilfjal,  iait  he  only 
once  declared  that  (iod  had  rejected  Saul 
from  heing  kinj^.  When  at  the  l)egiuiun^of 
his  n^i^n,  when  ahout  to  undertake  tlie  sju'- 
cial  Work  to  which  he  had  been  called,  Saul 
failed  to  ohey  Samuel's  charjje  to  wait  seven 
days  \intil  the  i)roidiet  should  come  to  ini- 
l)lore  (Jod's  aid  liy  sacrifice,  he  was  relinked 
l)Ut  he  was  luit  njecled  :  "  Iladst  thou  been 
faithful  to  the  theocratic  reiiuirenu'iits,  thy 
kiniL;<lom  would  have  been  established  for- 
ever; but  now  it  shall  not  continue.  God 
hath  chosen  a  man  alter  his  own  heart  and 
a]i]iointed  him  to  hv  ])rince  ovei'  his  iieojile"' 
(xiii.  1.'),  11).  Saul  is  not  declared  unworthy 
to  he  kill};  over  (iod's  people,  Samuel  does 
not  aiiandon  liim.  but  goes  to  the  ca]iital, 
where  he  can  still  a.ssist  him.  Tiie  iirojihet 
only  declares  that  Saul's  kingdom  shall  not 
continue  forever;  it  .shall  eventually  pass 
from  Saul's  family  under  the  control  of 
another.  But  after  Saul's  second  flagrant 
violation  of  his  theocratic  oblij^ations,  when 
he  disobeyed  the  command  of  (iod  in  the 
war  with  Amalek,  lie  was  rejected  from  beinj; 
king  (XV.  23);  and  Samuel  abandoned  him 
and  came  no  more  to  see  him  until  the  day 
of  his  death  (.'!4,  .'!">),  a  man  of  a  ditl'erent 
tribe  was  anointed  (xvi.  1,  i;5),  the  spirit 
which  (|ualilie(l  the  theocratic  king  for  his 
high  ofiice  departed  from  Saul  and  came 
mightily  ujion  David  (l.'i,  1-1),  and  not  Saul, 
but  David,  became  the  deliverer  of  Israel 
(xvii.). 

The  account  of  Samuel's  judgeship  and  of 
Saul's  elevation  to  the  throne,  the  earlier 
years  of  his  reign,  and  his  rejection  by 
(iod,  is  thus  found  to  be  ca])able  of  consist- 
ent interiiretation  throughout.  Examination 
of  the  Iiistory  of  Daviil  revivals  itsconsistency 
likewi.se.  See  D.wiDand  .FoXATH.XN.  There 
is  no  ground,  therefore,  for  the  assumjition 
that  contradictory  documents  have  been 
combined  to  form  the  First  I'ook  of  Samuel. 

III.  It  further  ajipears  that  while  the  eon- 
tents  of  tile  alleged  documents  into  which 
the  narrative  has  lieen  distributed  are  con- 
sistent, they  also  imiily  each  other.  (1)  The 
origin:il  narrative  in  1  .Sam.  ix.  1(>,  and  x.  .">, 
im])lies  that  the  Philistines  iiad  renewed  the 
exercise  of  sovereignty  over  Israel.  'I'he  ex- 
planation is  found  in  the  jireceding  chapter, 
which  is  alleged  to  be  a  later  narrative;  for 
the  threatening  altitude  of  the  Philistines 
and  other  imcient  foes,  when  Sanniel  began 
to  relax  the  rt-ins  of  governnu'Ut.  is  implied 
in  viii.  1,  ').  20.  The  original  narrative  thus 
reciuires  cha]).  viii.  as  an  integral  jiart.  The 
only  escaiie  is  to  magisterially  declare  that 
the  Israelites  had  been  subject  to  the  Philis- 
tines ever  since   the   ark    was    taken,    that 


Samuel  never  delivered  Israel  from  the  Phi- 
listine yoke,  that  the  story  of  the  second 
battle  of  Kbene/er  is  a  jture  fabrication  (vii. 
•J-17j.  And  this  dogmatic  a.s.sertion  Well- 
hausen  does  not  hesitate  to  make.  He  s;iys 
that  "there  cannot  be  a  word  of  truth  in 
the  entire  narrative."  Driver  iloes  not  ex- 
jilicitly  deny  that  the  event  occurred,  but  he 
a<lmits  that  cha]>s.  ix.  and  x.  do  not  connect 
diiectly  with  vii.  1.  and  says  that  "it  is 
probable  that  the  original  sequel  of  iv.  l**  to 
vii.  1,  has  here  been  omitted  to  make  room 
for  vii.  2  If."  In  other  words,  vii.  2-17  and 
viii.  all'ord  a  consistent  picture  of  the  times, 
as  has  been  already  shown  ;  and  it  is  the 
theory  of  the  divisive  critics  which  fails  to 
cxi)lain  the  existing  jdienomena.  (2)  The 
original  narrative  in  xi.  imiilies  the  imblic 
selection  of  Saul  to  be  king  Avhich  is  related 
ill  tlu'  allegi'd  later  narnitive  (x.  17-27).  If, 
as  asserted,  Saul  had  .only  been  anointed  in 
private  (x.  1),  what  gave  him  such  respect  in 
the  eyes  of  the  peoi)le  a  month  later  that 
men  from  all  the  tribes  sjirang  to  arms  at  his 
sumiiKjns  and  followed  him  to  the  relief  of 
Jabesh  in  (iilead?  Cliaiiter  xi.  re(inires  that 
some  event  jireceded  like  that  which  is  re- 
corded in  thealleged  laternarrative  (x.  17-27). 
(3)  Tlie  original  narrative  of  David's  career, 
it  is  said,  first  mentions  him  as  an  adult  man, 
accustomed  to  arms,  who  is  skillful  in  jilay- 
ing  the  harp  and  is  acconlingly  summoned 
by  Saul  to  court,  to  soothe  him  with  music 
whenever  he  is  suli'ering  from  his  malady 
(xvi.  14-23),  and  it  is  continued  in  xviii.  (J- 
30.  But  it  is  manifest  that  the.se  two  ])aS' 
SJiges  do  not  connect  ;  xviii.  G  refers  to  the 
return  of  David  from  the  slaughter  of  the 
Philistine  (K.  \.  margin,  Philistines).  The 
account  of  the  combat  between  David  and 
tioliath,  which  is  assigned  to  a  dill'erent  and 
later  author,  intervenes  and  sui)]>lies  the 
missing  link;  hut  this  has  been  eliminated 
from  the  original  narrative  by  the  divisive 
critics,  largely  on  the  allegation  that  in  xvii. 
33  David  is  re])ri>sented  as  a  youth,  and  in 
verses  oB-.'jS  .Saul  d(ies  not  know  David.  On 
other  etiually  valid  interpretation  these  al- 
leged inconsistencies  with  the  original  narra- 
tive do  not  exist.  See  David.  To  make 
them  out  the  divisive  critics  are  oblijred  to 
discard  xvii.  1-1.  Saul  is  not  asking  who 
David  is,  but  is  in<|uiring  who  an(l  what 
David's  father  is.  That  something  is  needed 
l)etween  xvi.  23,  and  xviii.  (i,  is  admitted. 
Wi'llhausen  siys  it  was  something  (|uite  dif- 
ferent from  what  now  stands  there.  be<"Ui.se 
cha]).  xvii,  tells  of  David's  killing  but  one 
man,  whereas  xviii.  7  s])eaks  of  him  as 
having  slain  his  ten  thousiind.  As  though 
the  slaying  of  (heir  cbam]iion,  and  thereby 
]iintiug  (be  Philistines  to  llight,  was  not  in 
the  language  of  song  the  slaying  of  ten  lliou- 
SiUid  !  The  author  of  the  Hook  of  .Samuel 
evidently  understood  it  so.  Thus  (he  original 
narrative  of  David's  career  imjdies  the  exist- 
eiict'  of  the  alleged  later  story,  and  again  tlie 


Sanballat 


646 


Sarah 


only  escape  i'ron\  this  dilemma  is  to  assert 
that  some  i)art  of  tlie  orijjiiuil  narrative'  has 
heeu  re]>laee(l  hy  something  t|nite  ditrerciit. 
Till'  Book  of  Samuel  does  not  make  the  dif- 
ticulty.  It  is  the  theory  whieh  fails  to  ex- 
plain the  existing  phenomena. 

San-bal'lat  [the  moon-god  Sin  hath  given 
life]. 

An  influential  Samaritan  (Neh.  ii.  10).  He 
was  a  Horonite.  This  designation  scarcely 
means  a  native  of  Ilonmaim  in  Moab,  else  he 
would  ])rol)al)ly  be  called  a  Moabitc ;  l)ut 
rather  describes  liim  as  a  man  of  Beth-horon 
(ci>.  iv.  2;  vi.  2).  lie  was  opposed  to  tlie  re- 
building of  tlie  wall  of  Jerusalem  by  Nehe- 
miah  and  tried,  unsuccessfully,  to  stop  it  (iv. 

7.  8).  Next  he  plotted  with  others  to  invite 
Nehemiah  to  a  conference,  and  assassinate 
him  when  he  came  (vi.  1-4).  This  new  de- 
vice failing,  he  tried  intimidation,  but  in 
vain  (5-14). 

Sanballat  the  Horonite  was  a  contemporary 
of  the  high  priest  P^liasbih,  great-grandfather 
of  Jadduii;  was  associated  with  Toltiah  the 
Ammonite;  and  opposed  the  rebuilding  of 
the  wall  of  Jerusalem  by  Nehemiah  in  the 
twentieth  year  of  Artaxerxes.  A  son  of  the 
high  priest  Joiada  took  Sanballat's  daughter 
to  wife,  and  for  this  offense  was  expelled 
by  Nehemiah  (Neh.  iii.  1 ;  iv.  3,  7 ;  xiii. 
4,  28).  Josephus  mentions  one  Sanballat,  a 
Cuthean  by  birth,  whom  Darius,  the  last  king 
[of  Persia,  336330  b.  c]  sent  to  Samaria 
as  governor  (Antiq.  xi.  7,  2;  8,  2),  but  who, 
on  the  defeat  of  Darius,  went  over  to  Alex- 
ander the  Great,  332  b.  c.  (8,  4).  His  daugh- 
ter Nicaso  was  taken  to  wife  by  Manasseh, 
brother  of  the  high  priest  Jaddua.  This  for- 
eign marriage  oflended  the  Jewish  authori- 
ties, and  they  drove  Manasseh  from  the  altar 
at  Jerusalem  ;  but  Sanballat,  with  the  api)ro- 
bation  of  Alexander,  built  a  temple  on  mount 
Gerizim  and  made  his  son-in-law  its  priest 
(7,  2 ;  8,  2  and  4).  These  statements  of  the  Jew- 
ish historian  do  not  accord  with  the  facts  of 
SaTiballat's  history  already  recited.  The  older 
commentators  thought  that  Josephus  sjieaks 
of  a  later  Sanballat.  Jos('])hus,  however, 
doubtless  has  in  mind  Sanballat  the  Horonite 
and  the  marriage  referred  to  in  Neh.  xiii.  28; 
but  he  has  probably  lowered  the  date  of  San- 
ballat 100  years  to  conform  the  facts  to  his 
belief  that  the  son-in-law  of  Sanballat  not 
only  founded  or  greatly  ])romoted  the  Samari- 
tan religion,  but  also  built  the  temple  on 
Gerizim,  and  that  this  temple  was  erected 
after  Alexander's  confjuest  of  the  country 
(Antiq.  xiii.  9,  1  ;  200  years  before  128  b.  c. 
or  thereabout),  and  that  Alexander  and  the 
high  priest  .Jaddua  were  contem])oraries  (xi. 

8,  '•>).  Josephus  assigns  a  false  date  here  ;  as 
h(^  also  does  when  he  dates  Nehemiah's  com- 
mission in  the  twenty-fifth  year  of  Xerxes, 
who  r(ngned  but  21  years  (Antiq.  xi.  5,  7),  in- 
stead of  in  the  twentieth  year  of  his  succes- 
sor, Artaxerxes  (Neh.  ii.    1),  and  when  he 


dates  the  arrival  of  Ezra  in  .Jerusalem  in  the 
seventh  year  of  Xerxes  (.\ntiq.  xi.  .">,  2),  in- 
stead of  21  years  later,  in  the  seventh  year 
of  Artaxerxes  (Ezra  vii.  1,  8),  and  when  he 
confounds  Onias  I.  with  Onias  III.,  who  lived 
a  century  later  (I  Mae.  xii.  7,  20;  Antiq.  xii. 
4,  lOj. 

San'dal.     See  CLOTnixo,  Shoe. 

San'he-drin  and  Sanhedrim  [Talmudic 
Ilchrew,  from   (ireek  siineilrioii.   a    council]. 

The  name  geuei-ally  given  by  writers  on 
.Jewish  antiquities  and  history  to  the  highest 
Jewish  a.ssembly  for  government  in  the  time 
of  our  Lord.  The  English  version  uses  the 
more  familiar  word  council ;  see  CotJNClL. 

San-san'nah  [a  palm  leaf]. 

A  town  in  the  extreme  south  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  31) ;  perhaps  the  .same  as  Hazar- 
susah,  which  occupies  the  corresponding  jio- 
sitiou  in  the  list  of  cities  assigned  to  the 
Simeouites  (cp.  Josh.  xix.  .5). 

Saph  [a  basin,  foundation,  threshold]. 

A  Philistine  giant,  slain  by  Sibbechai  in  a 
battle  at  Gob  (2  Sam.  xxi.  18).  Called  in  1 
Chron.  XX.  4  Sippai. 

Sa'pMr.    See  Shaphir. 

Sap-pM'ra  [beautiful,  or,  less  probably,  a 
sa])iihire]. 

The  wife  of  that  Ananias  who  was  struck 
dead  for  having  lied  unto  God.  She  shared 
her  husband's  sin  and  its  penalty  (Acts  v. 
1-10). 

Sap'phire. 

A  precious  stone  (Tobit  xiii.  16),  called  in 
Hebrevv  suppir.  in  Greek  stippheiros.  It  was 
the  middle  gem  in  the  second  row  of  the  high 
priest's  breastplate  (Ex.  xxviii.  18),  and 
adorned  the  .second  foundation  of  the  New 
Jerusalem  (Rev.  xxi.  19).  It  was  susceptible 
of  a  fine  polish  (Lam.  iv.  7),  and  was  of  great 
value  (Job  xxviii.  16 ;  cp.  Song.  v.  14  :  Is. 
liv.  11).  The  sapphire  is  one  of  the  three 
varieties  of  corundum,  the  others  being 
corundum  proper  and  emery.  It  is  of  a  blu- 
ish color,  and  transparent  or  translucent  (cp. 
Ex.  xxiv.  10).  -It  is  inferior  in  hardness  only 
to  the  diamond,  and  is  still  greatly  ])rized. 
The  ancients  obtained  it  from  India  and 
Ethiopia.  Fine  specimens  are  brought  from 
Ceylon. 

Sa'rah,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  twice  Sara  (Heb. 
xi.  11 ;  1  Pet.  iii.  6)  [a  princess]. 

1.  The  wife  of  Abraham,  ten  years  his 
junior,  married  to  him  in  Vr  of  the  Chal- 
dees  ((ieii.  xi.  28-31  ;  xvii.  17).  She  was  also 
his  half-sister,  being  the  daughter  of  his 
father,  but  not  of  his  mother  (xx.  12).  Her 
name  was  originally  Sarai,  meaning  perhajis 
l>rincely  or  contentious.  When  Abraham 
dei)arted  from  Ilaran  to  go  to  Canaaii,  Sarai 
was  al)Out  sixty-five  years  old  (xii.  4).  Evi- 
dently she  was  a  well-preserved  woTuan  :  for 
she  lived  to  be  one  hundred  and  twenty-seven 
years  old  ;  and  shortly  after  leaving  Ha  ran, 
when  about  to  enter  Egypt,  Abraham  feared 


Sarai 


647 


S argon 


lest  licr  beauty  should  attract  the  Egyptians 
and  lead  to  his  murder,  and  he  rf|)re.seiited 
that  she  was  liis  sister,  keejiinfj  l):ick  the  tact 
that  she  was  his  wife  (1<)--~'<I).  Years 
later  he  did  so  apiiu  at  the  court  of  Ahinie- 
h-ch.  kin^'  of  (Jerar  (xx.  1-lH).  Wiiy  he  did 
ho  is  niil  stated,  nor  is  it  said  that  AI)inieU'ch 
was  inllueiieed  hy  her  heauty.  The  kinj;  of 
ilerar  may  have  ihonjrlitof  the  desirability 
(if  an  alliance  with  the  jKiwerfiil  Hebrew 
ehieftain.  and,  with  tliis  end  in  view,  deter- 
mined t(»  take  a  woman  of  the  immediate 
family  of  Al)rahani  into  his  harem,  as  was 
freijueiitly  dom-  by  jirinces  of  that  jjcriod 
when  they  coneludeii  alliances.  JSarai  had 
a  female  slave,  llaj;iir,  l)Ut  she  herself 
wiirkeil  for  the  lioust'hold  with  her  own 
liand  (xviii.  (i).  Sarai  was  childless;  and 
v.hen  about  seventy-live  years  old  she  con- 
cluded that  she  was  an  obstacle  to  the 
l)romise  made  to  Al)raham  of  numerous  pos- 
terity, and  she  entreated  ln-r  liusband  to 
take  Iia<,'arasa  secondary  wife,  lie  did  so, 
jil)l)arently  without  askinj;  divine  direction 
b«'fore  doinjj  so,  and  became  the  father  of 
Ishmael  (xvi.  1-1(5).  Afterwards  Sarai.  when 
about  ei>rhty-nine,  received  a  jiromise  from 
(Jdd  that  she  should  lierscif  l)i'ar  a  son  (cj). 
Heb,  xi.  11,  1-J),  and  in  the  course  of  a  year 
jjave  birth  to  Isaac  the  child  of  promise.  It 
was  when  this  ])romise  was  made  to  her  that 
<i<>d  chani;e<l  her  name  to  Sarah,  meatiing 
lu-incess  ((ien.  xvii.  1.")  'J'i  ;  xviii.  9-1.") ;  xxi.  1- 
5).  When  I.saac  was  weaned,  his  j)arents  made 
a  great  feast,  at  which  Sarah  .saw  Ishmael, 
Hagar's  son.  mocking.  She  insisted  that  both 
mother  and  son  should  be  sent  away  (9-21). 
Sarah  died  at  Kirjath-arba  (Hebron)  at  the 
age  of  127  (xxiii.  1,  2),  and  was  biirii'd  in 
the  cave  of  Machi)elah,  which  Abraham  piir- 
eha.sed  at  that  time  for  a  family  .sepulclier. 

','.  For  Sarah  of  Num.  xxvi.  4(i,  A.  V.,  a 
dill'erent  word  in   Hebrew,   sec  Ser.\h. 

Sa'rai.     See  S.^kah  1. 

Sar'a-mel.     See  As.\u.\mi:l. 

Sa'raph  [burning,  fiery]. 

.\  descendant  f)f  Slielah.  the  s<in  of  .Tiidah. 
At  one  time  he  exercised  dciminion  in  Moab 
(1  Cbron.  iv. -22). 

Sar'dlne.    See  S.vkdii  s. 

Sar'dis. 

A  cily  first  of  the  Ma-onians  and  then  the 
<"il>ital  <if  Lydia  It  was  situated  at  tiie  foot 
of  mount  'iSnolus,  on  the  banks  of  the  river 
I'actolus,  a  tributary  of  the  Ilernnis.  Most 
of  the  city  was  on  a  somewhat  swampy  ])lain, 
hut  the  citadel  was  on  a  hill  flanked  on  <me 
side  hy  a  ])recipice.  It  was  the  cajiital  of  a 
very  fertih-  re;;ion.  ())U'  of  its  kings  was 
' 'ro'siis,  who  was  proverbial  for  his  wealth. 
In  .")Ui  n.  c.  it  was  cajitured  by  Cyrus  the 
•  Jreat,  and  afterwards  becanu'  the  seat  of  a 
Persian  sifnip.  The  burning  of  .Sardis  hy 
the  Athenians.  199  it.  c.  brought  on  the 
Persian   iuvasion  of  ( Jreeei-  in   the  reigns  of 


Darius  and  Xerxes.  In  334  B.  C.  it  sur- 
rendered to  Alexander  the  Great,  after  his 
victory  at  the  (iranicus.  In  214  n.  c.  it  was 
taken  by  Antiochus  the  (Jreat,  but  he  lost  it 
again,  al'ter  having  been  severely  del'eated,  in 
190  I?.  <•.,  by  the  Romans  at  the  battle  of 
Magnesia.  They  annexed  it  for  a  time  to 
the  kingdom  of  Pergamos,  hut  in  129  u.  c. 
constituted  the  Uoman  ]>rovim-e  of  Asia, 
within  the  lindts  of  which  Sardis  fell.  .lews 
dwelt  in  the  city  (Anti(|.  xiv.  10,  24),  and  a 
Christian  community  early  grew  up  there 
(Kev.  i.  11;  iii.  1,  4).  Sardis  (now  called 
Sert-Kale.ssi)  is  only  a  miserable  hamlet,  con- 
sisting of  a  few  houses.  Kut  there  are  re- 
mains in  its  vicinity  of  a  magnificent  temple, 
coming  down,  it  is  believed,  from  Lydiau 
times,  with  the  ruins  of  a  course  for  foot- 
racing, a  theater,  and  Christian  churches. 
The  citadel  is  of  .sandstone,  j)artly  rent 
asunder  as  if  by  one  of  the  earth(iuakes 
which  have  frequently  visited  the  region. 

Sar'di-us,  in  A.  V.  of  Kev.  iv.  3  Sardine. 

A  variety  of  chalcedony,  which  the  (irceks 
called  sardios  and  fninlion.  It  was  a  i)recious 
stone  (Kev.  iv.  3).  aiul  constituted  the  sixth 
foundation  of  the  wall  about  the  New  Jeru- 
salem (xxi.  20).  Two  sorts,  distinguished  hy 
their  color,  were  known  by  the  name  of 
sardius:  the  transjiarent  red  being  our  car- 
nelian  and  the  brownish  red  being  the  variety 
of  carnelian  to  which  we  restrict  the  name 
sardius.  According  to  Pliny,  it  was  found 
near  Sardis,  whence  it  derived  its  name,  but 
the  finest  (juiilities  were  bi'ought  from  Baliy- 
lon.  The  best  carnelians  now  ctmie  from 
India;  .some  also  occur  in  Arabia,  whence 
the  ancient  Hebrews  may  have  obtained 
them. 

In  the  O.  T.  sardius  is  the  rendering  of 
the  Hebrew  'Odem,  reddish  gem.  It  was  the 
first  stone  in  the  first  row  on  the  high  priest's 
l)reasti)latc  (Ex.  xxviii.  17),  and  was  one  of 
the  stones  with  which  Tyre  adorned  itself 
(I'^zek.  xxviii.  13).  The  marginal  rea<ling  is 
ruby,  but  the  Septuagint  renders  'oilem  by 
sanlion.  So  does  Josei)hus  in  <me  place 
(War  v.  .5,  7),  while  in  another  he  has  sar- 
donyx, which  is  but  another  variety  of  chal- 
cedony (.\nti(|.  iii.  7,  5). 

Sar'do-nyx. 

A  variety  of  chalcedony,  called  hy  the 
(Jreeks  nardtmnr.  finger-tuiil  onyx.  It  fonns 
the  fifth  foundation  of  the  wall  surroundiu"; 
the  New  .lertisalem  (Kev.  xxi.  -0).  It  is  like 
the  onyx  in  structure,  but  includes  layi'rs  of 
carnelian  along  with  others  of  white,  whitish- 
brown,  or  sometimes  of  black  color.  It  was 
obtained  chiellv  in  India  and  Arabia  (Pliny. 
Hist.  Nat.  xxxvii.  23). 

Sa-rep'ta.     See  ZAin:iMi.\Tii. 

Sar'gon  [Assyrian  Sharniiynni.  the  consti- 
tuted king]. 

A  king  of  .\ssyria.  mentioned  hy  natne  in 
Scrijittire  in  Is.  xx.  1  only.  He  suci-eeded 
the   last   .Shalmaneser.      He   was  ]>erbai>s   of 


Sargon 


648 


Satan 


royal  blood,  as  he  claims ;  but  it  is  believed 
that  he  nsiirpecl  the  throne,  assuminji  the 
naiiu'  (if  Sarj;<iii,  an  ancient  and  celchrated 
Hahylonian  kinj:?.  Jle  eitlier  .secured  tlie 
throne  and  then  couiiileted  the  siej^e  of  Sa- 
maria, wiiich  .Shahnanescr  had  begun  in  724 
H.  f.,  or  else  he  ascended  the  throne  innnedi- 
ately  after  the  fall  of  Israel's  capital,  and, 
jierhaiis  as  the  general  who  had  brought 
tliese  military  operations  to  a  successful  ter- 
mination, claimed  the  capture  as  an  act  of 
his  accession  year.  The  biblical  record  is 
not  clear  (2  Kin.  xvii.  l-(i).  The  ilebrew 
writer  relates  that  Shalmauesercame  against 
Iloshea,  and  proceeds  by  saying  that  the 
king  of  Assyria  found  conspiracy  in  Hoshea 
and  cast  him  into  itrison,  and  that  the  king 
of  Assyria  liesicged  .'^aniaria  three  years,  and 
in  tlie  nintli  year  of  Iloshea  took  the  city. 
Until  the  claim  of  Sargon  to  have  captured 
Samaria  came  to  light,  readers  of  the  Hebrew 
narrative  inferred  that  Shalmaneser  was  the 
couciueror  of  Samaria.  But  the  inference 
was  not  warranted,  for  the  writer  continues 
to  speak  of  the  king  of  As.syria,  where  it  is 
probable  that  he  does  not  mean  the  conqueror 
of  Samaria  (ver.  24,  2G,  27).  He  does  not 
specify  the  particular  king,  but  uses  the  gen- 
eral title  ;  and  when  he  recurs  to  the  siege, 
he  names  Shalmaneser  as  the  besieger,  but 
continues  by  saying,  "They  took  it"  (xviii. 
9,  ID).  At  any  rate,  Samaria  fell  in  the  clos- 
ing months  of  722  B.  c,  and  Sargon  ascended 
the  throne  on  the  12th  of  Tebet,  the  tenth 
month,  of  that  year.  Immediately  after  his 
accession,  the  Babylonians,  assisted  by  the 
Elamites,  revolted,  and  Sargon  was  for  a 
time  unable  to  reduce  them  to  subjection. 
In  720  the  remaining  Israelites  of  Samaria 
in  alliance  with  the  men  of  Hamath  rebelled, 
but  Sargon  subdued  them,  and  placed  captive 
Hamathites  as  colonists  in  Samaria.  In  the 
same  year  he  defeated  the  allied  forces  of 
Hanun,  king  of  Gaza  and  Sib'e,  better  known 
to  readers  of  the  Bible  as  So.  the  tartan  of 
Egypt  in  a  battle  fought  at  Rapbia.  Sargon 
took  Carcheniish,  the  ('ajjital  of  the  Hittites, 
in  717,  and  with  th(!  capture  of  their  capital 
the  empire  of  the  Hittites  fell.  In  716  his 
armies  waged  war  in  Armenia,  in  715  they 
were  still  engaged  in  war  in  Armenia,  and 
were  carrying  on  operations  in  Media.  In 
this  year  also  Arab  tribes  were  planted  as 
colonists  in  Samaria  by  his  orders,  and  he  re- 
ceived tribute  from  Pharaoh  of  Egypt.  He 
boasts  of  having  subjugated  Judah.  Tlie 
tablet  on  which  this  boast  appears  was  in- 
scribed before  the  close  of  714,  to  judge  from 
its  contents.  The  combined  Assyrian  and 
Helirew  data  ]ioint  to  the  end  of  71.">  or  the 
beginning  of  714  as  the  date  wlien  Hezekiah 
acknowledged  the  suzerainty  of  Assyriii  by 
beginning  to  pay  tribute.  ISIerodach-baladan 
incited  the  nations  from  Elam  to  the  Aledi- 
terranean  Sea  to  revolt  from  Assyria.  In  711, 
therefore.  Sargon  dispatche(l  trof)]is  against 
Ashdod,  and  in  710  he  cajjtured  Babylon  and 


assumed  the  title  of  king  of  Babylon.  He 
began  to  erect  a  new  jialace  and  town  10 
miles  northeast  of  Nineveh  in  712  and  named 
it  Dur-sharrukin,  Sargonsburg.  The  ruins 
are  known  as  Khor.sabad  ;  see  Ninevkh. 
He  took  up  his  residence  there  about  707. 
He  was  murdered  in  70.5  and  was  succeeded 
by  his  son  Sennacherib. 

Sa'rid  [survivor]. 

A  village  on  the  southern  frontier  of  Zebu- 
lun  {.Josh.  xix.  10,  12).  Conder,  reading  with 
Septuagint  and  Syriac  version  d  instead  of 
r,  places  it  doubtfully  at  Tell  Shadud,  on  the 
norlhern  part  of  the  plain  of  Esdraelou,  5 
miles  soutiiwest  of  Nazareth. 

Sa'ron.     See  Sh.vkon. 

Sar'se-chim. 

One  of  Nebuchadnezzar's  princes  who  en- 
tered Jerusalem  (Jer.  xxxix.  3). 

Sa'ruch.    See  Serug. 

Sa'tan  [Hebrew  satan,  an  adver.sarv]. 

The  devil  (Mat.  iv.'l  with  10,  11  ;  Mark  i. 
13) ;  preeminently  "  the  adversary  "  (Job  i.  6 ; 
Zech.  iii.  1,  margin),  because  animated  by 
a  disposition  hostile  to  all  goodness  and 
the  chief  opponent  of  God  and  man  (Job  ii. 
3;  Luke  xxii.  3;  cp.  1  Chron.  xxi.  1  and  Ps. 
cix.  6,  but  see  E.  V.),  aiming  to  undo  the 
work  of  God  (Mark  iv.  15),  seeking  to  per- 
suade men  to  sin  (Luke  xxii.  3;  Acts  v.  3; 
xxvi.  18),  desirous  of  leading  them  to  re- 
nounce God  (Job  ii.  5 ;  Mat.  iv.  9,  10),  and 
endeavoring  to  prevent  their  acceptance  and 
salvation  by  God  (Zech.  iii.  1,  2).  He  is  some- 
times influential  in  bringing  about  physical 
sickness,  pecuniary  loss,  bereavement  (Job  i. 
11-22;  ii.  4-7;  Luke  xiii.  IG).  He  is,  how- 
ever, under  the  control  of  God.  Only  by 
God's  permission  can  he  pursue  his  malicious 
designs  (Job  i.  12 ;  ii.  5,  6 ;  Luke  xxii.  .32). 
When  permission  is  grant<?d  him  to  carry 
out  his  evil  plots,  it  is  only  that  he  may  be- 
come an  instrument  in  furthering  the  divine 
plan.  In  Job's  case,  the  vain  efforts  of  Satan 
to  induce  the  patriargh  to  sin  resulted  in  dis- 
ciplining his  character  and  maturing  his  faith 
in  God.  In  the  fully  revealed  doctrine  of 
Satan,  which  is  seen  in  the  N.  T.,  he  is  the 
god  of  this  world  who  has  access  to  the  hearts 
of  men.  deceives  them,  and  receives  tlieir 
witting  or  unwitting  obedience  (Luke  xxii. 
3  ;  Acts  V.  3 ;  xxvi.  18  ;  2  Cor.  iv.  4  ;  2  Thes. 
ii.  9  ;  Eev.  xii.  9).  He  is  the  ruler  of  a  king- 
dom, having  principalities,  powers,  and  de- 
mons under  him  (Mat.  xii.  24,  26 ;  Luke  xi. 
18  ;  Rev.  xii.  7). 

Satan  was  the  seducer  of  Adam  and  Eve 
(2  Cor.  xi.  3  ;  Eev.  xii.  9).  Tliis  fact  may 
have  become  known  to  them.  If  not,  it  was 
discerned  as  soon  as  the  existence  of  the 
devil  and  his  work  became  known,  for  the 
temptation  of  Eve  came  from  without  through 
the  jiersuasions  of  an  irrational  crt'ature. 
The  malignant  spirit  behind  the  serjieiit, 
hostile  to  good,  seeking  to  undo  the  work  of 


Satrap 


649 


Saul 


God,  and  siipornaturally  lending  speech  to  the 
rejitile,  or  rdniiiHiiiicatinfi  witli  thtr  mind  of 
tin-  woman,  so  that  slic  tiioiifilit  slic  hi-ard 
artii'uhito  spcecli,  was  evidently  Satan.  This 
(Ku'trine  went  luind  in  liand  witli  tiie 
doetrine  eoneerninjj  tlie  devil,  and  received 
tlie  liifihest  sanction  (Wisd.  ii.  2-J  ;  John 
viii.  11;  Koni.  xvi.  20;  2  Cor.  si.  3;  Kev. 
xii.  !») ;  see  Skki'KNT.  Satan  jn'odueed  de- 
moniacal possession  (Mat.  xii.  22-29;  Mark 
iii.  22-27;  Lnke  xi.  11  23).  He  api)roaehe(l 
Jesus  with  temptation  (Mat.  iv.  1-11).  He 
steals  the  word  from  the  lieart  of  the  igno- 
rant or  inattentive  liearer  (Mark  iv.  ir>).  He 
enteri'd  into  the  heart  of  Judas  hefore  the 
comnii.ssion  of  tlie  great  crime  (Lnke  xxii.  3; 
.lolm  xiii.  27).  He  had  to  do  with  Peter's 
fall  (Luke  xxii.  31).  It  was  under  tem]>ta- 
tiiin  l)v  .Satan  that  Ananias  and  Sai)phira  lied 
to  the"  Holy  (iliost  (Acts  v.  3).  He  hindered 
I'aul  in  his  ministry  (1  Thes.  ii.  IS),  having 
j)reviously  sent  u  messenger  to  bullet  him 
(2  Cor.  xii.  7).  Perganios,  where  a  faitliful 
Christian,  Antipas,  sutlered  martyrdom,  was 
a  jilace  where  Satan  dwelt  (Kev.  ii.  i:;|. 
Men  with  hearts  unchanged  are  under  Satan's 
j)ower  (Acts  xxvi.  IS).  An  assembly  of  those 
who  have  grievously  erred  from  the  faith, 
and  iierha]>s  from  morality,  is  the  synagogue 
of  .Sitan  (Kev.  ii.  !» ;  iii.  !» ;  ci>.  1  Tim.  v.  15). 
Those  who  are  exiielkd  from  the  church  are 
said  to  be  delivered  to  Satan  ;  but  this  is  de- 
signed to  ])roducc  their  reformation,  and  not 
their  destruction  (1  Cor.  v.  .^> ;  1  Tim.  1.20). 
There  are  depths  in  Satan  which  inexperi- 
enced Christians  fail  to  fathom  (Rev.  ii.  24). 
He  is,  moreover,  so  ])lansible  that  he  seems 
to  be  an  angel  of  light  (2  Cor.  xi.  14).  He 
sometimes  gains  advantages  over  Christians 
(ii.  11),  but  he  shall  ultimately  be  bruised 
under  their  feet  (Rom.  xvi.  20).  He  is  the 
real  agent  in  the  opc-nitions  carried  on  by 
tlie  man  of  .sin  (2  Thes.  ii.  1-12),  but  the  day 
will  come  when,  after  a  temjiorary  triumj)!!, 
Satan  shall  be  ex]iellc(l  from  the  eartli,  and, 
being  bound,  shall  be  east  into  the  aby.ss 
(Rev.  xii.  i);  xx.   1,   2).     See  DfA'IL. 

Simon  Peter  was  called  Satan  when  he 
took  it  u])on  him  to  contradict  Christ's  jirojih- 
ecy  of  his  death  and  resurrection,  for  he 
wasii  stumbling-block  to  Christ,  oppo.sed  him, 
and  miiiiled  not  the  things  of  God  (Mat.  xvi. 
23;   .Mark  viii.  33). 

Sa'trap  [tVcini  Per.sian  l-hshiitniii<hra)i,  ab- 
brfviiiti-d  kUsUiih-npii,  protector  of  the  land, 
in    llelirc'W  '••husliilniinni]. 

The  ollicial  title  of  tlie  viceroy,  who,  in 
behalf  of  the  Persian  monarch,  exercised 
the  civil  and  military  authority  in  .several 
small  jirovinces  coiiil>ined  in  one  f;overnnient. 
Kacb  of  tbese  provinces  had  its  own  governor 
(F./.ni  viii.  .3(i  and  lOsth.  iii.  12,  in  A.  \'.  lien- 
tenant).  The  title  is  used  in  .\raniaic  his- 
torical documents  written  after  the  Persian 
eon(|iiest,  in  referring  to  high  oflicials  of  the 
Babylonian  empire  and  of  the  kingdom  ruled 


by  Darius  the  Mede  (Dan.  iii.  2  and  vi.  1,  in 
A.  V.  prince). 

Sa'tyr. 

A  sylvan  god  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans, 
a  com]panioii  of  Jiaccbus.  At  first  he  was 
reiiresenled  with  long-jiointed  ears,  snub  no.se, 
and  goat's  tail.  At  a  later  jieriod  goat's  legs 
were  added.  He  was  sui)posed  to  possess  a 
half  brutal  and  lustful  nature.  .Satyr  is  the 
rendering  of  tlie  Hebrew  N";'/',  lie  goat,  and 
is  ai)i)lied  to  wild  animals  or  demons  which 
should  dance  among  the  ruins  of  i'abylon 
(Is.  xiii.  21)  and  of  the  Edomite  cities  (xxxiv. 
14).  The  word  commonly  signilies  ;i  he  goat. 
In  two  passages  it  denotes  an  object  of  idola- 
trous worship  (Lev.  xvii.  7  ;  2  Chron.  xi.  15, 
both  R.  v.).  In  the  latter  ])lace  it  is  mentioned 
with  calf  idols,  suggesting  that  it  refers  to  idols 
liaviug  the  likeness  of  goats.  In  Is.  xiii.  21,  22 
it  isa.ssociated  with  wild  animals,  in  xxxiv.  14 
with  a  creature  of  the  night  also,  which  may 
be  either  some  nocturnal  animal  (in  A.  V. 
the  screech  owl)  or  a  nocturnal  demon  ;  see 
Night  Monstkr.  In  the  adaiitation  of 
Isaiah's  words  in  Revi'lation,  the  language  is 
(jnoted  from  the  Sciituagint  and  the  word 
(lemons  is  used  (Kev.  xviii.  2,  R.  \.).  Accord- 
ingly, interpreters  disjuite  whetlier  the  He- 
brew prophet  meant  that  wild  goats,  ostriches, 
wolves,  jackals,  and  other  bea.sts  of  the  desert 
sliould  wander  among  tlie  forsaken  ruins,  or 
whether  he  introduced  into  the  iiiiagery  of 
his  i)oetic  description  a  pojiular  belief  in  de- 
mons which  apjieared  in  the  form  of  goats 
and  haunted  desert  places. 

Saul  [asked  (of  God)]. 

1.  A  kingof  Edom,  from  Rehoboth,  on  the 
Euphrates  (Gen.  xxxvi.  37,  38,  in  Ii.  V. 
Shanl). 

2.  The  first  king  of  Israel,  son  of  Kish,  a 
Beiijamite  ;  see  Kisii.  The  projihet  Samuel 
had  grown  old  ;  his  sons  showed  by  their  con- 
duct that  they  did  not  ]iossess  his  upright 
character  and  could  not  carry  on  his  work  ; 
and  the  surrounding  nations  were  evidently 
ready  to  harass  and  opjiress  Israel  ( 1  Sam.  viii. 
1,  3,  20  ;  xii.  12).  The  eldei-s  of  Israel  accord- 
ingly came  to  Samuel  and  demanded  tliat  the 
form  of  government  be  changed  and  tliat  a 
visible  king  be  set  over  tlieni.  so  that  tliey 
might  be  like  the  well-organized  nations 
about  them,  and  have  one  who  could  lead 
them  tfi  victory  over  their  foes  iviii.  4,  5,  1!», 
20).  Althoiiirh  the  ultimate  organization  of 
the  Hebrews  as  a  kingdom,  with  an  earthly 
monarch  as  the  rejiresi'iilative  of  Jehovah, 
had  long  lieen  contem]ilated  ((ien.  xvii.  ti, 
l(i;  XXXV.  11;  Dent.  xvii.  14-2(M.  yet  the 
spirit  of  the  jieojile  in  demanding  a  king  at 
tiiis  crisis  was  irreligious.  Tliey  lacked 
aliiding  faith  in  Cod,  without  which  the  rule 
of  .Icliovah  as  tlieocralic  king  was  impossi- 
ble. They  were  turning  from  faith  in  the 
invisible'  (lod  to  i>nt  conlidence  in  a  visible 
king.  I?y  diviin'  direction  Samuel  informed 
(he  elders  what  the  ])eoiile  would  have  to  en- 


Saul 


650 


Saul 


dure  from  a  king,  but  on  their  jjcrsisting  in 
thoir  (leniaiul,  he  jiioinised  to  do  as  they  de- 
sirod  and  disiiiissfd  tliein. 

The  drvutiou  of  Said  to  the  throne.  About 
this  time  the  asses  of  Kish,  a  Benjaniite, 
went  astray,  and  liis  son,  Saul,  was  sent  to 
seek  thcni.  Saul  was  at  the  time  a  young 
man,  ])frliaps  thirty-live  years  old  ;  and  he 
was  liead  and  shoulders  taller  than  any  of  the 
])eoi)le.  Not  finding  the  asses,  after  three 
days'  search,  he  was  aboiit  to  give  up  the 
quest  and  return  home.  Ilis  servant,  how- 
ever, suggested  one  further  ett'ort.  Persons 
af  whom  the  .servant  made  inquiry  concern- 
hig  the  asses  probably  told  him  that  there 
was  a  man  of  (rod  in  the  neighboring  city 
who  might  give  the  desired  information,  and 
he  jiersuaded  S;iul  to  go  to  him.  The  man 
of  (iod  was  Samuel,  who  had  been  told  by 
God  to  expect  a  Benjaniite  and  to  anoint  him 
prince  over  Israel.  Saul  and  his  family  in 
Gibeah  knew  Samuel  well  by  report  (1  Sam. 
X.  14-16),  but  Saul  seems  not  to  have  met  the 
prophet  before  and  not  to  have  understood 
that  Samuel  was  the  man  of  God  of  whom 
the  people  si)ake.  He  refers  to  him  as  the 
man  (ix.  7),  and  on  meeting  him  at  the  city 
gate  does  not  know  him  (18,  19).  Samuel  in- 
formed Saul  that  the  asses  had  been  recov- 
ered, intimated  to  him  that  he  would bechosen 
king,  and  put  him  in  the  place  of  honor  at 
the  sacrificial  feast  which  he  was  about  to 
celebrate.  Next  morning,  as  the  guest  was 
leaving  the  town,  the  prophet  took  a  vial  of 
oil,  poured  it  u^ion  his  head,  and  having 
kissed  him,  said,  "  Is  it  not  that  the  Lord 
hath  anointed  thee  to  be  prince  over  his  in- 
heritance?" and  charged  him  not  to  disclose 
the  secret,  to  go  to  Gilgal  at  the  proper  time 
and  tarry  there  seven  days,  until  he  himself 
should  couK'  and  offer  sacrifice  and  give  in- 
struction (ix.  2(}-x.  1(5).  Samuel  soon  sum- 
moned the  people  to  Mizpah.  The  choice  was 
left  to  God.  'I^he  lot  was  ('ast.  and  Saul  was 
chosen.  But  lie  had  liidden  himself.  When 
he  was  brought  from  his  hiding  place  and  stood 
forth,  towering  above  the  multitude,  he  was 
received  with  enthusiasm.  God  had  selected 
a  man  of  fine  appearance  in  order  to  win  the 
admiration  and  confidence  of  all  the  Israel- 
ites, and  a  man  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin, 
which  stood  on  the  border  between  Ephi'aim 
and  Judah,  in  order  to  satisfy  both  north  and 
south.  Samuel  had  committed  the  choice  to 
God  in  order  to  secure  the  allegiance  of  the 
godly  men  for  the  king.  A  large  company  of 
men,  obedient  to  God,  escorted  Saul  home ;  but 
certain  men  of  Belial  were  nevertheless  dissat- 
isfied, and  Saul  retired  to  i>rivate  life  until 
privat(>  jealousies  .should  be  overcome.  He 
devoted  himself  to  the  cultivation  of  his 
father's  fields.  A  mouth  later  (x.  27,  R.  V. 
margin)  the  town  of  .Tabesh  in  Gilead  was 
straitly  besieged  by  the  Ammonites.  At  the 
request  of  the  citizens,  the  l>esiegers  scorn- 
fully granted  a  truce  of  seven  days  in  order 
that  the  townspeople  might  invoke  the  aid 


of  their  fellow-countrymen.  Tlie  messen- 
gers, or  some  of  them,  came  to  Gibeah  with 
their  mournful  story.  Saul  heard  it  when 
he  returned  from  the  field.  The  Si>irii  of 
God  stirred  him.  He  sent  summons  to  the 
tribes  to  follow  him  and  Samuel  to  the  rescue 
of  their  imperiled  brethren.  Jahesh  was  re- 
lieved. The  people  asked  where  were  tliey 
wlio  had  refused  to  recognize  Saul  as  king, 
and  they  carried  Saul  to  Gilgal,  the  nearest 
place  of  customary  sacrifice,  where  he  was 
inducted  into  oflice  and  Samuel  laid  down 
liis  judgeship  (xi.  1-xii.  2.5);  see  Sajuei,, 
Books  of. 

The  reujn  of  Saul.  The  age  of  Saul 
when  he  began  to  reign  is  unknown,  as  the 
He1)rew  text  of  1  Sam.  xiii.  1  is  defective, 
the  numeral  being  omitted.  The  nund)er 
thirty  is  derived  from  the  Septuagint.  He 
was  at  any  rate  old  enough  to  have  a  sou 
capable  of  holding  a  military  command.  Saul 
established  a  small  standing  army  of  3(X)0 
men  ;  2000  of  these  were  with  him  at  ilich- 
mash  and  Bethel,  and  1000  were  stationed 
with  Jonathan  at  Gibeah  (xiii.  2).  Jonathan 
smote  a  Philistine  garrison,  or  i-ather  deputy, 
at  Geba  (3) ;  see  Garrison.  The  Philistines 
heard  thereof,  and  held  the  Israelites  in 
abomination.  The  Israelites,  learning  of 
their  danger,  responded  to  Saul's  summons  to 
assemble  at  Gilgal  (3,  4),  whither  Samuel  had 
promised  to  come  in  this  emergency  and  en- 
treat the  favor  of  the  Lord  (8,  11,  12;  x.  8). 
A  Philistine  army  advanced  into  the  land  of 
Israel  and  pitched  at  Michmash.  Great  fear 
seized  the  Tsraelites,  Samuel  intentionally 
delayed  to  appear,  the  people  began  to  scatter 
and  leave  the  king,  and  a  descent  of  the 
Philistines  upon  Saul  and  his  decreasing 
forces  seemed  imminent  (xiii.  8,  11,  12)  ;  and 
therefore  Saul  presumed  to  conduct  the  .sac- 
rifice. But  Samuel  came,  rebuked  the  king 
for  ti'ansgressing  God's  command  (x.  8),  and 
declared  that  Saul  on  account  of  his  disobedi- 
ence should  not  found  a  dynasty  (xiii.  9- 14). 
Samuel  went  u])  to  Saul's  town  of  Gibeah, 
where  he  would  be  near  the  king.  Saul  and 
Jonathan  took  post  at  Geba  of  Benjamin, 
while  the  Philistines  lay  encamped  at  Mich- 
masli.  By  a  feat  of  valor,  Jonathan  started 
a  panic  in  the  garri.sou  of  the  Philistines, 
which  spread  to  their  camp  and  to  their 
l>rowling  bands.  Saul  took  advantage  of  it, 
and  secured  a  victory  (xiii.  l.l-xiv.  46). 
Afterwards  Samuel  directed  Saul  to  wage 
a  war  of  extermination  against  the  Amalek- 
ites.  Saul  undertook  the  war,  but  he  spared 
the  best  of  the  cattle  to  sacrifice  to  the  Lord 
at  Gilgal,  and  also  saved  their  king.  For 
this  second  act  of  disobedience,  by  which  he 
showed  that  he  could  not  be  trusted  to  act  as 
God's  instrument,  but  desired  to  assert  his 
own  will  in  God's  kingdom,  he  was  rejected 
from  being  king  (xv.  1-.3.5) ;  see  SAMfKL, 
Books  ok.  Samuel,  therefore,  was  sent  to 
Bethlehem  to  anoint  David  king  (xvi.  1-1.'5). 
The  Spirit  of  the  Lord  now  departed  from 


Saul 


Col 


Saviour 


Saul,  aud  he  began  to  be  troubled  by  an  evil 
.-ipirit.  A  li:ii-|)i'r  was  rcqiiiivd  to  cliariii  away 
bis  nu-laiicliuly  niadiicss,  and  David  was  so- 
Ictted  to  discharge  tin-  duty  (11  L':5).  Tlie 
plaudits  with  which  the  youthful  son  of  Jesse 
was  welfouicd  on  returninj;  from  liis  jireat 
victory  over  (iolialh  so  excited  Saul's  jeal- 
ousy tliat  In  fore  loii;itlie  hero  was  a  fu^ritive, 
jairsuetl  with  rek'Utless  fury  by  the  now  viu- 
tlictive  monarch  (xvii.-xxx.)  ;  see  David. 
At  last  the  end  came.  The  Philistines,  in- 
vading the  Israelite  territory,  pitched  in 
Slniuciii,  near  the  valley  i>i'  Jezreel.  Saul, 
following  to  give  them  Ijattle,  established  his 
head<iuarlers  on  the  slojie  of  mount  (lilboa. 
Sad  fori'bodings  of  his  fate  troubling  liini,  he 
made  a  night  Journey  (|uite  close  to  the  I'hi- 
listine  canip.  to  Kn-dor,  where  lived  a  woman 
who  was  reputeil  to  have  tin-  i)ower  of  calling 
up  even  tliedead,  and  he  was  there  informed 
that  he  and  his  sons  should  perisli  on  tlie 
morrow  (xxviii.  12")).  The  nioirow  came, 
and  the  battle  began.  The  riiilistine  archers 
did  great  execution  in  the  Israelite  ranks. 
They  slew  three  of  Saul's  .sons,  including  the 
elilest,  the  unsellish  and  heroic  Jonathan. 
They  seri<jusly  wounded  Saul  himself,  on 
which  he  called  to  bis  arnior-liearer  to  thrust 
him  through.  The  young  man  declined  the 
responsibility,  wliereupon  the  erring  monarch 
fell  upon  his  sword,  and  died.  The  victori- 
ous I'liilistines.  finding  his  corpse,  .severed 
the  bead  from  the  body,  and  allixed  the  lat- 
ter, with  the  bodii's  of  his  sons,  to  the  wall 
of  Beth-shean.  A\hilst  they  sent  his  arnutr  as 
a  trophy  to  be  kept  in  the  temple  ol'  Ashtaroth. 
The  men  of  Jabesh-gilead,  whom  Saul  had 
sjived  in  the  early  i)art  of  his  reign,  feeling 
gratitude  for  their  deliverance,  crossed  the 
.Ionian  by  night  to  Ueth-shean.  took  down 
the  bodies,  and  gave  them  honorable  inter- 
ment, while  David  mourned  the  fate  of  the 
Lord's  anointed  and  the  beloved  Jonathan 
in  ]ilaintivc  jioctry  (xxxi. ;  2  Sam.  i.).  The 
leiiglii  of  Saul's  reign  is  not  stated  in  theO.T., 
t>ut  l)oth  I'aiil  and  Josephusare  able  to  assign 
it  forty  years  (Acts  xiii.  21 ;  Anti(i.  vi.  14,  9). 
t^aiil  and  the  vonidu  of  En-dor.  The  old 
man  covered  with  a  rolu-,  who  figures  in  the 
interview  between  the  woman  of  I"n-dor  and 
Saul  (1  Sam.  xxviii.  lilil).  has  been  explained 
in  three  ililferent  ways.  He  was  the  woman's 
ac<'om]>lice.  and  when  he  apjieared  she  uttered 
a  loud  cry,  and  she  i)r<)noiinced  the  man  who 
had  come  to  seek  her  aid  to  lie  S:iul.  The 
loud  cry  was  her  customary  trick.  She  knew 
that  tlu'  king  was  in  the  neighborhood,  and 
.she  had  at  once  detecleil  tliat  her  visitor  was 
lie,  in  his  tall  stature,  in  bis  bearing,  in  his 
Words,  and  in  the  manner  of  his  attendants. 
( »r  el.se  the  apjiearance  was  a  siiirit,  (piile  un- 
expect<'d  by  her,  at  whicli  she  utten'd  a 
loud  cry,  liecause  she  was  really  startled.  If 
an  unexpected  a|i|iearance.  it  was  either  the 
devil,  as  laitber  and  Calvin  believed,  aud  as 
thost'  understancl  who  think  that  certain  ])he- 
Uoinena  of  ancient  sorcerv  and   modern  >]>\v- 


itualism  are  due  to  Satanic  agency  (see  Devil 
and  DKAroN'i.\c'),  or  else  Samuel,  reappearing 
as  did  .Moses  and  Klijali  on  tlu-  mount  of 
Transfiguration  (1  Chron.  x.  II),  Sei)tuagint 
Ecclus.  xlvi.  20),  and  so  most  of  the  evangel- 
ical interpreters  since  the  Reformation.  The 
basis  for  the  o])inion  that  Samuel  ajipeared  is 
that  the  narrator  itfers  to  the  jierson  as 
though  he  is  Samuel  (1  Sam.  xxviii.  11. 
15,  1(),  20),  and  that  the  words  .spoken  by 
him  were  fulfilled.  The  biblical  recorder 
simply  describes  what  occurred.  It  is  to 
be  noted  that  tjie  woman  was  a  law- 
breaker, and  was  also  condemned  by  the 
religion  of  Jehovah.  Moreover,  she  alone 
saw  the  ai)parition,  and  she  described  the 
appearance  in  most  vague  terni.s — an  old 
man  ri.sing  from  the  earth  and  covered  with 
a  robe.  This  description  would  a]ii)ly  to  any 
aged  person,  but  Saul  concluded  that  Samuel 
had  really  ai>peared.  The  words  which  were 
uttered  by  the  robed  figure  boldly  forecast 
the  future  as  a  fortune  teller  does  or  else 
jiredicted  it  with  full  knowledge.  The  words 
came  true,  but  tluy  were  in  part  fulfilled  by 
Saul's  own  deliberate  act.  If  Samuel  liim- 
self  apjx'ared.  then  this  is  the  sole  instance 
recortled  in  Serijjture  where  the  spirit  of  a 
dejiarted  saint  has  returned  to  earth  and 
conversed  with  men,  since  the  case  of  Moses 
and  Elijah  in  converse  with  the  transfigured 
Christ  is  not  analogous.  Moreover,  it  would 
be  strange,  indeed,  if.  after  Cod  liad  refused  to 
answer  Saul,  either  by  dreams  or  by  iiroidicts, 
his  servant  J-^anuiel  should  ajijiiar.  and  espe- 
cially if  he  should  aiii)ear  at  an  interview 
strictly  forbidden  by  Cod.  and  at  tlie  behest 
of  a  woman  who  was  condemned  alike  by 
the  law  of  the  land  and  by  the  law  of  God 
(Kx.  xxii.  IS;  I,i>v.  XX.  27:  Dent,  xviii.  10- 
14;  1  Sam.  xxviii.  .'},  9;  1  Chron.  x.  l.'J). 

3.  The  original  name  of  the  apostle  Paul 
(Acts  vii.  58  ;  xiii.  9). 

Sav'iour. 

One  who  .saves  from  any  evil  or  danger 
(2  Kin.  xiii.  5;  Neb.  ix.  27l'.  In  the  O.  T.  it 
iss])ecially  used  of  (Jod,  Jehovah,  viewed  as  the 
deliverer  of  his  chosen  jieople  Israel  (2  Sam. 
xxii.  :5;  Ps.  cvi.  21  ;  Is.  xliii.  :{,  11:  xlv.  l.">. 
21 ;  xlix.  2(i ;  Ixiii.  b;  Jer.  xiv.  8  ;  Ilos.  xiii.  4). 
Tlie  (J reek  word  sotcr,  preserver,  deliverer 
(Herod,  vii.  l.'iO),  is  used  by  the  clas.sieal 
writers  specially  of  their  gods,  though  some- 
tiniesa  king  assumed  the  title,  as  did  Ptolemy 
Soterand  Denu'trius  I.  In  IheX.  T.  it  is  used 
of  (lod  the  Father  (1  Tim.  i.  1  ;  iv.  Id;  Titus 
i.  .'{;  iii.  4  :  Jude  25).  but  esjiecially  id' Jesus 
Christ  the. Son,  who  saves  his  peoj)le  from  their 
sins  (Mat.  i.  21 1.  delivering  them  out  of  their 
sinful  condition  and  misery,  frciiu  guill,  the 
wrath  of  (Jod.  the  jiower  of  sin  and  the  <lo- 
niinion  of  Satan,  and  bringing  them  into  a 
state  of  Sill  vation  in  blesserl  comnuinion  with 
(iod  ll.uke  xix.  H>;  .Acts  v.  31  :  Kom,  v.  S- 
11  :  Phil.  iii.  20.  21  :  1  Tim.  i.  15;  2  Tim.  i. 
10;  Tit.  ii.  KS.  14  ;  Heb.  vii.  25). 


Saw 


652 


School 


Saw. 

A  toothed  tool  for  cutting  wood  and  for 
shiii>ing  stone  (1  Kin.  vii.  it ;  Is.  x.  15).  Vic- 
tims of  ])i'rs('cu(iM.i?  nij^i;  were  sometimes 
sawn  asunder  (llel).  xi.  :!7).  If  David  cut 
tile  Ammonites  of  Kat)hali,  and  otiier  towns 
wiiich  fell  into  liis  hands,  witii  saws,  liarrows, 
and  axes  (2  Sam.  xii.  31  ;  I  Ciiron.  xx.  3),  it 
was  an  act  of  exeeidional  .severity  on  his 
part,  and  foreign  to  all  else  that  is  l<nown  of 
his  character.  A  chan>;e  of  resh  to  mem  in 
the  verb  used  in  Chronicles,  and  of  resli  to 
daleth  in  the  verb  in  Samnel,  would  make 
the  record  state  that  David  exacted  labor 
from  the  captives  (2  Sam.  xii.  31,  E.  V. 
margin). 

The  saws  used  by  the  ancient  Egyptians 
had.  so  far  as  known,  but  one  handle.  The 
blade  was  usually  of  bronze,  let  into  the 
handle  or  bound  to  it  by  thongs.  The  teeth 
commonly  inclined  toward  the  handle.  The 
wood  was  placed  perpendicularly  in  a  frame, 
and  was  sawn  downward.  The  Assyrians 
used  a  double-haudled  saw  also,  with  a  blade 
of  iron. 

Scape 'goat.    See  Azazel. 

Scarlet. 

A  bright,  rich  crimson,  not  the  hue  of  re- 
cent origin  known  as  scarlet.  The  coloring 
matter  was  obtained  by  the  Israelites  from 
an  insect  {Coccns  ilicis),  called  kermez  by  the 
Arabs,  whence  the  English  word  crimson  is 
derived.  The  insect  abounds  in  Palestine  on 
the  holm  oak  {Quercns  coccifera).  The  fe- 
male alone  yields  the  coloring  matter.  She 
attains  the  form  and  size  of  an  ordinary  pea, 
is  violet-black  in  color,  covered  with  a  whit- 
ish powder,  and  wingless.  Filled  with  eggs 
containing  red  matt(n-,  she  adheres  to  the 
leaves  and  twigs  of  the  oak,  and  feeds  on  its 
juices.  From  the  resemblance  of  the  insect 
to  a  berry,  the  Greeks  called  it  kokkos,  berry. 
It  is  related  to  the  cocdiiueal  insect  of  Mexico 
(ro<r)(s-  ciicti)  ;  t  hut  it  yields  a  much  less 
valuable  dye,  and  has  been  supplanted  com- 
mercially by  its  Mexican  congener.  The 
color  was  called  by  the  Hebrews  shani,  bright- 
ness, crimson,  sh'ni  tola'ath,  brightness  of  the 
worm,  worm  crimson,  t.oln'nlli  sIkuii,  worm  of 
brightness,  crimson  worm,  t<il<(\  worm,  and 
in  Greek  kokkinon,  pertaining  to  the  coccus. 

The  color  and  the  method  of  obtaining  it 
were  cai'ly  known  (Cii-n.  xxxviii.  28).  It 
was  much  used  in  the  hangings  of  the  taber- 
nacle and  in  the  high  ])riest's  vestments.  It 
was  employed  in  the  ceremony  attending  the 
purification  of  the  leper,  and  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  water  of  separation  (Lev.  xiv.  4 ; 
Num.  xix.  6;  Heb.  ix.  19). 

Scep'ter. 

A  rod  held  in  the  hands  of  kings  as  a  token 
of  authority  (Ps.  xlv.  6  ;  Amos  i.  5  ;  Wisd. 
X.  14;  Heb.  i.  8;  War  i.  33,  9).  It  has  been 
used  from  time  immemorial.  The  statl'  was 
not,  however,  a  symbol  of  royal  sovereignty 
exclusively.      It  might  be   carried   by   any 


leader  (Judg.  v.  14,  E.  V.  ;  Baruch  vi.  14), 
among  the  Greeks  by  kings,  judges,  heralds, 
and  speakers  given  the  lloor  by  the  herald 
(Iliad  i.  238;  ii.  100;  vii.  277;'xxiii.  nm). 
Nor  is  the  Hebrew  name  nht'bii  a  specific 
term,  but  it  denotes  any  rod,  sucii  as  the 
walking  stick,  which  was  often  carried  as  a 
mark  of  dignity  (Gen.  xxxviii.  18),  the  shep- 
herd's stall"  (Lev.  xxvii.  32;  Ps.  xxiii.  4; 
Mic.  vii.  14),  or  the  rod  used  in  threshing 
(Himmin  (Is.  xxviii.  27).  The  royal  scepter 
was  doubtless  often  of  wood.  The  scepter 
of  Ahasuerus  was  made  of  gold  (Esth.  iv.  11), 
and  so  too  was  the  famed  scejiter  of  Aga- 
memnon (Iliad  ii.  100).  A  reed  was  placed  in 
Christ's  hand  when  he  was  mocked  as  king 
(Mai.  xxvii.  29). 

Sce'va. 

A  member  of  one  of  the  Jewish  families 
from  which  the  high  priests  were  ordinarily 
chosen.  His  seven  sons  were  exorcists  (Acts 
xix.  14). 

School. 

There  were  no  schools  for  children  in 
ancient  Israel.  But  instruction  was  not 
lacking.  Parents  gave  their  children  re- 
ligious instruction  (Gen.  xviii.  19 ;  Deut.  vi. 
7;  Susanna  3;  2  Tim.  iii.  15).  The  older 
people  had  opportunity  for  obtaining  further 
knowledge  from  the  priests  and  Levites,  who 
could  be  found  at  the  sanctuary  and  in  the 
towns  assigned  to  them  throughout  the  land, 
and  who  occasionally  itinerated  for  the  pur- 
pose of  publicly  teaching  the  statutes  of  the 
law  (Lev.  x.  11 ;  2  Chron.  xvii.  7-10  ;  Hag.  ii. 
11).  The  great  festivals  kejit  alive  the 
knowledge  of  those  events  at  the  birth  of 
the  nation  which  obligated  the  Israelites  as 
a  people  to  serve  Jehovah,  their  redeemer  and 
bountiful  benefactor.  The  i)rophets  by  their 
public  preaching  spread  religious  knowledge 
and  ({uickened  religious  life.  Business  nego- 
tiations and  legal  processes  were  conducted 
in  the  open  street,  affording  constant  instruc- 
tion to  the  public  through  eye  and  ear. 
Eeading  and  writing  were  perhajis  not  un- 
common among  the  young  (.ludg.  viii.  14  ;  Is. 
X.  If)).  Men,  married  and  unmarried,  who 
desired  insti'uction  in  religion  and  training 
for  religious  work,  gathered  in  some  com- 
munity about  a  pro]>het  and  were  taught  by 
him  (2  Kin.  iv.  1;  vi.  1,  2).  They  were 
called  sons  of  the  prophets.  They  should  be 
distinguished  from  the  ])ro])hets  who  came 
together  to  be  under  the  direction  of  Samuel 
in  their  religious  work  and  took  up  their 
residence  in  a  quarter  of  his  town  of  Kamah 
(1  Sam.  xix.  18-20).  In  the  time  of  Elijah 
and  Elisha  they  were  found  in  Bethel,  Jeri- 
clm.  and  Gilgal  (2  Kin.  ii.  3,  5;  iv.  38).  In 
the  (ireco-Koman  jieriod  the  education  of 
the  young  was  carefully  attended  to  (con. 
Ajiion.  i.  12;  ii.  19).  Slaves  and  others  were 
employed  as  tutors  by  the  wealthy  (.\ntiq. 
xvi.  8,  3).  The  scribes  also  imparted  instruc- 
tion.    The  subject  which  tliey  discussed  was 


Schoolmaster 


6o3 


Scourge 


the  law.  Chambers  connected  with  the  outer 
court  of  tlic  trinjile,  and  outside  of  Jcrusji- 
leni  a  room  in  tlif  synagogue,  wcro  used  as 
Iccturo  rooms  (Luke  ii.  ■Hi),  'i'he  iiist riiftiou 
was  n<imiiially  free.  l)iit  it  is  said  that  in  the 
time  of  llerod  the  (Jreat  the  ])orter  collected 
entrance  money.  Not  only  was  instruction 
impartt'd  (iircclly  to  tlic  juipils  in  these 
scliuiils,  lint  learned  men  held  piihlic  dis- 
]intations  with  each  other  there  in  the  pres- 
ence of  the  scholars. 

School 'mas-ter. 

The  ^■ll(h■riH^'  in  (la),  iii.  :2 1,  2.".,  .\.  V.,  of 
the  (ireek  I'niitiujnijas,  one  who  leads  a  hoy,  a 
pedajjojiiie.  It  is  translated  tutor  in  tlie 
K.  ^'.  of  this  j)assi)ie  and  1  for.  iv.  1.").  The 
piiiiltKii'iiios,  or  jiedagonne,  in  a  Greek  honse- 
hcild  was  a  trusted  slave,  to  whose  care  the 
children  were  committed  (Life  7<i ;  llerod. 
viii.  7")).  Jle  always  accoini>anicd  them 
when  they  were  out  of  doors.  He  was  re- 
sponsihle  for  their  personal  safety,  guarded 
tiiem  from  physical  evil  and  had  company, 
and  led  them  to  and  from  school.  The 
law  as  a  pedagogue  led  us  to  Christ.  It 
pre])ared  us  to  receive  him  as  our  Redeemer.  It 
<lisplayed  the  justice  of  (Jod  and  convinced 
ns  that  wo  were  unrighteous;  its  threaten- 
ings  jiressed  us  to  .seek  refuge  from  the  wrath 
and  curse  of  Cod  ;  it  made  apjtarent  the  in- 
aliility  of  man  to  ohtain  .salvation  hy  the 
works  of  the  law  ;  it  exhibited  the  plan  of 
.salivation  in  types  and  ceremonies  and  ex- 
cited to  faith  in  the  coming  Redeemer  (Gal. 
iii.  24 ;  Rom.  iii.  iy-21 ;  iv.  15 ;  vii.  7-25). 

Sci'ence. 

The  remh-ring  of  the  Hebrew  Madda^  and 
the  (ireek  (iiiosis  in  Dan.  i.  4  and  A.  V.  of  1 
Tim.  vi.  20.  The  word  is  not  u.sed  in  its 
modern  sense.  It  does  not  dein)te  knowledge 
gaitied  by  observation  of  iihenomena  and 
.systematized.  The  Hebrew  and  (Ireek  words 
mean  simjily  knowledge.  Tlu^  false  knowl- 
edge spoken  of  by  I'aul  is  the  teaching  of 
Judai/.ing  and  mystic  sects  in  the  apostolic 
age,  which  they  boastfully  claimed  to  l)e 
certain  (cp.  Col.  ii.  K),  against  which  Paul 
urgently  warns  men  (1  Cor.  viii.  1,  7),  and 
which  ciiunterfeils  the  true  knowledge  uhich 
he  praised  and  in  whi<'li  he  desired  Chris- 
tians to  grow  (xii.  8;  xiii.  2;   Rhil.  i.  9). 

Scor'pi-on. 

.\  small  animal  with  :i  tail  armed  with  a 
sting  which  inllicis  great  iiain  (Rev.  ix.  5, 
10).  It  was  called  'dknih  by  the  Hebrews, 
and  skoriiios  by  the  ({reeks.  It  abounds  in 
Palestine,  and  is  common  in  the  wildernes.s 
south  of  .ludah  (  Dent.  viii.  15);  see  .\kk Mtr.lM. 
Rehoboam  threatened  to  chastise  bis  snb- 
jert.s,  not  with  whips,  but  with  .scorpions  (1 
Kin.  xii.  11;  2  Chron.  x.  11),  which  nuDiy 
interpreters  think  mean  whips  anned  with 
sharji  point.s  to  make  the  lash  more  .severe. 
The  scorpion  is  a  small  invertebrate  animal  (tf 
the  order  Artichiiida.  It  is  clo.st-ly  akin  to  the 
higher  spiders,  having,  like  tlicui,  eight  legs; 


but  it  differs  in   shape,  and  in  having  the 
poi.son  bag  not  in  proximity  to  the  jaws,  but  at 


Seorpiiiii. 

the  extremity  of  the  tail.  It  has  a  pair  of  nip- 
pers like  the  lobster.  The  tail  is  long  and 
jointed,  and  capable  of  being  curled  up  over 
till!  back.  The  last  joint  is  swollen,  contains 
the  venom  gland,  and  is  armed  with  a  jier- 
forated  sting  by  means  of  which  the  ])oison 
is  discharged.  The  .scorjiion  feeds  princi- 
pally on  beetles  and  locusts,  which  it  seizes 
with  its  nii)pers  and  stings  to  death,  f^ome 
eight  or  more  spi'cies  exist  in  Palestine.  The 
largest  is  about  eight  inches  long,  and  black. 

Scourge  and  Scourg'ing. 

Scourging  is  severe  iiuuishment  or  torture 
by  lashing.  It  was  not  imposed  as  a  ])enalty 
by  the  Mosaic  law,  not  even  according  to 
Lev.  xix.  20  (see  R.  V.  against  A.  V.).  The 
law  authorized  beating,  when  the  culprit  lay 
down  and  was  smitten  on  the  back  (Dent. 
xxv.  2,  3)  ;  hut  this  was  not  scourging,  and 
is  distinguished  from  .scourging  (2  Cor.  xi.'24, 


Roman  Scourges. 

25).  Scourging  is  perhajis  alluded  to  by  Re- 
hoboam as  a  known  ]iunisbment  (1  Kin.  xii. 
11,  11),  and  it  was  employed  by  Antiochns 
Epiphaues  to  drive  the  Jews  by  its  tortures 


Screech  Owl 


654 


Scripture 


to  eat  swine's  flesh  (2  Mac.  vi.  30;  Aii.  1). 
As  a  It'Kal  pi'iialty  it  was  reeofjiiized  by  the 
hiter  Ji'wisli  hiw,  wliicli  ])resiTihi'(l  hcatiuK 
or  sc()iir;;iiif;  for  ccdcsiastifal  otlciiscs  ;  such 
as  traiisjjrossiou  of  ceremonial  ordinances  for 
which  tlie  Mosaic  law  did  not  specify  the 
jiunislnnetit,  disobedience  of  the  orders  of 
the  sanbedrin,  and  luTcsy.  Rods  were  used 
for  beatinj;  (2  for.  xi.  'Si);  and  for  scourging 
a  whip  was  employed,  which  consisted  of 
three  thongs,  one  of  ox  hide  and  two  of  ass's 
liide.  The  number  of  strijies  ranged  from  a 
few  blows  up  to  thirty-nine,  this  limit  being 
set  in  order  to  a\'<)id  all  danger  of  exceeding 
the  forty  blows  allowed  l)y  the  Mosaic  law 
in  corporal  punishment  (l)eut.  xxv.  2,  3). 
When  the  iiuuishnient  was  inflicted  in  the 
synagogue  (Mat.  x.  17;  xxiii.  31),  it  was  ad- 
ministered by  the  haszan  or  attendant;  but 
<uliuits  were  also  beaten  before  the  san- 
bedrin (Acts  V.  40). 

The  Romans  used  a  scourge  of  cords  or 
thongs,  made  more  painful  by  various  ex- 
pedients whi(-h  cruelty  suggested.  Pieces  of 
lead  or  brass,  or  small.  shari)-pointed  bones, 
were  attached  to  the  lashes.  The  Eomans 
»'mployed  scourging  as  a  punishment  or  as 
torture  to  extract  confession  or  testimony. 
After  the  Porcian  law  of  248  b.  c.  and  the 
Sempronian  law  of  123  B.  c,  Roman  citizens 
were  exemjited  from  scourging  (Livy  x.  9)  ; 
but  free  persons  not  Roman  citizens  might  be 
beaten,  and  slaves  scourged,  and  lawless  gov- 
ernors did  not  scruple  to  scourge  free  pro- 
vincials and  Roman  citizens  (War  ii.  14,9; 
Tacitus,  Hist.  iv.  27).  Criminals  condemned 
to  crucifixion  were  ordinarily  scourged  be- 
fore being  executed  (Livy  xxxiii.  36) ;  so 
Jesus,  and  many  of  the  Jews  before  the 
revolt  and  after  the  siege  of  Jerusalem  by 
the  Romans  (Mat.  xxvii.  26;  War  ii.  14,  9;  v. 
11, 1).  The  victim  was  stripped  to  the  waist, 
and  bound  in  a  stooping  position,  with  the 
hands  behind  the  back,  to  a  post  or  pillar. 
The  suifering  under  the  lash  was  intense. 
The  body  was  frightfully  lacerated.  The 
Christian  martyrs  at  Smyrna  about  A.  D.  155 
were  so  torn  with  the  scourges  that  their 
veins  were  laid  bare,  and  the  inner  muscles 
and  sinews,  and  even  the  bowels,  were  ex- 
jiosed  (Eusel)ius,  Hist.  iv.  15). 

Screech  Owl. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  LUith,  a 
nocturnal  being  (Is.  xxxiv.  14;  in  R.  V. 
night  monster).  It  frequents  the  ruins 
of  cities.  Tristram  believes  it  to  be  the 
tawny  owl  tSi/niiion  aluco),  which  is  found 
in  (xilead,  Haslian,  Lebanon,  and  the  valley 
of  the  .Jordan,  breaking  in  on  the  stillness 
of  night  with  its  hooting.  See  Night  Mon- 
siF,i;  and  Satyr. 

Scribe. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Sopher,  Ara- 
maic Gopher. 

1.  A  secretary,  a  government  or  other  clerk 
(2  Kin.  xii.  10;  Ezra  iv.  8).     Levites  were 


employed  as  scribes  for  the  business  of  repair- 
ing the  temple  (2  Chron.  xxxiv.  13). 

2.  \  coi)ier  of  the  law  and  other  parts  of 
the  Scriptures  (Jer.  viii.  S).  The  most  noted 
of  these  earlier  scribes  was  the  i)riest  Ezra,  who 
was  a  ready  scribe  in  the  law  of  Closes,  and 
had  set  his  heart  to  se('k  the  law  of  the  Lord 
and  to  do  it,  and  to  teach  in  Israel  statutesand 
judgments  (Ezra  vii.  6,  10).  In  this  latter 
respect  he  is  the  ])rototype  of  the  scribes  of 
later  times,  who  were  professional  interi)re- 
ters  of  the  law.  In  the  N.  T.  they  are  called 
(irammate in,  or  more  exactly  «o//i(i'oJ,  rendered 
lawyers,  and  nomodidaxkalol,  teachers  of  the 
law.  They  devoted  themselves:  1.  To  the 
study  and  interpretation  of  the  law,  which 
it  will  be  remembered  was  both  civil  and  re- 
ligious; and  to  determining  its  application  to 
the  details  of  daily  life.  The  decisions  of  the 
great  scribes  became  the  oral  law  or  tradition. 

2.  To  the  study  of  the  Scriptures  generally 
in  regard  to  historical  and  doctrinal  matters. 

3.  To  teaching,  each  noted  scribe  having  a 
company  of  disciples  about  him  ;  see  School. 
The  profession  of  scribe  received  a  great  im- 
pulse after  the  return  of  the  Jews  from  ex- 
ile, when  prophecy  had  ceased  and  it  only 
remained  to  study  the  completed  Scriptures 
and  make  them  the  basis  of  the  national  life. 
The  scribes  were  liecoming  numerous  in  the 
Maccabsean  period  (1  Mac.  vii.  12),  and  at  the 
time  of  Christ  had  attained  paramount  influ- 
ence among  the  people.  The  sanhedriu 
counted  many  of  them  among  its  members 
(i\Iat.  xvi.  21 ;  xxvi.  3).  Though  there  were 
candid  men  among  them  who  believed  in 
Christ's  teaching  (viii.  19),  yet  the  mass 
of  them  were  hopelessly  prejudiced  against 
him.  They  murmured  at  or  found  fault  with 
much  that  he  and  his  disciples  said  or  did 
(xxi.  15),  and  thej-  had  a  large  share  in  the 
responsibility  for  his  death.  They  were  also 
associated  with  the  rulers  and  elders  in  the 
liersecution  of  Peter  and  John  (Acts  iv.  5, 
etc.),  and  in  that  which  led  to  the  niartj-r- 
dom  of  Stei)hen  (vi.  12)  ;  but  the  section  of 
them  which  agreed  with  the  Pharisees  in 
opinion  took  Paul's  part  with  respect  to  the 
resurrection  (xxiii.  9). 

Scrip. 

A  bag  or  wallet  for  carrying  provisions  or 
articles  retiuired  on  a  journey  (Slat.  x.  10.  in 
R.  V.  wallet).  The  scrip  of  modern  Palestine 
is  the  skin  of  a  kid  stripped  oil"  whole  from 
the  carcass  and  tanned,  and  slung  from  the 
shoulder  by  straps.  Every  slu'iiherd  and 
farmer  has  such  an  article.  David  had  one 
in  which  he  put  the  five  stoni's  from  the 
brook  with  whicli  ln'  armed  himself  for  the 
encounter  with  (Toliath  (1  Sam.  xvii.  40). 

Scrip'ture. 

A  writing,  a  narrative  or  other  matter 
committed  to  writing  (Dan.  x.  21,  in  R.  V. 
writing)  ;  especially  the  sacred  writings  of 
the  Hebrews,  viewed  either  collectively  or 
individually,  or  even  a  single  passage  or  quo- 


Scythian 


655 


Seba 


tiitiiiii  rniiii  tluin,  as  ill  Mark  xii.  10;  xv.  28; 
I^iikf  iv.  „'!  ;  .lolm  xix.  ',17.  When  tliis  col- 
lection of  sKTi'd  (loc'unients  is  tliou^lit  of  as 
luriiiiuK  tiiic  Itdok,  the  word  is  singular,  the 
Scripture  (.Inlm  vii.  1:2  ;  x.  :>.'>  ;  xvii.  IJ  ;  xix. 
2^  ;  (lal.  iii.  2'^).  .More  rri'(|iieiitly  tlie  many 
(locunieiits  from  ditlereut  authors  which  con- 
stitute the  (.).  T.  are  in  mind  and  the  itiural 
is  used,  the  Scri]ituri's  (  Mat.  xxi.  4'i  ;  I^ukc 
xxiv.  27  :  Jiihn  v.  :>!•  ;  Kom.  i.  2\.  The  ei)is- 
tles  of  I'aul  al  once  took  their  place  with  the 
other  Scriptures  as  autlioritutive  (2  Pet.  iii. 
1(1).     See  (ANON,  Insi'IEATION. 

Scyth'i-an. 

A  native  of  Scythia.  Tliis  name  was  ap- 
l)lied  ori^'inally  to  the  rejrion  immediately 
north  of  the  Hlack  Sea,  and  east  of  the  Car- 
liatliian  mountains.  When  the  conciui-sts  of 
Alexander  the  (ireat  revealed  the  existence 
of  men  in  .Vsia  like  the  European  Scythians 
in  race,  an  Asiatic  Scythia  he};an  to  be  recoj;- 
ni/ed  ;  and  (inally,  all  northeastern  Kuro])e 
and  central  and  mirthern  Asia  weresui)pose(l 
to  lie  traversed  by  the  nomad  Scythian  race. 
They  were  far  behind  in  civilization  :  so  that 
at  last  the  name  Scythian  was  used  as  we 
now  use  Tartar,  or  tlie  Greeks  and  Konians 
used  the  term  Harbariau  (2  Mac.  iv.  47;  Col. 
iii.  11);  see  Uktii-sukan. 

Sea. 

1.  The  t)cean  or  general  gathering  of  the 
waters,  as  distinguished  from  the  dry  laud 
of  the  globe  (Gen.  i.  ID ;  I's.  viii.  8 ;  Jiev.  vii. 
1  :$;  xxi.  1). 

•J.  A  more  or  less  detached  portion  of  that 
ocean  (Gen.  xlix.  13;  Acts  x.  (i),  or  a  large 
inland  lake  of  fresli  or  salt  water  (Num. 
xxxiv.  11,  I'i;  Mat.  iv.  IK).  The  chief  seas 
with  which  the  Israelites  had  to  do  were  the 
Mediterranean,  the  l{ed  Sea,  the  Dead  Sea, 
and  the  sea  of  (ialilee.  The  Mediterranean 
was  ri'ferri'd  to  as  the  sea,  or  was  called  the 
great  si'a,  the  sea  of  the  Philistines,  the 
jiinder  or  western  sea,  in  A.  V.  the  utmost 
and  uttermost  sea  ;  see  Mkditkri{ANKAX 
Ska.  'I'he  Dead  Sea  was  variou.sly  known  as 
the  Salt  Sea.  the  eastern  sea,  sea  of  the 
Arabah  or  the  jtlain,  an<l  according  to  A.  V. 
of  Zech.  xiv.  K,  the  former  sea  ;  see  Dkad 
Ska.  The  sea  of  (ialilee  was  also  named  the 
sea  of  Cliinnercth,  lake  of  Geniiesaret,  and 
s<-a  of  Tiberias;  see  ( iAi.i  i.ki:.  Ska  (ir. 

.'!.  A  largi-  river  witii  its  lU'twork  of 
br.inches.  channels,  and  irrigating  canals,  as 
the  Kuphrates  (.ler.  li.  :«),  42)  and  the  Nile 
(Nah.  iii.  S). 

I.  The  large  l)asin  in  Solomon's  temple 
where  the  iiriests  washed  their  hands  and 
fi'ct  ])reparatory  to  ministering  in  tlie  sanc- 
tuary or  at  the  altar  1 1  Kin.  vii.  .'}}•);  see 
Moltkn'  Ska. 

Sea  Mew. 

The  i-endering  in  K.  \'.  of  Lev.  xi.  Hi  and 
I)eut.  xiv.  l.">  of  the  Hebrew  noun  Shahnph,  a 
bird  <'eremonially  unclean.  The  A.  V.  makes 
it  the  cuckoo.     The  Sejituagint  and  X'ulgate 


regard  it  as  a  sea  mew  or  gull.  Sea  mew  is 
an  indefinite  term,  broad  enough  to  include 
gulls,  terns,  and  petrels,  all  of  which  abound 
on  the  shore  and  lakes  of  I'alesline.  If  any 
single  species  is  meant,  peiliaiis  it  is  the 
yteina  Jluvidliiiii,  the  conniion  tern,  or  sea 
swallow.  This  bird  looks  lean,  which  the 
name  xhahoph  may  denote ;  and  it  might 
be  included  under  the  designation  sea  mew, 
for  the  f<te)niuie,  or  terns,  are  a  sub-family 
of  tlie  Lutidie,  or  gulls.  It  is  plentiful  along 
the  shores  of  Palestine. 

Sea  Mon'ster. 

Any  great  fish  of  the  sea  (Gen.  i.  21 ;  Job 
vii.  12  ;  in  A.  V.  whale).  It  is  the  rendering 
of  the  Hebrew  Tannin.  See  Dragon.  In 
Lam.  iv.  \i,  the  Hebrew  tminin,  although  it 
is  singular  number,  stands  in  the  Hebrew 
before  a  jilural  verb.  It  is  doubtless  a  copy- 
ist's error  for  tunnim,  jackals.  This  reading 
is  adopted  by  the  R.  V. 

Seal. 

1.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Tahdfh  in 
K.  \.,  with  ]iori)oise  on  the  margin  (Ex. 
xxvi.  14;  XXXV.  7;  Num.  iv.  25;  Ezek.  xvi. 
10)  ;  in  A.  V.  bad)  vr.  Its  skin  was  used  for 
the  outer  covering  of  the  tabernacle  and  for 
sandals.  Tahaxh  >  orrcsponds  to  the  Arabic 
tuhtis,  which  end  'aces  seals  and  specially 
denotes  the  dugi  ng  (Halicore  hemprichii). 
The  latter  belongs  to  the  order  Siirnin,  of 
which  the  nearest  allies  are  mammals  of  the 
whale  order.  It  is  generally  ten  to  twelve 
feet  long,  with  a  round  head,  bri'asts  for 
suckling  its  young,  and  a  lish-like  tail.  The 
color  is  slaty  above  and  white  below.  It  is 
believed  to  be  one  of  the  animals,  if  not  in- 
deed the  animal,  which  gave  rise  to  tlie 
fabled  mermaid,  half  woman,  half  fish.  It 
is  connnon  among  the  coral  banks  of  the  Eed 
Sea,  whence  it  extends  as  far  as  the  coasts  of 
Australia. 

2.  A  signet  ring  or  cylinder,  engraven  with 
the  owner's  name  or  some  design,  or  both 
(Ex.  XX viii.  11 :  Esth.  viii.  H).  It  was  worn 
on  the  finger,  if  a  ring,  or  was  strung  on 
a  cord  and  hung  around  the  neck  Mien. 
xxxviii.  18,  K.  V.  ;  .ler.  xxii.24).  Men  allixed 
their  seal  as  signature  to  letters  or  other  docu- 
ments (1  Kin.  xxi.  H;  Neh.  ix.  3S  ;  Esth.  viii. 
8;  ,Ter.  xxxii.  10.  11  ;  .lolm  iii.  :«).  These 
were  usually  written  on  clay,  and  the  seal 
was  jiressed  on  the  soft  material  and  left  its 
mark  (.Job  xxxviii.  14).  Chests,  boxes,  tombs, 
or  anything  which  rcfjuired  to  be  guarded 
fro7ii  beingo|ien('(l,  were  sealed  with  tliesignet 
of  the  jierson  who  had  authority  to  ]irobibit 
intrusion  (.lob  xiv.  17;  xli.  15;  Dan.  vi.  17; 
Mat.  xxvii.  (iti;  Kev.  v.  1). 

Se'ba. 

A  Cnshite  peojile  (Gen.  x.7),  who  jirobably 
dwelt  originally  in  soutliern  Arabia.  Seba  is 
associate(l  with  Sheba  as  a  remote  southern 
country  (I's.  Ixxii.  10)  ;  and  with  I'gypI  .and 
I'Ubiopia  as  though  in  Africa,  whither  many 
Cushites    migrated     (Is.    xliii.    .'5;    xiv.    14). 


Sebam 


656 


Sela-hammaMekoth 


Joseph  us  identifies  Seba  with  the  isle  of 
Mcroe  (Antiq.  ii.  10,  2).  The  region  so  iiiimed 
is  situated  between  the  Nile  iuid  its  iiflUieiit, 
the  Atbara.  It  is  about  400  miles  lonji  by 
200  broad.  IJut  this  distriet  is  not  called 
Seba  in  E.irypHan  documents,  and  was  known 
to  the  Hi'brews  as  Cush.  Kather  then  is 
Seba  identical  with  the  neighboring  country 
on  the  lied  Sea,  possessing  the  harbor  Saba 
and  tlie  town  Sal)ai. 

Se'bam,  in  A.  V.  Shebam.    See  Sibmah. 

Se'bat.     See  Sukhat. 

Sec'a-cah  [liedge,  inclosure]. 

A  village  in  the  wilderness  of  Judah  (Josh. 
XV.  61).  Conder  i)laces  it  douIitfuUy  at  the 
ruin  called  Sikkeh  or  Dikkeh,  about  2  miles 
east  of  Bethany. 

Se'cu,  in  A.  V.  Sechu  [liill,  watchtower]. 

A  village  near  Samuel's  town  of  Eamah  (1 
Sam.  xix.  22),  probably  in  the  direction  of 
Gibeah  (9).  Conder  doubtfully  suggests  as 
its  site  Shuweikeh,  aliout  3  miles  northwest 
by  nortli  of  er-Ram  (Kamah  1). 

Se-cun'dus  [second,  secondary;  following, 
favorable]. 

A  man  of  Thes.salonica  who  accompanied 
Paul  from  ^Macedonia  into  Asia  Minor  (Acts 
XX.  4). 

Seer.     See  Propiikt. 

Se'gub  [exalted]. 

1.  The  youngest  or  younger  son  of  Hiel. 
He  died  when  his  father  set  up  the  gates  of 
Jericho,  which  he  was  then  fortifying  (1 
Kin.  xvi.  34).  com])leling  the  fulfillment  of 
the  curse  pronounced  by  Joshua  (Josh.  vi. 
26). 

2.  Son  of  Hezron,  bva  daughter  of  Machir 
(1  Chron.  ii.  21,  22). 

Se'ir  [hairy,  shaggy]. 

1.  A  land  and  its  inhabitants.  Seir  was 
the  mountain  range  of  Edom  (Gen.  xxxvi. 
21;  Num.  xxiv.  lb;  Ezek.  xxxv.  15).  The 
original  inhabitants  of  these  mountains  were 
Horites  or  cave  dwellers  (Gen.  xiv.  6).  In 
Gen.  xxxvi.  20  the  original  population  is 
per.sonified  as  an  individual  and  the  tribes 
descended  from  it  are  classed  as  children 
(cp.  Mizraim  or  Egypt,  (ien.  x.  (i,  13).  Seir 
is  elsewhere  used  collectively  for  the  people 
(Ezek.  XXV.  S).  Esau  took  up  his  abode  in 
mount  Seir  ((Jen.  xxxii.  3),  and  his  descend- 
ants dispossessed  the  Horites  (Deut.  ii.  12; 
Josh.  xxiv.  4).  A  remnant  of  the  Amalek- 
ites  (1  Sam.  xiv.  48;  xv.  7;  2  Sam.  viii.  12) 
took  refuge  in  these  mountain  fastnesses, 
l)ut  were  finally  destroyed  by  the  Simeonites 
(1  Chron.  iv.  42,  43). 

2.  A  ridge  on  the  border  line  of  the  terri- 
tory of  Judah  west  of  Kirjath-jearim  (Josh. 
XV.  10).  It  is  commonly  sujiposed  to  be  that 
on  ■which  the  village  of  Saris  stands. 

Se'i-rah,  in  A.  V.  Se'i-rath  [a  hairy  ani- 
mal, she  goat].  Applied  to  a  locality,  it  may 
mean  shaggy  with  trees. 

A  locality  in  mount  Ephraim,  probably  in 


the  southeastern  ])art,  to  which  Ehud  escaped 
after  murdering  Eglon  (Judg.  iii.  26). 

Se'la,  in  A.  V.  once  Selah  (2  Kin.  xiv.  7) 
[rock]. 

A  i)lace  in  Edom  taken  by  Amaziah,  king 
of  Judah,  and  named  by  him  Joktheel  (2 
Kin.  xiv.  7).  It  was  situated  toward  the 
wilderness  (Is.  xvi.  1,  K.  Y.).  It  is  scarcely 
referred  to  in  Judg.  i.  36  ;  but  jjrobably  in  2 
Chron.  xxv.  12;  Is.  xlii.  11;  and  Obad.  3. 
The  last  passage  represents  the  inhabitants 
of  Sela  as  dwelling  high  uj),  the  situation  of 
their  hou.ses  resembling  that  of  eagli's'  nests. 
All  this  points  to  the  ravine  called  by  the 
Greeks  Petra,  which  is  simply  a  translation 
of  the  Hebrew  Sela.  Josephus  says  that  the 
name  which  the  city  bore  in  liis  days  was 
Petra  (Antiq.  iv.  4,  7).  About  3ii0  B.  c.  I'etra 
passed  from  the  Edonutcs  to  the  Nabathajan 
Arabs.  The  dynasty  which  now  began  to 
rule  in  Petra  contained  several  kings  of  the 
name  of  Aretas,  one  of  whom  is  mentioned 
in  2  Cor.  xi.  32.  The  kingdom  of  the 
Nabathseans  came  to  an  end  in  a.  d.  105  and 
Arabia  Petraea  was  made  a  province  of  the 
Eoman  empire.  SeeNEBAioTH.  The  place  was 
T-ediscovered  by  Burckhardt  in  1812,  and 
has  since  been  visited  by  various  travelers. 
It  lies  in  a  nook  excavated  Ijy  water  on  the 
southea.stern  flank  of  mount  Hor.  The  val- 
ley, with  branching  side  valleys,  may  be 
4500  feet  long  by  740  to  1500  broad,  and  is 
surrounded  on  all  sides  by  precipitous  clitfs. 
The  chief  portion  of  it  is  called  wady  Musa, 
the  valley  of  Moses,  though  probably  he  was 
never  there.  A  rivulet  traverses  it  through  its 
whole  length.  The  variegated  colors  of  the 
rocks — red,  brown,  yellow,  white— add  to 
the  beauty  of  the  spot.  There  are  tombs, 
remains  of  temples,  an  amphitheater,  a  tri- 
umphal arch,  etc..  most  of  them  a])parently 
of  Roman  times.  Besides  these,  there  are 
tombs  and  dwelling  houses  in  the  adjacent 
clifts,  some  of  which  may  be  of  older  date. 

Se'lah  [elevation]. 

A  word  occurring  seventy-one  times  in 
the  Psalms,  as  well  as  in  Hab.  iii.  3,  9,  13. 
Stainer  gives  six  distinct  opinions  as  to  its 
meaning:  (1)  a  pause ;  (2)  a  repetition,  like 
da  capo;  (3)  the  end  of  a  strophe;  (4)  a 
playing  with  full  power  {fortissimo)  .-  (5)  a 
bending  of  the  body,  an  obeisance  ;  and  (6) 
a  short,  recurring  symphony  (ritornello).  It 
probably  means  an  orchestral  interlude  (cp. 
opinion  G)  or  a  change  from  2)iano  to  forte. 

Se-la-ham-mah'le-koth  [rock  of  division 
or  esca])cs]. 

A  clitr  in  the  wilderness  of  Maon.  It  was 
so  called  because  David  on  one  side  of  the 
eminence  eluded  Saul  on  the  other  (1  Sam. 
xxiii.  28).  Conder  points  out  that  about  8 
miles  east-nortlieast  of  Maon  there  is  a 
cliff  at  the  wady  el-Malaki,  a  narrow  liut 
deep  chasm,  impassable  except  by  making  a 
circuit  of  many  miles.  Saul  miglit  have 
been    near   enough   to   see    David,   and    yet 


Seled 


657 


Seneh 


have  been  utterly  unable  to  approach  him 
directly. 

Se'led  [exultation]. 

A  man  nf  .hiiiaii,  family  of  Joniiiniccl  (1 
<"liron.  ii.  :{()). 

Se-leu'ci-a  [ivlatinfi  to  Sclcucus]. 

A  city  on  the  stacoast  of  Syria  (1  Mac.  xi. 
H),  near  tlic  mouth  of  the  Orontcs,  called 
after  Seleucus  Nicator.  one  of  Alexander  tlie 
(ireat's  ^ienerals,  and  snbseiiiiently  himself  a 
coiniueror  and  a  kin;^.  It  was  the  seai)ort 
of  Antioch,  tlie  latter  city  heinji  Ki  miles  uj) 
the  river.  Paul  sailed  thence  on  his  tirst 
missionary  journey  (Acts  xiii.  1).  The  ruins 
of  tlie  harbor  and  city  still  remain  at  es- 
.Suweidiyeh.  Tin-  two  jiiers  of  the  former 
are  called   Taul  and  liarnabas. 

Se-leu'cu8. 

A  kinj;  of  Syria  (1  Mac.  vii.  1 ;  2  Mac.  iii. 
3),  called  I'hilopator.  He  was  son  and  suc- 
cessor of  ,\ntioclms  the  (Jreat,  and  reiK'icd 
from  1S7-17.")  ».  <•.,  when  he  was  murdered 
liy  Heliodoriis,  one  of  his  courtiers,  lie  was 
followed  on  the  throne  by  Antiochiis  Eiiiph- 
anes ;  sec  Antiocius.     Duriug  his  father's 


."^ek'ucus  I'liikipator. 

rcifiii  he  foiiftht  in  the  disastrous  battle  of 
Majinesia.  During  his  own  administration 
he  sought  to  strengthen  his  kingdom,  and 
was  conciliatory  toward  the, lews;  although 
it  is  said  that  he  attemjited  to  ]iliin(ler  the 
temple  (:_'  .Mac.  iii.  1-40),  jiossibly  to  help 
raise  the  enormous  tribute  which  he  was 
compelled  to  jiay  the  Eoinans. 

Sem.     See  SiiKM. 

Sem-a-chl'ah  [.lehovah  hath  su.stained]. 

\  l.evite,  dcsct'udant  of  the  doorkeeper 
Obed-edom   i  1   t'hron.  xxvi.  7). 

Sem'e-l  [(Inik  from  Hebrew  f^him'i, 
Shimei]. 

.\n  aiiiestor  of  Christ,  who  lived  after  the 
time  of  Zerubl)abel  (Luke  iii.  2('>). 

Sem-it'lc. 

The  languages  which,  s]>eaking  broadly, 
were  or  are  vernacular  to  the  descendants  of 
Shem  are  called  .Shemitic  or  Semitic,  the 
former  being  derived  from  the  Hebrew  N/irjii, 
and  the  latter  ultimately  from  the  (i reek  form 
Srm.  TbeSendtic  languagescoustitutc  one  of 
the  leading  families  of  languages.  As  not  all 
the  descendants  of  Shem  sj)eak  thes*-  tongues, 
and  sonu-  do  so  who  are  descended  from  other 
42 


sons  of  Noah,  it  has  been  proposed  to  call 
them  the  Syro-Arabian  languages,  but  the 
term  .Semitic  holds  its  ]ilace.  Doubtless  there 
was  at  lirst  but  one  .Semitic  language,  but 
the  separation  of  the  tribes  sjieaking  it  led 
idtimately  to  its  divergence  into  several  dia- 
lects. In  I'ach  the  roots  of  the  words  are 
nearly  alwa\s  triliteral,  the  three  radical 
letters  being  three  con.sonants.  Many  tri- 
literals  ai)pear  to  be  based  on  jireixisting  bi- 
literals;  and  it  is  even  suii|iused  by  some 
thatoriginally  there  were  but  two  radical  con- 
stinants.  The  various  modilications  of  mian- 
ing  were  produced  from  these  roots  by  the  use 
of  vowels,  of  which  three  only,  a.  i,  and  u, 
were  originally  emi)loyed  :  thus  the  three 
consonants  k,  .s,  c  suggest  the  i<iea  of  cutting 
of!',  and  hixar  denotes  he  reaped,  k'sor  reap, 
kosfr  rea]icr,  kasir  harvest,  kusiir  reajied. 
The  nu'aning  was  also  modilied  by  laying 
.stress  on  certain  of  the  consonants  and  by 
means  of  affixes:  thus  (jadal  he  became 
large,  ijiddal  he  niagnitied,  gaddel  magnify, 
mifidnl  a  tower. 

The  Semitic  family  of  languages  falls  into 
two  great  divisions,  northern  and  southern. 
The  northern  division  subdivides  into  an 
eastern  group  consisting  of  the  Babylonian 
and  Assyrian  ;  a  central  groU|i  comiiosed  of 
the  dialects  of  the  Aramaic  language,  em- 
bracing Syriac,  Neo-Syriac,  and  Mandaitic 
of  the  east,  and  the  Aramaic  of  the  west, 
namely  Samaritan,  the  so-called  Chaldee  of 
the  I'liblc,  Targums  and  Talmud,  and  the 
dialect  of  the  I'almyrene  and  Naballiaau  in- 
scriptions; and  a  western  groU]>  containing 
Hebrew,  Moabite,  and  I'liceniciau.  The 
southern  division  is  subdivided  into  Arabic  ; 
Himyaritic  or  Saba'an  of  southern  .Arabia; 
and  (le'e/.  or  Ktliiopic  and  Amharic  of  Africa. 

Semitic  writing  is  in  most  of  the  dialects 
from  right  to  left:  that  is,  in  the  other  direc- 
tion from  English.  Hence  the  title-])age  in 
the  Hebrew  Bible  is  at  what  looks  like  the 
end  of  the  volume.  From  this  it  reads  back- 
ward, till  it  ends  at  what,  if  it  were  English, 
W()Uld  be  calkd  tlu'  beginning  of  the  book. 

The  intellectual  ability  of  the  Semitic  race 
is  shown  by  the  place  which  the  .lews  take 
in  every  Christian  country  where  they  set- 
tle. Its  jirowess  is  also  gre:»t;  but  in  by- 
gone history,  wbenevi-r  the  Semites  and  the 
Aryans  have  encountered  each  other  in  war, 
the  contest,  however  .sevi're  and  ]>rotracted, 
has  in  the  long  run  ended  in  favor  of  the 
Aryans.  Thus  the  Aryan-l'ersian  ternu- 
nated  the  Semitic-Habylonian  em]iire.  .\ryan 
Home  ultimately  destroyi'd  Semitic  Car- 
thage, and  the  Aryan  warriors  of  Europe, 
after  a  time,  .set  bounds  to  the  Saracen 
.Semites. 

Se-na'ah.    See  Hassenaah. 

Se'neh  [thorn  bush.  briuid)le]. 

A  sbarji  rock,  one  of  two  which  flanked  a 
jiass  running  east  and  west  between  Mich- 
mash  and  (iibeah.    It  was  tlie  more  southerly 


Senir 


658 


Sennacherib 


of  the  cliffs,  and  nearer  Gibeah  than  Mich- 
mash.  It  was  b«'tween  these  two  rocks  that 
Jonathan  and  his  armor-bearer  i>assed  when 
they  were  jioinj;  to  siirjirise  the  rhilistine 
giirrisoii  (I  Saiii.  xiv.  4,  ">).  It  ovi'rh)oked 
tile  wudy  Suweinit,  about  ',i\  miles  southeast 
by  south  of  Mii-hmasli. 

Se'nir,  in  A.  Y.  twice  Shenir  (Deut.  iii.  9; 
Song  iv.  8)  [coat  of  mail]. 

The  Amorite  name  of  Hermoii  (Deut.  iii. 
9).  In  Sonj;  iv.  S  St-nir  and  Hernion  are  dis- 
tinf,'uislie(l.  each  ]u-()bably  beiuK  a  distiuet 
peak  of  the  ii'vdut  mountain.  Fir  tiuil)cr  was 
obtained  on  Senir  (Ezek.  xxvii.  5). 

Sen-nach'e-rib  [the  moon-god  Sin  hath 
increased  the  brothers]. 

A  son  of  Sargon.  who  succeeded  to  the 
Assyrian  throne  on  the  murder  of  his  father, 
on  the  Irith  of  .\b,  705  b.  c.  Though  a  war- 
rior, he  was  inferior  to  Sargon  in  abilitj'. 
He  was  boastful,  cruel,  and  not  wise  enough 
to  perpetuate  his  conquests  by  conciliating 
those  whom  he  had  vanquished.  On  his 
acces.sion  ^Slerodach-baladan  of  Babylon  at- 
tempted to  throw  otf  the  Assyrian  yoke. 
Sennacheril)  defeated  him  and  his  ally,  the 
king  of  Elam,  i)laced  Belibni  on  the  Baby- 
lonian throne,  and  returned  in  triumph  to 
Nineveh,  laden  with  captives  and  spoil.  Dis- 
content and  rebellion  manifested  themselves 
in  the  west  also,  among  the  peoples  who  had 
submitted  to  Sargon.  To  quell  this  revolt, 
Sennacherib  in  701  appeared  in  Phcenicia, 
capturing  Great  and  Little  Zidon,  Zarephath, 
Achzib,  and  Accho,  but  Tyre  appears  to  have 
held  out.  Neighboring  states  hastened  to 
announce  their  submission.  Proceeding  to 
the  Philistine  country,  he  took  Ashkelon, 
Beth-dagon,  and  .Toppa.  Next  he  invested 
and  captured  Lachish,  sent  a  detachment  of 
his  troops  to  Jerusalem,  secured  the  release 
of  the  dethroned  king  of  Ekron  from  Jeru- 
salem, defeated  the  combined  armies  of  Egypt 
and  Ethiopia  at  the  battle  of  Eltekeh,  and 
added  Ekron  to  his  eontjuests.  On  this  cam- 
paign he  not  only  took  Lachish  and  p]ltekeh, 
cities  of  Judaii,  liut  by  his  own  account 
took  4()  fortified  towns  of  Judah.  carried 
away  200.150  peojde  captive,  and  seized  mul- 
titudes of  horses,  mules,  asses,  camels,  and 
sheep.  His  career  of  conquest  was  cut  short 
by  the  plague,  which  devastated  his  army 
and  compelled  him  to  return  to  Nineveh. 
No  express  mention  is,  of  course,  to  be  ex- 
pected in  the  Assyrian  inscri])tions  of  his 
failure  to  possess  himself  of  Jerusalem,  but 
it  is  clearly  implied ;  for  he  is  unable  to  tell 
of  the  capture  of  the  city,  and  he  apparently 
covers  up  the  inglorious  conclusion  of  the 
campaign  by  i)lacing  at  the  close  of  his  nar- 
rative the  account  of  the  tril)Ute  which  he 
received  from  Hezekiah.  Men^  is  his  own 
account  of  the  matter:  "  Hezekiah  himself 
I  shut  up  like  a  bird  in  a  cage  in  .Feru.salem, 
his  royal  city.  I  erected  fortifications  against 
him  and  blocked  the  exits  from  the  gate  of 


his  city.  I  severed  his  towns,  which  I  plun- 
dered, from  his  dominions  and  gave  them  to 
Mitinti,  king  of  Ash<lod,  Padi,  king  of  Ekron, 
and  Silhel,  king  of  ( iaza.  Thus  I  diminished  his 
country.  To  the  forme  r  con  tri  hut  inn,  their  an- 
nual gift,  I  added  the  tribute  of  subjection  to 
my  sovereignty  and  impo.sed  it  on  them.  The 
fear  of  the  glory  of  my  sovereignty  over- 
whelmed him,  even  Hezekiah  :  and  be  sent 
afti'r  me  to  Nineveh,  my  ro\  al  city,  the  .\rabs 
and  his  loyal  subjects,  whom  he  bad  brought 
for  the  defense  of  Jerusalem,  his  royal  city, 
and  had  furnished  with  jiay,  along  with 
thirty  talents  of  gold,  800  talents  of  pure 
silver,  precious  stones,  couches  of  ivory, 
thrones  of  ivory,  elephants'  hides,  ivory, 
rare  woods  of  various  kinds,  a  vast  treasure, 
as  well  as  his  daughters,  the  women  of  his 
palace,  and  others;  and  he  sent  his  am- 
bas.sador  to  otter  homage."  A  story  was  told 
the  Greek  historian  Herodotus  by  the  Eg.yp- 
tian     priests    that    Sennacherib    advanced 


Sennacherib  on  his  Throne  at  Lachish. 

against  Egypt,  and  had  reached  Pelusium, 
when  immense  numbers  of  field  mice  de- 
stroyed the  bowstrings  of  the  Assyrians, 
who  next  morning  commenced  their  flight 
from  the  country.  For  the  series  of  historic 
events  in  which  Sennacherib  and  Hezekiah 
figure  as  antagonists,  see  Hezeki.\h.  Sen- 
nacherib's failure  against  Jerusalem  was  in 
701  n.  c.  In  the  meantime  new  troubles  for 
Sennacherib  arose  in  Babylonia  ;  and  in  the 
third  year  of  Belibni,  in  700  n.  c\  the  Assyrian 
king  marched  to  the  south,  removed  Belibni, 
and  placed  his  own  son  .\shurnadin.shum 
on  the  throne.  Freed  from  concern  for  the 
south  Sennacherib  next  turned  his  Mttention 
to  the  northwest  and  brought  Cilicia  under 
the  Assyrian  yoke.  In  ()94  he  made  a  novel 
expedition  by  ship  and  attempted  to  root 
out  the  followers  of  jVIerodach-baladan  from 
their  last  refuge,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Ulai. 


Senuah 


659 


Sepulcher 


The  campaiKn  was  in  a  measure  stioeessful ; 
but  the  Klaiiiitos  iiiv;iih'tl  Halivlipiiia,  sci/.cd 
Ashliriiadiiisliiliii,  ami  iilaccd  a  l>al>.\'l()Miaii 
kiii^  nil  tlif  tliniiii',  will)  licld  tlic  ciiuiilry 
for  11  yc-ar  and  a  liair.  Uiit  tlion^li  Sfiiiiacli- 
i-ril)  took  ICrccli,  caiitiircd  tlit-  iial)yluiiiaii 
kiiif,'.  and  devastated  Elaiii,  yet  aiiotlier 
lialiy liiiiiaii  kiii^  asci'iided  the  tlinuie,  anil 
the  Assyrians  did  nut  succeed  in  linally 
chastisinf;  Mahylonia  until  (isK.  Then  Si'n- 
nacherili  advanced  a}<ainsl  Hahylon,  captured 
and  plunilered  the  city,  inassiicred  the  iii- 
hahitanls.  (ind  the  huildinf^s,  ra/i'd  the  walls 
and  temples,  and  llipuded  the  ruins  with  water 
I'riini  the  lCu]dirales  and  its  canals.  The  last 
eijiht  years  of  his  rei^jn  were  mostly  jteace- 
ful.  He  had  some  time  hefnre  surrounded 
Nineveh  with  a  wall,  s  miles  in  circunifir- 
cnce.  Ahout  <!!».">  is.  c.  he  linished  a  jjreat 
palace  which  lie  had  built  I'or  himself  in  the 
northwestern  part  of  Nineveh.  It  was  1500 
feet  liiiif;  and  7n(i  broad,  with  great  courts, 
halls,  and  chambers.  He  restored  another 
palace,  and  constructed  a  system  of  canals 
f)y  which  he  brouj;ht  frond  drinkinj;  water 
to  the  cil.v.  After  a  reifrn  of  twenty-four 
years  and  tive  months,  he  was  assiissinated 
on  the  "JOtli  of  Tebet,  which  jiossibly  I'ell  at 
the  close  of  (!f^l,  but  more  iirohablycorresiionds 
with  .laniiary,  6Nt.  The  deed  was  done  by 
two  of  his  sons.  Adrammelecli  and  Sharezer, 
who  were  e.\cited  a;{ainst  him  because  his  fa- 
vorite in  the  family  wasanother  brother,  Esar- 
haddoii  (','  Kin.  xix.  37;  2  C'hron.  xxxii.  21). 

Se-nu'ah.    See  H.\ssenuah. 

Se-o'rim  [barley]. 

,\  descendant  of  Aaron.  PHs  family  had 
grown  to  a  father's  hou.se  in  the  time  of 
David,  and  constituted  the  fourth  course 
when  David  distributed  the  jiriests  into  di- 
visions (1   Cliron.   xxiv.   1,   (i,  8). 

Se'phar  [numbering]. 

A  jilace  which  form- 
ed the  limit  in  one  di- 
rection of  the  territory 
.settled  by  the  descend- 
ants of  .loktan  ((ieii. 
X.  :!0).  h  was  ])riib- 
ably  in  southern  Ara- 
bia. Despite  the  (irst 
U'tter,  it  is  commonly 
identilied  with  ZaiVir. 
which  bi'gins  with  the 
Arabic  pointed  za 
(teth).  Two  jdaces 
bore-  this  name.  One 
was  a  seajiort  in  Ha- 
<lrainaut,  near  the  in- 
cense mountain  ;  the 
other  was  in  souther!! 
Yemen,  and  was  the 
capital  of  the  Himyar- 
ite  kings. 

Seph'a-rad. 

.■\  place  to  which  the  people  of  .leru.siilem 
were  to  be  carried  away  captive  (Obiid.  20). 


Its  situation  is  unsettled.  Sparda,  a  district 
fre(|uenily  mentioned  in  tlie  Persian  inscrip- 
tions along  with  Ionia,  .\rijieiiia.  and  Cappa- 
docia,  and  iirobably  identical  with  Sardis  in 
Asia  .Minor,  has  been  suggested  ;  l>ut  this 
identiticatioii  requiri'S  the  a.ssumjitio!!  that 
Obadiah  ]iropliesied  aft<T  the  exile,  which 
few  critics  believe.  Hapjpier  is  the  identifi- 
cation with  Shaiiaida,  wliich  Sai-gon,  who 
ti-aiisimrted  Israelites  to  the  cities  of  the 
Meiles  (2  Kin.  xvii.  (i),  mentions  as  a  district 
of  southwestern  Media. 

Seph-ar-va'lm  [twin  Si|iparas]. 

A  place  ciiiii|Ueied  by  tile  .\ssyrians,  and 
from  which  they  biought  cnlouists  to  in- 
habit Samaria  when  tlie  ten  tribes  weie 
carried  into  captivity  (2  Kin.  xvii.  24). 
Tlie  city  stood  on  the  eastern  bank  of  the 
Ijiiiluates.  above  Habylon  and  hard  by  the 
border  of  .Mesiiiuitaniia.  It  was  a  seat  of  the 
woi'shiiiof  the  sun-god.  and  hence  was  known 
as  Sipjmr  of  Shamash.  liut  Anunit,  wife  of 
the  god  of  the  sky,  was  also  s])eci;illy  wor- 
shiped there,  ajiiiai-ently  i!i  a  distinct  section 
of  the  city.  Ilence  there  was  also  Sijijiar  of 
Anunit.  The  duality  of  the  town  siiliiciently 
explains  the  Hebrew  name,  which  is  dual  in 
for!ii  and  is  equivalent  to  the  twi!i  cities  of 
Sipjiara.  It  is  now  called  Abu  Habba.  Sippar 
of  Anunit  was  apparentl.v  another  designa- 
tion  of  .\gade,   the  old  cajtital  of  Sargou  I. 

Se'phar-vites. 

Natives  or  inhabitauts  of  Sejiharvaim  (2 
Kin.  xvii.  .'51). 

Se-phe'la.     See  Shephelah. 

Sep'tu-a-gint.    See  Versions. 

Sep'ul-cher. 

The  Hebrews,  as  a  rule,  buried  their  dead 
in  caverns,  natural  or  artificial  ((4en.  xxiii. 
9;  Is.  xxii.  Ki;  Mat.  xxvii.  60;  John  xi.  38), 
natural  caves  being  often  extended  by  exca- 


tlie  so-culled  Tonitis  of  the  Kiiins 


'  vatioii  ((Jeii.l.  ")).  The  dill's  near  .lerusiilein 
ai'e  full  of  such  si-pulchers.  The  entnmce  to 
the  cavern  or  its  chambers  was  closed  b.v  a 


Sepulcher 


6(iO 


Sepulchers  of  the  Kings 


stone  (Mat.  xxvii.  60)  to  exclude  jackals  and 
other  beasts  that  prey  unon  flcad  bodies.  It 
was  desirable  tliat  tiie  sepulclicrs  sliould  be 
at  a  distance  from  human  habitations.  They 
might  be  in  gardens  attached  to  dwellings 


Sealed  Stone  at  Entrance  of  a  Tomb. 

(2  Kin.  xxi.  18,  26),  or  within  the  city  walls 
(1  Kin.  ii.  10)  ;  but  they  were  generally  out- 
side the  town.  Even  then  trees  or  gardens 
might  surround  them  (John  xix.  41).  Often, 
however,  they  were  excavated  high  up  in  the 
face  of  a  precipitous  cliff,  with  their  entrance 
far  above  the  ground.  Frequently  the  tomb 
was  whitewashed  (Mat.  xxiii.  27),  not  only 


shaft  into  the  side  of  the  cavern  and  closed 
by  a  flat  stone  or  door,  or  a  shelf  for  bodies  was 
hewn  around  the  chand)er.  .Sometimes  there 
were  double  tiers  of  niches  or  shafts.  Coflins 
were  not  necessary;  but  occasionally  among 
the  wealthy  the  body  was  iucloseil  in  a  stone 
sarcoi)hagus,  and  placed  in  the  tomb.  The 
entrance  was  sometimes  richly  ornamented. 
Sometimesa  monument  was  erected.  It  might 
consist  of  a  simi)le  i)illar  (2  Kin.  xxiii.  17,  K. 
v.),  or  it  might  assume  the  form  of  a  mauso- 
leum (1  Mac.  xiii.  27).  The  Hebrews  and 
their  neighbors  were  fond  of  family  burial 
places,  and  the  sepulcher  with  its  chambers 
and  niches  was  adapted  to  this  purpose  (Gen. 
xlix.  29-31 ;  2  Sam.  ii.  32  ;  1  Kin.  xiii.  22 ;  1 
Mac.  ix.  19;  xiii.  25).  Public  burial  places 
were  used  by  the  poor  and  were  i)rovided  for 
strangers  (2  Kin.  xxiii.  6  ;  Jer.  xxvi.  215 ;  Mat. 
xxvii.  7).  When  the  Palestine  exj)lorcrs 
found  a  grave  dug  down  in  the  ground  and 
covered  with  earth,  they  assumed  it  to  be  a 
Christian  tomb ;  but  if  they  found  one  run- 
ning horizontally  into  a  cliff,  they  presumed 
it  to  be  .Jewish.      See  Gr.we. 

Sep'ul-clier,  Ho'ly.     See  Calvary. 

Sep'ul-chers  of  tbe  Kings,  or  of  Da'vld. 

The  royal  luirial  i>lace  in  the  city  of  David, 
not  far  from  the  king's  garden  and  the  pool 
of  Shelah  (1  Kin.  ii.  10;  2  Cbron.  xxi.  20; 
Neh.  iii.  1.5,  16),  and  doubtless  in  the  field  of 
burial  which  belonged  to  the  kings  (2  Chron. 
xxvi.  23  ;  cp.  2  Kin.  xv.  7).  Theodoret  quotes 
Josephus  as  saying  that  the  tomb  is  near  Si- 
loam,  is  in  fashion  like  a  cave,  and  i-eveals  the 


^^■.^< 


Portal  of  the  so-called  Toml)s  of  the  .tiuljies,  near  Jerusalem. 


for  cleanliness  and  beauty,  but  also  that  it 
might  be  clearly  seen  and  not  touched,  for 
the  touch  brought  defilement.  Inside  the 
sepulcher  the  individual  grave  was  sunk  in 
the  floor  and  covered  by  a  slab  of  stone,  or 
was  cut  as  a  niche  in  the  wall,  or  driven  as  a 


royal  lavishness  (Qua^st.  6  in  iii.  Reg.).  It  con- 
sisted of  several  chambers  (Antiq.  vii.  15.  3). 
It  was  robbed  of  large  treasure  by  John  Hyr- 
canus ;  and  the  rejiort  of  the  sum  which  that 
prince  had  obtained  led  Herod  the  Great  to 
search  it,  in  the  hope  of  securing  additional 


Serah 


661 


Seraphim 


jilunder ;  but  he  became  frightened,  abandoned 
tlu'  search,  and  oni-tod  a  propitiatory  monii- 
niiMit  of  wiiitf  stone  at  its  nioiitli  (iliid. ;  xiii.  S, 
4  ;  xvi.  ?,  1  ;  War  i.  '2,  5).  It  was  extant  in  liic 
time  of  Clirist  (Acts  ii.  2'.)}.  All  the  kings 
from  David  to  Ilezekiah  inclusive  were  bur- 
ied in  the  citv  of  David.  The  coiiiinon  royal 
SI  pnlclier  was  l)\  iniplii  ation  unliuarily  used  ; 
l>nt  Asa  and  pi-ohai)ly  llezekiali  had  tombs 
of  their  own  (J  Chron.  xvi.  14  ;  xxxii.  :j:{,  K. 
\'.),  and  .lehorani,  .loash,  Uzziah,  and  Ahaz 
Were  not  admitted  to  the  royal  sejiulcher 
(xxi.  'JO;  xxiv.  "J.");  xxvi.  'Si;  xxviii.  27). 
.Manasscdi,  .\iuon,  and  .losiali  were  buried  at 
.lerusilem  in  their  own  tombs  {2  Kin.  xxi.  18, 
•2(i;  X xiii. ;5()  with  2 Chron.  XXXV. 24).  Jehoabaz 
died  in  Kfj.vpt,  and  .lehoiacbiii  and  /edekiah 
doubtli'ss  in  Habylonia.  .hdioiakim  was  prob- 
ably left  unburied. 

Tlie  caverns  of  the  kings,  which  are  re- 
ferred to  l)y  .Tosei)hus  (War  v.  4,  2).  may  be 
what  is  now  known  as  the  grotto  of  Jeremiah. 

Se'rah,  in  A.  V.  onct;  Sarah  (Num.  xxvi. 
40)   [abundance]. 

A  daughter  of  Asher  (Gen.  xlvi.  17;  1 
Chron.   vii.  '.'>()). 

Se-ra'iali  [soldier  of  Jehovah] 

1.  A  s.in  of  Kenaz  (1  Chron.  iv.  13). 

2.  A  scribe  who  had  held  oflice  under  David 
(2  Sam.  viii.  17) ;  see  Sh.wsh.x. 

3.  A  Simeonite,  son  of  Asiel  (1  Chron.  iv. 
35). 

4.  One  of  those  sent  to  arrest  Baruch  the 
scribe  and  Jeremiah  the  prophet  (Jer.  xxxvi. 
2«). 

").  The  chief  priest  when  Nebuchadnezzar 
captured  JerusalcTu.  He  was  jiut  to  death 
by  Nebiuhaduezzar  at  Kiblah  (2  Kin.  xxv. 
lH-21  :  Jer.  Hi.  24  27).  He  was  the  father  of 
Jeliozadak,  who  was  carried  into  cajitivity; 
and  the  gnindfatber  of  Jeshua,  who  was  high 
jiriest  inimediattdy  after  the  exile;  ajid  he 
was  also  an  ancestor  of  Ezra,  the  scribe  (1 
Chron.  vi.  14,  1.");   Ezra  iii.  2  ;  vii.  1). 

().  "  ,\  quiet  ])rince.'"  or  "the  (diief  cham- 
berlain," or  the  "  ((Uartermaster,"  the  son  of 
Neriah.  Uc.  was  carried  captive  to  Habylon 
(Jer.  li.  .")!)-(i4,  A.  V..  K.  V..  and  margin). 

7.  The  son  of  Tanbunieth,  a  Netophathite 
(2  Kin.  xxv.  2:!;  Jer.  xl.  H). 

H.  Om-  of  thosi-  who  accompanied  Zerub- 
babel  from  Habylon  ( Ezra  ii.  2).  Called  in 
N(di.  vii.  7  .\zariah. 

!).  A  chief  of  the  ]>riests  wlm  returned 
from  Habylon  with  Zerubbabel  (Neb.  xii.  1, 
7).  .\  father's  house  bore  his  name  in  tin- 
next  generation  (ver.  12).  Possibly  the  .same 
as  number  H. 

1(1.  .\  priest,  doubtless  hi;iil  of  ,i  father's 
lioiise  and  j)robably  of  the  falher's  house  just 
mentioniMl,  who  with  Neheudah  signeil  the 
covenant  to  keep  separate  from  the  heathen 
and  observe  the  law  of  (!<id  (Neh.  x.  2). 
Probably  also  he  is  identical  with  the  follow- 
ing. 

11.    A  iiricst,  sou    ..f  Ililkiah    and    rnhr   ..f 


the  house  of  Ood  after  the  exile  (Neh.  xi.  11 ; 
cp.  the  preceding).  The  name  .\zariah  oc- 
curs in  the  corresiiondiug  i)lace  in  1  Chron. 
ix.  11.  Dilferi'iit  jiersons  are  ;irobaiily  in- 
tended, of  whom  Azariah  lived  before  and 
Seraiah  after  the  exile.  I'ossibly,  however, 
ditrereut  jiersous  are  intended,  (ach  of  whom 
lived  after  the  exile,  ,\zariah  being  a  ]ucde- 
cess(U'  of  Seniiah.  Or  the  text  may  be  cor- 
rujit ;  in  one  of  the  i)assages  the  name  nuiy 
have  been  misread  by  a  cojjyist ;  or  as  both 
names  belong  to  the  high-iiriestly  genealogy 
and  succeed  each  other  there  (1  Chron.  vi. 
12-1.0),  .something  may  have  slipjied  from  the 
text,  as,  for  example  :  "  Seraiah,  son  of  "  may 
have  been  lost  before  Aziiriah  in  Chronicles, 
or  "  son  of  Azariah  "  after  Seraiali  in  Nehe- 
udah. 

Ser'a-phlm. 

Celestial  beings  wlio  stood  before  the  en- 
throned Lord  when  he  ajjpeared  in  vision  to 
Isaiah.  Each  bad  six  wings;  with  twain  he 
covered  his  face,  and  with  twain  hi'  covered 
his  feet,  and  with  twain  lie  did  Hy.  And 
oiH'  cried  unto  another,  and  said:  "Holy, 
holv,  boh-,  is  the  Lord  of  hosts:  the  whole 
earth  is  full  of  his  glory  "  (I.s.  vi.  2,  3).  The 
jirophet  h;iving  confessi'd  his  sinfulness,  one 
of  the  serapbini  Hew  unto  liim,  having  a  live 
coal  in  his  hand,  which  he  had  taken  with 
tlw  tongs  from  oil'  the  altar;  and  he  touched 
the  prophet's  mouth  with  it,  and  said:  "  Lo, 
this  hath  touched  thy  lijis;  and  thine  in- 
i(|uity  is  taken  away,  and  thy  sin   juirged." 

.S'ri])ture  atl'ords  no  further  information 
regarding  the  sera])biin.  They  are  men- 
tioned in  this  one  ])assage  only.  What  were 
they?  1.  (iesenius  derives  their  name  from 
the  .\rabic  shardfii.  high,  noble.  The  .Vrabic 
root  would  regularly  be  s«rrt;y/i  in  Hebrew; 
but  there  is  no  evidence  that  it  was  ever 
used  by  the  Hebrews.  No  other  word  in 
Hebrew  is  traceable  to  this  root.  (Jesenius 
has  sought  his  derivation  outside  of  the  He- 
brew lexicon.  These  facts  stamp  his  ex- 
planation as  improbable.  2..  Cheyne  cim.jec- 
tures  that  the  serai>him  are  the  ser])ent-like 
lightning,  referring  to  the  fact  that  saraph 
and  s' fit jih till  di'iiote  the  fiery  st'rjients  in  the 
wilderness  (Num.  x.xi.  (!,  b;  Is.  .\iv.2!);  xxx. 
()).  Hut  even  if  the  words  seraj)him  and 
fiery  serpent  have  the  same  form  in  the 
singular  number,  which  is  uncertain,  and 
if  they  are  froiu  the  same  i^endtic  root, 
which  is  iirobable,  they  yet  need  not  signify 
the  .same  beings  or  sinularly  shajied  l)eings. 
Sha])e  is  not  denoted  by  the  nanu'.  The 
common  characteristic,  which  tinds  exjires- 
sion  in  the  word,  is  burning,  in  the-  transitive 
sense;  not  ardent  or  glowing  beings,  but 
beings  that  burn  things.  Nor  do  the  sera- 
phim resetnble  serjients  outwardly,  fin*  they 
have  hands,  feet,  and  wings.  Cheyne  adudts 
that  Isaiah  did  imt  regard  them  as  animals 
in  fiirm.  ,'{.  The  seraphim  are  identical 
with  tlie  Egy])tian  grillius,  scrr*"/ (Dillmann, 


Sered 


662 


Seven 


quoting  L.  Stern),  and  were  borrowed  by  the 

Isniclitos.  If  so,  they  wcrf  ]iersoiiifu';iti()iis 
of  natiinil  objects  or  iiliciioiiiciKi ;  and  in  tlie 
vision  of  Isaiah  they  synit)olirally  rcincsont 
the  powers  of  nature  attendant  upon  nature's 
Lord  ((•!>.  Zech.  vi.  1-8,  R.  V.).  4.  Tliey  are 
an  iinler  of  angels.  So  the  Jews  understood. 
Till'  Tarfjuni  inserts  tlie  word  in  lO/.ek.  i.  8; 
Zech.  iii.  7.  They  are  consuming  ))einjj;s, 
who  cry  "Holy,  holy,  holy,"  who  are  most 
impressed  with  the  attribute  of  holiness  in 
(rod,  worshij)  him  most  fondly  in  that  char- 
acter, and  execute  his  puri)oses  of  holiness 
in  the  world  (l)elit/-sch,  modified).  The  con- 
clusive argument  in  favor  of  this  theory 
against  the  third  is  that  their  adoration  of 
holiness  in  (<od  and  their  employment  in  the 
ministry  of  atonement  indicate  moral  beings, 
and  not  i)hysical  powers  persouiiied. 

Se'red  [fear]. 

A  son  of  Zebulun,  and  founder  of  a  tribal 
family  ((4en.  xlvi.  14;  Num.  xxvi.  2fj). 

Ser'gi-us  Pau'lus  [Paulus  means  small, 
little]. 

The  proconsul  of  Cyprus,  which  consti- 
tuted a  senatorial  province  at  the  time  of 
Paul's  visit  there  (Acts  xiii.  5-12). 

Se'ron  [perhaps,  a  Greek  form  of  Hiram 
(cj).  Herod,  vii.  98)]. 

Commander  of  the  army  of  Syria  (1  Mac. 
iii.  13)  in  the  reign  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes. 
He  attempted  to  sup]>ress  the  revolt  of  the 
Jews,  ))Ut  was  defeated  by  Judas  Maccabfeus 
near  Beth-horon  in  166  B.  c.  (14-24).  Josephus 
states  that  Seron  lost  his  life  in  the  battle 
(Anti(i.  xii.  7,  1). 

Ser'pent. 

1.  An  animal  which  creeps  on  its  belly 
(Gen.  iii.  1,  14) ;  having  head,  tail,  and  body 
(15  ;  Ex.  iv.  4),  but  no  limbs.  It  is  geuerically 
called  nnhash  in  Hebrew,  aphis  in  Greek 
(Gen.  iii.  13  with  2  Cor.  xi.  3;  Num.  xxi.  9 
\\nth  J(din  iii.  14).  As  it  wriggles  along,  its 
moulli  is  apt  to  come  in  contact  with  the 
dust,  which  it  licks  (Mic.  vii.  17;  cp.  Gen. 
iii.  14  ;  Is.  Ixv.  25).  The  bite  of  some  si»ecies 
infuses  fatal  poison  into  the  wound  (Num. 
xxi.  6  ;  Ps.  Iviii.  4;  Prov.  xxiii.  32).  Some 
can  be  charmed  (Ecc.  x.  11).  The  serpent  is 
found  in  the  wilderness  and  in  inhabited 
districts,  by  the  road,  in  hedges,  on  rocks,  in 
walls  (Gen.  xlix.  17;  Num.  xxi.  6;  Prov. 
XXX.  lit;  Ecc.  X.  8;  Amos  v.  19). 

The  fiery  seri)ents  which  bit  the  children 
of  Israel  in  the  wilderness  and  cau.sed  death 
(Num.  .xxi.  6),  were  a  kind  of  snake  found 
in  Arabia  and  elsewhere,  whose  bite  pro- 
duces the  fiery  burning  of  inflammation  and 
thirst.     See  Ukazkn  SKurKNT. 

The  serjient  of  the  temptation  was  an  or- 
dinary snake,  one  of  the  beasts  of  the  field, 
comjiarable  with  them  in  subtlety  and  skill 
in  securing  prey,  and.  after  it  w.is  involved 
in  the  tcmiitation  of  man.  cursed  among 
them  (Gen.  iii.  1,  II).  Perliajjs  Kve  saw 
nothing  more  than  a  snake:   but  the  de%'il 


was  in  this  serpent,  as  afterwards  the  demons 
were  in  men  and  in  the  swine,  controlling 
it,  lending  it  su])eriiaturai  subllcty,  and  using 
it  as  a  means  by  which  to  approach  Eve  (Wisd. 
ii.  24 ;  John  viii.  44  ;  liom.  xvi.  20 :  2  Cor. 
xi.  3;  Rev.  xii.  9) ;  see  Satan.  It  suttered  in 
the  punishment,  as  did  other  innocent  ani- 
mals when  made  the  instruments  of  sin 
(Lev.  XX.  15,  16).  Its  mode  of  locomotion 
was  not  new,  it  had  doubtless  always  crept ; 
but  now  this  groveling  on  the  earth  and  ac- 
cidental swallowing  of  dust  is  made  the 
memorial  of  its  degnidation.  It  does  not 
suli'er  thereby,  save  as  it  is  loathed  and  killed 
by  man.  But  the  more  distinctly  man  recog- 
nizes that  the  evil  spirit  was  the  serpent's 
master,  the  more  does  man  transfer  his  en- 
mity to  the  archfiend. 

2.  A  species  of  serpent,  in  Hebrew  pethen 
(Ps.  xci.  13,  in  E.  V.  adder).     See  Asp. 

Se'rug,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Saruch  [shoot, 
branch]. 

Son  of  Reu,  father  of  Nahor,  and  ancestor 
of  Abraham  (Gen.  xi.  20,  23;  1  Chrou.  i.  26; 
Luke  iii.  35). 

Serv'ant. 

One  who  serves,  in  Hebrew  usually  'ebed. 
It  is  a  general  term,  including  voluntary  and 
involuntary  service,  and  embracing  all  who 
are  under  obligation  of  any  kind  to  render 
service  to  another,  from  the  slave  captured 
in  war  or  purchased  at  a  price,  to  the  envied 
official  of  a  king  and  the  willing  worshiper 
of  God  (Gen.  xxxix.  1  with  xii.  12;  xl.  20; 
Ex.  xxxii.  13;  Acts  xvi.  17).  It  is  system- 
atically employed  by  orientals  when  ad- 
dressing a  superior,  whether  man  or  God 
(Gen.  xxxii.  4,  20;  1.  18;  Deut.  iii.  24; 
2  Sam.  ix.  2  ;  Luke  ii.  29 ;  Acts  iv.  29)  ;  and 
is  applied  to  conquered  nations  compelled 
to  pay  tribute  to  their  conqueror  (2  Sam.  viii. 
2).  God  also  designates  his  worshipers  serv- 
ants (Gen.  xxvi.  24 ;  Num.  xii.  7  ;  2  Sam. 
vii.  5).    See  Minister,  Slavk. 

Seth,  in  A.  V.  once  Shetli  (1  Chron.  i.  1) 
[appointed,  substituted], 

A  son  of  Adam.  He  was  born  after  the 
murder  of  Abel,  for  whom  to  a  certain  ex- 
tent he  became  a  siilistitute  ((ien.  iv.  25  ;  v. 
3).  He  became  the  father  of  Enos,  and  died 
at  the  age  of  912  (Gen.  v.  6-8  ;  Luke  iii.  38). 

Se'thur  [hidden]. 

The  representative  spy  from  the  tri])e  of 
Asher  (Num.  xiii.  13). 

Sev'en. 

Seven  is  an  ordinary  numeral,  and  it  was 
commonly  used  without  religious  signifi- 
cance ;  but  it  was  also  a  sacred  number 
among  the  Hebrews  and  other  Semites,  and 
also  among  the  Aryans  of  Persia  and  even 
of  Greece  (Iliad  xix.  243).  Its  sacredness  is 
traceable  to  remote  anti(|uity.  It  is  seen  in 
the  seven  pillars  of  wisdom's  house  (Prov. 
ix.  1),  the  seven  locks  into  which  Samson, 
who  was  consecrated  to  (^od,  braided  bis  hair 


Seveneh 


663 


Shaharaim 


( Jiidg.  xvi.  13,  19),  the  seven  victims  to  atone 
for  the  ])roken  coveiiiint  (2  Sam.  xxi.  6,  9), 
the  seven  stones  of  tlie  ancient  Aral)ssmeari'd 
with  tlie  lihiod  of  tlie  covenantin;;  jiarties 
(Herod,  iii.f^),  the  seven  himhs  to  attest  the 
eonehision  of  a  treaty  ((Jen.  x.xi.  'JH-3U),  the 
Jlehrew  words  for  oath  and  taking  an  oath, 
which  incorporate  tlie  niiml)er  .seven,  and 
the  s;icr4'dness  of  tlie  seventh  jiortion  of 
time.  'J'he  idea  that  seven  derived  its  sacred 
character  from  the  fact  that  three  phis  four 
make  sevi'n,  is  pure-  fancy.  It  was  sacred  he- 
cause  men  saw  that  (ioil  reco;;iii/.ed  tlii^  nnm- 
her.  He  i>laci'd  seven  luminaries  in  the  sky, 
sun,  tnoon,  and  live  planets.  Jle  caused  the 
moon  to  ])hase  every  seven  days.  These 
])henomena,  however,  were  hut  confirmatory 
and  .served  as  reminders  of  a  greater  reco};- 
nition.  (Jod  had  hlessed  the  seventh  day 
and  hallowed  it.  Far  more  was  needed  than 
the  signs  of  the  sky  to  originate  the  sacred- 
ne.ss  of  seven.  Twelve  did  not  become  a 
sacred  number,  although  God  made  the 
moon  to  mark  of!"  twelve  montlis  in  the  year, 
placed  twelve  starry  signs  in  the  zodiac,  and 
made  the  sun  to  loiiform  its  course  to  the  zo- 
diac and  to  return  in  spring  as  nearly  at  the 
conclusion  of  twelve  lunar  months  as  the 
moon  renews  itself  after  four  j)hasings. 
llan  noted  these  iphenomeiia  in  the  earliest 
times.  ado])tctl  them  into  his  daily  life  and 
language,  and  celebrated  certain  of  them 
with  religious  festivals.  In  Babylonia  man 
even  made  twelve  the  basis  of  an  arithmeti- 
cal system,  and  in  Assyria  liis  iiantheon  con- 
tained twelve  great  gods.  Notwithstanding 
all  this,  twelve  did  not  become  a  .sacred 
numlier  ;  but  seven  did  become  a  sitcred  num- 
ber, and  the  seventh  ])ortion  of  time  a  sacred 
sea.son  ;  and  not  merely  was  the  recurring 
seventh  jiortion  of  time  sacred,  but  it  in- 
volved a  benediction.  It  was  cherished  in 
hoary  antifpiity  as  a  season  of  divine  favor 
toward  man.  wlien  tlie  manifestation  of  Cod's 
good  will  was  to  l)e  expected.    .Sec  S.\bbath. 

Se-ve'neh,   in    A.  V.    Sy-e'ne    [Egyptian 

AiDi.  atl'ording  entrance]. 

.\  town  constituting  the  extreme  limit  of 
Egypt  in  one  direction.  Wliicli  direction  de- 
j)ends  on  the  tnmslation  of  Ezek.  xxix.  10; 
XXX.  ().  If.  as  is  ])robable,  the  jirefiirable  ren- 
dering is  that  of  the  margin,  "  from  Migdol  to 
Syenc,"  then  the  town  of  Seveiich  is  in  the 
south  of  Egyjit,  on  the  borders  of  Ethiopia, 
and  is  the  lioman  Syene,  the  modern  .Assouan, 
on  the  Egyi)lian  side  of  the  first  catanict, 
where  a  few  rem;iiiis  of  the  ancient  city  ex- 
ist. Here,  r)r  on  th<'  island  hanl  by,  the  bor- 
der garrison  was  stationed  (  Herod,  ii.  .'50). 

Sha-al'toim,    once    Sha-al-ab'bln    (.Tosh. 

xi\-.   I-.')  (foxes]. 

.\n  .Nniiirite  city  within  the  t«'rritory  of  Dan 
(.losli.  xix.  -J".*),  whi<-li  the  Ainorites  did  not 
yield  (.ludg.  i.  .'{.">)  until  some  time  after  the 
settlement   of  the   Hebrews    in    the    land    (1 


Kin.  iv.  9).     Not  identified.     .Selbit,  3  miles 
northwest  of  Aijalon,  has  little  in  its  favor. 

Sha-arbo-nite. 

A  nati\e  or  inhabitant  either  of  an  un- 
known town  called  Shaalbon,  .)r  more  i)rob- 
ahlv  of  .Shaalbim  {2  .Sam.  xxiii.  32;  1  C'hron. 
xi.33). 

Sha'a-lim,  in  A.  V.  Sha'lim  [foxes]. 

,\  district  aiipareiitly  in  Ejihiaim,  through 
which  Saul,  on  leaving  the  land  of  Shalishah, 
jiassed  in  <|Uest  of  his  father's  a.sses  (1  Sam. 
ix. -1).     Situation    unknown. 

Sha'apb. 

1.  .\  son  of  .Tahdai,  included  in  the  regis- 
try of  Caleb  (1  t'hron.  ii.  47). 

2.  A  son  of  Caleb  by  his  concubine  Maacah. 
He  was  ancestor  of  the  inhabitants  of  IMad- 
maniiah  (1  Chron.  ii.  4!»j. 

Sba-a-ra'im,  in  A.  V.  once  Sbaraim  [two 
gates]. 

1.  A  town  in  the  h)wlaiid  of  .Tndali  (.losh. 
XV.  3(i),  apparently  west  of  Socoh  and  Azekali 
(1  Sam.  xvii.  .'J2"  with  1).  Not  identified. 
Sa'iri'h  among  the  liills,  .'>  miles  northeast  by 
north  of  i^ocoh,  has  not  the  jiro](er  location  ; 
and  the  ti'll  and  village  of  Zakariya,  on  eitlier 
side  of  wady  es-Snnt  and  about  25  miles  to  the 
northwest  of  Socoh,  have  only  one  consonant 
in  conimoii  with  Shaaraim,  and  besidesappear 
to  be  named  after  the  jirophet  Zechariah. 
whose  grave  is  shown  tliere. 

2.  A  town  of  Simeon  (1  Chron.  iv.  31)  ;  see 

StlAiailKN. 

Sha-ash'gaz. 

A  chamberlain  of  king  Ahasuerus  (Esth. 
ii.  It). 

Sbab'be-thai  [jjcrtaining  to  the  Sa)>bath]. 
A  chief  Levite,  i)rominent   in   P>,ra's  time 
(Ezra  X.  l."> ;   Neb.  viii.  7;  xi.  Ki). 

Sba-cbi'a. 

A  lU'iijaniite.  son  of  Shaliaraini  (1  Chron. 
viii.  1(»). 

Sha'dracb  [])robably  Babylonian,  Shudiir- 
aku,  decree  of  the  moon-god]. 

The  name  given  by  tlie  jirince  of  the 
eunuchs  at  Ba))ylon  to  Hananiah,  one  of  the 
three  faithful  Hebrews  afterwards  iniraeu- 
lonslv  .saved  from  the  fierv  furnace  (Dan. 
i.  7  ;  iii.  12-30). 

Sha'ge  [wandering,  a  wanderer]. 

\  Hararite,  (he  fathi'r  of  one  of  David's 
mighty  men  (1  Chron.  xi.  31).  Some  ex]iosi- 
tors  would  read  .\gee  instead  of  .Shag(>,  on 
the  ground  of  2  Sam.  xxiii.  11.  The  more 
appropriate  conijiarisoii  with  2  Sam.  xxiii.  32, 
.33.  and  the  reading  of  EiK-ian's  receiisicm  of 
the  Sejituagint  render  more  ))roliable  the  con- 
jecture that  tlie  name  is  really  Slianimah  ;  see 
Shamm.vh  I. 

Sha-ba-ra'im  [the  double  dawning]. 
A  I^eiijaniite,  who  had  numerous  descend- 
ants ( 1  (  liroii.  viii.  H). 


Shahazumah 


GG4 


Shalmaneser 


Sha-haz'u-mah,  in  A.  V.  Sha-haz'i-mah, 
as  in  Ilclircw  niarfjin  [not  improbably,  lofty 
places] . 

A  town  on  I  lit'  bonliT  of  Issachar  (Josh, 
xix.  '2"J).     Situation  unknown. 

Sha'lem  [rntire,  safe]. 

A  town  uvixr  Slu'clu^ni  (('.en.  xxxiii.  18), 
acconlinji  to  the  (ireek,  Latin,  and  Syriac 
voi-sioiis,  followed  by  A.  V.  It  is  scarcely 
Salem  (Gen.  xiv.  18),  for  that  town  is  prob- 
ably Jerusalem  ;  nor  Salim,  4  miles  east  of 
■Shecliem.  wliich  is  not  mentioned  in  the 
().  T.  The  word  is  jirobably  a  eonnnon  noun, 
to  be  rendered,  with  K.  \'.,  in  peace  or  .safety. 

Sha'lim.     SeeSH.\ALiM. 

Shal'i-shah,  in  A.  V.  Shalisha  [a  third 
part]. 

A  district  apparently  in  the  hill  country 
of  Ephraim,  traversed  l)y  Saul  in  quest  of 
his  father's  asses  (1  Sam.  ix.  4).  Its  situation 
is  unknown.  It  does  not  seem  to  be  the 
same  as  Haal-shalishah. 

Sharie-chetli  [casting  out]. 

A  sate  of  Solomon's  temple  on  the  west 
(1  ('hron.  xxvi.  Ki). 

Slial'lum  [retribution]. 

1.  A  son  of  Naphtali  (1  Chron.  vii.  13) ;  see 
Shillem. 

2.  A  descendant  of  Simeon  through  Shaul 
(1  Chron.  iv.  24,  25). 

3.  A  descendant  of  Judah  through  Sisamai 
(1  Chron.  ii.  40,  41). 

4.  The  chief  porter  at  the  sanctuary  (1 
Chron.  ix.  17,  18).  If  before  the  exile,  as  is 
probable,  he  is  mentioned  by  Jeremiah 
(Jer.  XXXV.  4).  He  was  a  son  of  Kore,  a  Kor- 
hite,  and  he  and  liis  family  were  keepers  of 
the  gates  of  the  sanctuary  (1  Chron.  ix.  19). 
The  name  Shallum  may  be  equivalent  to  Me- 
shelemiah  orShelemiah  (xxvi.  1,  14),  whether 
the  registry  of  cliai)ter  ix.  be  referred  to  the 
time  before  or  after  the  exile.  A  comjjarison 
of  ix.  21  with  xxvi.  2  raises  a  .strong  pre- 
sumption against  the  identification.  If  not- 
witlistanding  this,  the  registry  be  regarded 
as  post-exilic  and  Shallum  be  identified  with 
Sheleiniah,  tlu'u  Shallum  is  not  the  name  of 
a  person,  but  of  the  family,  in  the  registry. 

5.  A  son  of  Jabesh,  who  murdered  king 
Zechariah  and  reigned  in  his  stead  over  the 
ten  tribes,  but  in  a  month  was  himself  assas- 
sinated by  Mcnahem  (2  Kin.  xv.  8-15). 

().  Father  of  a  certain  Jehizkiah  (2  Chron. 
xxviii.  12). 

7.  A  member  of  the  high-priestly  family 
of  Zadok,  and  an  ancestor  of  Ezra.  He  lived 
several  generations  before  the  capture  of  .Fe- 
ru.salem  by  Nebuchadnezzar  (1  Chron.  vi.  12- 
15 :  Ezra  vii.  2).  Called  Meshullam  in  1 
Chron.  ix.  11;  see  Mksiiui.lam  4. 

8.  A  son  of  Tikvah,  and  the  husband  of 
Hiildah,  the  ])ro]ilietess,  and  in  the  reign  of 
Josiah  the  oflicer  who  had  charge  either  of 
the  priests'  garments  which  were  kept  in  the 
temple  or  of  the  king's  wardrobe  (2  Kin. 
xxii,   14;  2  Chron.   xxxiv.  22). 


9.  Uncle  of  Jeremiah,  and  the  father  of 
Hanameel  (Jer.  xxxii.  7,  8).  He  was  not  a 
member  of  the  high-pric^stly  family,  as  some 
have  thonglit ;  for  his  son  lived  at  Anathoth, 
a  town  where  i)riests  of  Ithamar's  line  dwelt 
(1  Kin.  ii.  2(!),  and  the  high  priests  of  this 
time,  belonged  to  the  line  of  Eleazar. 

10.  Another  name  for  Jehoahaz,  son  of 
Josiah,  king  of  Judah  (2  Kin.  xxiii.  30-34) ; 
see  Jkiioaii.az. 

11  and  12.  A  porter  of  the  temple,  and  .i 
son  of  Bani,  each  of  whom  was  induced  by 
Ezra  to  put  away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x. 
24,  42). 

13.  A  son  of  Hallohesh,  ruh^r  of  half  the 
district  of  Jerusalem.  With  his  daughters, 
he  repaired  part  of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem 
(Nt'h.  iii.  12). 

Shal'lun  [perhaps,  s])oliation]. 

A  ruler  of  part  of  Mizpali,  who  repaired 
the  gate  of  the  fountains  at  Jerusalem  (Neh. 
iii.  15). 

Shal'mai.     See  Salmai. 

Shal'man. 

Tiglath-])ileser  mentions Salamanu  of  Moab 
among  the  various  princes  who  were  tribu- 
tary to  him  (II.  R.  67,  60),  and  Schrader  be- 
lieves that  this  person  is  Shalman,  the  de- 
stroyer of  Beth-arbel,  to  whom  Hctsea  refers 
(Hos.  X.  14),  and  that  Beth-arl)el  is  the  town 
of  that  name  east  of  the  Jordan,  near  Pella. 
These  identifications  may  be  correct,  but  they 
are  unsupported.  It  is  not  known  that  Sala- 
manu of  Moab  invaded  the  land  of  Israel, 
but  it  is  known  that  Shalmaneser  of  Assyria 
did.  In  the  light  of  present  knowledge,  it 
is  more  natural  to  regard  Shalman  as  an  ab- 
breviation of  Shalmaneser,  exactly  such  an 
abbreviati(Ui  as  is  Benhadad,  and  to  think 
of  Heth-arliel  as  being  the  town  of  (lalilee, 
from  which  Shalmaneser's  army  was  cer- 
tainly not  far  distant.     See  Sh.\lmanesek  4. 

Shal-ma-ne'ser  [A.ssyrian  Shulnuuiu-ashar- 
idn,  god  Shulman  is  chief]. 

The  name  of  several  Assyrian  kings : 

1.  The  builder,  or  rather  rebuilder,  and 
fortifier  of  the  town  of  Calah  (q.  v.).  He 
reigned  about  1300  is.  c. 

2.  The  son  of  Ashurnasirpal.  He  reigned 
from  about  860  to  825  B.  c,  and  was  the  first 
Assyrian  king  who  came  into  conflict  with 
till-  Israelites.  He  was  energetic  and  ]^er- 
sistent  in  jmrpose.  He  crossed  the  Eujihrates 
with  hostile  intent  as  early  as  his  first  year 
and  wasted  the  Hittite  country  as  far  as  the 
Mediterranean  ;  and  he  repeatedly  crossed 
the  river  later,  besides  waging  war  in  the 
countries  north,  east,  and  south  of  Nineveh. 
To  resist  him  in  the  west,  the  Syrian  league 
was  formed,  which  included  Damascus,  Ha- 
math.  and  the  twelve  kings  of  the  coast,  and 
was  at  times  reenforced  by  the  soldiers  of  the 
neighboring  nations.  Thus,  for  iustanc(>,  the 
army  of  Ahab  of  Israel  was  found  light- 
ing side  by  side  with  the  nu^n  of  Damascus 
against  the  common  Assyrian  foe  at  Karkar 


Shalmaneser 


665 


Shamma 


in  854  B.  c. ;  see  Ahab,  Benhadad.  Shal- 
maneser claims  to  have  woti  the  battle  of 
Karkar;  luit  he  f;aiiK(l  iHitliiiifi  if  lie  did, 
ami  at  niici'  led  his  army  liack  to  Niiii'Vfh. 
After  tlirec  yeart;  lie  returned,  Imt  liis  on- 
\v;ird  eiiiirse  was  attain  stoi>])ed  liy  the  allies. 
The  ftillowinf,' year,  the  <leventh  (if  liis  reijrn. 
he  enissed  tiie  Ijijihrates  and  |ihiii(leit(l 
many  towns  of  the  kin;;dom  of  llanialii,  hut 
he  was  afjain  eiieeked.  In  his  fourteenth 
year  he  returned  and  eon(|iU'red.  The  jiovver 
of  the  league  was  liroken.    In  his  eighteenth 


troops  to  oppose  Shalmaneser  and  was  de- 
feated and  captured  ;  and  that  this  battle 
took  ]p|ace  at  tlie  stnitegic  ]K>int  and  noted 
liattlegroiind,  Arhela  in  (iaiih'e.  This  con- 
jeetun-,  wliich  identities  Slialman  of  Hos.  x. 
14  with  Siialmaneser,  is  alluring  ;  but  it  is 
only  conjecture.  After  seizing  the  king, 
whether  at  .Arhela  <ir  el.se where,  Slialmanoer 
laid  siege  to  the  cajiital.  Samaria  stooil  this 
siege  for  three  years  and  then  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  Assyrians  (2  Kin.  xvii.  1-H ; 
xviii.  it,  10).    Whether  Shalmaneser  was  still 


Shalmaneser  receiving  the  Tribute  of  Jeliu. 


year,  H4'J  R.  c,  he  defeated  Hazael  of  Damas- 
cus at  mount  Heniion.  The  kings  of  Tyre 
and  Sidon,  and  .Jehu  of  Israel,  in  dismay 
hastened  to  make  submission  by  sending 
tribute. 

.'{.  King  frcmi  7S'i  to  773  B.  c.  His  reign 
does  not  toucii  Hel)rew  history. 

4.  Succe.s.sor  of  Tiglath-]iilescr.  Before  his 
accession  to  the  Ilirone,  and  even  afterwards, 
he  was  known  by  the  name  of  I'lulai,  in 
<ireek  Iloulaios  (I'tolemy's  canon).  He 
reigned  from  the  25th  (tf  Tebet,  the  tenth 
month,  727  B.  c,  to  the  12th  of  Tebet,  722  B. 
I'.  In  725  he  undertook  an  expedition  to 
foreign  jiarts.  .\ccording  to  the  Syrian  an- 
nals cited  by  .losephus,  Shalmaneser  overran 
Plnenicia.  On  the  ajiproach  of  the  As.syrians, 
Sidon,  .Acre,  and  Tyre  on  the  mainhmd  re- 
volted from  the  dotiiiniou  of  island  Tyre  and 
acknowledged  I  he  suzerainty  of  llie  invader. 
Till'  .Assyrian  king  tliereu|ion  witlidrew.  He 
returned,  however,  to  war  against  the  island. 
His  shi|is.  manned  liy  his  I'lnenician  subjects, 
were  scatti-red  by  the  Tyrians  in  a  naval  en- 
gagement. -After  this  defeat  Shalmaneser 
marched  away,  leaving  troojis  enongii  to 
maintain  a  siege  of  the  city,  which  was  sus- 
tained for  five  years  (Anti(|.  ix.  14,  21,  when 
Tyre  submitted  to  Sargon.  Wlu'U  Shalma- 
neser arrived  in  the  west,  Iloshea  (laid  him 
t  ribute.  as  he  had  done  to  his  preilecessor,  but 
he  soon  stopiied  his  (layments,  ndying  upon 
So  of  Kgyjit  to  aid  him  in  lighting  the  As- 
syrians, and  )ierha|is  eiK-ouraged  by  the  stern 
resistance  of  Tyre.  Shalmaneser  ])roni|'tly  had 
him  seized  and  imprisoned.  It  is  <|Uite  proba- 
ble   that     Iloshea    had    gone    forth    with    his 


on  the  throne  or  had  .just  been  succeeded  l>y 
Sargon,  is  still  a  (juestion  ;  see  SAR(i()N. 

Sba'tna  [hearing,  or  he  hath  heard]. 
A  son  of  Hotbam,  the  A  roe  rite.     He  was 
one  of  David's  mighty  men  (1  C'hron.  xi.  44). 

Sham-a-ri'ah.     See  Shem.\ki.\h. 

Sba'med.     See  Shemed. 

Sha'mer.     See  Shemer. 

Sham 'gar. 

A  Hebrew  .judge,  the  son  of  Anath.  He 
lived  not  long  before  Deborah  and  Barak.  In 
his  da.vs,  through  the  ojijiression  of  the  Phi- 
listines, the  highways  were  unoccupied,  and 
the  travelers  walked  thmugh  i).vways  ^Tudg. 
V.  ()).  But  Shamgar  slew  (iOO  of  the  enemy 
with  an  oxgoad  and  delivered  Israel  (iii.  31). 

Sham'huth  [desolation]. 

An  Iziahite,  David's  captain  for  the  fifth 
nionih  (1  Chrcju.  xxvii.  8).  Perhaps  identi- 
cal with  Shammah  4. 

Sha'mir  [a  thorn]. 

1.  A  town  in  the  hill  countr.v  of  .Tudah 
(Josh.  XV.  4M)  ;  probabl.v  re|)resented  bv  the 
ruin  Somerah,  aluiut  13  miles  west-southwest 
of  Hebron. 

2.  -A  town  in  nnmnt  Ejihraim,  which  the 
.judge  Tola,  though  a  man  of  Is.sachar,  made 
ins  residence,  and  where  he  was  buried 
(Judg.  X.  1,  2).     Site  unknown. 

3.  A  Lcvite,  a  .son  of  .Micah  (1  Chron. 
xxiv.  24). 

Sbam'ma  [desolation]. 

.An  .Aslierit<',  a  son  of  Zophah  (1  C'hron.  vii. 


Shammah 


666 


Shashak 


Sbam'mali  [desolation]. 

1.  A  (U'scfiulant  of  E]sau  and  also  of  Ish- 
niael  (Gen.  .\xx\i.  3,  4,  13,  17).  He  became 
a  duke  of  Edom  (17). 

2.  Third  son  of  Jesse,  and  brother  of 
David  (1  Sam.  xvi.  9 ;  xvii.  13).  See 
Shimka  3. 

3.  One  of  David's  first  three  niiglity  men, 
a  son  of  Afiee,  a  Hararite  (2  Sam.  x.xiii.  11). 
Siiaminali  tlie  Hararite  is  named  in  ver.  33; 
and  in  view  of  1  (!hron.  xi.  34  and  textual 
considerations,  is  reasonably  l)elieved  to  be 
tills  jptrson  mentioned  ajiain  as  father  of 
Jonathan.  The  words  in  Samuel  and  Chron- 
icles are  to  be  read:  "Jonathan,  son  of 
Shammah  the  Hararite." 

4.  A  Harodite,  al.so  one  of  David's  mighty 
men  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  2.")).  In  1  Chron.  si.  27 
tlie  plural  form  Shammoth  is  used.  Sham- 
huth  of  1  Chron.  xxvii.  8  is  perhaps  another 
•external  and  unessential  variation  of  this 
man's  ii;ime. 

Sham'mai  [waste]. 

1.  A  sun  of  Onam,  house  of  Jerahmeel, 
tribe  of  Judah  (1  Chron.  ii.  28). 

2.  A  son  of  Eekem,  house  of  Caleb,  tribe 
of  Judah  (1  Chron.  ii.  44). 

3.  A  son  of  a  certain  Ezrah,  registered 
■with  the  tribe  of  Judah  (1  Chron.  iv.  17). 

Sham'inotli  [desolations].  See  Shammah  4. 

Sliam-mu'a,  in  A.  V.  once  Shammuah  (2 
Sam.  v.  14)    [something  heard,  fame]. 

1.  The  representative  from  the  tribe  of 
Eeuben  sent  to  spy  the  land  of  Canaan 
<Num.  xiil.  4). 

2.  A  son  of  David  by  Bath-sheba,  born  at 
Jerusalem  (2  Sam.  v.  14  ;  1  Chron.  iii.  5) ;  see 
B.-VTH-SHU.\.  He  bore  an  uncle's  name  (ii.  13). 
In  1  Chron.  iii.  5  he  is  called  Shimea ;  an  un- 
essential variant,  having  the  same  meaning 
as  Shammua,  differing  only  in  the  mode  of 
formation. 

3.  A  Levite  descended  from  Jeduthun 
<Neh.  si.  17). 

4.  A  priest  in  the  days  of  the  high  priest 
Joiakim.  He  was  head  of  the  father's  house 
of  Bilgah  (Neh.  xii.  18). 

Sham'she-rai. 

.\  Benjamite,  a  son  of  Jeroham  (1  Chron. 
viii.  2()). 

Sha'pham. 

\  Gadite  dwelling  in  Bashan  (1  Chron.  v. 
12). 

Sha'phan  [hyrax,  rock  badger]. 

A  scribe  in  the  reign  of  .Tosiah.  When 
Hilkiah  found  the  book  of  the  law,  he  gave 
it  to  Shaphan,  who  read  it  at  first  privately, 
and  then  to  the  king.  Afterwards  he  was 
one  of  those  who  went  to  Huldah,  the 
l>rophetess,  to  consult  her  regarding  the 
threatenings  contained  in  the  book  (2  Kin. 
xsii.  8-14).  He  was  the  fiither  of  .\hikam 
(Jer.  xxvi.  24;  xxxix.  14),  Gemariah  (xxxvi. 
10),  and  Jaazaniah  (Ezek.  viii.  11),  and  the 
grandfather  of  Gedaliah  (2  Kin.  xxv.  22). 


Sha'phat  [he  hath  judged]. 

1.  The  representative  from  the  tribe  of 
Simeon  who  was  sent  to  spy  the  laud  of 
Canaan  (Num.  xiii.  5). 

2.  A  (iatlite  in   Bashan  (1  Chron.  v.  12). 

3.  Son  of  Adlai,  and  David's  overseer  of 
the  herds  that  were  in  the  valleys  (1  Chron. 
xxvii.  29). 

4.  Father  of  the  prophet  Ellsha  (1  Kin. 
xix.  16). 

5.  A  son  of  Shemaiah,  registered  with  the 
descendants  of  David  (1  Chron.  iii.  22). 

Sha'pher.     See  Shephek. 

Sha'phir,  in  A.  V.  Saphir  [beautiful]. 

A  town  in  Judah  (Mic.  i.  11).  Not  identi- 
fied. Bobinson  and  others  locate  it  at  es- 
Suwafir.  5  miles  southeast  of  Ashdod. 

Sha'rai  [perhaps,  free]. 

A  son  of  Bani,  induced  by  Ezra  to  put 
away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  40). 

Shar'a-im.     See  Shaaeaim. 

Sha'rar  [firm]. 

A  Hararite,  father  of  one  of  David's  mighty 
men  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  33).  Called  in  1  Chron. 
xi.  35  Sacar. 

Sha-re'zer,  in  A.  V.  Sherezer  in  Zech.  vii. 
2  [])riitect  the  king]. 

1.  A  son  of  Sennacherib.  With  one  of  his 
brothers  he  murdered  his  father  (2  Kin.  xix. 
37;  Is.  xxxvii.  38). 

2.  A  man  sent  from  Bethel  to  the  priests 
at  Jerusalem  to  inquire  whether  the  fasts 
should  be  kept,  now  that  the  cause  for  them 
no  longer  existed  (Zech.  vii.  2). 

Shar'on,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Saron  (Acts  ix. 
35)  [a  plain]. 

1.  The  seacoast  between  Joppa  and  Carmel, 
and  extending  back  to  the  hills  of  Samaria. 
It  was  a  fertile  region  (Is.  xsxv.  2),  a  pasture 
land  for  flocks  (1  Chron.  sxvii.  29;  Is.  Ixv. 
10)  ;  but  like  a  desert  when  devastated  (Is. 
xxxiii.  9).  Among  its  flowers,  lilies  and  anem- 
ones are  prominent ;  .see  Lily,  Eose.  Lydda 
was  at  its  southern  limit  (cp.  Acts  ix.  35).  Its 
length  is  about  50  miles,  its  breadth  9  or  10. 
It  is  not  flat,  but  agreeably  iindnlated,  with 
here  and  there  groves  of  oak,  and  with  ex- 
cellent pasturage,  except  that  in  places  thorns 
and  thistles  too  much  abound. 

2.  A  pasture  region  east  of  the  Jordan 
(1  Chron.  v.  16).     Situation  undetermined. 

Sha-ru'hen. 

A  village  in  the  territory  of  Simeon  (Josh. 
xix.  6),  apparentlv  the  place  called  Shaaraim 
(1  Chron.  iv.  31)  and  Shilhim  (Josh.  sv.  32). 
The  fortified  town  Shcrohan  or  Sheruhan.on 
the  road  from  Egypt  to  Gaza,  a  place  often 
mentioned  in  Egyptian  military  records,  is 
probably  intended. 

Sha'shai  [whitish,  pale]. 

A  son  of  Bani,  induced  by  Ezra  to  put 
away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  40). 

Sha'sbak. 

A  Benjamite,  a  son  of  Elpaal  (1  Chron. 
viii.  14,  25). 


Shaul 


C67 


Shebam 


Sbalil  [asked]. 

1.  A  kiiifj  f)f  Edom,  from  Rchoboth  on  the 
Enplirati's  ((ii'ii.  xxxvi.  37,  in  A.  V.  Saul; 
1  Cliron.  i.  4S1. 

2.  A  son  of  Simeon  by  a  Caiiaanitish 
woman  ((Jen.  xlvi.  10;  Ex.  vi.  15;  1  f'hron. 
i.  4H).  Hi-  founded  a  tribal  fiimily  (Nuni. 
xxvi.   i:{). 

.'J.  A  Kobatliite  Levite,  deseiiuUd  tliroujih 
Korah,  Abia.saph,  and  Taliath  (1  C'hron.  vi. 
ii4). 

Sha.'veh  [a  jilain]. 

A  valley,  afterwards  called  the  kin^j's  dale, 
near  Salem,  in  wliicli  the  kiiif;  of  Sodom  met 
Abraliam  after  the  defeat  of  (  hedorlaomer 
((ieii.  xiv.  17,  If^).  Absilom  reared  a  memorial 
pillar  for  himself  there  {2  Sam.  xviii.  IH), 
■which  accordin}^  to  Josephus  stood  about  a 
<juarter  of  a  mile  from  Jeru.salem  (Antiq.  vii. 
It),  .'i). 

Sha'veh-kir-i-a-tha'im,  in  A.  V.  Shaveh 
Kinathaim  [i)laiM  of  Kiriathaim]. 

A  |ilain  near  the  city  ol'  Kiriatliaim,  in  the 
territory  afterwards  assigned  to  Keuben.  It 
■was  at  tirst  inhabited  by  Emim  (Gen.  xiv.  5). 
Exact  situation  unknown. 

Shav'sha  and  Shisha  [original  Hebrew 
<)rthip^'rai)liv  and  meaning  of  name  un- 
known]. 

.\  .-icribe  (if  David  and  afterwards  of  Solo- 
mon (1  ('hriiii.  xviii.  l(i;  1  Kin.  iv.  3).  Prob- 
ably identical  with  the  scribe  Seraiah  ("2  Sam. 
viii.  17)  and  doul)tless  with  the  scribe  Sheva 
(•2  Sam.  XX.  25). 

She'al  [an  asking]. 

A  son  of  Hani  induced  by  Ezra  to  put  away 
his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  29). 

She-al'ti-el,  in  A.  V.  of  1  Chron.  iii.  17 
anil  of  N.  T.  Salathiel,  the  (ireek  form  [I 
have  asked   ({<id]. 

A  son  of  king  .Teconiah  (1  Chron.  iii.  17; 
Mat.i.  12)  and  also  of  Neri  (Luke  iii.  27).  He 
was  the  father  of  Zerubbabel  (Ezra  iii.  2,  etc.), 
and  yet  aiijiarently  his  uncle,  or  possibly, 
though  not  jirobably,  his  grandfather  (1 
diroii.  iii.  17-l!t).  The  explanation  ]irobably 
is  that,  while  neither  tiie  son  of  .leconiah 
nor  the  father  of  Zerubbabel  after  the  flesh, 
he  was  the  legitimate  successor  of  Jeeoniah 
to  the  royal  title,  and  on  his  own  death  the 
right  to  tlu'  throne  pas,sed  to  Zerubliabel.  He 
is  the  link  in  the  royal  succession  connecting 
Jecr)niah  with  Zerubbabel.  See  As.sik,  Ze- 
HUBBAnKi.,  and  (Jknealooy  II. 

She-a-rl'ah  [.Jehovah  hath  e.steemed]. 

A   (les(  eiidant  of  .Jonathan  (1   Chron.  viii. 

Shear'ing  House. 

The  i)Iace  where  .Jchu  slew  the  forty-two 
brethren  of  .Miaziah,  king  of  Judab,  who 
were  going  to  Abaziah  at  Samaria  while  he 
was  on  a  visit  to  the  woundeil  king  of  Israel 
(2  Kin.  X.  12  11).  It  took  its  name  either 
from  the  fact  that  she|)herds  there  bound 
the  sheep  which  they  were  about  to  .shear,  or 


because  they  were  in  the  habit  of  meeting 
there  (Targum  ;  H.  V.  margin).  The  Hebrew 
name  is  J!eth  'eked  hiiro'iin.  in  the  Septuagint 
Jiaithakiith.  The  name  jn'rhaps  lingers  in 
Keit  Kad,  about  .'5  miles  east  by  north  of 
En-gannim,  and  about  IG  northeast  by  north 
ot'  Samaria. 

She-ar-Ja'shub  [a  remnant  .shall  return]. 
A  son  of  Isaiah.     His  name  ■was  designed 
to  end)ody  a  prophecy  (Is.  vii.  3 ;  cp.  x.  21). 

She'ba,  I.  [a  man]. 

A  Cushite  peojile  descended  through  Raa- 

mah  and  closely  related  to  Dedan  (Gen.  x.  7). 
but  also  classed  as  a  Semitic  peojile  descended 
through  Joktan  (2H)  and,  like  Dedan.  from 
Abraham  through  .Jokshan  (xxv.  3).  So  far 
as  connected  with  Abraham,  they  migrated 
eastward  (xxv.  (i ;  c]).  .Job  i.  15  ;  vi.  l!t).  They 
dwelt  in  the  south  (Mat.  xii.  12),  and  traded 
in  gold,  incense,  and  precious  stones  (1  Kin. 
X.  1  seq.  ;  Ps.  Ixxii.  10 ;  Is.  Ix.  6  ;  Jer.  vi.  20 ; 
Ezek.  xxvii.  22;  xxxviii.  13).  Sheba  was  a 
country  and  i)eo](le  of  southwestern  Arabia, 
well  kni>wn  from  its  own  records  and  clas.si- 
cal  geograi)hers.  Its  cajiital  was  Saba,  where 
is  now  the  ruin  of  Meriaba.  The  .Sabeans 
were  a  great  commercial  i)eople.  They  traded 
not  only  in  the  jirodncts  of  their  own  land, 
but  also  in  those  of  India  and  Ethiopia. 
Their  language  was  Semitic.  They  spread 
widely,  and  have  left  traces  of  their  name 
on  the  eastern  coast  of  Arabia,  and  in  the 
northern  de.sert  along  with  the  Nabatha^ans. 
It  is  readily  conceival)le  that  in  their  disper- 
sion they  became  mingled  with  other  tribes 
by  intermarriage  or  attached  to  them  by 
political  relations,  and  hence  they  might 
trace  their  descent  by  diflereiit  lines  and  be 
classed  variously  in  a  genealogy. 

She'ba,  II.  [seven,  an  oath]. 

1.  .\  Simeoiiite  town,  mentioned  after  Beer- 
sheba  (.Josh.  xix.  2).  Three  views  are  enter- 
tained regarding  it.  1.  Its  site  may  he  Tell 
es-Seb'a,  3  miles  east  of  Beer-sheba.  2.  It  is 
a  corru])tion  of  Shema  (cj).  Sejduagint  and 
XV.  2()).  3.  Since  it  is  lacking  in  1  Chron.  iv. 
28,  and  this  agrees  with  tbi'  summation  in 
.Tosh.  xix.  (i,  it  is  an  abbreviated  form  of 
Reer-sheba  (.see  R.  V.)  or  accidentally  intro- 
duced into  the  text  by  dittography. 

2.  A  Renjamite,  a  son  of  Hichri.  After 
the  collapse  of  .\bsalom's  rebellion  and  the 
concurrence  of  the  ten  tribes  willi  .Iiidah  in 
restoring  David  to  his  throne,  Sheba  blew  a 
trumpet,  and  snnmioned  the  ten  tribes  to 
renounce  their  allegiance.  He  was  besieged 
in  .Abel  of  Reth-maacah  and  lost  his  life 
there,  for  the  inhaliitanis  cut  otf  his  hea<l  aTid 
threw  it  over  the  wall  to  .Joali  (2  .'^am*.  xx. 
1-22). 

3.  A  Gadite  dwelling  in  Gilead  in  Kashan 
(1  Chron.  V.  1.3,  IC). 

She'bah.     SeeSniR.\ii. 

Sbe'bam.     See  SmM.xn. 


Shebaniah 


668 


Shechem 


Sheb-a-nl'ah  [perhaps,  Jehovah  hath  dealt 
tenderly]. 

1.  A  Levite  who  was  a  trumpeter  in 
David's  time  (1  Chron.  xv.  2i). 

■2.  A  fatliir's  house  anions  the  priests  in 
the  fjeneration  after  the  exiie  (Neh.  xii.  14) ; 
see  SuKi'ANiAH  :i.  Its  representative  set  his 
seal  to  the  eovenant  (x.  4). 

3.  A  Levite  who  assisted  at  the  feast  of 
tahernaeles  in  Ezra's  time  (Neh.  ix.4,  r)),and 
iu  liehalf  of  his  house  sealed  the  covenant 
(X.  10). 

4.  Another  Levite  who  sealed  the  covenant 
(Neh.  X.  1-2). 

Sbeb'a-rim  [fractures,  l)reaches,  ruins ; 
perhaps,  quarries] . 

A  locality  near  Ai  (Josh.  vii.  5).  Site  un- 
known. 

She'bat.  in  A.  V.  Sebat,  and  1  Mac.  xvi. 
14.  A.  V.  Sabat,  R.  V.  Sebat. 

The  eleventh  month  of  the  year  (Zech.  i. 
7) ;  see  Ye.vr. 

She'ber  [hreaking,  fracture]. 

A  son  of  ('aleh,  by  his  concubine  Maacah 
(1  t'hnm.  ii.  48). 

Sheb'na,  in  K.  V.  twice  Shebnah  (2  Kin. 
xviii.  18,  2())   [tenderness]. 

The  steward  of  the  king's  house  under 
Hezekiah  (Is.  xxii.  15),  a  man  of  great  influ- 
ence, ajjparently  a  foreigner,  and  fond  of 
display  (Hi,  18).  As  was  customary  among 
the  wealthy,  he  built  himself  a  sepulcher  in 
his  lifetime  (Ki).  Isaiah  rebuked  him,  call- 
ing him  the  shame  of  his  lord's  house ;  and 
predicted  his  fall  and  his  retirement  from 
Judah,  and  the  elevation  of  Eliakim  to  his 
place  (17-2.5).  Probably  later,  in  7t)l  B.  c, 
Eliakim  held  the  position  of  house  steward, 
while  Shebna  was  only  Hezekiah's  scribe  or 
secretary  (2  Kin.  xviii.  18,  26,  37;  xix.  2). 

Sheb'u-el  [captive  of  God]. 

1.  A  son  of  Gershom,  and  a  grandson  of 
Moses  (1  Chron.  xxiii.  Ifj;  xxvi.  24).  Called 
in  xxiv.  20  Shubael,  a  name  which  has  the 
same  meaning. 

2.  A  son  of  Heman,  in  David's  time  (1 
Chron.  xxv.  4).     Called  in  verse  20  Shubael. 

Shec-a-ni'ah,  in  A.  V.  Sbechaniab  ex- 
cept 1  Chron.  xxiv.  11  ;  2  Chron.  xsxi.  15 
[Jehovah  hath  dwelt]. 

1.  A  descendant  of  Aaron.  His  family  liad 
grown  to  a  father's  house  in  the  time  of  Da- 
vid, and  became  the  tenth  of  the  twenty-four 
courses  into  which  David  divided  the  priests 
(1  Chron.  xxiv.  1,  6,  11). 

2.  A  Levite  in  king  Hezekiah's  reign  (2 
(^hron.  xxxi.  1.5). 

3.  A  chief  of  the  priests,  who  returned 
with  Zerubbabel  from  Babylon  (Neh.  xii.  3, 
7).  In  the  n(>xt  generation  a  father's  house 
probably  bore  his  name,  although  it  is  written 
Shebaniah  ( ver.  14 )  ;  see  remarks  under  Beth 
for  the  misreading  of  caph  as  beth.  See  Sheb- 
aniah 2. 

4.  Founder  of  a  family,  presumably  a  de- 


scendant of  David,  but  not  in  the  line  of  suc- 
cession to  the  throne  (1  Chron.  iii.  21,  22),  for 
lie  is  loosely  registered,  his  kinship  with 
Zerul)babel  not  being  given.  Perhaps  his 
was  the  family  of  which  the  rei)resentative 
returned  from  Baliylon  with  Ezra  (ICzra  viii. 
3).  Tlie  name  of  this  representative  has 
probably  fallen  out  of  the  Hebrew  text  be- 
tween Siiecaniah  and  the  words  "  of  the  sons 
of  I'arosh."  The  parallel  pa-ssage,  1  E.sdr. 
viii.  2!»,  U.  v.,  has:  "Of  the  sons  of  David, 
Attus  the  .son  of  Sechenias."  This  agrees 
indeed  with  the  fact  that  Hattush  was  a 
grandson  of  Shecaniah  (1  Chron.  iii.  22),  but 
it  is  not  suj)ported  by  either  the  Septuagint 
or  Hebrew  of  Ezra  viii.  3. 

5.  A  son  of  Jahaziel  and  descendant  of 
Zattu,  who  returned  from  Babylon  with  Ezra 
(Ezra  viii.  5,  Septuagint;  1  Esdr.  viii.  32). 

(J.  A  son  of  Jeliiel,  one  of  the  sons  of  Elam. 
He  confessed  the  guilt  of  himself  and  his 
brethren  who  had  married  foreign  wives,  and 
projjosed  to  Ezra  that  they  should  put  them 
away  (Ezra  x.  2,  3). 

7.  Father  of  Shemaiah,  the  keeper  of  the 
east  gate  in  Nehemiah's  time,  and  probably 
a  Levite  (Neh.  iii.  29).  and  not  the  man  of 
Judah  (1  Chron.  iii.  22). 

8.  Father-in-law  of  Tobiah,  the  Ammonite. 
He  was  the  son  of  Arah  (Neh.  vi.  18). 

She'chem,  in  A.  V.  once  Sicbem  (Gen.  xii. 
6),  twice  Sycbem  (Acts  vii.  1(!),  Cireek  forms 
[shoulder] . 

1.  A  town  among  the  hills  of  Ephraim 
(Josh.  XX.  7).  Abraham  camped  near  by 
(Gen.  xii.  6).  The  tribe  of  Hamor,  a  Hivite 
people,  occupied  the  place  ;  and  Jacob  bought 
of  them  a  parcel  of  ground,  where  Joseph's 
body  was  eventually  buried  (xxxiii.  18,  19  ; 
Josh.  xxiv.  32 ;  in  Acts  vii.  16  oddlj-  con- 
founded with  Abraham's  purchase  of  Mach- 
pelah).  Simeon  and  Levi  massacred  its  male 
inhabitants,  and  the  sons  of  Jacob  plundered 
the  town,  on  account  of  the  injury  done  to 
their  sister  Dinah  (Gen.  xxxiv.  25,  27 ; 
xlviii.  22).  Joseph's  brothers  for  a  time  fed 
their  flocks  in  Shechem  (xxxvii.  12,  13).  The 
boundary  between  the  tribes  of  Ephraim  and 
Manasseh  passed  near  it  (Josh.  xvii.  7).  It 
was  made  one  of  the  cities  of  refuge  and  a  Le- 
vitical  city  (xx.  7;  xxi.21).  Joshua  summoned 
the  tribes  tliither  to  hear  his  farewell  address 
(xxiv.  1).  In  the  time  of  the  judges,  a  tem- 
ple of  Baal-berith  was  maintained  in  the 
town  (Judg.  viii.  33).  Gideon's  concubine 
resided  there ;  and  her  son,  Abimelech,  was 
a  native  of  Shechem,  and  for  a  time  was  as- 
sisted in  his  i)olitical  designs  by  the  men  of 
Shechem  (ix.  1,  3,  6),  but  they  finally  turned 
against  him  and  he  destroyed  the  city  (23, 
45).  The  Israelites  met  Rehuboam  there,  to 
sue  for  reforms;  and  when  their  reiiuest  was 
refused,  the  ten  tribes  made  Jeroboam  king 
(1  Kin.  xii.  1-19;  2  Chron.  x.  1-19).  Jero- 
boam strengthened  the  place  (cp.  1  Chron. 
vii.  28),  making  it  for  the  time  his  capital  (1 


Shechera 


(369 


Shechem 


Kin.  xii.  25).  Sherhem  is  mentioned  in  Ps. 
Ix.  fi  iiiid  rviii.  7.  It  ciiiiliniicd  in  cxisU-iico 
at'tiT  tlic  (lest nicl ion  of  .l<Tiis;tlrni  (.lor.  xli. 
.'))  ;  and  IxManic  tlif  cliicr  city  ol'  llio  .'samar- 
iums (luchi.s.  1.  'Jti ;  Anti<i.  xi.  H,  U).  It  was 
<-ai)turcd  by  .Jolin  Ilyrcaniis  (xiii.  !t,  1). 
It  lias  Ix'cn  rrc(|iiciitly  i<lfn1ilifd  witii  (lie  N. 
'I',  .'-lycliar,  Imt  llic  two,  altlmiij;li  ad/pKciit  to 
ciicli  otlicr.arc  Iji-lievud  to  l>o  dill'i'iviit  placi'S. 
Till!  (iroeks  termed  it  Neapolis  or  the  New 
City  (War  iv.  H.  1),  a  name  that,  nnlike 
most  of  those  wIlicIi  they  hestowed  on  old 
Helirew  cities,  took  root  and  still  exists  in 
tlie  form  Nahliis  or  Nahuliis.  Sheclieni,  or 
Nahliis,  is  alxMit  31 J  miles  north  of  Jeni- 
8iilem    and    5^    southeast  of    Samaria.      It 


narrow  and  vaulted  over,  besides  which  in 
rainy  weather  some  of  tliem  liecome  the  beds 
of  streams,  l^i^hty  siirin^s  of  water  are  said 
to  exist  in  or  around  the  city;  the  fertility 
of  the  district  is,  therefore,  excejitionaliy 
great.  These  are  u.sed  to  make  channels 
through  the  t;ardens,  then,  nnitin^.  to  turn  a 
mill.  The  trardeiis  and  orchards  .nc  one  mass 
of  trees,  llowers,  and  fruits,  includiiifi  mul- 
berries, oranf^es,  jximeKranates,  etc.  The 
mass  of  the  inhabitants  are  Molianmiedans, 
then  follow  a  few  liundred  (Jreek  Christians, 
a  small  .Icwish  iioiiulation,  and  about  1")0 
Samaritans,  the  last  named  reliniouists  living 
nmst  of  them  together  in  the  northwestern 
])art  of  the  city.     Jacob's   well   is  about  2 


Slieeliciu  ami   .Mount  licrizini. 


lies  in  the  upland  valley,  bounded  by  mount 
Kbal  on  the  nortli,  and  mount  (Jeri/im  on 
the  south,  and,  to  a  considerable  extent,  rises 
along  the  northern  slope  of  the  latter  hill,  so 
that  its  iierpendicular  clilfs  ari'  in  closi'  prox- 
imity   to   i>art  of  the  city.     The  streets  are 


miles  east-southeast,  and  the  reputed  tond> 
of  .Jose])h  alxiut  2  east,  of  Shechem. 

2.  The  son  of  Hamor,  the  Miviti'.  who  wius 
prince  of  Shechem  ((ien.  xxxiv.   1   .'U). 

;{.  .\  son  of  (iilead.and  the  founder  of  a 
tribal  family  (Num.  xxvi.  .'U  ;  Josh.  xvii.  2). 


Shedeur 


670 


Sheepfold 


4.  A  Manassite,  a  son  of  Shemidah  (1 
Chron.  vii.  li)). 

Shed'e-ur  [emission,  light]. 

Father  of  Eli/.ur,  tlic  Keiilienite  chief  in 
the  wilderness  (Num.  i.  5;  ii.  10). 

Sheep. 

Sheep  were  early  domesticated  (Gen.  iv.  2), 
and   constituted    valuable   property.      They 


=^^^j'-ir-'5« 


Broad-tailed  Sheep  of  Syria. 

were  herded  by  the  Hebrew  patriarchs  (Gen. 
xii.  16),  and  by  their  descendants  when  so- 
journing in  Egypt,  and  later  when  settled  in 
Palestine  (Ex.  x".  9  ;  xii.  32,  38  ;  1  Chron.  xxvii. 
31)  ;  and  they  continued  to  be  kept  down  to 
the  latest  times  (Luke  ii.  8).  The  wilderness 
of  Judaea  and  the  south  country,  and  especially 
the  plateau  of  Moab,  were  pasture  lands  (Num. 
xxxii.  1 ;  .Tudg.  v.  16  ;  1  Sara.  xvi. 
11 ;  XXV.  2) ;  and  so  were  neighbor- 
ing countries,  as  Mesopotamia  (Gen. 
xxix.  21 ,  the  land  of  Uz  and  of  the 
Hagarenes  (Job  i.  3;  1  Chron.  v.  20, 
21).  Midian  (Ex.  ii.  16),  Kedar  and 
the  Nahathsean  country  (Is.  Ix.  7; 
Ezek.  xxvii.  21  ;  cp.  1  Sam.  xv.  7, 
ft|.  In  these  regions  the  sheep, 
owing  to  the  heat  and  dryness  of 
the  climate,  require  water  daily 
(Gen.  xxix.  8,  9  ;  Ex.  ii.  16-19).  The 
sheep  was  a  clean  animal  and  u.sed 
for  food  ;  its  flesh  was  eaten  (1  Sam. 
xiv.  .32  ;  XXV.  18 ;  2  Sam.  xvii.  29  ;  1 
Kin.  iv.  23),  and  the  rich  milk  of 
the  ewes  was  drunk  (I)eut.  xxxii. 
14  ;  Is.  vii.  21,  22  ;  1  Cor.  ix.  7).  The 
skin  served  as  rude  clothing  (Heh. 
xi.  37;  cp.  Zech.  xiii.  4;  Mat.  vii. 
lo),  and  it  was  some  times  converted 
into  leather  (Ex.  xxvi.  14).  From 
the  wool,  cloth  was  woven  (Lev.  xiii. 
47,  48;  .Tob  xxxi.  20;  I'rov.  xxvii. 
26 ;  Ezek.  xxxiv.  3) ;  hence  wool  was 
a  valuable  commodity,  and  was  ren- 
dered as  tribute  (2  Kin.  iii.  4  ;  Is. 
xvi.  1).  Sheep  shearing  was  made 
a  time  of  feasting  and  frolic  (Gen. 


xxxviii.  12 ;  1  Sam.  xxv.  4, 11,  36 ;  2  Sam.  xiii. 
23).  The  horns  of  rams  served  as  flasks  and 
trumi)ets  (Josh.  vi.  4;  1  Sam.  xvi.  1).  As 
the  sheep  was  a  clean  animal,  it  was  u.sed  in 
sacrifice  by  the  Hebrews  and  other  peoples 
(Ex.  XX.  24;  John  ii.  14;  Num.  xxii.40).  An 
animal  of  the  flock  might  be  taken  for  a 
burnt  offering  (Lev.  i.  10),  a  sin  offering  of 
the  common  people  (iv.  32),  a  guilt  and  a 
trespass  ottering  (v.  15 ;  vi.  6),  and  a  peace 
ofleriug  (.\xii.  21);  see  Lamb,  Ram.  The 
sheep  was  known  for  its  aflection  (2  Sam. 
xii.  3),  docility  (John  x.  3,  4),  meekness  and 
submi.ssiveness  (Is.  liii.  7  ;  Jer.  xi.  19),  help- 
lessness when  left  to  itself  (Mic.  v.  8;  Mat. 
X.  16),  and  its  need  of  guidance  (Num.  xxvii. 
17;  Ezek.  xxxiv.  5;  Mat.  ix.  .36;  xxvi.  31). 

The  sheep  of  Palestine  and  the  adjacent 
regions  are  usually  white  (Ps.  cxlvii.  16;  Is. 
i.  18;  Ezek.  xxvii.  18),  but  occasionally  they 
are  black  or  brown,  or  piebald,  either  white 
and  tawny  or  white  and  black  ((ien.  xxx.  32). 
Two  breeds  of  sheep  are  found  in  Palestine. 
In  the  northern  districts  a  short-wooled  va- 
riety is  raised,  of  which  both  the  rams  and 
ewes  are  horned.  But  the  broad-tailed  sheep 
(Ovis  laticandata)  is  more  general.  It  has 
been  bred  since  early  ages  in  Arabia  and 
Palestine  (Herod,  iii.  113;  cp.  Ex.  xxix.  22; 
Lev.  iii.  9  ;  vii.  3;  viii.  25).  The  tails  which 
are  ottered  for  sale  in  the  markets  ordinarily 
weigh  ten  or  fifteen  pounds;  but  when  the 
sheep  is  well  fattened,  the  tail  grows  to  an 
enormous  size.  The  Arabs  regard  it  as  a 
delicacy,  frying  it  in  slices. 

Sbeep'fold  and  Sheep'cote. 

An  inclosure  for  sheep  (Jer.  xxiii.  3  ;  Ezek. 
xxxiv.  14),  whither  the  flock  was  ordinarily 


Syrian  Sheepfold. 


Sheep  Gate 


671 


Shelumiel 


driven  for  the  night.  Many  were  permanent 
pens,  siirroiiiKlfd  l)y  a  stone  wall  '■■p.  Num. 
x.xxii.  Hi)  and  t-iittrcd  \>y  a  /;ato  (John  x. 
1).  The  wall  was  ofleii  surmounted  with 
hranehes  of  thorny  shruhs.  'J'lie  sheep  lay 
in  the  yard  under  the  ojien  sky  ;  hut  douht- 
less  there  were  in  former  days,  as  there  are 
now,  low.  Hat  huildiiifis  on  the  sheltered  side 
of  the  area,  in  whiih  the  tlocks  were  shut  up 
on  eold  nifihts.  It  was  eommon  for  several 
lloeks  to  jiass  the  nijjht  in  one  fold  under  the 
care  of  an  uniier-slie|,l:erd,  who  jjuarded  the 
door.  The  shepherds  came  in  the  m<»niing, 
and  were  admitted  hy  the.  undei -shepherd. 
Kaeh  shepherd  knew  the  sheep  of  his  own 
lloek,  aiul  was  known  hy  them  (John  x.  3, 
4).  Ia'SS  suhstantial  inelosures  were  hastily 
formed  of  Umnled  thorn  hranclu'S  for  tem- 
porary use  on  pastures  remote  from  home, 
and  eaves  and  other  natural  shelters  were 
also  taken  advantage  of  for  iirotectiuf;  the 
sheep  at  night,  the  shei)herds  ramping  with 
their  (locks.  On  ranges  exiio.sed  to  the  raids 
of  rohhers  or  hostile  trihes,  towers  were 
erected,  ahout  which  the  Hoiks  and  herds 
were  i)asturt-d  and  at  night  folded  (2  Kin. 
xvii.  i);  2  I'hrou.  xxvi.  10;  Mie.  iv.  b). 

Sheep  Gate.     See  Jkkisalkm  II.  3. 

Sheep  Mar'ket,  in  R.  V.  Sheep  Gate.  See 
Jeiu  sai.i:m  1 1.  :;. 

She'e-rah,  in  A.  V.  She'rah  [consan- 
guinity, a  femahi  relative]. 

.■\  daugliter  of  E](hraim.  or  lurhaps  of 
Heriah.  She  or  rather  her  desceiidant.s  huilt 
npjier  and  netlier  Heth-horon  and  Uzzen- 
sheerah  (1  Cliron.  vii.  24).  She  may  have 
married  Hecher  and  given  rise  to  the  tribal 
family  of  the   Hecherites. 

She-ha-ri'ah  [Jehovali  hath  hroken  forth 
as  the  dawn]. 

A  Benjaniite,  son  of  Jeroluim  (1  Chron.  viii. 
2f;). 

Shek'el  [weiglit]. 

A  weight  used  for  metals  (Oen.  xxiv.  22; 
1  Sam.  xvii.  .">,  7) ;  .see  Wi:if;irTs.  At  an  c-arly 
period  this  (|uantity  of  silver,  uncoined,  was 
a  recognized  standard  in  financial  transac- 
tions ((Jen.  xxiii.  !.">,  Hi).  Half  a  shekel  was 
to  be  given  liy  each  man  as  a  ransom  for  his 
life  when  a  census  was  taken  (Kxod.  xxx.  14, 
l.'j).  The  value  of  the  shekel  was  ahout  65 
eent.s;  see  Wkkjiits.  In  141-140  n.  c.  the 
fourth  year  of  Simon  Maccaha-us'  priestly 
rule,  Antiochus  VII.,  not  yet  king  of  Syria, 
but  having  authority,  allowed  him  to  coin 
money  in  his  own  Jiame,  and  silver  shekels 
ami  half  shekels  comnu-iK'ing  from  about  that 
period  exist.     See  MoNi'n'. 

She-ki'nah.    .See  Tiikopiianv. 

She'lah,  I.,  in  .\.  V.  of  (Jenesis  Salah,  of 
N.  T.  Sala,  in  imitation  of  the  (ireek  form 
[a  missile,  a  shoot,  a  sprout]. 

1.  The  son  of  .\rphaxad  ((ien.  x.  24;  xi. 
12  ir.;  1  Chron.  i.  IH). 

2.  A    pool  at  Jerusalem,    near   the    king's 


garden,  erroneously  translated  in  the  A.  V. 
Siloah  (Neb.  iii.  1.")).  Probably  the  same  as 
Siloam  {().  v.). 

She'lah,  II.  [i)rayer]. 

The  tliird  son  of  Judah  by  a  Canaanite 
woman.  He  was  the  founder  of  a  tribal 
family  ((ien.  xxxviii.  2,  5,  11,  14,  2G ;  Num. 
xxvi.201. 

Shel- e-mi'ah  [Jehovah  recompenses]. 

1.  .\  dnorkeejierof  the  sanctuary  in  David's 
time    (1    Chron.    xxvi.    14).     See    Alii^HELE- 

MIAH. 

2.  Son  of  Cushi  (Jer.  xxxvi.  14). 

3.  Son  of  Abdeel  (Jer.  xxxvi.  2G). 

4.  Son  of  Ilananiah  (Jer.  xxxvii.  13). 
.5.  Father  of  Jueal  (Jer.  xxxviii.  1). 

<),  7.  Two  men,  descendants  of  Bani,  each 
of  whom  was  induced  by  Ezra  to  put  away 
his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  39,  41). 

b.  Father  of  that  Ilananiah  who  assisted 
to  rebuild  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  iii.  30). 

9.  A  priest  whom  Neliemiah  ap]iointed  one 
of  three  treasurers  of  tlie  tithes,  which  they 
were  commissioned  to  distribute  among  the 
Levites  (Neh.  xiii.  13). 

She'leph  [extracticm]. 

A  Semitic  people  descended  through  Joktan 
((Jen.  X.  2(i ;  1  Chron.  i.  20),  and  doubtless 
dwelling  in  southern  Arabia.  The  name  is  a 
common  one  in  Yemen. 

She'lesh  [triad]. 

An  .\sherite,  son  of  Helem  (1  Chron.  vii.  35). 

Shero-mi  [peaceful]. 

l'"ather  of  Ahiiiud,  who  was  prince  of 
Asher  in  the  latter  part  of  the  wilderness 
wanch'rings  (Num.  xxxiv.  27). 

Shel'o-mith  [peaceful]. 

1.  A  Danite,  a  daughter  of  Dibri,  and 
mother  of  the  Israelite  who  was  put  to  death 
in  the  wilderness  for  blasphemj-  (Lev.  xxiv. 
11). 

2.  A  Levite,  family  of  Kohath,  house  of 
Izhar  (1  Chron.  xxiii.  18).  Called  Shelomoth 
in  xxiv.  22. 

3.  A  descendant  of  Moses  through  Eliezer. 
He  and  his  brethren  were  ajjjxiinted  by  David 
over  the  dedicated  treasures  (1  Chron.  xxvi. 
2.'i.  2(i.  in  I\.  v.,  following  the  Hebrew  text, 
Shelomoth:  <•]>.  xxiii.  l.")--17). 

4.  A  Gerslionite  Levite,  son  of  Shimei 
(1  Chron.   xxiii.  9,  in   H.   V.  Shelomoth). 

5.  A  son  or  daughter  of  Kehoboani  (2  Chron. 
xi.  20). 

(J.  Son  of  .Tosiphiah  (Ezra  viii.  10).  The 
Hebrew  text  is  faulty.  The  Septuagint  shows 
that  he  was  a  member  of  the  family  of  Hani  : 
"  Of  the  sons  of  Hani,  Shelomoth.  the  son  of 
Josii)hiah." 

7.  \  daughter  of  Zerubbabel  (1  Chron.  iii 
191. 

Shel'D-moth.     See  Siilmimitii. 

Sbe-lu'mi-el  [jiacified,  or  a  friend  is  God]. 

Till-  prince  of  the  tribe  of  Simeon  early  in 
the  wihlerness  wanderings  (Num.i.lj  ;  ii.  12  ; 
vii.  36,  41  ;  x.  19). 


Shem 


672 


Shemaiah 


Shem,  iu  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Sem  [name]. 

Oue  of  the  two  eldor  sons  of  Nouli  ((tch. 
X.  1,  :21  ;  cp.  ix.  21),  :in<l  imihaldy  the  first- 
born (v.  '.i2).  For  exiilaiiation  of  xi.  10,  si'(i 
Chkon<)L()(JY,  section  relating  to  the  jjcriod 
from  the  creation  to  Ahraliam.  With  his 
descendants,  he  is  mentioned  last  in  the  cat- 
alogue of  Gen.  X.  in  accordance  with  the 
author's  custom  of  disposinj^  of  subordinate 
genealojjies  before  presenting  the  main  line 
of  the  people  of  (4od.  He  was  born  about  the 
five  hundredth  year  of  Noah's  life.  At  the 
time  of  the  deluge  he  was  married,  but  as 
yet  had  no  children  ((4en.  vii.  7;  1  Pet.  iii. 
•20).  After  that  catastrophe,  he  acted  with 
filial  respect  to  liis  fiither  when  the  latter 
committed  his  great  sin.  Shem,  in  conse- 
quence, received  a  blessing,  the  wording  of 
which  imi)lied  that  (Jod  would  bless  Shem 
and  that  the  worslii]>  of  the  true  God  should 
continue  in  his  family  (Gen.  ix.  23,  27).  He 
was  progenitor  of  the  people  who  inhabited 
or  perhaps  in  some  cases  held  in  subjection 
Elam,  Asshur,  Arphaxad,  Lud,  and  Aram  (x. 
21,  22). 

She'ma  [rumor,  fame]. 

1.  A  town  in  the  extreme  south  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  26) :  cp.  Sheba  2. 

2.  A  son  of  Hebron,  belonging  to  the  tribe 
of   Judah    (1   Chron.    ii.   43,   44)  ;    see  Ma- 

EESHAH   2. 

3.  A  Keubenite,  a  son  of  Joel  (1  Chron. 
V.  8  ;  cp.  4). 

4.  A  Benjamite,  head  of  a  father's  house  in 
Aijalon  (1  Chnm.  viii.  13).  Called  in  verse  21 
Shimei,  in  A.  Y.  Shimhi. 

5.  One  of  the  men,  probably  priests,  who 
assisted  Ezra  at  the  public  reading  of  the  law 
(Xeh.  viii.  4). 

She-ma'ali  [rumor,  fame]. 
A  lienjamite  of  Giheah,  who  joined  David 
at  Ziklag  (1  Chron.  xii.  3). 

She-ma'iali  [Jehovah  hath  heard]. 

1.  A  Simeonite  (1  Chi'on.  iv.  37). 

2.  A  Keubenite,  a  son  of  Joel  (1  Chron. 
V.  4). 

3.  A  Levite,  chief  of  the  sons  of  Elizaphan, 
who  to  the  number  of  two  hundred  took  part 
in  the  corenioiiies  attendant  on  the  removal 
<»f  the  ark  from  the  house  of  Obed-edom  to 
mount  Zion  (1  Chron.  xv.  8-11). 

4.  A  Levite,  a  son  of  Nethanel.  He  was  a 
scribe  in  the  time  of  David,  and  noted  down 
the  twenty-four  divisions  then  made  of  the 
priests  (1  C'hron.  xxiv.  G). 

5.  Eldest  son  of  Obed-edom  (1  Chron.  xxvi. 
4).  He  was  the  father  of  various  valiant 
sons  who,  with  him,  were  doorkeepers  of  the 
tabernacle  ((i-K). 

H.  A  prophet  in  the  reign  of  llehoboam,  who 
forbade  the  king  to  attemi)t  the  conquest  of 
the  revolted  ten  tribes  (1  Kin.  xii.  22-24  ;  2 
Chron.  xi.  2-4).  Five  years  later,  when 
Sliishak  invaded  the  land,  he  declared  that 
the  invasion  was  i)ermitted  as  a  punishment 
for   sin.      Thereupon    the    princes    humbled 


themselves,    and    the    affliction    was    made 

lighter  (xii.  5-8).     Shemaiah  wrote  a  history 
of  Kehoboam's  reign  (15). 

7.  One  of  the  Ijevites  sent  by  Jehoshaphat 
to  teach  the  people  (2  (,'hron.  xvii.  8). 

8.  A  Levite,  descendant  of  Jednthun.  He 
hel]ied  to  cleanse  the  temple  iu  Hezekiah's 
reign  (2  Chron.  xxix.  14,  15).  He  is,  jier- 
haps,  the  Levite  mentioned  in  1  Chron.  ix. 
1(),  and  he  may  be  the  person  called  Sham- 
nnia  in  Neh.  xi.  17. 

9.  A  Levite  in  Hezekiah's  reign  who,  with 
others,  had  to  distribute  the  firstlings,  tithes 
and  gifts  to  the  Levites  in  the  cities  (2  Chron. 
xxxi.  15). 

10.  A  chief  Levite  in  Josiah's  reign  who, 
with  others,  was  liberal  in  his  donations  of 
animals  for  the  the  passover  services  (2  Chron. 
xxxv.  9). 

11.  Father  of  Urijah,  of  Kirjath-jearim, 
who  was  put  to  death  by  king  Jehoiakim  for 
the  true  prophecies  he  had  uttered  (Jer.  xxvi. 
20-23). 

12.  Father  of  Delaiah,  the  latter  being  a 
prince  in  the  reign  of  Jehoiakim  (Jer.  xxxvi. 
12). 

13.  A  Nehelamite,  a  false  prophet  among 
the  exiles  in  Babylonia,  who  prophesied  a 
speedy  return  from  captivity.  He  wrote  to 
the  people  of  Jerusalem  and  the  priest  who 
had  oversight  of  the  temple,  and  comjjlained 
that  Jeremiah  remained  unpunished,  who 
declared  that  the  exile  would  be  long.  When 
Jeremiah  heard  the  complaint,  he  foretold 
that  Shemaiah  should  leave  no  posterity  and 
not  live  to  see  the  return  (Jer.  xxix.  24-.32). 

14.  A  chief  of  the  priests  who  returned 
from  Babylon  with  Zerubbabel  (Xeh.  xii.  6, 
7).  In  the  next  generation  a  father's  house 
bore  this  name  (ver.  18). 

15.  A  son  of  Adonikam,  and  one  of  the 
chief  men  who  accompanied  Ezra  from  the 
land  of  the  captivity  to  Canaan  (Ezra  viii. 
13). 

16.  A  chief  man  whom  Ezra  sent  with 
others  to  Iddo  to  obtain  Levites  who  were 
lacking  in  the  party  leaving  the  land  of  the 
ca]Vtivity  for  Canaan  (Ezra  viii.  16). 

17  and  18.  Two  men,  one  descended  from 
th(i  jiriest  Harim,  and  the  other  from  the 
layman  Harim,  each  of  whom  was  induced 
by  Ezra  to  put  away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra 
X.  21,  31). 

19.  A  son  of  Shecaniah  (1  Chron.  iii.  22)  ; 
see  Shecaniah  4. 

20.  Keeper  of  the  east  gate,  and  probably 
a  Levite.  He  repaired  part  of  the  wall  of 
Jerusalem  in  Nehemiah's  time  (Neh.  iii.  29) ; 
.see  Shix'aniah  7. 

21.  A  Levite,  descended  from  Bunni.  He 
was  the  head  man  among  those  who  had 
oversiglit  of  the  busine^ssof  the  house  of  God 
in  Nehemiah's  time  (Neh.  xi.  15). 

22.  A  false  prophet,  son  of  Delaiah,  son  of 
Mehetabel.  He  was  hired  liy  Tobiah  and 
Sanballat  to  frighten  Nehemiah  into  going 
with  him  into  the  temple  and  shutting  the 


Shemariali 


673 


Shephelah 


doors  to  avoid  assassination  (Neh.  vi.  10-13). 
In  carryint;  out  liis  jilau,  lie  sliut  himself  in 
his  house  and  pretended  to  fear  for  his  life. 

'2'.i.  A  jiriest  who,  douhlless  in  behalf  of  a 
father's  house,  .sealed  the  covenant  in  the 
days  of  Neheniiah  (Neh.  x.  H). 

24.  A  prince  of  Judah  who  took  part  in 
tlie  ceremonies  at  the  dedication  of  the  wall 
of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  xii.  3-1). 

ti'i.  A  Levite  of  the  lineage  of  Asaph  (Neh. 
xii.  '.i'}). 

•J().  One  of  the  company  of  Ijcvite  musi- 
cians at  the  dedication  of  the  wall  of  Jerusa- 
lem (Neh.  xii.  'Ad). 

27.  A  i)riest  who  blew  a  trumpet  on  the 
same  occasion  (Neh.  xii.  42). 

Shem-a-ri'ah,  in  A.  V.  once  Shamariali  (2 
Chron.  xi.  l!l)  [.(ehovah  hath  kept]. 

1.  A  I'.enjamite  who  joinetl  David  at  Zik- 
hiR  (1  Chron.  xii.  .'>). 

2.  A  son  of  Keholioam  (2  Chron.  xi.  19). 

',',  and  -1.  A  son  of  Harim  and  a  son  of  Bani, 
each  of  whom  was  induced  by  Ezra  to  put 
away  his  foreijjn  wife  (Ezra  x.  32,  41). 

Shem-e'ber  [nieaiiin<;  unknown].  In  Sep- 
tuaniut  tiie  form  is  Suniobor. 

The  kiuK  of  Zeboiim,  defeated,  with  the 
other  kiufis  ruling  over  the  cities  of  the  jihiin, 
bv  Chedorlaomer  and  his  confederates  ((ien. 
x'iv.  2.  »,  10). 

She'med,  in  A.  Y.  Shamed,  the  pausal 
form  [destruction].  These  forms  of  the  name 
are  derived  from  the  VulKate;  but  the  pres- 
ent Hebrew  text  and  the  Sei)tuagint,  codex 
Vaticaiius.  liavt'  Sliamer. 

A  I'en.jamite,  descended  from  Shaharaim 
through  Elpaal.  He  was  a  rebuilder  of  Ono 
and  Lod,  with  their  dependent  villages  (1 
Chrou.  viii.  12). 

She'mer.  in  A.  V.  of  Chronicles  Shamer, 
the  pausal  form  [the  lees,  or  crust  of  wine]. 

1.  Tlie  man  from  whom  f)niri  ]>urcliased 
the  hill  on  which  to  build  Samaria  (1  Kin. 
xvi.  24). 

2.  A  Merarite  Levite,  the  son  of  Mahli  (1 
Chron.  vi.  40). 

3.  An  Asheritc  (1  Chron.  vii.  34).  The 
SJime  as  the  Shomer  of  verse  32. 

She-mi'da,  in  A.  V.  once  Shemldali  (1 
Cliroii.  vii.  1!»)  [fame  of  wisdom]. 

A  son  of  Gilead,  and  founder  of  a  tribal 
family  (Num.  xxvi.  32;  Josh.  xvii.  2). 

Shem'i-nlth  [eighth]. 

.\  iiiMsicMl  tepTu  (1  chron.  xv.  21;  and  Ps. 
vi.  and  xii.,  titles).  Stainer  reviews  three 
o])inions  which  have  been  given  regarding 
it:  (1)  The  )>itch  of  an  octave;  (2)  the  name 
of  a  scale  or  tune  ;  and  (3)  the  number  of 
strings  on  the  instrument  used.  I'erhajis,  in 
contrast  willi  ••ilanioth,  it  means  au  octave 
below  KJcNenius.  Uelitzsch). 

She-mir'a-moth  [lofty  name]. 

1.  A  Levite  and  singer  in  the  reign  of 
David  (1  Chron.  xv.  IH,  20). 

2.  A  Levite,  one  of  those  employed  hv  Jc- 

43 


hofthaphat   to   teach    the    people    (2    Chron. 
xvii.  b). 

She-mit'ic.    Sec  Semitic. 

Shem'u-el  [name  of  God].  The  same 
Hebrew  name  as  that  commonly  rendered 
Samuel. 

1.  A  son  of  Ammihud.  He  was  a|)pointed 
as  the  repn-sentative  for  the  tribe  of  Simeon 
on  the  commission  to  divide  Canaan  (Num. 
xxxiv.  20). 

2.  A  man  of  Issachar,  family  of  Tola,  and 
head  of  a  father's  house  (1  Chron.  vir,  2). 

3.  The  prophet  Samuel  (1  Chron.  vi.  33, 
A.  v.). 

Shen  [a  tooth,  a  jagged  rock]. 

A  sjxit  a  little  on  one  side  of  the  place 
where  Samuel  set  up  tlu^  stone  which  he 
called  Ebenezer  (1  Sam.  vii.  12).  I>xact  situ- 
ation unknown. 

She-naz'zar,  in  A.  V.  Shenazar. 
A  son  or  descendant  of  Jecouiah  (1  Chron. 
iii.  18). 

She'nir.    See  Sknir. 
She'ol.     See  Hkll. 

She'pham. 

A  place  on  the  northeastern  border  of  Ca- 
naan, near  Kiblah  (Num.  xxxiv.  10,  11).  Site 
unknown. 

Sheph-a-ti'ah,  in  A.  V.  once  erroneouslj' 
Shephathiah  ( 1  Chron.  ix.  8)  [Jehovah  hath 
judged]. 

1.  A  Ilaruidiite.  one  of  the  Benjamites 
"who  joined  David  at  Ziklag  (1  Chron.  xii.  .5). 

2.  A  son  born  to  David  at  Hebron  by  one 
of  his  wives,  Abital  (2  Sam.  iii.  4 ;  1  Chron. 
iii.  3). 

3.  Son  of  Maacah  and  head  of  the  Simeon- 
ite  tribe  in  David's  reign  (1  Chron.  xxvii. 
16). 

4.  The  father  of  a  Benjamite  who  dwelt  at 
Jerusalem  (1  Cliron.  ix.  8). 

,5.  A  .son  of  king  Jehoshaphat  (2  Chron. 
xxi.  2). 

0.  A  prince,  son  of  Mattan.  He  was  tme 
of  those  who  advised  Zedekiah  to  put  the 
prophet  Jeremiah  to  death,  as  his  tmfavor- 
able  jtrojihecies  were  disi'ou raging  tlii'  defend- 
ers of  Jerusalem  during  its  siege  by  Nebu- 
chadnezzar's army  (Jer.  xxxviii.  1). 

7.  Founder  of  a  family.  372  members  of 
which  returned  from  cai)tivity  with  Zerub- 
babel  lEzni  ii.  I:  Neh.  vii.  !M,  and  eighty- 
one  more  with  Ezra  (Ezra  viii.  S). 

H.  A  man  of  Judah.  family  of  IVrez.  He 
evidently  lived  before  the  exile  (Neh.  xi.  4). 

0.  .\  man  whose  descendants,  classified 
with  Solomon's  servants,  came  from  Babylon 
Willi  Zerubbabel  (Ezra  ii.  57  ;  Neh.  vii.  59). 

Sheph'e-lah  [low  land]. 

A  wi  II  known  name  in  the  geogniidiy  of 
Palestine,  used,  however,  in  the  English  ver- 
sions only  in  1  Mac.  xii.  3S,  A.  V.,  and  then 
in  the  form  Sephela.     See  L<iwi,.\ND. 


Shepher 


674 


Sherebiah 


Slie'pher,  in  A.  V.  Shaplier  [beauty,  cle- 

A  mountain  constituting  an  encaniiiment 
of  the  Israelites  in  tlie  wilderness  (Num. 
xxxiii.  2:5,  21).     Situation  unknown. 

Shep'herd. 

One  who.se  occupation  it  is  to  take  charge 
of  a  rtock  of  sheep.  Abel  was  a  keeper  of 
sheep  (Gen.  iv.  2).  The  occupation  of  the 
j)atriarelis  from  Al)rahani  to  Jacob  and  his 
sons  was  pastoral  (xiii.  !-(!).  There  were  no- 
mad she])herds  who  owned  (locks  and  herds, 
dwelt  in  tents,  and  moved  from  place  to  place 
to  find  i)asturc  for  their  cattle  and  atford 
them  ]>rotecti(in,  like.Iabal,  Abraham,  and  the 
Kechahiles  (iv.  20  ;  xiii.  2,  3,  18  with  xx.  1  ; 
Jer.  XXXV.  (j-lO).  Tluire  were  also  wealthy 
sheep  owners  who  dwelt  in  towns  while  their 
flocks  were  driven  from  pasture  to  pasture 
by  their  servants  (1  Sam.  xxv.  2,  3,  7,  15,  16; 
cp.  Gen.  xxxvii.  12  17).  Then  there  was  the 
settled  shepherd,  who  led  the  flock  from  the 
permanent  fold  to  the  pasture  in  the  morn- 
ing, and  in  the  evening  brought  it  home 
again  (John  x.  1-4) ;  see  Sheepfold.  The 
care  of  the  flock  was  often  committed  to  a 
son  (Gen.  xxxvii.  2  ;  1  Sam.  xvi.  11,  19),  or 
a  daughter  (Gen.  xxix.  9 ;  Ex.  ii.  16,  17),  or 
a  hired  servant  (Gen.  xxx.  32;  Zech.  xi.  12; 
John  X.  12).  The  shepherd  was  ordinarily 
responsible  to  the  owner  for  any  loss  of  sheep 
(Gen.  xxxi.  39).  The  Mosaic  law  relieved 
him  of  responsibility  if  he  could  prove  that 
the  loss  was  not  due  to  his  neglect  (Ex.  xxii. 
10-13). 

The  shepherd  went  to  the  fold  in  the 
morning,  where  several  flocks  were  lying, 
and  called.  His  own  sheep  knew  his  voice 
and  followed  him.  The  sheep  which  be- 
longed to  other  owners  or  were  under  the 
care  of  other  keepers  paid  no  attention  to 
the  strange  voice  (John  x.  2-5).  The  shep- 
herd led  his  own  flock  to  pasture,  spent  the 
day  with  them  there,  and  sometimes  the 
night  al.so  ((xen.  xxxi.  40;  Song  i.  7;  Luke 
ii.  8) ;  defended  them  from  wild  beasts  and 
robbers  (1  Sam.  xvii.  34,  35  ;  Is.  xxxi.  4)  ; 
kept  the  restless  sheep  from  trespassing 
on  cultivated  ground,  searched  for  the 
strayed  sheep,  and  brought  them  back 
(Ezek.  xxxiv.  12;  Ijuke  xv.  4) ;  and  tenderly 
cared  for  the  delicate  and  the  weak  (Is.  xl. 
11;  Ezek.  xxxiv.  4.  16;  Zech.  xi.  9).  The 
sheep  which  kept  near  (he  shepherd  had 
each  a  name  and  answered  to  it,  and  were 
the  recipients  of  many  little  kindnesses. 
Such  is  still  the  case  in  the  Orient.  Where 
the  pastures  are  dried  u\>  or  covered  with 
snow,  as  in  the  late  autumn  and  winter,  the 
shepherd  inust  jirovide  food  for  the  flock. 
He  cuts  down  branches  from  the  trees  of  the 
forest,  and  the  sluc]i  and  goats  feed  upon  the 
green  leaves  and  tender  twigs. 

The  shepherd  carried  a  garment  in  which 
to  wrap  himself  in  inclement  weather,  a 
pouch  for  food,  and  some  defensive  weapon 


(1  Sam.  xvii.  40  ;  Jer.  xliii.  12).  A  long  rod, 
doubtless  generally  in  ancient  times  as  now 
with  a  crook  at  the  upper  end,  was  used  to 
manage  the  flock,  keep  it  together,  guide  it, 
defend  it,  and  chastise  the  disobedient  (I's. 
xxiii.  4  ;  Mic.  vii.  14  ;  Zech.  xi.  7).  The  shep- 
herd was  aided  by  dogs  (Job  xxx.  1) ;  not  in- 
telligent, faithful  dogs,  but  lazy,  mean  brutes, 
which  loitered  behind  the  (lock,  but  were  of 
service  ;  they  gave  warning  of  danger  by  their 
bark. 

Jehovah  was  the  Shepherd  of  Israel,  and 
especially  of  the  faithful  section  of  the  peo- 
ple (Gen.  xlix.  24). 

Christ  is  the  good  Shepherd,  entering  into 
the  sheepfold  by  the  door,  calling  (lut  his 
own  sheep  by  name,  and  so  possessing  their 
confidence  and  aflection  that  they  follow 
him,  while  they  refuse  to  follow  any  other. 
He  satisfactorily  met  the  test  of  sui)reme  de- 
votion III  his  (lock  and  to  his  duty  by  laving 
down  his  life  fur  the  sheep  (John  x.  1-18). 

All  who  had  responsible  positions  in  the 
theocracy,  prophets,  priests,  and  kings,  were 
looked  on  as  pastors  of  the  Israelitish  people. 
The}'  were  under-shepherds,  aiding  Jehovah, 
and  their  unfaithfulness  Avas  frequently 
pointed  out  (Is.  Ivi.  11).  And  in  the  Chris- 
tian church,  the  elders  or  bishops  are  pastors 
or  shepherds,  under  Christ,  the  chief  Shep- 
herd, appointed  to  tend  the  flock  of  God  (1 
Pet.  V.  1-4). 

She'pM  and  She'pho  [smoothness]. 

A  son  or  tribe  of  Shobal,  descended  from 
Seir,  the  Horite  (Gen.  xxxvi.  23)  ;  for  the 
two  forms,  cp.  Vau. 

She-phu'pham  and  Shephuphan  [perhaps, 
liorne<i  sand  snake]  ;  see  Adder  1. 

A  .son  or  remoter  descendant  of  Benjamin, 
and  founder  of  a  tribal  family  (Num.  xxvi. 
39;  in  A.  V.  Shupham).  In  the  same  verse 
his  name  appears  as  Shupham  (in  Shui>ham- 
ites).  He  is  also  called  Muppim  (Gen.  xlvi. 
21)  and  Shuppim  (1  Chron.  vii.  12,  15).  The 
leliters  m  and  s  or  sh  were  very  much  alike 
in  ancient  Hebrew.  He  was  perhaps  known 
also  as  Shephuphan  (1  Chron.  viii.  5).  In 
this  passage  Shephuphan  is  ])robably  listed 
as  a  descendant  of  Bela,  although  it  is  not 
impossible  that  the  enumeration  of  Bela's 
sons  closes  with  (iera  and  that  Shephuphau 
is  registered  as  a  son  of  Benjamin.  In  vii. 
12  Shuppim  is  catalogued  among  the  sons  of 
Benjjimin,  but  it  is  not  clear  whether  he  is 
enrolled  as  a  so7i  in  the  strict  .sense  or  as  de- 
.scended  from  Benjamin's  son  Bela  through 
Ir  or  Iri  (7).  In  the  latter  case  he  was  born 
after  the  descent  of  Jacob's  family  into 
Egyjit,  but  is  enumerated  with  those  who 
went  down  into  Egvjit,  because  he  founded 
a  tribal   family.     See   Egvi-t  III.  1. 

She'rah.     See  Sheekah. 

Sher-e-bi'ah  [Jehovah  hath  made  to 
tremble]. 

1.  A  Levite,  head  of  a  family,  who  came 
from  Babylon  with  Zerubbabel  (Neh.  xii.  8). 


Sheresh 


675 


Shihor 


Tlie  representative  of  the  family  sealed  the 
lovoiiaiit  (x.  12).     It  was  a  family  of  singers 

(xii. -Jl). 

'2.  Head  of  ii  family  of  Levites  who  re- 
turnt'il  with  K/.ra  from  Babylon  (  Kzra  viii. 
IH).  Ho  was  p»Tlia]>s  the  rojiri-scntativc  of  a 
jtart  of  tile  al'orcmcnticiiiid  family  which  had 
rcmaiiifd  hi'liiiid  wlii-ii  tin-  exilus  rctunu'd 
with  Ziriihhahcl,  and  as  r('])ri'SLiitative  he 
otlieially  hori^  tlie  family  name.  He  is  i)rob- 
ahiy  intended  in  ver. 21,  althongh  the  present 
text  descrilies  him  as  a  priest,  and  was  one 
of  the  men  to  whose  eiistudy  durin;^  the 
journey  Ezra  committed  the  gifts  for  the 
temi>le. 

o.  One  of  the  Lcvites  who  assisted  Ezra, 
reading  tlie  law  to  the  ]ieo])le,  and  giving 
the  sense,  so  that  the  listeners  nught  under- 
stand what  they  heard  (Neh.  viii.  7).  He 
took  part  in  the  piihlic  confession  of  sin 
after  the  feast  of  tabernacles  (ix.  4). 

She'resh  [jierhaps,  root  or  .sprout]. 
.\  man  of  Manasseh,  family  of  Machir  (1 
('hr(jn.  vii.  ItJ). 

She-re'zer.    See  Sharezer. 

She'shach. 

.Veiurding  to  ancient  tradition,  a  cypher 
for  Haliel  (.ler.  xxv.  2(i,  K.  V.,  margin;  l"i.  41), 
constructed  on  thi'  system  known  as  Ath- 
bash.  The  letters  of  the  alphabet  were 
numbered  both  in  their  regular  order  of 
serinence  and  in  the  reverse  order;  and  when 
the  cy]>her  of  a  7iame  was  desired,  its  con- 
sonants were  rejilaced  by  those  which  have 
the  .same  nund)ers  in  the  reverse  enumera- 
tion. B  is  the  second  letter  of  the  Hebrew 
alphabet  and  s  or  sh  is  the  second  from  the 
end,  1  is  the  twelfth  letter  from  the  begin- 
ning and  k  is  the  twelfth  from  the  end; 
hence  the  cy])her  for  Babel  was  Sheshak. 
Possibly,  however,  there  is  no  cypher,  and 
Sheshach  is  the  name  of  a  (piarter  of  the  city, 
lierlia]is  Shish-kn  (I.autli,  Delitzsch). 

She'shai  [whitish]. 

A  son  or  family  of  Anak,  resident  at 
Hebron,  and  driven  thence  by  Caleb  (Num. 
xiii.  .'W.  (■]>.  r.i ;  .losh.  xv.  14). 

She'shan. 

A  man  of  .ludah,  family  of  Hezron.  house 
of  .lerahineel  (1  (hroii.  ii.  :{!).  He  had  no 
sons,  but  only  daughters,  <»ne  of  whom  he 
gave  in  marriage  to  an  Egyptian  slave  (.'i4, 
35).     Sec  .\HLAI. 

Sliesh-t)az'zar. 

.\  iPiiiiic  ol'  .ludah,  whom  Cyrus  made 
goviruur,  til  whom  he  restored  the  sjicred 
vessels  which  had  been  carried  to  Babylon 
by  Nebuchadne/.ziir,  and  who  returned  to 
Jerusaloii  and  laid  the  foundalinn  of  the 
templi'  I  IC/ra  i.  s,  11  ;  v.  M,  Kil.  l-iheshbaz/.ar 
is  evidently  the  Babylonian  name  of  Zerub- 
liabel.as  Belleshaz/.ar  was  that  of  Daniel. 

Shetb,  I.  [compensiition]. 

.V  son  of  Adam  (1  Chron.  i.  1).     Sec  Seth. 


Sheth,  II.  [tumult]. 

A  tlesignation  of  the  Moahites  as  makers 
of  war  and  tumult  (Num.  xxiv.  17,  A.  V.). 

She'thar-boz'e-nal,  in  A.  V.  Shetbar- 
boznai. 

.\  I'ersian  oflicial  who  with  others  at- 
temjited  to  jirevent  the  returned  Jewish 
exiles  from  rebuilding  the  temi)le  (Ezra  v. 
:i,  (J;  vi.  tJ). 

Sbe'va  [vanity]. 

1.  .\  man  of  .ludah.  family  of  He/.rnn.  house 
of  Caleb.  He  was  the  ancestor  of  the  in- 
habitants of  Machbena  and  (iibea  (1  Chron. 
ii.  49). 

2.  A  scribe   in   David's  reign  (2  Sam.  xx. 

2.")).      See   SlIAVSIIA. 

Sbew'bread.    See  Siiowbread. 

Sbi'bab,  in  A.  V.  Sbebab  [seven,  an  oath]. 
Feminine  form  of  .shelja. 

A  well  at  Beer-sheba  which  Isaac's  ser- 
vants redigged,  and  which  Isaac  named  Shi- 
bah  on  account  of  the  covenant  he  had  just 
made  with  .\bimelech  (Gen.  xxvi.  33). 

Sbib'bo-letb  [an  ear  of  grain,  or  a  river  or 
stream]. 

The  local  dialect  of  the  Ephraimitcs  was 
characterized  by  the  ab.sence  t)f  the  palatal 
sibilant  sh  at  the  beginning  of  a  word  and 
the  use  of  the  lingual  sibilant  s  in  its  stead. 
When  .lephthah,  at  the  head  of  the  Cilead- 
ites,  had  van<|uished  the  Kjihraimites  and 
seized  the  fords  of  the  .Tordan,  many  of  the 
defeated  tribe  came  to  the  river,  desiring  to 
lia.ss.  On  being  asked  if  they  were  Ephraim- 
itcs, and  denying  the  fiict,  they  were  re- 
(|Mired  to  pronounce  the  word  Shibboleth, 
and  if  they  called  it  Sibboleth,  were  slain 
without  further  ceremony  (.Jndg.  xii.  5,  6). 
The  word  has  entered  the  English  language, 
and  is  used  to  mean  a  test  word  or  the 
watclnvord  or  pet  phrase  of  a  ]>arty  or  sect. 

Sbib'mab     See  Sermah. 

Sbic'ron.    See  Shikkeron. 

Shield.     Sec  .\umor. 

Shig-ga'ion,  and  plural  Sbigionotb  [wan- 
dering, irregular]. 

A  musical  term  (Ps.  vii.  title;  Hah.  iii.  1). 
Probably  a  dithyrambic  ode,  erratic,  wild, 
enthusiastic. 

Sbi'bon.    See  Shion. 

Shi'hor,  in  A.  V.  Slbor,  excejit  1  Chron. 
xiii.  .")  [to  the  Hebrew  ear.  black,  turbid]. 

The  river  Nile  (Is.  xxiii.  '.i :  .ler.  ii.  IS.  see 
Ii.  V.  margin).  Its  eastern  or  Pelusiac  branch 
was  on  the  hotindary  of  Egyjil  toward 
Canaan  (.Tosh.  xiii.  .'! ;  1  Chron.  xiii.  .'>*;  see 
Kiveu  ov  Ecvi'T  1.  The  K.  V..  bciwever, 
and  many  commentators  regard  the  Shihor 
in  the  last  two  |>assages  as  a  title  of  the  brook 
of  Egyitt.  the  wady  el-".\rish  (.losh.  xiii.  .S,  R. 
V.  margin).  .■\c<-onling  to  P.riigsch.  the  name 
belonged  in  the  lirst  instance  to  a  canal,  Shi- 
bur,  on  the  eastern  boundary  of  Egypt,  par- 
allel t'l  the  course  of  the  Pelusiac  branch. 


Shihor-libnath 


676 


ShUoh 


SM-hor-lib'natli  [turbid  stream  of  Lib- 
iiath]. 

A  small  river  at  the  southwestern  corner 
of  Asher  (Josh.  xix.  2(>)  and  api)arently  near 
Carnu'l.  It  is  now  coninuinly  bclii-vcd  to  be 
till-  Zerka,  (i  miles  south  t)f  Dor,  a  town  of 
Aslicr. 

Shik'ke-ron,  in  A.  V.  Shicron  [drunken- 
ness]. 

A  town  on  the  northern  border  of  the 
triltc  of  Judah  (Josh.  xv.  11).  Site  un- 
known. 

Shil'lli  [one  armed  with  a  dart]. 

Father  of  Azubah,  Jehoshaphat's  mother 
(1  Kin.  xxii.  42). 

Shil'Mm  [missile  wea]ions,  sprouts]. 

A  town  in  the  extreme  south  of  Judah 
(Josli.  XV.  .'!2) ;  see  Siiauuhen.  _ 

SMl'lem  [retribution]. 

A  son  of  Naiihtali,  and  founder  of  a  tribal 
family  (Gen.  xlvi.  24  ;  Num.  xxvi.  49).  Called 
Shallum,  a  synonymous  and  more  common 
name,  in  1   Ohron.  vii.   13. 

SM-lo'ah  [a  sending  of  waters,  an  aque- 
duct] :  see  Siloam. 

SM'loh  [tranquillity,  rest]. 

A  town  north  of  Bethel,  south  of  Lebonah, 
and  on  tlic  east  side  of  the  liighway  connect- 
ing Bethel  with  Shechem  (Judg.  xxi.  19), 
and  hence  within  the  territory  of  Ephraim. 
There  the  liii-aelites  under  Joshua  set  up  the 
tabernacle  (Josh,  xviii.  1),  and  divided  by 
lot  the,  as  yet,  unappropriated  parts  of  Canaan 
(8-10;  xix.  51 ;  xxii.  9).  When  the  western 
tribes  were  convened  to  call  the  tribes  east  of 
the  Jordan  to  account  for  their  building  of 
an  altar,  it  was  at  Shiloh  that  the  gathering 
took  place  (12).  In  the  times  of  the  judges 
there  was  there  an  annual  feast  of  Jehovah 
(Judg.  xxi.  19  ;  1  Sam.  i.  3),  at  which  the  Ben- 
jamites  on  one  occasion  obtained  wives  by 
ca])ture  (Judg.  xxi.  16-23).  The  tabernacle, 
with  the  ark,  was  still  there  in  the  time  of  Eli 
and  during  the  early  years  of  Samuel  (Judg. 
xviii.  31;^1  Sara.  i.  9,  24;  ii.  14,  22;  iii.  3, 
21 ;  iv.  3,  4  ;  xiv.  3).  The  capture  of  the 
ark  was  understood  to  mean  that  God  had 
forsaken  Shiloh  (Ps.  Ixxviii.  60;  Jer.  vii.  12, 
14  ;  xxvi.  (i,  9).  The  covenant  made  at  Sinai, 
of  which  the  ark  and  the  ritual  were  the 
outward  sign  and  privilege,  was  suspended. 
When  the  ark  was  returned  by  the  Philis- 
tines it  was  not  taken  again  to  Shiloh  (1  Sam. 
vi.  21 ;  vii.  1,  2;  2  Sam.  vi.  2,  11,  17),  but  the 
work  of  reviving  true  religion,  preparatory 
to  the  restoration  of  covenant  privileges,  was 
begun  by  Samuel.  Ahijali  the  proi)het.  who 
told  Jeroboam  of  his  ai)iiroacliiiig  greatness, 
lived  at  Shiloh,  and  it  was  thitlur  tliat  the 
king's  consort  repaired  to  inquire  about  the 
issue  of  th(>ir  sick  child's  malady  (1  Kin. 
xiv.  2,  4).  It  continued  to  be  inhabited  at 
least  as  late  as  the  time  of  JenMuiah  (,Ter. 
xli.  5).  Shiloh  has  been  successfully  identi- 
fied by  Robinson  as  SeilQn,  about  10  miles 


north-northeast  of  Bethel.  The  ruins  are  in 
a  valley  surrounded  by  hills.  In  the  sides 
of  the  narrow  valley  ari'  many  tombs.  A 
fine  spring  of  water  is  in   the  vicinity. 

There  are  three  main  interpretations  of 
Shiloh  in  the  dilticuit  i)assage  (ien.  xlix.  10, 
eaci)  of  which  receives  recognition  in  K.  V.  : 
1.  Shiloh  is  a  ])r<>per  name,  wliicli  designates 
the  Messiali  and  refers  to  the  peacefulness  of 
liis  dis])osition  and  his  reign.  2.  Shiloh, 
place  of  traiHiuillity,  is  the  town  in  central 
Palestine  where  the  tabernacde  was  placed 
immediately  after  the  conquest  of  Canaan  by 
Joshua  (Josh,  xviii.  1).  3.  Shiloh  is  not  a 
proper  name,  nor  is  it  a  simple  word.  It  is  a 
compound,  composed  of  the  relative  pronoun 
she,  the  preposition  /,  and  the  pronominal 
suffix  of  the  third  i)erson  masculine  oh.  The 
same  form  of  the  suffix  occurs  twice  in  the 
following  verse.  This  phrase  has  been  inter- 
preted as  meaning  "that  which  is  his," 
"whose  it  is,"  or  "his  own  one."  The  sec- 
ond of  these  three  meanings  would  happily 
correspond  to  Ezek.  xxi.  27,  but  is  not  gram- 
matically allowable ;  and  the  first  regarded 
as  objective,  "  he  shall  come  to  that  which  is 
his,"  is  grammatically  difficult,  for  an  object- 
ive relative  clause  with  indefinite  antecedent 
is  preceded  by  a  preposition  or  the  sign  of 
the  accusative.  This  conception  of  the  word 
as  a  phrase  is  old,  having  been  entertained 
by  the  translators  of  the  ancient  versions, 
namely,  Septuagint,  Targums  of  Onkelos  and 
Jonathan,  Syriac,  and  Jerome. 

On  the  tirst  intfri)ntation  and  commonly 
on  the  third  the  Messiah  is  expressly  referred 
to.  In  the  second  the  reference  is  to  the  cov- 
enant blessing,  which  the  prophets  of  a  later 
age  discerned  to  belong  in  its  fullness  to  Mes- 
sianic times.  Reuben  had  forfeited  his  birth- 
right by  misconduct  (Gen.  xlix.  4 ;  xxxv. 
22),  Simeon  and  Levi  had  incurred  their 
father's  just  censure  (xlix.  5-7;  xxxiv.  30), 
and  Judah  was  consequently  assigned  the 
place  of  the  firstborn,  and  became  the  repre- 
sentative of  the  tribe  and  the  peculiar  pos- 
sessor of  the  blessing  covenanted  to  Abra- 
ham and  his  seed  (xlix.  8).  The  promise  of 
victory  to  the  woman's  seed  (iii.  15),  the 
blessing  of  God's  ftxvor  centered  in  Shem 
(ix.  26,  27),  the  further  centralization  of  the 
covenant  blessing  in  the  family  of  Abraham 
(xvii.),  belonged  henceforth  preeminently  to 
Judah,  the  ])ossessor  of  the  birthright.  By 
him,  according  to  the  tirst  and  tliird  inter- 
pretations, the  prerogative  shall  l)e  lield  until 
one  who  is  his,  one  of  his  trib(>,  the  man  of 
peace  ccmies,  to  whom  sliall  be  the  obedience 
of  the  peoples,  and  in  whom  the  covenant 
blessing  shall  be  still  further  centered.  This 
interpretation,  with  many  modifications  of^ 
detail,  according  as  the  scepter  is  thought  of 
restrictedly  as  the  emblem  of  royalty  or  is 
regarded  as  the  symbol  of  leadership  in  gen- 
eral, is  represented  in  tlie  text  of  the  English 
versions.  Ajid  it  is  argued  that  this  essen- 
tially must  be  the  true  interpretation,  be- 


Shiloh 


077 


Shiloni 


cause  tlie  town  of  Shiloh  does  not  fulfill  the 
historiral  coniliticms.  f<ir  ncitluT  is  there  any 
reason  why  Jacoli,  apart  from  siiccial  revela- 
tion, siiowld  think  of  Shiloh  as  the  future 
plaee  of  worship,  nor  did  .ludah  oeeui)y  pre- 
eniineuee  anion<;  tiie  triix'S  hefore  the  taher- 
naele  was  pitclied  in  Shiloli,  sivc  somewhat 
in  nuinhiM-s  and  in  i)eini,'  permitted  to  lead 
the  van,  whih'  tin-  jieoph'  were  niareliiiif^  to 
Canaan,  and  to  jiiteh  their  tents  in  front  of 
the  tahernaele.  'I'he  leadership  was  at  first 
in  the  hands  of  Mosis,  of  the  trihe  of  Levi, 
whi<-h  excited  I  hi-  jealousy  of  tlie  jirinces  of 
Kt-uhi-n,  and  after  Moses'  death,  and  until 
the  tahernaele  was  pilehed  at  Shiloh,  the 
authority  was  exercised  by  Joshua,  of  the 
trihe  of  Eiihi-aini. 

lUit  it  is  more  natural  to  repud  Shiloh  in 
this  i)assaj;e  as  the  name  of  the  town,  for  it 
is  such  everywh(-re  else,  and  ou  this  inlet- 
jiretation  the  words  of  Jacob  are  at  once  iii- 
tt-lligihle.  This  view  is  cominonly  entei'- 
taiiK-d  hy  thosi-  who  deny  that  .lacol)  iitti-rcd 
the  words,  and  who  atlirni  that  the  address 
is  a  i>roiiheey  afti-r  the  event.  But  the 
address  is  not  the  utterance  of  a  late  proi)bet, 
commenting  on  the  jiast  history  of  the  twelve 
tribes  and  jiuttin,:;  his  reflections  in  the 
mouth  of  their  common  ancestor  .Jacob,  for 
the  descriptions  do  not  fit  the  actual  state 
of  thiiifjs  at  any  jjcriod  of  the  national  his- 
tory ;  sec,  for  examjih-,  vcr.  ^'.i  and  Zkiu'i.i:n. 
Believers  in  the  frinuineness  t)f  the  address 
hold  that  the  town  of  Shiloh  is  meant,  and 
they  are  able  fairly  to  exi)lain  how  Jacob 
came  to  use  the  name,  and  how  Moses  the 
I^evite  ami  Joshua  the  I-^iihraimite  could  lead 
the  iK-oi)le  while  yet  tin-  si-ejiter  was  acknowl- 
edfjed  as  belon;;intt  to  .ludah.  'J'he  arj,Miiuent 
of  Delit/.sch  nuiy  be  amplilied.  Shiloh  doubt- 
less (-xisted  in  the  days  of  the  jiatriarciis; 
and  Jaeol),  who  looked  for  the  ultimate  re- 
turn of  his  i)eoi)le  to  Canaati  (Gen.  xv.  13-lf) ; 
xlvi.  '.i,  1;  xlviii.  21),  einjiloys  this  name, 
plaeeof  tramiuillity.  as  an  omen  of  tlu-  future, 
I)layinn  ujion  it  as  Ksau  jilayi-d  ujiou  the 
nanu'  Jacob  and  Micah  njion  the  nanu's  of 
the  towns  of  .Ttnlah.  It  made  no  ditference 
thattiod  rais(-d  up  men  from  other  tribes  to 
niei-t  spe(-ial  einerKenc-ies,  the  birthrij^ht  and 
its  a<-com])anyinn  iirivilet;<-s  heloUKed  to 
Judali.  It  was  accorded  to  him  by  tin-  jiosi- 
tion  assifjned  him  at  the  head  of  the  march- 
ing host  and  in  (-amji  in  front  of  the  taber- 
na(-l(-.  It  was  ae(-re<liteil  to  him  by  ({od's 
multiplication  of  his  d(-si-endants,  so  thai  his 
tribe  was  nnn-li  largi-r  than  any  single  trihe 
durinjr  the  forty  years  in  the  wihh-rness.  It 
was  confirmi-d  by  the  lot  fallinii  first  to  his 
tribe  wh<-n  the  <-on(|U(-red  land  was  distribu- 
ted at  (iilgal.  The  ai-tual  (-oiniiif;  to  the 
town  of  .Shiloh  was  not  eonti-niplated  as 
neee.s.siiry  by  .Jacob.  The  fullillnK-nt  of  his 
words  was  more  literal  than  his  t-x)iectalion. 
He  had  mcn-ly  tin-  pcac-i-able  ]ioss<-ssion  of 
the  promised  laud  in  vi(-w.  Tin-  erection  of 
the  tabernacle  at  Shiloh,  a  town  which  Joshua 


may  have  been  led  to  choose  by  having 
knowledfjc  of  .Jacob's  words,  marked  the 
first  staj,'!-  in  the  realization  of  the  jiromise. 
A  new  jieriod  had  been  reached  in  Israel's 
history.  The  conquest  was  comiileted,  the 
inheritance  was  theirs,  po.ssession  had  begun, 
rest  had  been  won.  .ludah,  the  jiossessor  of 
the  birtliright,  had  <-ome  to  a  ]ila(-e  of  tran- 
<iuillity  in  Canaan,  having  obtained  the  obedi- 
ence of  the  peoples,  and  being  now  ready  to 
occupy  and  enjoy  his  conciuered  pos.session 
(xlix.  10  12).  The  words  do  not  mean  that 
when  he  should  <-om(-  to  Shiloh  the  sc-ejiter 
should  depart.  They  are  to  be  understood  as 
the  similar  language  in  Is.  xlii.  4:  "  He  shall 
not  fail  nor  be  discourag«-d,  till  he  have  set 
judgment  in  the  earth."  This  does  not 
nu-an  that  the  servant  will  then  fail  and 
lose  courage.  So  Jacob  nn-ant  that  the  jiriv- 
ilege  conferred  by  the  birthright,  which  cen- 
tered in  the  Abrahamic  covenant,  should 
not  be  transferred  until  Judah  had  obtained 
the  jironiised  blessing,  the  ikjs.-c  s>io7i  of 
Canaan,  when  he  would  enter  ujion  its  en- 
joyment. A  new  Jieriod  ojiens  to  him.  He 
was  still  accorded  by  (iod  the  first  jiosition 
among  the  tribes,  being  called  to  go  up  first 
against  the  Canaanites  still  in  the  allotted 
land.  He  was  called  to  go  uii  first  against 
the  Benjamites  in  the  war  against  that  trihe 
to  jiunish  national  sin.  And  the  first  and 
only  deliverer  of  all  Israel  during  the  jieriod 
of  the  judges  propc-r  sprang  from  .Judah 
(Jmlg.  iii.  7-11).  Saul,  a  I!enjaiuite,  was 
raised  up  like  the,  judges  to  deliver  Israel 
(1  Sam.  ix.  HJ ;  x.(j).and  might  have  retained 
the  throne  in  liis  family  (xiii.  115,  1-t ;  xv.  23, 
2(),  28),  but  he  lost  the  opjiortunity  through 
sin,  as  Keuben  had  lost  tin-  birthright,  and 
the  jiermanent  royal  liin-  was  taken  from 
Judah.  The  obedieiu-e  of  the  Camianites 
was  but  the  foretaste,  and  the  ])os.session  of 
the  land  and  enjoynu-nt  of  its  fertility  were 
hut  a  tyjie,  of  the  Messianic  triumjihs  and 
jieace  involved  in  the  covenanted  mercies. 
As  time  went  on,  the  fullness  of  meaning  was 
revealed.  The  jjrophets  dwelt  with  delight 
on  the  truth  that  in  the  latter  days  all 
nations  .shall  flow  unto  the  mountain  of  the 
Lord's  hous(-,  the-  law  shall  go  forth  from 
Zion  and  the  word  of  the  Lord  from  .Jerusa- 
lem, and  he  shall  jtidge  betwei-n  the  nations 
ami  rejirove  many  ]ieo])les;  and  they  shall 
beat  tlu-ir  swords  into  jilowshares  and  their 
sju-ars  into  jiruning  hooks,  nation  shall  not 
lift  nil  sword  against  nation,  neither  shall 
they  learn  war  any  more.  Hut  tluy  shall 
sit  every  man  under  his  vine  and  under  his 
fig  tn-e,  and  noiu-  shall  make  them  afraid  ; 
for  the  mouth  of  the  Lord  of  hosts  hath 
.siHiken  if  (Is.  ii.  2-1  ;  Mic.  iv.  1-.");  Joel  iii. 
9-21). 

Shi-lo'ni  [a  Shilonitel. 

.\(-(-ording  to  the  .\.  V.,  a  man  of  the  tribe 
of  .Judah  (Nell.  xi.  .">).  But  the  word  is  pre- 
ceded by  the  definite  article  in  the  H<  brew 


Shilonite 


678 


Shimri 


text,  and  hence  is  not  a  proper  name.    The 
E.  V.   correctly  translates  it  the  Shilonite, 
and    Shiloui,   as    a    man,    disapi)cars.      Sue 
Shii.onitk  2. 
Shi'lo-nite. 

1.  A  native  or  iuhabitaut  of  Shilob  (1  Kin. 
xi.  -29). 

2.  A  nionihcr  of  the  tribal  family  of  Shelah 
(Neh.  xi.  .".,  ill  A.  V.  Shiloni). 

Shil'shah  [triad]. 

An  Asherile,  .son  of  Zophah  (1  Chron.  vii. 
37). 

Shim'e-a,  once  SMmeah  (2  Sam.  xiii.  3) : 
the  two  modes  of  six'lUng  correctly  repre- 
senting the  Hebrew  text,  where,  except  in 
the  case  noted,  the  Aramaic  form  is  employed 
[somethinj;  heard,  fame]. 

1.  A  Levite,  family  of  Merari,  house  of 
Mahli  (1  Chron.  vi.  30). 

2.  A  Levite,  family  of  Gershom  (1  Chron. 
vi.  39,  11). 

3.  A  brother  of  king  David  (2  Sam.  xiii.  3; 
1  Chron.  XX.  7).  In  A.  V.  of  1  Chron.  ii.  13 
he  is  incorrectly  called  Shimma,  the  Hebrew 
havinj;  Shimea.  In  1  Sam.  xvi.  9 ;  xvii.  13 
his  name  appears  as  Shammah.  Has  one 
letter  dropped  out  of  the  Hebrew  text,  or  is 
Shimea,  the  later  and  nobler  name,  changed 
from  " desolatioTi "  to  "fame"  after  the 
nation's  deliverance  from  the  Philistines? 
Especially  is  this  latter  conjecture  probable, 
if  Shammah  was  a  memorial  name,  like 
Ichabod. 

4.  A  son  of  David  ;  see  Shammua  2. 

5.  Another  Shimeah,  whose  name  in  He- 
brew is  spelled  differently  from  the  foregoing 
(1  Chron.  viii.  32) ;  see  Shime.'VM. 

Shim'e-am. 

A  Benjaniite,  a  son  of  Mikloth,  resident  in 
Jeru.salem  (1  Cliron.  ix.  38).  In  viii.  32  he  is 
called  Shimeah,  a  synonymous  name.  This 
name  differs  in  its  third  radicle  from  the 
familiar  name  Shimea  or  Shimeah. 

SMm'e-ath  [rumor]. 

An  Ammonitess,  mother  of  one  of  king 
.Toash's  assassins  (2  Kin.  xii.  21). 

SMm'e-ath-ites. 

A  Kenite  family  of  scribes,  descended 
through  a  certain  Sliimeah  from  the  founder 
of  the  house  of  Rechab  and  resident  at  Jabez 
(1  Chron.  ii.  55). 

Shim'e-i,  in  A.  V.  once  Shimi  (Ex.  vi.  17), 
once  SMmM  (1  Chron.  viii.  21)  [famous]. 

1.  A  son  of  (ier.slion,  and  a  grandson  of 
Levi.  He  founded  a  subdivision  of  the 
tribal  familv  of  Gershon  (Ex.  vi.  17;  Num. 
iii.  18,  21;  1  Chron.  xxiii.  7,  10;  Zech.  xii. 
13). 

2.  A  Levite,  family  of  Merari,  house  of 
Mahli   (1  Chron.  vi.  29). 

3.  A  Simeonite,  probably  of  the  family  of 
Shaul.  He  had  sixteen  sons  and  six  daugh- 
ters (1  Chron.  iv.  21-27). 

4.  A  Levite,  son  of  Jahath,  of  the  family 
of  Gershom  (1  Chron.  vi.  42). 


5.  A  Benjamite,  head  of  a  father's  house 
in  Ai.jalon  (1  (Hiron.  viii. 21,  in  A.  V. Shimhi). 
Called  Slienia  in  ver.  13. 

a.  A  Levite,  family  of  Gershon,  and  head 
of  one  of  the  subdivisions  of  Ladan,  which 
latter  was  apparently  a  division  of  the  house 
of  Libni  (1  Chron.  xxiii.  9). 

7.  A  Levite,  head  of  the  tenth  course  of 
singers  in  David's  reign,  and  evidently  a  son 
of  Jedutliun,  for  his  name  is  needed  to  make 
out  the  six  si)oken  of  in  ver.  3  (1  Chron.  xxv. 
17). 

H.  A  Ramathite,  who  was  over  David's 
vineyards  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  27). 

9.  A  I'enjamite,  tlie  son  of  Gera.  He  was 
of  Saul's  family,  which  had  lost  the  throne. 
When  he  saw  David,  with  his  attendants, 
descending  the  eastern  slope  of  the  mount  of 
Olives,  while  Absalom  was  in  possession  of 
Jerusalem,  he  thought  it  safe  to  insult  the 
fallen  potentate,  whieb  he  did  in  gross  lan- 
guage. He  was  forgiven  by  David,  but  was 
afterwards  put  to  death  by  Solomon  for  dis- 
obeying a  command  of  the  king  (1  Kin.  ii. 
44-4(i). 

10.  An  adherent  of  David  and  Solomon 
during  Adonijah's  usurpation  (1  Kin.  i.  8). 
He  was  probably  the  son  of  Elah,  who  be- 
came Solomon's  purveyor  in  the  territory  of 
Benjamin  (iv.  18). 

11.  A  Reubenite  (1  Chron.  v.  4). 

12.  A  Levite,  a  son  of  Heman,  who  helped 
to  purify  the  temple  in  Hezekiah's  reign  (2 
Chron.  xxix.  14-16).  He  may  be  identical 
with  the  following. 

13.  A  Levite,  brother  of  Conaniah,  in 
Hezekiah's  reign.  He  was  one  of  those  who 
looked  after  the  tithes  (2  Chron.  xxxi.  12). 

14.  A  Benjamite,  son  of  Kish  and  an  an- 
cestor of  Mordecai  (Esth.  ii.  5). 

15.  A  man  belonging  to  the  royal  family 
of  Judah,  and  a  brother  of  Zerubbabel  (1 
Chron.  iii.  19). 

16.  17,  18.  Three  men,  one  a  Levite,  one  a 
son  of  Hashum,  and  one  a  son  of  Bani,  each 
of  whom  was  induced  by  Ezra  to  put  away 
his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x."23,  33,  .38). 

SMm'e-ites.     See  Shimei  1. 

Shim'e-on  [a  hearkening,  an  answering 
(of  prayer)]. 

A  son  of  Harim,  induced  by  Ezra  to  put 
away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  31). 

SMm'hi.     See  Shimei  5. 

Shim'i.     See  Shimei  1. 

SMin'ma.     See  Shime.\  3. 

SM'mon. 

A  man  who  liad  his  registry  with  the  tribe 
of  Judab  (1  Chron.  iv.  20). 

Shim'rath  [watching,  guarding]. 

A  Benjamite,  sou  of  Shimei  of  Aijalon  (1 
Chron.  viii.  21). 

Shim'ri,  in  A.  V.  once  Simri  (1  Cliron. 
xxvi.  10)   [watchful]. 

1.  A  Simeonite,  son  of  Shemaiah  (1  Chron. 
iv.  37). 


Shimrith 


C79 


Ship 


2.  Father  of  one  of  David's  mighty  men  (1 
Chron.  xi.  45). 

3.  A  Menirite  Levite,  a  son  of  Hosah  (1 
Chron.  x.wi.  10). 

4.  A  lAvitc,  who  lived  in  the  reign  of 
Hezekiali.  He  was  a  son  of  Elizapiian  of 
the  family  of  Kohath,  hou.se  of  Uzziel  (2 
Chron.  xxi.x.  l.{). 

Shim'rith  [vigilant]. 

.V  MiKiliilcss.  mother  of  one  of  king  Joa.sh's 
assassins  ri  Cliron.  xxiv.  2()).  Callcil  in  2 
Kin.  xii.  'Jl  Slionier. 

Shim'ron,  in  A.  V.  once  Shimrom  ( I  (  hron. 
vii.  I ),  an  cnor  not  in  the  original  rdilinn  of 
Kill  [watching,  a  guard]. 

1.  A  son  of  Issachar,  and  founder  of  a  tri- 
hal  family  ((ii-n.  xlvi.  K!;   Num.  xxvi.  24). 

2.  A  hordi-r  town  of  Zi'bnlun  (Josh.  xi.  1  ; 
xix.  15).  Not  identified.  Semiinich,  5  miles 
west  of  Nazareth,  has  been  conjectured  among 
<itlicr  ]ilac(s. 

Shim-ron-me'ron. 

A  Canaaiiitc  town,  whose  king  was  van- 
<|uislicd  and  slain  by  Joshua  (.losli.  xii.  20). 
Probably  the  full  name  of  Shimron. 

Shim'shai  [sunny]. 

A  scril)c.  one  of  those  who  complained  to 
Artaxerxes  Lougimanus  tliat  the  .Jews  were 
rebuilding  the  temple  (Ezra  iv.  8). 

Shin. 

The  twenty-first  letter  of  the  Hebrew 
alphabet.  English  S  comes  from  the  same 
source,  and  with  sli  rejjresents  it  in  angli- 
<'i/.ed  Hebrew  names;  as  in  Simeon,  .Shimea, 
Ishmael.  It  liends  the  twenty-first  section 
of  I's.  cxix.,  in  which  section  each  verse  of 
tlie  orJLriiuil  begins  with  this  letter. 

SM'nab. 

'I'Im  king  of  Admah,  who  was  defeated  by 
<'licdoila.inicr  ((ien.  xiv.  2,  8,  10). 

SM'nar. 

A  country  in  which  the  cities  of  Rahel, 
Erech,  Accad,  and  ('aliuh  were  situated 
(Oen.  X.  10;  xi.  2:  Dan.  i.  2).  Hence,  in 
Hebrew  usage,  Shinar  com])n'hen(led  the  al- 
luvial jijain  of  Haliylonia.  The  .same  region 
was  known  to  Semites  of  Mesoiiotamia  as 
Shanhar.  as  apjiears  from  an  inscription  of 
Tell  <'l-.\niarna.  In  the  days  of  Abraham, 
Amraphcl  was  king  of  the  whole  or  a  large 
part  of  it  ((!en.  xiv.  1,!)).  Some  of  the  Jews 
were  to  l)e  carrieil  tliitlur  as  ca)itives  (Is.  xi. 
11  :  Zcch.  V.  11). 

Shi'on,  in  A.  V.  Sliihon  [destruction, 
ruin|. 

A  (own  of  Is.sachar  (Josh.  xix.  1ft).  Tlie 
site  is  ])erliaps  at  '.\yun  esh-Sba'in.  15  miles 
west-nortliwest  of  mount  Tabor. 

Ship. 

Little  boats  were  used  by  dwellers  on  the 
U|i|icr  I'jijili rates  for  descending  the  river  to 
l'>ahylon  (Herod,  i.  1!M).  They  wenr  circular 
in  form.  The  ribs  were  nia<le  of  willow, 
over  which  hides  were  stretched  as  a  cover- 
ing.    They   were  st*'ered   by   two  nun  who 


stood  upright,  each  with  a  spar  which  they 
thrust  alternately.  The  largest  vessels  were 
ea]ial)le,  according  to  Herodotus,  of  carrying 
5000  talents. 

Uoats  were  doubtless  used  on  the  sea  of 
(Jalilee  in  ().  T.  times,  but  they  are  not  men- 
tioned. In  the  Koman  ])eri(»d  the  sea  was 
alive  with  small  fishing  ve.s.sels  (Luke  v.  2 ; 
John  vi.  22,  2:5;  War  ii.  21,  H;  iii.  10,  !»; 
Life  :5:}).  They  were  ]iro]Kll('d  by  oars  ;  but 
some,  at  least,  had  both  oars  and  sails  (.Mark 
iv.  .W  with  Luke  viii.  23) ;  they  carried  an 
anchctr  and  a  ]iilot  (Life  33). 

The  Israelites  were  not  a  seafaring  iieojile  ; 
although  slii|ibuil(liiig  was  far  advanced 
among  the  10g\i)tiaiis  and  doubtless  among 
the  I'lnenicians  before  the  exodus,  and  the 
Hebrews  had  the  spectacle  of  .ships  on  tin; 
Mediterranean  before  their  eyes  during  the 
whole  jieriod  of  their  national  history.  Solo- 
mon conducted  coiumcrcial  enterprises,  ami 
Jehosbajdiat  attem]ited  to  imitate  him  ;  hut 
these  were  transient  eflbrts  and  were  more 
or  less  dei)endent  ui>on  I'lia-nician  sailors. 
The  rafts  of  cedar  and  fir  destined  for  Solo- 
mon's temple  were  Hoated  to  Jojipa  by  T.vr- 
ians  (1  Kin.  v.  9  ;  2  Chron.  ii.  Iti),  and  the 
timber  for  the  second  temple  was  likewi.se 
brought  by  sea  to  Jopi)a  by  Pho'nicians 
(Ezra  iii.  7).  The  crew  of  the  vessel  in 
whic-h  .loiiali  sailed  from  .lopjta  was  also  com- 
jtosed  of  Inrtigncrs  (Jonah  i.  5).  In  the  Komati 
l>eriod,  jiiratical  e.vjieditions  by  Jews  are  re- 
ported (Antii|.  xiv.  3,  2  ;  War  iii.  1),  2  and  3|. 

IJoth  mercliant  vessels  and  war  ships  were 
used  on  the  Mediterranean  (Num.  xxiv.  24  ; 
Dan.  xi.  30;  .lonah  i.  3;  1  .Mac.  xi.  1).  In 
war,  vessels  weri'  emjiloyed  for  trans]iorting 
troops  (xv.  3,  4;  2  Mac.  xiv.  1)  and  for  fight- 
ing at  sea  (1  Mac.  viii.  23,  32;  Antiq.  ix.  14, 
2;  cp.  War  iii.  10,  1).  Some  of  these  sea- 
going vessels  were  projielled  by  sails  alone; 
others  by  both  sails  and  oars.  A  gallant 
merchantman  of  Tyre  was  built  of  jtlanks 
and  calked  (Ezek.  xxvii.  5,  ft);  had  masts, 
linen  sails,  and  tackling  (7:  Is.  xxxiii.  2.')i, 
benches  of  boxwood,  and  oakt'ii  oars  (Ezek. 
xxvii.  (i.  IJ.  v.).  It  was  manned  by  sailors  and 
guided  by  a  pilot  (8,  27).  When  luxuriously 
furnished,  the  sails  were  embroidered  and  a 
rich  awning  was  sjtread  (7).  Such  vessels 
made  the  voyage  to  Tarsbish  (.loiiab  i.  3.  5, 
(i.  l.'{),and  even  navigated  the  .\tlantic  ( tcean 
from  Sjiain  to  England;  .see  Tix.  The  shi]) 
of  Alexandria,  in  which  Paul  was  conveyed 
from  Myra  to  Malta,  was  large  enough  to 
acconnnoiliite  a  crew  and  ]iassengers  number- 
ing 27<>  persons,  besides  a  cargo  of  wheat 
(.\cts  xxvii.  37,  3S).  The  vessel  in  which 
.Fose]ihus  was  wrecked  had  000  jiersons  on 
hoard  (Life3i.  The  .Alexandrian  wheat  ship, 
descril)eil  liy  Lucian  as  driven  into  the  port 
of  -Mhens  by  roiigli  weather,  was  120  cubits, 
or  ISO  feet,  in  length,  doubtless  in(  hiding  the 
jirojeclion  at  each  end,  and  l.'i  feet  in  breatlth. 
Its  size  attracted  attention.  Its  measure- 
ment is  .supi>osed  to  have  been  about  12(Ht  or 


Shiphi 


680 


Shittah  Tree 


1300  tons.  The  exceptionally  large  war  gal- 
ley of  Ptolemy  Philopator  measured,  accord- 
ing to  Athena'us,  4'JO  feet  in  length  and  57 
feet  in  breadth.  Taul'-s  shij)  was  in  charge 
of  a  master  and  the  owner  (Acts  xxvii.  11), 
and  was  managed  by  a  crew  (30).  It  was 
built  of  planks  (11),  carried  a  fores;»il,  which 
could  be  raised  and  lowered  (40,  K.  V.),  and 
by  implication  a  foremast  and  a  mainmast, 
and  was  steered  by  rudders,  doubtless  two 
(40).  Four  anchors  were  stowed  at  the  stern 
and  several  forward  (29,  .'iO),  and  a  small 
boat  was  towed  behind,  which  could  be  raised 
by  rojjcs  to  the  deck  or  davits  (IfJ,  17,  30,  32). 
Soundings  were  tiiken  (2b).  It  was  custom- 
ary for  ships  to  have  an  eye  painted  or 
carved  on  each  side  of  the  stem.  Paul's 
vessel  was  unable  to  face  the  gale,  literally  to 
keep  the  eye  to  the  wind  (15). 


A  Ship  of  Paul's  Time. 
Delineated  at  Pompeii. 

A  ship  of  Paul's  time,  depicted  at  Pompeii, 
shows  a  foremast  inclined  like  a  bowsprit, 
but  intended  to  carry  a  square  sail,  and  one 
large  mast  with  one  square  sail  fitted  to  a 
yard  of  great  length.  The  yard  was  com- 
posed of  two  spars  si)liced  together,  and  was 
placed  with  its  center  against  the  mast.  The 
sail  was  strengthened  by  ropes  sewed  across 
it  vertically  and  horizontally  ;  and  if  torn, 
the  rent  was  confined  to  the  square  in  which 
it  occurred.  The  sail  was  furled  by  being 
drawn  up  to  the  yard.  The  deck  was  pro- 
tected by  a  rail.  Th<!  stern  post,  and  in  many 
vessels  the  stem  post  also,  rose  in  a  curve.  It 
was  customary,  as  in  this  ship,  for  the  stern 
post  at  least  to  terminate  in  the  head  of  a 
water  fowl.  The  sign  of  the  ship  (Acts  xxviii. 
11)  was  painted  or  carved  on  each  side  of  the 
prow.  The  vessel  was  steered  by  two  broad 
oars  or  paddles,  one  on  each  ((uarter  and  act- 
ing through  a  port  hole.  The  anchors  were 
similar  to  those  in  modern  use,  except  that 
they  had  no  ilukcs.  To  i)rcvent  the  starting 
of  the  ])]anks  in  a  storm,  cables  or  chains, 
called  heljis  or  nndergirders  (xxvii.  17),  were 
passed  around  the  vessel  at  right  angles  to 
its  length  and  made  tight. 

Shi'pM  [abounding,  abundant]. 

A  Simconite,  son  of  Allon  (1  Chron.  iv.  37). 


Shiph'mlte. 

A  native  or  inhabitant  of  probably  Siph- 
moth  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  27). 

Shiph'rah  [sjiUndor,  beauty]. 

One  of  the  llebicw  nudwives  iu  Egypt 
who  declined  to  kill  the  male  babes  (Ex.  i. 
15). 

Shiph'tan  [judicial]. 

An  Ejihraimite,  father  of  Kemuel  (Num. 
xxxiv.  24). 

Shi'sba.     See  Shavsha. 

SM'shak.     See  Pharaoh  3. 

SMt'rai. 

A  Sharonite,  Avho  looked  after  David's 
herds  on  the  plain  of  Sharon  (1  Chron.  xxvii. 
29). 

Shit'tah  Tree  and  Shittim  Wood. 

A  tree  (Is.  xli.  19).  The  K.  V.  renders  the 
word  by  acacia  tree  or  wood.  It  was  largely 
used  in  the  tabernacle,  for  the  woodwork  of 
the  ark,  the  altars  and  their  staves,  the  table, 
the  boards,  bars,  and  pillars  (Ex.  xxv.  5, 
10,  13,  23 ;  xxvi.  15,  26,  32 ;  xxvii.  1,  H ;  xxx. 
1,  5).  The  Arabic  name  sant  is  the  same 
word  as  the  Hebrew  shittah,  and  denotes  the 
acacia.  There  are  several  species.  Acacia 
seyal  and   tortilis  are   found  in  the  valleys 


Shittah  {Acacia  seyal). 

about  the  Dead  Sea  and  southward,  and 
Acacin  nilotica  grows  in  the  southern  part  of 
the  ])eninsula  of  Sinai  and  in  Egyjit.  The 
genuine  acacias  are  generally  small  trees, 
growing  from  15  to  25  feet  high,  thorny,  with 


Shittim 


681 


Shobi 


bipinnate  leaves,  and  pods  with  several  seeds. 
The  wood  is  hard  and  close-drained,  t'ertain 
species  yield  the  fi""!  Araliie  of  eoniinerce. 
Tlie  wood  was  used  in  l^fiypt  lor  li<iat  hiiild- 
iiiH  (ilcrod.  ii.  iMI).  and  .losci)liiis  speaks  of 
its  streiigtli  ;uid  durahilily  (Anliti.  iii.  (i,  5). 

Shlt'tim  [aeaeias]. 

1.  An  ini))ortant  eiK-ani])ment  of  the  Israel- 
ite's ill  the  plains  of  Moali,  last  of  Jordan, 
ojiposite  Jericho  (Num.  xxii.  1  with  xxv.  1). 
The  eaiMp  had  been  removed  from  l'is};ah  on 
tin-  mountains  of  Aharini  and  pitched  at 
Shittim  after  the  conquest  of  Sihon  and  On 
(xxi.  "JO;  xxii.  1;  xxxiii.  47,  4bj.  It  was 
located  on  a  table-land,  the  tojimost  of  the 
three  terraces  which  at  this  point  form  the 
valley  of  the  Jordan,  and  amoiifi  the  lonj^ 
f^roves  of  acacia  trees.  It  extended  from 
Heth-jeshimoth  even  nuto  Alu'l-sliittim 
(xxxiii.  4!t ;  cp.  xxiii.  2^),  a  distance  of  3 
nules  and  more.  It  was  arranjied  in  an  or- 
derly manner,  the  Israelites  dwelling  accord- 
ing to  their  tribes  (xxiv.  2,  ">,  (i) ;  see  Camp. 
The  sojourn  at  Shittim  was  eventful.  While 
the  Israelites  were  encamped  there,  Balaam 
attempted  to  curse  them  (xxii. -xxiv.),  the 
jieojile  committed  sin  with  the  daughters  of 
Moab  and  Midian  at  Haal-peor,  and  were 
l)lagued  in  consecjuence  (xxv.),  the  second 
census  was  taken  (xxvi.),  occasion  arose  for 
enacting  laws  regarding  tlie  inheritance  of 
daugjiters  (xxvii.  1-11),  Joshua  was  juiblicly 
proclaimed  the  successor  to  Moses  (12-23), 
daily  offerings  and  vows  were  further  regu- 
lated (xxviii.-xxx.).  war  was  waged  with 
the  five  .Midianite  tribes  of  tlie  ni'igbborliood 
on  account  of  the  deliberate  attempt  wliich 
they  had  recently  made  to  .seduce  the  Israel- 
ites into  licentious  idolatry  at  Baal-peor 
(xxxi.),  Keul)en  and  (iad.  at  their  own  re- 
quest, received  inheritance  east  of  the  Jor- 
dan (xxxii.i,  an  itinerary  of  the  journey 
from  Egyi)t  to  the  Jordan  was  drawn  uj)  by 
Moses  (xxxiii.).  Measures  were  also  taken 
for  the  occupation  of  Canaan  :  in  view  of  re- 
cent events,  the  ex|iiilsion  of  the  Caiiaaniles 
and  the  destruction  of  tiuir  altars  and  idols 
were  urgently  commanded  anew  ;  the  bound- 
aries of  the  land  were  defined,  and  a  com- 
ini.ssion  was  a))i)ointed  to  su])erintend  the 
allotment  of  territory  to  the  tribes:  and  it 
was  ordered  tliat  cities  be  assigned  to  the 
Levites,  and  that  six  cities  of  refuge  be  des- 
ignated for  the  unintentional  murderer 
(xxxiii.  .Vt-xxxv.).  The  matter  of  tlie  in- 
lieritance  of  daujiliters  was  fiirlbir  regulated 
(xxxvi.i.  Tiien  Moses  delivered  his  farewi'll 
address  (.see  DiMTKicoNo.M  v),  Josliua  received 
a  solemn  cliarge,  and  Moses  ascended  Nebo 
and  died,  .\fter  tiie  death  of  Moses,  .Foshua 
sent  fortii  two  spies  from  Siiiltim  to  examine 
and  re|>ort  on  tiic  defenses  of  Jericho  (,Iosii. 
ii.).  Then  cjinip  was  broken  at  Shittim,  and 
tlie  peojile  crossed  tlie  Jordan  (iii,), 

2.  .\  valley,  dry  ami  comjiarativily  un- 
fruitful, where   only    the   acacia   or  shittah 


tree  grows  (Joel  iii.  18).  If  a  particular 
valley  is  in  the  prophet's  mind,  it  is  the 
Arabah  about  the  Dead  Sea  (cp.  Ezek.  xlvii. 
1-12).  Tlie  prophet  names  it  fruiii  the  en- 
campment of  the  Israelites  at  Shittim,  and 
he  selects  it  as  a  tyjie  because  the  waters  of 
its  sea  were  practically  lifeless,  and  its  south- 
ern portion  consisted  of  barren  rocks  and 
din's  of  salt.  After  Jehovah  has  judged  all 
nations,  tlie  kingilom  of  (iod  sliall  flourish 
and  the  kingdoms  of  the  world  become  waste 
(.Joel  iii.  !)-21).  The  mountains  of  Judah 
shall  drojidown  new  wine,  its  hills  flow  with 
milk,  its  wadies  be  brooks  of  water,  and  from 
the  house  (d'  the  Lord  shall  go  forth  waters 
that  shall  make  glad  the  valley  of  acacias. 
In  other  words,  the  desert  shall  blossom  as 
the  rose;  spiritual  life  shall  proceed  from  the 
Lord  (iod  and  shall  sujijily  the  needs  of  his 
kingdom  (c]i,  Kev,  xxii,  1,  2), 

SM'za  [vehement  love], 

A  liciilieiiite,  father  of  one  of  David's 
heroes  (1  Chron,  xi.  42). 

Sbo'a. 

A  country  and  its  inhabitants,  mentioned 
in  connection  with  the  Babylonians,  Chal- 
deans, and  Assyrians  (Kzek,  xxiii.  23) ;  and 
doubtless  the  >Shutu  who  are  mentioned  by 
the  Babylonians  and  Assyrians  as  occupying 
a  hilly  country  with  steppes,  adjacent  to 
I5abylonia  on  the  northeast,  and  between  the 
Tigris  livir  and  the  mountains  of  Elam  and 
Media  (  Delitzsch,  Pantdief^,  .334), 

Sho'bab  [restored,  rescued], 

1.  A  man  of  Judah,  family  of  Hezron, 
hou.se  of  Caleb.  His  mother  was  Azubah  (1 
Chron.  ii.  18). 

2.  A  son  of  David,  born  to  him  at  Jerusa- 
lem (2  Sam.  V.  14). 

Sho'bach  [one  who  pours  out]. 

Commander-in-chief  under  Hadarezer, 
king  of  Zobali  (2  Sam.  x.  16).  Called  in  1 
Chron.  xix.  KJ,  IS,  Shophach.  The  difl'erence 
is  doubtless  due  to  a  .scribe's  confusion  of 
beth  and  jie,  but  even  so  the  names  are 
strictly  synonymous, 

Sho'bai  [one  who  leads  captivel, 

A  Levite,  founder  of  a  family  of  doorkeep- 
ers, members  of  which  returned  with  Zerub- 
habel  from  captivity  (Ezra  ii.  42). 

Sbo'bal  [flowing,  a  stream,  a  twig,  a  trav- 
eler], 

1,  A  tribe  of  Ilorites  ((Jen.  xxxvi.  20), 
consisting  of  several  families  (2.")l,  and  ruled 
by  a  chieftain  (2!»), 

2.  A  .son  of  llur,  a  man  of  Judah.  family 
of  Hezron,  house  of  Caleb.  He  was  ancestor 
of  the  inhabitants  of  Kirjath-jearim  (1 
Chron.  ii.  .")(!;  iv.  1,  2,  4i. 

Sbo'bek  [one  who  forsjikes]. 

One  of  the  .Jewish  chiefs  who  with  Nelie- 
niiah  sealed  tlie  covenant   iNeh.  x.2l). 

Sho'bi  [one  who  leads  raiitive]. 

Son  of  a  resident  in  Kabbah  of  the  Am- 
monites  named    Nahash    (2   Sam.   xvii.   27). 


Shocho 


682 


Shubael 


Whether  Nahash  was  an  Israelite  who  had 
taken  up  liis  residence  in  the  eoncjuered  city 
(xii.  2(j-:il),  or  David's  royal  friend,  tlie  Am- 
monite kiiifi  (x.  2),  is  uncertain.  His  son 
Sholii  liroiight  food  and  other  necessaries  to 
l);ivi(l  at   Mahanaini. 

Sho'cho.  Shochola,  Sboco.    See  Soco. 

She 'bam  [a  Ix'ryl  or  onyx]. 

A  Levite,  son  of  Jaaziiih  (1  Chron.  xxiv.  27). 

Sboe. 

Hebrew  shoes  were,  as  a  rule,  simply  san- 
dals affixed  to  the  foot  by  straps  known  as 
latchets;  see  t'l.OTHiNO.  Shoes  were  not 
worn  in  the  sitting  room  or  at  the  table  (cp. 
Luke  vii.  3S) ;  and  in  well-appointed  houses 
a  servant  stood  ready  to  unloose  the  latchet 
and  remove  the  shoe  of  the  guest  (cp.  Mark 
i.  7).  Shoes  were  al.so  removed  when  one 
was  about  to  tread  holy  ground  (Ex.  iii.  5 ; 
Josh.  V.  1.")) ;  and  the  absence  of  shoes  in  the 
description  of  the  priest's  garments  is  sup- 
posed to  indicate  that  the  priests  performed 
their  duties  in  the  t(>mple  barefoot.     In  the 


^andals 

olden  time  in  Israel,  in  matters  of  redemp- 
tion and  exchange,  a  man  drew  off  his  shoe 
and  gave  it  to  him  with  whom  he  had  con- 
cluded the  agreement,  as  confirmation  of  the 
transaction  (Ruth  iv.  7,  8)  ;  and  the  shoe  of 
the  man  who  refused  to  take  his  deceased 
brother's  wife  was  loosed,  with  other  insult 
(Deut.  XXV.  9,  10). 
Sho'mer  [keeper,  watchman]. 

1.  All  Asherite,  son  of  Heber  (1  Chron.  vii. 
32).     See  Siikmer. 

2.  A  Moabitess,  mother  of  one  of  king 
Joash's  assassins  (2  Kin.  xii.  21).     See  Shim- 

KITII. 

Sho'pliach.     See  Siiobach. 

Sho'phan.     See  Atroth-shophan. 

Sho-shan'nim  [lilies]. 

\  Word  occurring  in  the  titles  of  Psalms 
\lv.  and  Ixix.  Three  o])inions  exist  as  to  its 
meaning:  symbolical  of  the  contents  of  the 
jisalm,  a  musical  instrument  resembling  a 
lily,  a  familiar  melody.  It  doubtless  indi- 
cates a  pojiular  air.  This  appears  fnmi  the 
combinations  Shoshannim  Edutli,  "Lilies  a 


testimony"    (Ps.  Ixxx.  title),  and   Shushan 
Edutb,    "Lily  a  testimony"  (Ps.  Ix.  title). 

Sliow'bread. 

Literally  "  bread  of  the  presence."  It 
consisted  of  twelve  loaves  of  bread,  laid  in 
two  rows  and  displayed  on  a  table  in  the 
holy  place  before  the  Lord  continually.  Tiie 
bread  was  chang(^d  every  Sabbath,  and  the 
old  loaves  were  eaten  by  the  priests  in  the 
holy  place  (Ex.  xxv.  30;  Lev.  xxiv.  5-9;  1 
Sam.  xxi.  6  ;  Mat.  xii.  4).  .losephus  says  the 
bread  was  unleavened  (Antiq.  iii.  6,  (j). 
These  twelve  loaves  set  in  the  presence  of 
Jehovah  probably  signified  the  constant 
communion  of  his  peoi)le  with  him  in  tho.se 
things  which  his  bounty  provided  and  they 
enjoyed  in  his  presence  and  used  in  his 
service.  The  Kohathites  had  charge  of  the 
showbread  (1  Chron.  ix.  .32). 

The  table  of  showbread  was  made  of  acacia 
wood  overlaid  with  gold.  It  was  bordered 
by  a  golden  crown,  and  had  a  ring  at  each 
corner  for  the  rods  by  which  it  was  carried. 
It  measured  2  cubits  long,  1  broad,  and  IJ 
high  (Ex.  xxv.  23-29;  for  its  transportation, 
see  Num.  iv.  7,  8).  In  Solomon's  tem])le 
there  were  ten  tables  for  showbread,  corre- 
sponding to  the  ten  candlesticks,  although 
like  the  candlesticks  apparently  only  one 
was  in  use  at  a  time  (1  Chron.  xxviii.  16;  2 
Chron.  iv.  8,  19  ;  xiii.  11  ;  Antiq.  viii.  3,  7)  ; 
hence  only  one  is  mentioned  in  1  Kin.  vii. 
48;  2  Chi-on.  xxix.  18.  The  table  which 
belonged  to  the  second  temple  was  carried 
off  by  Antiochus  Ei)iphanes,  but  a  new  one 
was  provided  by  Judas  Maccabseus  ( 1  Mac.  i. 
22;  iv.  49).  Titus  carried  it  to  Rome  (War 
vii.  5,  5). 

Shu'a,  in  A.  V.  twice  Shuah  (Gen.  xxxviii. 
2,  12)  [wealth]. 

1.  A  Canaanite,  whose  daughter  became 
Judah's  wife  or  concubine,  and  the  mother 
of  his  sous,  Er,  Onan,  and  Shelah  (Gen. 
xxxviii.  2,  12  ;  1  Chron.  ii.  3). 

2.  An  Asherite,  a  daughter  of  Heber  (1 
Chron.  vii.  32). 

Shu'ah  [dejiression]. 

A  son  of  Abraham,  by  Keturah  (Gen.  xxv. 
2),  that  is,  an  Arab  tribe  descended  from 
them,  doubtless  the  Shuhiteswho  dwelt  near 
the  land  of  Uz  (Job  ii.  11).  Their  land  is 
plausibly  identified  with  a  district  of  the 
same  name,  in  Assyrian  Suliu,  on  the  west 
of  the  Euphrates,  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Belicli  and  Khabour. 

For  others  whose  name  is  rendered  Shuah 
in  A.  v.,  see  Shua  and  Siiuhah. 

Shu'al  [a  fox  or  j.ackal]. 

1.  An  Asherite,  son  of  Zophah  (1  Chron. 
vii.  36). 

2.  A  district  near  Ophrah,  to  the  north  of 
INIichmash  (1  Sam.  xiii.  17).  Exact  situation 
unknown. 

Shu'ba-el.    See  Sukhuel. 


Shuhah 


683 


Shushan 


yiiovvbread  Table  of  Herod's  Temple. 
l'"rora  the  Arch  of  Titua. 


Shu'hah,  in  A.  V.  Shuah  [depression,  a 
small   pit]. 

.\  man  (if  Judah  (1  C'hron.  iv.  11). 

Shu'ham  [depression  or,  perhaps,  a  pit- 
man]. 

The  son  of  Dan.  and  fonnder  of  the  trihal 
family  (Num.  x.wi.  42).  Called  in  Gen.  xlvi. 
2'.i  Hiisliini. 

Shu'hite.    See  Shuah. 

Shu'lam-mite,  in  A.  V.  Shulamite. 

.\  yiiiinu'  woman  nifiiticinc(l  in  the  SonK 
of  Solomon  (vi.  V.i).  In  all  ]irol)ability  the 
name  is  derived  from  that  of  the  town  of 
Slinnem.  The  Se])tuaKiiit  translates  it  hy 
SoiiiKimilin.  i.  r.  .'^hiinanimitc  :  and  the  town 
of  Slinneni  was  known  in  the  time  of  Euse- 
bius  as  Shiilem,  and  to-day  hears  tlie  name 
Solam.  The  form  Slmlamniite  may  have 
been  jireferred  to  Shtiiiammite  l)ecaiise  of  its 
assonam-c  witli  Solomon,  in  Hebrew  Slt'iomoh. 

Shu'math-ites  [from  shnmfih.  parlic]. 

One  of  liic  leading  families  in  Kirjatli- 
jearinj   (1   Cliron.  ii.  '>3). 

Shu'nam-mite. 

A  native  or  inhabitant  of  Shnnem.  Abishajj 
was  one  (1  Kin.  i.  ."').  1.")K  So  was  the  woman 
whose  son  Klisha  raised  from  the  dead  (ep.  2 
Kin.  iv.  8). 

Sbu'nem  ri'ossiidy,  two  resting  jilaces]. 

.\  town  of  I'^sacliar  (.losli.  xix.  !■").  opjiosite 
monnt  (iilboa  (I  Sjini.  xxviii.  1).  The  Philis- 
tines eneamped  there  before  tlie  battle  with 


Saul.  The  site  is  at  Solam,  on  the  western 
slope  of  a  hill  3J  miles  north  by  east  of 
Jezreel,  .t  north  of  the  western  end  of 
monnt  (Jilboa,  and  10  or  T.'  miU-s  from  ('ar- 
mel  whither  the  Sliiinammite  woman  went 
to  find   Klislia  (2  Kin.  iv.  25). 

Shu'ni  [possibly,  ealm,  quiet]. 

A  son  of  Gad,  and  founder  of  a  tribal 
family  (Gen.  xlvi.  16;  Num.  xxvi.  15). 

Shu'pham.    See  Shephuph.\m. 

Shup'pim. 

1.  A   Iknjamite  (1  Chron.  vii.  12,  15);  see 

ShEPIU  THAM. 

2.  A  J^evite.  who  served  as  a  doorkeeper 
at  the  .sanctuary  (1  ("hrou.  xxvi.  Kii.  The 
Hebrew  text  is  doubtless  corrupt.  Perhaps 
the  name  crept  in  from  the  preceding  verse, 
which  ends  with  a  word  very  like  Shu])pim. 

Silur  [wall,  fortification]. 

1.  A  locality  in  the  wilderne.ss,  south  of 
Palestine,  or  more  exactly  south  of  Heer- 
labai-roi,  and  east  of  Kg.vpt  ((Jen.  xvi.  7; 
XXV.  is).  It  has  not  been  identified,  but  was 
donl)tle.ss  connected  with  the  fronti<'r  for- 
tresses of  Ef;y]>t.  It  gave  name  to  the  wil- 
derness through  wliicli  the  Israelites  marched 
for  three  days  immediately  after  cro.ssinp  the 
Hed  Sea  (Ex.  xv.  22).  Tliis  waste  was  al.so 
sometimes  called  the  wilderne.ss  of  Etham 
(  Num.  \  \xiii.  m. 

Shu'shan  [to  the  Hebrews  the  name  would 
.suggest  lily]. 


Shushancliites 


084 


Sidon 


A  city  and  royal  residence  in  the  Persian 
onipirc'(Neli.  i.  1  ;  Esth.  i.  2),  in  tlie  province 
of  Elaiii,  on  the  river  Ulai  (Dan.  viii.  2).  It 
was  also  a  royal  truasuro  rity  (Herod,  v.  49). 
The  jilaie  rft'erred  to  in  liicse  i)assagos  is 
Siisa.  Ashurhani|)al  captiirod  the  city  about 
(iGU  B.  c,  and  later  it  became  sul)ject  to  the 
Babylonian  kings.  The  royal  family  to 
whitli  Cyrus,  who  con(iuere(l  Babylon,  bc- 
li)ni,'ed  ruled  over  Ansau,  whieli  appears  to 
have  been  a  district  of  eastern  Elani.  When 
t'yrus,  by  his  military  achievements,  estab- 
lished the  Persian  emjiire.  Su.sa  was  elevated 
to  the  rank  of  a  cai)ilal  of  the  empire,  shar- 
ing this  distinction  with  Ecbatana  and  Eaby- 
lon.  When  Aiexandi'r  the  Great  entered 
Susa,  in  331  H.  v.,  it  bad  in  it  immense  treas- 
ures, of  which  be  took  possession.  In  315  B. 
c.  it  was  captured  and  ])lundered  anew  by 
Autigonus.  After  this  it  began  to  decline, 
but  was  still  defensible  when  the  Saracens 
conquered  Persia.  The  site  of  the  city  is  at 
Sus,  in  latitude  32°  10"  north,  longitude  48° 
26"  east,  between  the  river  Euheus  (the  So- 
man name  for  Daniers  ITai)  and  the  Shah- 
pur,  and  about  100  miles  from  the  Persian 
Gulf.  The  chief  ruins  are  found  within  an 
area  of  about  (JOOO  feet  long  by  4500  broad, 
the  circumference  being  about  3  miles;  but 
if  scattered  remains  be  taken  in,  the  3  miles 
may  become  (i  or  7.  They  consist  of  a  series 
of  mounds,  in  one  of  which  the  explorers 
laid  bare  the  ruins  of  a  palace,  doubtless  that 
begun  by  Darius,  and  in  which  Xerxes  held 
his  court.  It  seems  to  have  been  there  that 
Esther's  Ahasuerus  held  his  feasts  and  his 
ban(iuets  (Esth.  i.  2,  3,  9;  ii.  18,  etc.). 

Shu'shan-chites,   in   A.   "V.    Susanchites 

[from  Elamite  SusinaL;  Susian]. 

Natives  or  iuhal)itantsof  the  Persian  Susa, 
the  Shushan  of  the  O.  T.  Shushancliites 
were  brought,  with  others,  to  central  Pales- 
tine to  sup])ly  the  place  of  the  ten  tribes  car- 
ried into  captivity  (Ezra  iv.  9). 

Shu'shan  E'duth.     See  Shoshannim. 
Shu'the-lah. 

1.  A  son  of  Eiihraim,  and  founder  of  a  tri- 
bal family  (Num.  xxvi.  35,  36:  1  Chron. 
vii.  20).    ■ 

2.  Another  descendant  of  Ephraim  in  the 
same  line  (1  Chron.  vii.  21). 

Si'a-ha  and  Sia  [assembly]. 

A  family  of  N'ctbiniiii,  members  of  which 
returned  with  Zerubl)al)el  from  the  ca^itivity 
I  Ezra  ii.  41  ;  Neh.  vii.  47). 

Sib't>e-cai,  in  A.  V.  twice  Sibbechai  (2 
Sam.  xxi.  18;  1  Chron.  xx.  4)  [perliaps,  en- 
tangling]. 

A  Hushathite,  one  of  David's  mighty  men 
(1  Chron.  xi.  29).  He  won  renown  by  slay- 
ing the  Philistine  Saph,  one  of  the  sons  of 
the  giant  (2  Sam.  xxi.  18).  He  commanded 
the  division  of  the  army  for  the  eighth  month 
(1  Chron.  xxvii.  11).  lie  is  callc<l  in  2  Sam. 
xxiii.  27  Mebnnnai  (q.  v.). 


Sib'bo-leth.     See  Shibboleth. 

Sib'mah,  in  A.  V.  once  SMbmali  (Num. 
xxxii.  38)  [co(dness]. 

A  town  assigned  to  Reuben  (Num.  x.xxii. 
38;  .Josh.  xiii.  19),  but  which  afterwards  re- 
verted to  Moab.  It  was  celebrated  for  its 
vines  (Is.  xvi.  8,  9;  .Jer.  xlviii.  32).  The 
nia.sculine  form  of  the  name  is  Sebam  (Num. 
xxxii.  3;  in  A.  V.  Shebam).  According  to 
.Jerome,  it  was  situated  .scarcely  half  a  mile 
from  Heshbon.  Not  identified.  Conder  sug- 
gests Siimia,  3  miles  west  by  north  of  Hesh- 
bon. 

Sib'ra-im  []ierhaps,  hope]. 

An  unidentitied  place  on  Ezekiel's  northern 
boundary  of  Canaan  (Ezek.  xlvii.  16). 

Si'chem.    See  Shechem. 

Si'cy-on. 

A  l)(u-ian  town  in  the  Peloponnesus 
(Herod,  viii.  43),  on  the  gulf  of  Corinth,  10 
miles  northwest  of  the  city  of  Corinth.  The 
old  town  at  the  harbor  was  abandoned  in  303 
B.  c,  and  the  populace  removed  to  the  new 
town,  about  2  miles  inland,  which  occupied 
a  strong  natural  position.  The  city  became 
a  member  of  the  Acha?an  league  in  251  b. 
c.  Half  a  century  later  it  began  to  show 
friendliness  to  the  Romans,  and  continued  to 
do  so  during  the  fifty  years  that  followed  ; 
and  in  146  B.  c,  on  the  destruction  of  Corinth 
by  the  Roman  general,  Munnnius,  it  was  re- 
warded with  a  large  portion  of  the  con(|uered 
territory  and  with  the  management  of  the 
Isthmian  games.  It  held  this  distinction  for 
a  century,  until  Corinth  was  founded  again 
and  made  a  Roman  colony.  The  Roman 
senate  addressed  the  letter  to  Sicyon  men- 
tioned in  1  Mac.  xv.  23,  about  139  B.  c. 

Sid'dim  [plains]. 

The  valley,  full  of  bitumen  pits,  in  which 
the  battle  of  the  four  kings  with  the  five 
took  place.  It  was  afterwards  submerged 
under  the  waters  of  the  Salt  or  Dead  Sea 
(Gen.  xiv.  3,  8,  10). 

Si'de. 

A  nuiritimc  town  of  eastern  Pamphylia  in 
Asia  Minor.  It  maintained  close  commercial 
relations  with  Aradus  in  Phfpnicia,  gave  the 
title  Sidetes  to  Antiochus  VII.,  who  was 
brought  U]>  in  the  town,  and  was  one  of  the 
places  to  which  the  Roman  senate  sent  lettei's 
in  favor  of  the  Jews  (1  Mac.  xv.  23). 

Si'don  and  Zidon;  in  A.  V.  usually,  in  R. 
V.  always,  Zidon  in  O.  T. ;  in  A.  V.  "and  R. 
V.  always  Sidon  in  N.  T.  [a  fishery]. 

An  ancient  city  of  the  Canaanites  (Gen.  x. 
15),  on  the  seacoast,  about  22  miles  north  of 
Tyre.  A  confirmation  of  its  antiquity  and 
its  imjiortance  comes  from  Homer,  wlui  re- 
peatedly mentions  Sidon,  but  never  Tyre, 
and  who  uses  Sidon  and  Sidonian  as  sj^n- 
onymouswith  Phoniicia  and  Plurnician.  It 
was  the  northern  limit  of  the  Canaanites,  in 
the  narrow  sense  (Gen.  x.  19).     It  was  the 


Sidon 


680 


Siege 


border  also  of  Zehulun  (xlix.  13)  and  of 
AsluT  (Josh.  xix.  2H,  wliore  and  in  xi.  H  it  is 
<;alli'(l  (Jre:it  Zidoii).  Tlu^  triln-  of  Ashcr, 
lioweviT,  laili'd  to  expi'l  tlio  Caiiaaniti;  iu- 
lialiitaiits  (.Indj;.  i.  :J1).  In  llic  period  of  tlie 
ju(l;,'cs  tlic  Zidoiiiaiis  o]iprcss('d  t\n:  Israelites 
(x.  rj),  and  tlie  latti'r  jicoplf  an^  accused  of 
worsliipinji  tlie  jjo<ls  of  Zidoii  ((>).  Of  tliese 
gods.  I5aai.  syinholi/.iiit;  tlie  sun.  was  doul)t- 
k'ss  the  cliii'f  (1  Kin.  xvi.  :{1)  ;  the  iirincii)al 
object  of  worship,  however,  was  a  .ttoddess, 
Ashtoretii.  syinlioli/.inf;  tiie  moon,  (xi.  r>.',i'.i; 
2  Kin.  xxiii.  K!).  l^thhaal,  a  kiiiji  of  Zidon, 
was  the  fallier  of  .lezehel  (1  Kin.  xvi.  .'51). 
Isiiiali  ])redicted  tiiat  it  wouUl  l)e  visited  with 
ju<l<;Mient  wliich  would  make  its  iiiluihitants 
l)ass  to  Kittini,  that  is,  Cyprus  (Is.  xxiii.  I'i). 
it  was  for  a  time  suhjcct  to  the  neijthborinp; 


B.  c.  it  opened  its  gates  to  Alexander  the 
Great.  From  his  siiceessors  it  jiassed,  in  64 
B.  c,  to  tlie  lionians.  People  from  Sidon 
came  to  (iaiiiee  to  attend  on  the  preachiiig 
of  Jesus  and  witne.ss  his  miracles  (Mark  iii. 
8;  Luke  vi.  17,  etc.).  lie  once  visited  the 
region,  and  i)rohahly  tiie  city  (.Mat.  xv.  '^l  ; 
.Mark  vii.  L'l,  .'Jl).  llcrod  Agrijipa  II.  was 
hi^rhly  (lisi)lea.sed  witli  tlie  ]>eople  of  Tyre 
and  Sidon,  hut  they  made  peace  with  him 
"  hccause  their  country  was  fed  from  the 
king's  country  "  (Acts  xii.  20).  Paul  touched 
at  tlie  jiorl  (xxvii.  :5).  Since  N.  T.  tiuies 
Sidon  has  seen  niaiiy  vicissitudes.  Thi'  mod- 
ern city,  caliecl  Saida,  lies  on  the  northwest- 
ern slojie  of  a  small  i»romoiit(jry  jutting  out 
into  the  .sea.  The  ancient  harhorwas  formed 
by  a  ridge  of  rocks  parallel  to  the  shore.     It 


s^C^. 


■-^li^t^g^r^^^S.-^^,-.-- ■  -- 


;->,»^-.fcr„ 


Nortliern  Harbor  of  .Sidon. 

The  ruin»  of  a  ca.sti*'  of  tlie  thirteenth  centuiy,  on  a  substructure  of  \arge  drnfte'l  blocks  of  slonp  which  proclaim 

tlieir  antiquity,  stand  ou  an  island  which  is  connected  with  the  uiuinland  by  an  arched  bridge. 


<ity  of  Tyre  (Antici.  ix.  14,  2).  In  701  r.  c, 
it  sul)mitted  to  Scniiacheril).  king  of  .\ssyria. 
In  (i7.S  IS.  c.  it  was  destroyed  by  Esarhaddon. 
J<!remiah  i)redicte<l  its  sulijugation  by  Nebu- 
chadnezzar, king  of  Habyloii  (.ler.  xxvii.  :5, 
(>).  Kzekiel  denounced  judgiiient  against  it 
because  it  li;id  been  "a  jiricking  brier  to  the 
house  of  Israel"  (lOzek.  xxviii.  21.  22).  Joel 
charges  the  Zidonians  and  others  with  hav- 
ing helped  to  ])liinder  Jeru.salem.  carrying 
oir  silver  and  gohl,  and  selling  its  inhabit- 
ants for  sbivcs  I. loci  iii.  1  (i).  .\boiit  .")2(i  n.  <•. 
/idon  submitted  to  Cainbyses,  son  of  Cyrus, 
king  of  Persia.  The  Zidonians  sold  cedar 
timber  to  the  Jews  for  the  t<-ni]>le  which 
Zerubbahcl  was  building  ( Kzra  iii.  7).  It  re- 
volted agMinst  .\r(axerxes  Ochus,  king  of 
Pei-sia,  in  .CI  n.  c.  but  was  retaken  and  de- 
stroyed.    To  get    rid  of  the  Persians,  in  XV.) 


was  iiartly  filled  np  with  .stones  and  eartli 
by  I'aklir  ed-I>in,  the  ruler  of  the  Druses,  in 
the  st'Vcnteenth  century.  There  is  a  wall 
jirotecting  the  land  side  of  the  city.  The 
highest  ground,  which  is  crowned  by  the 
citadel,  is  on  the  southern  side.  The  city  is 
envelo]ied  in  gardens  and  orchards,  but  has 
not  much  coniinerce ;  that  having  been 
largely  diverted  front  it  to  Beirut.  Its 
poimlation  has  been  estimated  at  fjOOO  to 
10.000.  It  has  in  and  around  it  a  few  broken 
granite  coluTiiiis;  and  various  sarcophagi, 
including  the  celebrated  one  of  Esniun.azar, 
were  brought   from  tombs  in  its  vicinity. 

Sl-do'ni-ans,  in  A.  V.  frequently  Zidoni- 
ans, in  \i.  \.  always  .so  except  once  (Dent, 
iii.  !t). 

Siege.     .See  Wai; 


Sihon 


686 


Siloam 


Si'hon  [sweeping  out,  a  brush]. 
A  kiii.u  of  tliu  Aniorites,  wlmsc  i';ii>itiil  was 
Ili'slilxtn.  He  drove  tlic  Moabitcs  fioiii  tlio 
(•(iiiiitry  betwi'i'U  lIoslil)()ii  ami  the  Anion  and 
took  i>()sscssi(in  of  it  (Num.  xxi.  '2fi-'.H)).  Five 
Midianite  tribes  were  his  vassals  (Josh.  xiii. 
•Jl).  Wlu'ii  tlie  Israelites  arrived  in  the  wil- 
derness on  tiie  southeast  of  tlie  .\rnon,  Moses 
.sent  messenjjers  to  him  to  ask  permi.ssion  to 
cross  his  territory  (Num.  xxi.  i21,  22;  Dent, 
ii.  2(j).  He  refused.  Thereupon  the  Israelites 
entered  bis  domains  under  the  necessity  of 
lijibtinu  tlieir  way  to  the  .Jordan.  .Sihon 
feathered  bis  army  together  at  Jabaz  and  op- 
posed the  invaders,  but  he  was  defeated  and 
his  kingdom  was  taken  possession  of  by  the 
Israelites  (Num.  xxi.  21-32;  Ps.  cxxxv.  11). 
The  country  thus  seized  was  included  be- 
tween the  Jordan,  the  Jabbok,  and  the 
Arnon  (Num.  xxi.  24,  32;  Deut.  ii.36;  Judg. 
xi.  22).  The  camp  of  Israel  was  pitched  at 
Pisgah,  a  secure  position  on  the  mountains 
of  Abarim,  nearly  in  the  center  of  the  con- 
quered district,  preparatory  to  the  campaign 
against  Hasban  (Num.  xxi.  20;  cp.  xxii.  1; 
xxxiii.  47).  Sibon"s  kingdom  was  afterwards 
assigned  to  the  tribes  of  Keulien  and  Gad, 
who  desired  it  because  it  afforded  good  pas- 
turage (Num.  xxxii.  1-4,  33-38). 

Sig'net.     See  Seal  2. 

Si'hor.     See  Shihor. 

Si'las,  or  uncontracted  Silvanus  [sylvan]. 

A  distinguished  member  of  the  apostolic 
church  at  Jerusalem.  He  was  sent  with 
Paul  to  communicate  the  decision  of  the 
<'<iuncil  held  at  that  citv  to  the  Christians  at 
Antioch  (Acts  xv.  22,  27.  32).  When  Paul 
declined  to  take  John  Mark  with  bim  on  the 
second  missionary  journey,  and  parted  with 
Barnabas,  be  chose  Silas  as  his  companion 
(40),  and  the  two  were  imprisoned  together 
at  Philiiijd  (xvi.  19,  25.  29).  Silas  was  with 
Paul  during  tiie  riot  at  Thessalonica  (xvii. 
4),  and  was  sent  away  with  liim  to  Bercea, 
remaining  there  with  Timothy  after  the 
apostle  had  been  obliged  to  depart  (14).  The 
two  were,  however,  soon  directed  to  follow 
Paul  to  Athens  (15).  They  started  to  join 
him.  but  do  not  seem  to  have  come  up  with 
him  till  after  his  arrival  at  Corinth  (xviii.  5). 
In  this  city  Silas  was  an  esteemed  coworker 
of  Paul's  (2  Cor.  i.  19).  The  same  individual 
who  in  The  Acts  is  familiarly  named  Silas  is 
unvaryingly  called  by  his  full  name  Silvanus 
in  the  e]iistlcs.  He  was  associated  with  Paul 
and  Timothy  in  sending  the  two  letters  to  the 
Thessalonians  (1  Thes.  i.  1 ;  2  Thes.  i.  1).  He 
is  iirobably  the  Silvanus  who  carried  to  its 
destination  the  First  Epistle  of  Peter  (1  Pet. 
V.  12). 

Silk. 

A  fine,  soft  thread  jiroduced  by  various 
species  of  cateri)illars,  and  a  fabric  woven 
from  the  thread.  Silk  reached  the  markets 
of  the  west  shortly  after  the  contiuest  of 
Alexander  the  Great.     It  was  known  to  the 


Greeks  as  xerikon,  pertaining  to  the  Sers,  a 
people  of  India  from  whom  it  was  obtained. 
It  was  a  choice  article  of  merchandise  (Ivev. 
xviii.  12),  lit  for  the  clothing  of  Roman  em- 
perors (War  vii.  5,  4).  As  late  as  tlie  reign  of 
the  emperor  Aurelian,  a.  d.  270  275,  unmixed 
silk  goods  were  sold  for  tln'ir  weight  in  gold. 
The  tine  raiment  reterred  to  in  Fzek.  xvi. 
10,  13  by  the  term  mexhi  was  probably  silk, 
as  the  rabliinical  interpreters  understood 
and  as  it  is  rendered  in  the  F.  V.  Ezekiel 
doubtless  .saw  tlie  fitu IT  in  Babylonia.  A  rich 
cloth  is  meant  by  (I'lnexlwh  (.\mos  iii.  12), 
which  is  commonly  regarded  as  damask 
(in  K.  V.  rendered  silken  cushions). 

Sil'la  [twig,  basket] .  The  meaning  "  way, 
street,"  assigned  by  Thenius,  is  obtained  by 
altering  the  Hebrew  text. 

An  unknown  place  near  Millo  (2  Kin.  xii. 
20). 

Si-lo'ah,  an  erroneous  transliteration  of 
Shelah  in  A.  V.  of  Neh.  iii.  15.    See  SiLO.\M. 

Si-lo'am  [sent ;  specially,  a  sending  of 
water  through  an  aqueduct]. 

A  pool  at  Jerusalem  (John  ix.  7) ;  probably 
identical  with  Shiloah,  the  waters  of  which 
go  softly  (Is.  viii.  6),  and  the  pool  of  Shelah, 
which  was  by  the  king's  garden  (Neh.  iii.  15). 
Josephus  says  that  it  was  situated  at  the  ex- 
tremity of  the  valley  of  cheesemongers,  near 
a  bend  of  the  old  wall  beneath  Ophlas,  i.  e. 
Ophel  (War  v.  4,  1  and  2).  The  name  is  pre- 
.served  in  the  Birket  Silwan,  which  occupies 
the  general  site  of  the  ancient  pool.  It  is  a 
rectangular  reservoir,  58  feet  long,  18  broad, 
and  19  deep,  built  of  masonry,  the  western 
side  of  which  has  considerably  broken  down. 
The  fountain  is  a  small  ujijier  basin  ex- 
cavated in  the  rock.  It  is  really  the  ter- 
mination of  the  tunnel  which  was  cut  ta 
conduct  the  water  from  the  fountain  of  the 
Virgin.  From  the  lower  reservoir,  the  water 
flows  in  a  small  rill  across  the  road  and 
irrigates  gardens  in  the  Kidron  valley. 

In  1880  an  inscription  of  .six  lines  was  dis- 
covered on  the  walls  of  this  tunnel  by  a> 
youth  who  had  entered  from  the  Siloam  end. 
It  proved  to  be  written  in  pure  Ilelirew,  and 
is  suj)poscd  to  date  from  the  time  of  Ahaz  or 
Hezekiab.  A  portion  of  the  first  three  lines 
has  been  destroyed  by  the  wearing  away 
of  the  rock,  and  occasionally  a  letter  cannot 
be  made  out  with  certainty.  Still  the  sens& 
is  jilain.  It  describes  how  the  workmen, 
who  had  excavated  toward  each  other  from 
the  two  ends  of  the  tunnel,  met.  It  is  as- 
follows,  as  nearly  as  possible.  "  [Behold]  the 
pi(!rcing  through  !  And  this  was  the  manner 
of  the  piercing  through.  While  yet  [the 
miners  were  lifting  up]  the  pick  one  toward 
another,  and  while  there  were  yet  three 
cubits  to  be  [cut  tiirough,  there  was  heard] 
the  voice  of  each  calling  to  the  other;  for 
there  was  a  fissure  (?)   in   the  rock   on  the 

right  hand \iid  on  the  day  of  the 

piercing  through,  (be  miners  smote  the  one 


Silvanus 


687 


Simeon 


so  as  to  meet  the  other,  pick  against  pick. 
And  the  water  (lowed  from  the  source  to  tlie 
pool,  12(K)  cuhits  ;  and  UMt  ciihits  was  the 
lieifiht  of  the  rock  over  the  head  of  the 
miiiei-s." 

The  tower  in  Siloam  whii-h  fell  (Ijikexiii. 
•1)  was  prohahly  one  on  the  Ophel  ridfje,  near 
■"^iloani.  It  was  not  in  the  nei^hlioring  vil- 
hiiii-  of  Silwan,  for  this  place  dates  from  the 
Middle  A-.s. 

Sil-va'nus.     See  Silas. 

Sil'ver. 

A  preciiius  nielal.  Its  ore  was  mined  from 
the  earth  (.lol)  xxviii.  1)  and  melted  in  a  fur- 
nace, by  which  ])roce.ss  the  dross  was  sepa- 
rated from  the  richer  metal  (Ps.  .\ii.  (i ;  I'rov. 
xvii.  :} ;  XXV.  I ;  E/.ek.  xxii.  22).  It  was  ob- 
tained in  Arabia  CJ  Chroii.  ix.  14;  cp.  1  Kin. 
X.  22,  'J?)  and  Tarshish  (.ler.  x.  }> ;  Ezek. 
xxvii.  \2).  Sjjain  being  a  large  producer  (1 
Mac.  viii.  '.i).  It  was  used  as  a  medium  of 
exchange  from  remotestanticiuity  ((ien.  xxiii. 
IG ;  xxxvii.  "J^).  The  amount  rctjuired  was 
weighed  out  (Job  xxviii.  1");  Is.  xlvi.  (i).  for 
silver  was  not  coini'd  until  late,  among  the 
Jews  not  until  long  after  the  exile  (1  Mac. 
XV.  G) ;  see  Monky.  Personal  ornaments 
(Gen.  xxiv.  5:3;  Ex.  iii.  '22;  Song  i.  11), 
crowns  (Zech.  vi.  11),  musical  instruments, 
as  triimints  (Num.  x.  2),  and  liousehohi 
utensils  of  the  wealthy,  like  Joseph's  drink- 
ing cup  (den.  xliv.  2)  were  made  of  silver. 
Large  <|uantities  of  the  metal  were  used  in 
the  tabt'rnacii-  aiul  temj)U'  for  sockets  (Ex. 
xxvi.  l!l),  hooks,  chapiters  and  fillets  of  the 
liillars  (xxvii.  10;  xxxviii.  19),  jtlatters  and 
bowls  (Num.  vii.  13;  1  Chron.  xxviii.  17; 
E/.ni  i.  9,  10),  cnps  (2  Kin.  xii.  13),  candle- 
sticks, and  tables  (1  Chron.  xxviii.  la,  Kj). 
Idols  and  models  of  idol  shrines  were  con- 
structftl  of  silver  (I's.  c.xv.  4;  Acts  xix.  24). 

Sil'ver-ling. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Keneph, 
silver,  in  Is.  vii.  23,  which  is  elsewhere 
translated   by  shekel   or  i)iece  of  silver. 

Si-mal-cu'e,  in  K.  V.  Imalcue. 

.\ti  Arabian  who  l>rouglit  up  the  young 
.\nli"p<hiis.  son  of  .\le\audir  I'.alas  (1  Mac. 
xi.  :!H);  in  .\ntii|.  xiii.  .">,  1  called  Malchus. 
The  name  doubtless  contains  the  .\ral)ic  word 
■tiiiilil:.  king. 

Slm'e-on,  in  R.  V.  of  X.  T.  Symeon,  in 
imitation  of  a  (ireek  form,  when  the  persons 
are  not  mentioned  in  < >.  T.  (Luke  iii.  30; 
.\cts  xiii.  1  ',   XV.  II)  [bearing]. 

1.  The  second-born  son  of  .Facob  by  Leall 
((Jen.  xxix.  33|.  In  conjunction  with  his 
brother  Levi,  he  massiicred  the  Hivit<'  in- 
habitants of  Shechem  on  account  of  the  in- 
Jury  done  by  one  of  thi'ir  nund)er  to  Diuah 
((ien.  xxxiv.  21  31);  see  DiNAll.  When  one 
of  .lacob's  sons  was  to  be  kept  a  prisoner  in 
Egyi>t  as  security  for  return  of  the  rest, 
Josejdi  look  Simeon  and  bound  him  (xiii.  21). 
The   prediction    of    Simeon's    future    by    tin- 


dying  Jacob  returns  to  the  subject  of  the 
ma,s.siicre,  and  threatens  Simeon  as  well  as 
Levi  that  thev  will  be  scattered  in  Israel 
(xlix.  5-7). 

2.  The  triiie  of  wbiili  Siirieon,  the  son  of 
Jacob,  was  the  lU'ogeiiitor.  He  had  six  sons: 
.lemuel  or  Nemuel,  .lamin,  ( )had,  .laehin  or 
Jarib,  Zohar  or  Zerah,  and  Shaiil.  With  the 
excei)tion  of  Ohad,  all  these  founded  tribal 
families  ((Jen.  xlvi.  10;  Num.  xxvi.  12-14; 
1  t'hron.  iv.  24).  The  prince  of  the  tribe  in 
the  early  times  of  the  wilderness  wanderings 
was  Shelumiel,  son  of  Zurishaddai  (Num. 
i.  () ;  ii.  12  ;  vii.  36,  41  ;  x.  1!)).  and  at  a  later 
])eriod  Sheinuel,  son  of  Ammihud  (xxxiv. 
20).  .\t  the  fust  census  in  the  wilderness  the 
tribe  uund)ered  5i),;j()0  lighting  men  (i.  23  ;  ii. 
13),  at  the  second  22,200  (xxvi.  12-14).  Sha- 
lihat,  son  of  Hori,  was  the  siiy  from  tlie  tribe 
(xiii.  5).  Moses,  before  his  de))arture,  blessed 
the  tribes,  but  omitted  to  mention  Simeon 
exiilicitly  (Deut.  xxxiii.).  This  omission  is 
l)robably  due  to  the  artificial  construction  of 
the  poem.  Moses  wanted  twelve  for  the 
nundier  of  the  tribes.  He  formed  two  groups, 
de])ai'ting  from  the  ordi'r  of  birth,  and  jilac- 
ing  the  children  of  Jacob's  two  wives  in  the 
tirst  group  and  those  of  the  two  maids  in  the 
second. 


Leah  3 
Kachel  3 
Leah  2 


Leali's  maid  1 
Ivachel's  maid  2 
Leah's  maid  1 


The  first  group  contains  eight,  Simeon  being 
omitted,  and  the  second  grouj)  contains  just 
half  as  many.  The  first  group  is  subdivided 
into  three  minor  groujjs,  beginning  with 
three  of  the  elder  children  of  Leah  and 
closing  with  Leah's  youngest  two.  and  having 
Rachel's  three  in  the  center.  The  second 
grouj>  is  made  to  correspond  to  this  arrange- 
ment. It  begins  with  I^eah's  firstborn  by 
her  maid  and  closes  with  her  second  son  by 
the  .same  maid,  and  the  two  sons  of  Rachel 
by  her  maid  are  placed  between.  The  bless- 
ings ]>ronounced  ujion  these  tribes  are  framed 
within  a  benediction  upon  all  Israel  (2-5,25- 
29).  The  tribe  of  Simeon  could  best  be  omitted 
from  the  jiarticular  enumeration,  because  it 
was  to  he  scattered  in  Israel  ((tcu.  xlix.  .5-7). 
The  sjime  punishment  also  awaited  Levi,  but 
recent  deeds  had  jiartly  atoned  for  the  past 
and  given  the  tribe  of  Levi  a  jiosition  of 
honor  among  the  ]ieoi>li'  of  (iod.  .\fter 
Moses'  death  the  tribe  of  Simeon  was  not 
assigned  a  self-contained  territory,  hut  Wiis 
gninted  ]iossession  in  the  mitlst  nf  Judah. 
The  .Simeonites,  however,  although  not  ex- 
plicitly nu'ntioned,  were  not  excluded  from 
the  blessing  invoked  on  the  tribes.  They 
were  included  in  the  general  benediction 
U|)on  Isniel  as  a  whole,  with  which  the  jioem 
o])ens  and  closes.  The  tribe  of  Simeon  was 
one  of  tho.se  who  stood  at  the  fool  of  mount 
(ierizini  to  i)ronounce  blessings  (Dent.  xxviL 
12). 

When  the  land  of  Canaan  was  distributed 


Simon 


688 


Simon 


by  lot,  the  second  lot  taken  at  Shiloh  came 
forth  for  the  tribe  of  Simeon,  and  land  was 
assijined  them  in  the  extreme  south  of 
Canaan,  in  the  midst  of  the  inheritance  of 
the  cliildron  of  Jiidah  (Josh.  xix.  1,  2,  91, 
and  the  two  tribes  made  common  cause 
aj;ainst  the  Canaanites  (.ludg.  i.  1,  .'5,  17). 
Ainoufj  the  Sinieonite  cities  were  Beer-shelm, 
Ziklaj;,  and  liormah  (Josh.  xix.  2-[)),  in  the 
southern  i)art  of  Judah.  In  the  reiyn  of 
Hezekiali  tlic  SinuM)nites  smote  tiie  iR'ople  of 
Ham  and  the  .Mcuniin  wlio  dwelt  in  the 
valley  of  (ledor,  500  of  them  also  slaughtered 
the  Amalekites  of  nictunt  Seir ;  in  lioth  cases 
occupyinj;  the  territory  of  the  vanquished 
tribes  (1  Cliron.  iv.  24-lo).  It  is  believed 
that  ultimately  a  great  part  of  the  tril)e  dis- 
appeared, l)ut  it  was  recognized  by  Ezekiel 
in  his  prophecies  of  the  future  Canaan  (Ezek. 
xlviii.  24,  25,  33),  and  in  the  apocalyptic 
vision  there  were  sealed  12,000  Simeonites 
(Kev.  vii.  7). 

3.  An  ancestor  of  Christ,  who  liv^ed  after 
David  but  before  Zerubbabel  (Luke  iii.  30). 

4.  A  priest  of  the  family  of  Joarib,  and  an 
ancestor  of  the  Maccabees  (1  Mac.  ii.  1). 

5.  A  righteous  and  devout  man,  to  whom 
it  had  been  revealed  by  the  Holy  Spii'it  that 
he  should  not  see  deatli  till  he  had  seen  the 
Lord's  Christ.  Coming  into  the  temple  when 
Joseph  and  Mary  had  just  brought  in  the 
infant  Jesus,  Simeon  recognized  him  as  the 
promised  Messiah,  expressed  his  willingness 
now  to  depart  in  peace,  and  made  a  prophetic 
address  to  Mary  with  respect  both  to  her  and 
her  child  (Luke  ii.  25-35). 

6.  Simon  Peter  (Acts  xv.  14) ;  see  Peter. 

7.  A  Christian  prophet  or  teacher  at  Anti- 
ocli.  He  was  surnanied  Niger,  black,  and 
may  perhaps  have  been  of  African  race  (Acts 
xiii.  i). 

Si'mon  [hearing].  Simon  and  Symeon  imi- 
tate (J reek  modes  of  representing  the  He- 
brew name  Shiin'on,  Simeon. 

1.  Second  son  of  the  priest  Mattathias.  He 
was  called  Thassi,  which  may  perhaps  mean 
director  or  guide  (1  Mac.  ii.  3,  in  S\  riac 
Tharsi).  With  his  brothers  he  sympathized 
with  his  father  in  the  revolt  against  the  re- 
ligious intolerance  of  the  Syrians  (14).  Ee- 
garding  liim  as  the  wisest  of  the  sons,  his 
father,  when  about  to  die,  appointed  him  the 
adviser  of  the  family,  but  gave  the  military 
authority  to  Judas,  a  younger  brother  (<)5, 
66).  He  held  a  military  command  under 
Judas,  and  led  a  detachment  of  troops  to  the 
aid  of  the  Jews  in  Calilee  (v.  17,  20-23). 
After  the  death  of  Judas  Jonathan  was  chosen 
leader.  He  made  Simon  commandant  of  the 
entire  coast  (xi.  59 ;  xii.  .33,  34).  When  Jona- 
than was  seized  and  hi'ld  i)risoner  liy  Try- 
jilion,  the  coiKhict  (if  the  war  devolved  on 
Simon,  as  tlu'  last  remaining  brother  of  the 
Maccal)ee  family  (xiii.  1-9).  He  at  once 
comjileted  the  fortifications  of  .Jerusalem, 
and   secured    possession    of    Joppa    (10,    11). 


When  Tryi)hon  invaded  Judsea,  Simon  dogged 
his  army  (20),  and  when  Tryphon  withdrew 
from  the  country,  Simon  rebuilt  and  pro- 
visioned the  stnjiigholds  of  Jud;ea  (Xi).  He 
also  allied  himself  with  Tryphon "s  rival, 
Demetrius  II.,  and  obtained  from  him  the 
recognition  of  the  independence  of  Juda-a, 
142  B.  c.  (34-42).  Thereupon  he  besieged 
and  captured  Gezer  (43-48,  in  A.  V.  Gaza). 
In  the  spring  of  141  he  reduced  the  Syrian 
citadel  at  Jerusalem  (49-52).  A  season  of 
peace  followed,  during  which  Simon  devoted 
his  energies  to  internal  administration  and 
the  encouragement  of  commerce  and  agri- 
culture (xiv.  4-15).  He  eud)ellished  the 
family  tomb  at  Modiii,  in  which  he  had 
placed  the  remains  of  his  brother  Jonathan 
(xiii.  25-30).  The  Spartans  and  Romans  re- 
newed the  league  with  him  (xiv.  lG-24  ;  xv. 
15-24).  He  was  acknowledged  l)y  the  Jews 
as  high  priest  and  cai)tain  and  leader  (xiii. 
42  ;  xiv.  41,  42,  47  ;  xv.  1,  2),  and  in  140  B.  c. 
authorized  to  wear  the  purple  (xiv.  43,  44). 
Antiochus  Sidetes,  when  on  the  eve  of  coming 
to  Syria  to  help  defend  the  cause  of  the  absent 
Demetrius  against  Tryphon,  made  concessions 
to  Simon,  and  gave  him  authority  to  coin 
money  (xv.  6),  but  afterwards  became  es- 
tranged from  him,  and  demanded  the  surren- 
der of  Joppa,  Gezer,  and  the  citadel  at  Jeru- 
salem (26-31).  Simon  refused,  and  war  en- 
sued, 138-7  B.  c,  but  the  Syrians  were  worsted. 
In  the  early  spring  of  135  B.  c,  while  on  a 
tour  of  visitation  to  the  cities  of  his  domin- 
ion, he  was  treacherou.sly  murdered  in  the 
castle  of  Dok,  near  Jericho,  by  his  .son-in- 
law  (xvi.  14-16). 

2.  Father  of  Judas  Iscariot  (John  vi.  71). 
He  too  bore  the  designation  Iscariot  (ibid, 
and  xiii.  26,  R.  V.). 

3.  Simon  Peter  (Mat.  x.  2)  ;  see  Peter. 

4.  Simon  the  Zealot,  one  of  the  twelve 
apostles  (Luke  vi.  15;  Acts  i.  13);  see 
Canan^an. 

5.  One  of  the  Lord's  brethren  (Mat.  xiii. 
55 ;  Mark  vi.  3)  ;  see  Brkthren  of  the  Lord. 

6.  A  Pharisee,  at  whose  hou.se  our  Lord 
once  ate,  on  which  occasion  a  woman,  who 
was  a  sinner,  anointed  his  feet  (Luke  vii. 
36-50). 

7.  A  householder  in  Bethany.  He  had 
been  a  leper,  and  not  improbably  had  been 
cured  by  Christ.  When  our  I^ord  was  at 
meat  in  his  house  jNIary,  the  sister  of  Lazarus, 
anointed  his  feet  with  precious  ointment 
(Mat.  xxvi.  6-13;  Mark  xiv.  3-9;  John  xii. 
1-8).  Martha  served,  and  Lazarus  was  one 
of  those  who  ate.  The  picsencc  of  the 
brother  and  two  sisters,  and  the  active  part 
taken  by  the  sisters,  as  well  as  the  fact  that 
Simon's  house  was  in  the  town  of  I^azarus 
and  his  sisters,  makes  it  evident  that  Simon 
was  a  relative  or  intimati'  friend  of  theirs. 
Hut  there  is  no  reason  to  believe  that  he  was 
their  father  or  the  hu.sband  of  Mary.  He 
may  have  been  the  husband  of  Martha ;  see 
Martha. 


Simri 


689 


Slnai 


8.  The  Cyrenian  who  was  compelled  to 
Ix-'ur  the  cross  of  Christ.  IIi;  was  the  lather 
of  Ak'xaiKh-r  aiul  liufiis  (Mat.  .x.wii.  Mii). 

!».  A  sortcrer  (now  impularly  c-allcd  Simon 
Majjus,  i.  e.,  .Siiiioii  the  iiiugic-ian)  who  so 
amazed  the  jieople  of  Samaria  with  his  arts 
that  tiicy  .said  :  "Tliis  man  is  lliat  jiowiT  of 
(iod  whiili  i>  called  (ircat."  Ik-  was  ajipar- 
ently  converted  tliruu^ii  tlie  instrumentality 
of  riiilip  the  evangelist,  by  whom  lie  was 
hajitized.  Having  suh.secinenlly  olf'ered  to 
hiiy  with  money  the  privilege  of  conferring 
the  Hilly  (iliiist  on  anyone  In-  wished  iiy  the 
imjiosilion  of  han<ls,  he  was  sternly  relinked 
by  I'eter,  who  ileclared  that  his  heart  was 
not  right  with  (iod,  and  that  he  was  still  in 
the  gall  of  bitterness  and  in  the  bond  of 
iniiinity.  lie  took  the  reproof  meekly,  and 
begged  the  ajiostle  to  pray  for  him  that  none 
of  the  evils  threatened  might  be  allowed  to 
befall  him  (Acts  viii.  \)-'2\}.  He  was  afraid, 
bnt  there  is  no  evidence  that  he  was  ])eni- 
tent.  Kcelesiastical  tradition  makes  Simon 
recommence  his  sorceries,  and  become  the 
jiersistenl  antagonist  of  the  ajiostle  I'eter, 
following  him  about  from  jilace  to  i>lace  and 
seeking  encounters  with  him,  but  only  to  be 
signally  defeated.  He  is  said  to  have  heli)ed 
to  originate  gnosticism.  Contradictory  ac- 
counts are  given  as  to  the  manner  of  his 
death. 

10.  A  tanner  at  Joppa.  in  whose  house 
Peter  lodged  (Acts  ix.  43;  x.  G,  17,  '^2}. 

Sim'ri.     See  Siiimki. 

Sin,  I. 

"Any  want  of  conformity  nnto,  or  trans- 
gression of  any  law  of  God,  given  as  a  rule 
to  the  reasonable  creature  "  (Koni.  iii.  2.'5 ;  1 
John  iii.  4  ;  Gal.  iii.  lO-1'.i).  A  sin  of  omis- 
sion is  the  neglect  to  do  what  the  law  of 
God  commands  ;  a  sin  of  commission  is  the 
doing  of  anything  which  it  forbids.  See 
Kvii,. 

Sin,  II. 

1.  A  wilderness  through  which  the  Israel- 
ites passed  on  their  way  from  I^lim  and  the 
IJerl  Sea  (o  Re]ihidim  and  mount  Sinai  (I'-x. 
xvi.  1  :  xvii.  1  ;  Num.  xxxiii.  11,  I'J).  The 
identification  is  disputed.  The  choice  lies 
betw<'en  Debbet  er-Hamleh  or  plain  of  .sand, 
in  the  interior  of  the  jteninsula  at  tlu'  foot 
<if  .lebel  et-Tili,  and  the  desert  )ilain  el- 
Markhah  on  the  coast.  If  the  latter,  the  Is- 
r.u-lites  on  leaving  it  ]irobably  conliuued  to 
.journey  along  the  coast  ami  IuvikmI  inland 
through  the  wady  Feiran. 

2.  A  city  and  strongliold  of  Kg.vpt  ( I']/.ek.  xxx. 
1"),  l(i).  'I'he  Se])tnagint  read  Sais,  which,  bow- 
<'ver,  was  ni'ver  an  important  fortress.  The 
N'lilgate  renders  it  relnsiiim.  which  was  "  the 
key  of  Kgypt,"  slrongl>-  fortified,  and  neces- 
sary to  be  ca|ilured  liefore  an  army  could  en- 
t<'r  Kgyjil  from  the  northeast.  The  name 
Sin  suggests  Sun,  tlu'  (Jreek  Sycne  and  mod- 
ern Asstian,  at  the  first  catarai  t  ;  and  the  or- 
44 


der  of  enumeration  of  Egyptian  cities,  from 
.south  to  north  ilG-18)  lends  confirmalion  to 
this  identification. 

Si'nai,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  twice  Slna  (Acts 
vii.  30,  3H)  [jierhaps,  pertaining  to  Sin,  the 
moon-god]. 

.\  mountain,  called  also  Hoih  b.  at  which 
till'  Israelites,  traveling  by  way  of  Marah, 
JClim,  and  the  Ked  Sea,  arrived  in  the  third 
month  after  their  departure  from  Kgy]>t  (ICx. 
xix.  1).  It  was  distant  from  Kadesh-barnea 
eleven  days'  journey  by  way  of  mount  Seir 
(Dent.  i.  2).  A  wilderness,  sulliciently  large 
for  the  camp  of  Israel,  lay  at  its  fcjot  (Kx. 
xix.  2)  :  so  close  that  the  mountain  could  be 
touched  (121,  and  yet  its  ujiper  ]iart  was  visi- 
bb'  from  the  cam])  (Ki,  ]H,  20).  From  this 
mountain  the  law  of  the  ten  commandments 
was  given,  and  at  its  base  the  covenant  was 
ratified  which  made  the  Israelites  a  nation 
with  .lehovah  as  king  (xx.  1-xxiv.  ^).  All 
the  legislation  contained  in  Ex.  xx.  to  Num. 
X.  was  enacted  on  or  at  the  foot  of  mount 
Sinai,  according  to  rejieated  statement  (Ex. 
xxiv.  \2  ;  xxxi.  IS;  xxxiv.  2  :  Lev.  i.  1  ;  xvi. 
1 ;  XXV.  1  ;  xxvi.  46  ;  xxvii.  34;  Num.  i.  1  ; 
ix.  1).  The  only  later  visit  to  the  mount  re- 
corded in  Scrijiture  is  that  of  Elijah  when 
he  was  threatened  by  .U-zebel  (1  Kin.  xix.  M. 

Prof.  Sayce  would  locate  mount  Sinai  on  the 
frontiers  of  mount  Seir,  but  it  is  almost  uni- 
versally agreed  that  Sinai  is  to  be  looked  for 
in  the  mountains  in  the  interior  of  the 
Sinaitie  peninsula.  Tradition  in  favor  of 
mount  Serbal,  on  the  wady  Feiran.  is  trace- 
able  as  far  back  as  the  time  of  Eusebius,  for 
Jebel  Musa  only  to  that  of  .Justinian.  But 
neither  tradition  is  regarded  as  weighty. 
Serbal  is  the  more  ini|i(ising  of  the  two.  It 
is  a  solitary,  majestic  mountain,  ()712  feet 
high,  visible  from  a  great  distance.  But  at 
it,s  foot  is  no  wilderness  which  could  be  called 
the  wilderness  of  Sinai.  .lebel  Musa  is  jiart 
of  a  short  ridge  of  granite  formation,  ex- 
ti'Uding  about  2  miles  from  northwest  to 
southeast.  The  ridge  has  two  ])eaks  :  Kas  es- 
Sufsafeh,  or  jieak  of  willows,  at  the  northern 
end  with  an  altitude  of  ti.")l(l  feet;  and  .lebel 
^lusa,  the  traditional  .'<inai,  at  the  southern 
end  rising  to  a  height  of  about  I'.H'C  feet.  A 
lilateau  at  the  head  of  the  wady  es-Sadad 
and  almost  due  east  of  .lebel  Miisii  has 
been  reganled  by  some  scholars,  including 
Tis<hendorf.  as  the  site  of  the  encam)inient 
of  the  Israelites,  but  its  area  is  too  limited 
to  accommodate  any  considerabk'  host.  The 
base  of  Kases-Sufsafi'h  toward  the  northwest 
consists  of  a  jirecijiitous  clilf.  .\t  the  bottom 
of  the  cliff  lies  the  jdain  of  er-K:'ihab.  about 
one  s(|uan-  mile  in  extent,  ami,  with  (he  adja- 
cent wadies  esh-Sheikh  and  ed-I)eir.  entirely 
suitalile  for  a  camping  grouml.  The  biblical 
description  makes  it  scarcely  necessary,  if 
not  iclle.  to  incpiire  whether  the  law  was 
given  from  .lebel  Musa  or  K'.ls  es-Sufsafeh, 
and    whether  one   peak    or   the    other    was 


Sinai 


690 


Sinai 


known  as  the  mount  of  God  in  distinction 
from  the  rest  of  the  clump. 

Tlie  monastery  of  St.  Catliarine,  a  convent 
of  Greek  monks,  is  situated  on  the  eastern 
s\o\w  of  the  niuuntaiii,  at  the  foot  of  Jebel 
Musa,  in  the  wady  ed-Deir,  5014  feet  above 
sea  level.  Surrounded  by  massive  granite 
walls,  it  is  as  it  were  a  fortress.     Its  founda- 


of  Jebel  Katherin,  2\  miles  southwest  of 
Jebel  Musa.  Her  head  and  one  hand  are 
said  to  be  contained  in  a  marble  sarfo|<hagus 
in  the  chapel  of  the  monastery.  Tlie  mon- 
astery has  often  been  destroyed  and  rebuilt. 
The  ihureli  of  the  Transfiguration  is  an  early 
Christian  basilica  with  mosaics  of  the  sev- 
enth or  eighth  century.     The  oldest  part  of 


J  '' 


-F  I J  r 


Ueicf  ^edfic^c. 


Jphel  el-Ef^i:^'- 


^^    ^'^^    ^M\'^ 


Jtdtiel-Ohn  ich 


^^»k'i 


JeM^Waj, 


jhtel  ttifujn: 


Map  of  Mount  ."^inai. 


■^  of  Miles 


tion  is  ascribed  to  the  emperor  Justinian  in 
A.  D.  527,  who  is  said  to  have  built  it  around 
a  tower  erected  long  before  by  Helena, 
mother  of  Constantine  :  but  this  ascription 
is  probably  due  to  confusion  with  the  iiict, 
attested  by  his  private  secretary,  that  Jus- 
tinian built  a  castle  in  ."):!n  for  the  protection 
of  the  monks  who  dwelt  in  the  region.  The 
monastery  is  named  after  St.  Catharine,  who 
was  tortured  on  the  wheel  and  beheaded  in 
Alexandria  in  A.  n.  30",  and  whose  body  is 
said  by  the  monks  to  have  been  carried  by 
angels  from  Alexandria  to  the  loftv  summit 


it  is  probably  the  cha])el  of  the  Burning 
Bush,  at  the  hack  of  the  apse  and  on  the 
reputed  site  of  the  event  it  commemorates. 
Formerly  between  300  and  400  monks  lived 
within  the  convent  walls:  but  the  number 
at  present  does  not  exceed  40.  In  the  gar- 
den are  fig.  orange,  olive,  almond,  apple,  and 
apricot  trees,  grape  vines,  and  a  few  lofty 
cypresses.  The  library  is  exceednigly  valu- 
able. It  contains  many  manuscripts,  pre- 
dominantly Greek  and  Arabic,  but  also  many 
others,  including  some  written  in  Syriac  and 
Ethiopic.     Here,  in  1844  and  18,^9,  Tischen- 


Sinim,  Land  of 


691 


Sinim,  Land  of 


dorf  found  the  codex  Sinaiticus,  which  dates 
from  about  A.  D.  400 ;  see  Nkw  Testament. 
Here  also,  in  1892,  Mrs.  Lewis  discovered  a 
manuscript  whicli  contains  the  text  of  the 
Ohl  Syriac  (iospcls,  and  was  ))iobably  written 
in  tlie  lifth  century  ;  see  \'eksions. 


that  gentile  converts  or  the  scattered  Israel- 
ites shall  be  gathered  from  the  remotest  re- 
gionsof  tlicearth.  "  Lo,  these  shall  come  from 
far  :  and,  lo,  these  from  the  north  and  from 
the  west;  and  these  from  the  land  uf  i^inim" 
(Is.   xlix.    i'2\.      Since    the    west    and   north 


Muuuitcry  nf  ^l.  Calht riue. 


Sl'nlm,  Land  of. 

A   iDiiiitiy  citecl   to  illustriite   the  jimniise 


have  been  mentioned  :  the  laud  of  Sinim  is 
not  to  be  .sought  there,  but  in  the  south  or 


Sinim,  Land  of 


692 


Sithri 


east.  Wherever  the  prophet  was  wlien  he 
uttorcd  these  words,  liis  words  exclude  tlie 
Siniiii  of  Phujniciii  ((Jen.  x.  17),  for  they  were 
not  ;i  remote  peoi)le.  Besides  tliis,  they  were 
an  unimi)i>rt;uit  tril>e.  l'\)r  the  same  reason, 
the  juMiple  of  Syenc  or  rchisiiini,  or  other 
Ejryptian  town  (however  tlie  name  Sin  in 
Ezek.  XXX.  1."),  16  is  understood)  are  exeluded. 
They  were  almost  in  the  heart  of  the  inhah- 
ited  world,  separated  from  the  remote  hounds 
of  the  earth  hy  Ethio])ia  and  Libya  at  least. 
Moreover,  the  inluihitants  of  none  of  these 
towns  constituted  a  distinct  nation  ;  nor 
could  the  land  of  Sinim  on  the  Nile  be 
spoken  of,  as  it  is  by  Isaiah,  unless  it  meant 
Etrypt,  and  none  of  these  towns  was  impor- 
tant enough  to  be  employed  in  a  designation 
for  all  Egypt.  The  chief  theories  are :  1. 
The  ex]u-ession  was  chosen  as  a  designation 
of  the  lands  south  of  Palestine,  because  in 
that  direction  lay  the  town  of  Sin  (Pelnsium), 
the  wilderness  of  Sin  (Ex.  xvi:  1),  and  mount 
Sinai.  But  this  region  was  too  near  at  hand 
to  denote  the  remotest  countries.  Sheba  and 
Cush,  which  are  used  to  denote  the  utmost 
parts  of  the  earth  toward  the  south,  lay  far 
beyond.  2.  The  Sinim  were  the  Shinas,  who 
have  dwelt  from  ancient  times  at  the  foot  of 
the  Hindu  Kush  mountains.  3.  The  most 
prevalent  view  is  that  the  Chinese  are  meant. 
The  prophet  does  not  assert  that  Israelites 
were  already  living  in  China  (if  his  words  be 
restricted  to  a  return  of  the  exiles).  They 
may  have  been  ;  for  the  presence  of  Israelites 
in  China  is  attested  as  early  as  the  third  cen- 
tury B.  c,  and  it  is  not  known  how  much 
earlier  they  emigrated.  But  the  people  were 
scattered  far  and  wide,  and  yet  wider  disper- 
sion was  in  prospect  (Is.  xi.  11).  They  should 
be  recovered  from  the  farthest  bounds  of 
earth  where  they  are  found.  Does  it  seem 
strange  that  the  name  of  the  Chinese  should 
be  known  in  western  Asia  ?  It  is  historically 
certain  from  the  Chinese  records  that  Chinese 
merchants  visited  foreign  lands  as  early  as 
the  twelfth  century  r.  c,  and  that  foreign 
merchants  entered  China  as  early  as  the  tenth 
century.  It  is  probable  that  direct  commer- 
cial relations  existed  between  China  and  In- 
dia, and  hence  indirectly  at  least  with  the 
countries  farther  west.  Porcelain  ware  with 
Chinese  characters  written  u])on  it  has  been 
discovered  at  Thebes  in  Egyjit.  M.  Panthier 
reports  the  Chinese  tradition  to  the  effect  that 
in  23.")3  n.  c.  an  envoy  arrived  from  a  far 
country  bringing  as  a  present  a  divine  tor- 
toise one  thousaiul  years  old,  bearing  on  its 
hack  an  inscrijition,  written  in  strange  char- 
acters like  tailpoles,  briefly  recounting  the 
world's  history  since  creation.  A  second  em- 
bassy of  the  people  of  the  long-trailing  robes 
arrived  in  1110  B.  c,  and  it  took  them  a 
whole  year  to  return  to  their  own  country 
from  Siam  by  the  seacoast.  The  characters 
rcseml)ling  tadpoles  suggest  the  Assyrian  and 
Babjdonian  cuneiform  script;  and  long-trail- 
ing robes,  which  were  not  worn  in  the  hot 


countries  south  of  China,  would  agree  with 
the  theory  that  the  embassadors  were  Baby- 
lonians or  Assyrians. 

Si'nite. 

A  (  auaanite  triiie,  mentioned  between  the 
Arkite  and  the  Arvadite  ((ien.  x.  17).  A 
place  named  Sin  not  far  from  Arka  was 
known  to  Jerome,  and  Strabo  mentions  a 
fortress  called  Sinua  on  mount  l..ebanou. 

Sin  Of  fer-ing.     See  ()FFKRiX(is. 

Si'on  [elevated]. 

A  name  for  mount  Hermon  (Deut.  iv.  48). 

For  mount  Sion  at  Jerusalem,  a  different 
word  in  Hebrew,  see  ZiON. 

Siph'motli. 

A  place  visited  by  David  during  his  wan- 
derings, to  which  he  sent  part  of  the  spoils 
of  Ziklag  (1  Sam.  xxx.  28  ;  cp.  1  Chron. 
xxvii.  27).  Site  unkn<jwn.  A  variant  He- 
brew pronunciation,  preferred  by  Baer,  is 
Shiphmoth. 

Sip'pai.     See  S.\ph. 

Si'rah  [recession  or  effervescence]. 

A  well  or  cistern  from  which  Abner  was 
recalled  to  Hebron  by  Joab  that  he  might  be 
murdered  (2  Sam.  iii.  26).  According  to  Jo- 
seplius,  it  was  distant  20  stades  from  Hebron 
(Antiq.  vii.  1.  5).  It  is  probably  'Ain  Sarah, 
1^  miles  northwest  of  Hebron. 

Sir'i-on  [cuirass,  coat  of  mail]. 

The  name  given  by  the  Sidonians  to  mount 
HeruKtn  (Deut.  iii.  9  ;  Ps.  xxix.  6). 

Sis'a-mai.    See  Sismai. 

Sis'e-ra  [battle  array]. 

The  commander  of  the  army  belonging  to 
Jabin,  king  of  the  Canaanites,  who  reigned 
at  Hazor,  while  the  residence  of  Sisera  was 
at  Harosheth  of  the  gentiles.  At  the  in- 
stance of  Deborah,  Barak  headed  a  revolt 
against  Jal)in's  tyrannical  sway,  and  en- 
countering the  Canaanite  army,  led  by  Sis- 
era,  defeated  it  on  the  bank  of  the  Ki.shon. 
Sisera  tied,  and  sought  the  hospitality  of  Heber 
the  Kenite,  between  whom  and  Jabin  there 
was  peace.  Heber's  wife  met  him  and  invited 
him  in,  but  afterwards  murdered  him  Mith  a 
tent  ])in  while  he  slept  (Judg.  iv.,  v.;  Ps. 
Ixxxiii.  9) ;  see  Jael.  It  is  probable  that 
those  Nethinim  who  were  known  as  the  chil- 
dren of  Sisera  were  descended  from  captives 
taken  at  this  time  (Ezra  ii.  53;  Neh.  vii.  55) ; 
see  Nkthinim. 

Sis'mai,  in  A.  V.  Sisamai. 

A  man  of  Judah,  fixmily  of  Hezron,  house 
of  Jerahmeel  (1  Chron.  ii!  40). 

Sis'trum. 

A  musical  instrument  (2  Sam.  vi.  5,  R.  V. 
margin),  consisting  of  several  metallic  rods 
in  an  oval  metallic  frame.  The  rods  were 
either  loosely  inserted  or  loose  ri)igs  were 
hung  on  them,  so  that  the  instrument  would 
jingle  when  shaken. 

Sith'ri,  in  A.  V.  Zithri  [a  hiding  place  is 
(Jehovah)]. 


Sitnah 


693 


Sling 


A  Levitc,  family  of  Kohath,  bouse  of 
Uzzicl  (Ex.  vi.  22).  Zithri  in  A.  V.  of  ver.  21 
i.s  a  iiKuk-ni  ini.^iiiriiit  lA'  Zicliri  (q.  v.).  The 
error  lias  l)ofii  correclrd  in  .some  recent  edi- 
tions. 

Sit'nah  [ii<(iisi(ion,  enmity  (ep.  Satan)]. 

A  well  dun  I'y  Isaac  in  tln^  Philistine 
country,  not  far  from  (ierar ;  l)ut  the  in- 
haliitantsof  the  district  disputed  his  rijiht  to 
it  ((Jen.  x.wi.  21).  I'almer  and  Drake  in 
IbTU  found  a  small  valley  called  wady  Shut- 
net  er-Uuheiheh.  The  first  jiorlion  of  the 
name.  c<irresiioiids  to  Sitnah.  and  Kuheiheh 
to  Kehohoth,  which  was  in  the  immediate 
vicinity  of  Sitnah  (22). 

Si'van. 

The  third  month  of  the  Babylonian  and 
Jewish  year  (Esth.  viii.  9),  extending  from 
the  new  moon  of  May  to  that  of  June.  See 
Year. 

Slave. 

Slavery  existed  in  remote  antiquity.  Slaves 
were  acijuired :  1.  By  capture,  e.siieeially  in 
war  (Num.  xxxi.  9;  2  Kin.  v.  2;  War  iii.  4, 
1 ;  vi.  y.  2).  2.  By  purchase  from  slave 
owners  ((Jen.  xvii.  27;  xxxvii.  2J^.  :>(i;  Ezek. 
xxvii.  1:5 ;  Joel  iii.  (i.  b).  3.  By  hirth  from 
slaves  owned  ((Jen.  xvii.  12).  4.  In  ]iayment 
of  debt ;  thieves  unable  to  make  restitution 
and,  though  contrary  to  the  sjiirit  of  the 
^losaic  law,  a  debtor  or  his  children  being 
sold  as  slaves  (Ex.  xxii.  :> ;  2  Kin.  iv.  1; 
Neh.  V.  0,  8;  Amos  ii.  (J  :  ISIat.  xviii.  25). 
5.  Among  tlie  Hebrews  there  was  also  the 
voluntiiry  .siile  of  one's  self  or  one's  daughter 
on  account  of  jioverty  (Ex.  xxi.  2,  7;  Lev. 
XXV.  39,  47),  and  reduction  to  slavery  on  ac- 
count of  theft,  as  already  mentioned. 

The  jirice  of  a  slave  varied  of  course  ac- 
cording to  circumstances.  It  was  reckoned 
in  Hebrew  judicial  cases  as  averaging  30 
shekels  (V]x.  xxi.  32).  The  Jewish  slaves  in 
Alexandria  in  the  third  century  n. c.  brought 
about  the  .same,  120  (Irachmas  (Antiij.  xii.  2, 
3).  .losejih  at  seventeen  years  of  age  was 
purcha.sed  for  20  shekels  ((Jen.  xxxvii.  28). 

Among  the  Hebrews  the  legal  status  of  a 
Hebrew  slave  was  very  different  from  that 
of  the  slave  who  was  not  an  Israilite.  The 
Helirew  slave  had  manumission  after  si.x 
years  of  .service,  if  he  chose  ;  might  not  be 
harshly  treated,  jior  sent  away  ein|)ly  on  his 
rcleasi' ;  aii<l.  if  nwned  by  a  foreign  sojourner 
in  Israel,  had  the  jirivilege  of  redemiitinn  ;il 
a  price  legally  regulated,  the  moment  he 
could  secure  the  nece.s.sary  money  (Ex.  xxi. 
2-6;  Lev.  xxv.  43,  47-.").".;  Jer.  xxxiv.  8-l(>). 
The  rights  of  the  Hebrew  niaiil  were  the 
subject  of  further  s|)eci;il  legi.slalion  iV.\. 
xxi.  7-11).  .\ll  Hebrew  slaves,  both  those 
who  had  elected  to  remain  with  their  mas- 
t<'rs  when  the  seventh  year  had  come  and 
those  who  had  not  served  six  years,  were  re- 
leased at  the  year  of  jiibile  (\a'\.  xxv.  4('). 
This  provision  was  necessitated  when  the 
law  regarding  the  restoration  of  every  man's 


inheritance  at  the  jubile  was  enacted.  The 
return  of  the  slave  to  his  inheritance  was 
involved,  whether  he  chose  to  go  back  to  his 
master's  family  afterwards  or  not.  The  slave 
also  who  was  not  an  Israelite  fared  well 
among  the  Hebrews.  The  Mo.saic  law  recog- 
nized that  he  possessed  rights.  He  might  be 
whijiped  or  beaten,  but  not  maimed  or  killed 
(Ex.  xxi.  2(J,  21,  2(J,  27;  Lev.  xxiv.  17.  22). 
In  case  a  captive  slave  girl  was  taken  to 
wife,  she  acquired  new  rights  (Deut.  xxi. 
10  11).  All  these  non-IIebrew  slaves  were 
regarded  as  members  of  the  commonwealth 
of  Israel  ((Jen.  xvii.  10-14);  and  they  were 
equal  before  God,  particijiating  in  the  re- 
ligious festivals  and  Siicrifices  (Ex.  xii.  44; 
Lev.  xxii.  11;  Deut.  xii.  12,  IS;  xvi.  11,  14), 
and  en.joying  the  rest  of  the  Sabbath  day 
(Ex.  x.x.  10;  xxiii.  12).  Another  humane 
feature  of  the  Mosaic  law*  made  Canaan  an 
asylum  for  slaves  who  escaped  to  it  from  a 
foreign  country.  They  were  not  to  be  sur- 
rendered, but  were  allowed  to  dwell  in  the 
land  wherever  they  chose  (Detit.  xxiii.  1.5,  16). 
It  also  forbade,  on  pain  of  death,  the  steal- 
ing of  men  and  the  selling  or  holding  of 
them  (Ex.  xxi.  Ki;  Deut.  xxiv.  7)  :  and  there 
is  no  evidence  that  slave  markets  ever  ex- 
isted in  Israel.  The  Mosaic  law  contrasts 
mo.st  favorably  with  the  laws  of  contem- 
jiorary  heathen  nations  in  its  humanity  to- 
ward slaves.  The  intercourse  between  master 
and  slave  was  often  cordial  ((Jen.  xxiv.; 
Kuth  ii.  4).  The  slave  was  regarded  as  enti- 
tled to  justice  (Job  xxxi.  13-1.">)  ;  he  .some- 
times inherited  the  property  of  his  master 
(Gen.  XV.  2,  3).  and  was  sometimes  admitted 
into  the  family  as  .son-in-law  (1  Chron.  ii.  34, 
35). 

Christianity  avoided  a  sudden  reversal  of 
established  usages  (1  Cor.  vii.  21),  urged  the 
slave  to  obev  his  master  (Eph.  vi.  5-8;  Col. 
iii.  22-25;  I'Tim.  vi.  1.  2;  1  Pet.  ii.  18-21), 
and  sent  the  runaway  slave  voluntarily  back 
to  his  Christian  master  (Phileni.  lO-Kii.  But 
it  also  jironnilgated  principles  which  im- 
proved the  condition  of  slaves  in  the  Koman 
empire.  It  recognized  the  equalit.v  of  slave 
and  master  in  (Jod's  sight  (1  Cor.  vii.  21.  22; 
(4al.  iii.  2H ;  Col.  iii.  11).  It  exhorted  the 
master  to  treat  his  slaves  considerately,  re- 
minding him  that  they  had  rights  which 
(Jod  will  maintain   (Eph.  vi.  9;  Col.  iv.  1). 

Slime.     See  Bitimi:n. 

Sling. 

A  sini|tle  weapon  usiuilly  consisting  of  a 
piece  of  leather,  with  two  strings  attached  to 
its  ojiposite  sidt'S  and  a  stone  inserti'd.  It 
w;is  whirled  once  or  twice  round  the  head 
ami  one  string  let  go,  whereby  the  stoin'  was 
])roject«'d  with  great  force.  On  (he  field  of 
battle  tin'  stones  were  either  carried  in  a  bag 
by  the  slinger,  or  jiiled  at  his  feet  (1  Sam. 
xvii.  40). 

It  .seems  to  have  been  used  in  warfare  by 
practically  all  the  peoples  of  antiiiuity;  by 


Smith 


694 


Smyrna 


the  Egyptians,  Syrians  (1  Mac.  vi.  51 ;  ix. 
11),  Assyrians,  Persians  (Anab.  iii.  ;},  18),  and 
in  tlie  far  west  by  Sicilians  (Herod,  vii.  15K) 
and  mercenaries  in  the  Koman  army.  Among 
the  Hebrews  the  Benjamites  in  the  times  of 


Assyrian  Slinger. 


the  judges  and  in  the  reign  of  Saul  were 
noted  for  tlieir  skill  in  its  use,  being  able  to 
sling  stones  with  the  left  hand  (Judg.  xx. 
16;    1    Chron.  xii.  2).     David   slew   Goliath 


tools  and  weapons,  a  blacksmith  (1  Sam.  xiii. 
19;  Is.  xliv.  12;  liv.  1(5),  like  Tubal-cain 
(Gen.  iv.  22)  ;  or  one  who  refines  and  shapes 
the  precious  metals,  a  goldsmith  (Is.  xl.  19). 


Egyptian  Smith  at  his  Furnace. 

The  blacksmith  used  a  charcoal  furnace,  bel- 
lows, tongs,  anvil,  and  hammer  (Ecclus. 
xxxviii.  28).    See  Bellows. 

Smyr'na  [myrrh]. 

A  city  of  great  antiquity  on  the  western 
coast  of  Asia  Minor.  It  was  possessed  by 
the  JSolian  Greeks,  and  finally  the  Ionian 
Greeks  admitted  it  into  their  confederacy. 
The  Lydian  king,  Alyattes,  destroyed  it.  and 
it  lay  waste  for  some  200  years,  till  the  plan 
of  rebuilding  it  was  formed  by  Alexander 


Tv-~ 


^1 


Smyrna. 


•with  a  stone  from  a  sling  (1  Sam.  xvii.  48-50). 
Slingers  served  in  the  armies  of  .Tehoram, 
Jehoshaphat,  and  U/,/iah  (2  Kin.  iii.  25;  2 
Chrou.  xxvi.  11),  and  were  eUVctive  as  late 
as  the  war  with  the  Konians  (War  ii.  17,  5; 
iv.  1,  3). 

Smith. 

An  artificer  who  forges  iron  and  brass  into 


the  Great,  and  executed  by  his  immediate 
successors,  on  a  new  site  near  by.  It  then 
became  a  large  and  flourishing  commercial 
center,  retaining  its  importance  under  the 
Ilomans.  In  13.3  B.  c.  it  became  part  of 
the  newly  formed  i)rovince  of  Asia.  Its 
church  was  the  second  of  the  seven  ad- 
dressed by  John  in  the  book  of  Revela- 
tion.    It  escapes  all   censure,  but  it  is  ex- 


Snail 


695 


Sodom 


horled  to  remain  coiisliuit  in  tliu  iniilst  of 
persecution  (Kev.  i.  11;  ii.  K  11).  lis  ItislKtp 
I'olyciirii  stifl'cred  niarlyrdoni  under  Miiretis 
Aureliiis  in  A.  i».  l(i!».  In  a.  I>.  17«  Sniyrnii 
was  destniyi-d  l)y  an  eartlii|iiake,  liut  was 
sju'cdily  relmilt.  Lyinf{  as  it  does  at  tlie  ex- 
tremity of  a  line,  l)ay,  tliat  of  Smyrna,  in 
tlie  track  of  trade,  it  is  admiraliiy  adajited 
for  eommerce,  and  ev<'n  under  Tiirkisli  rule 
remains  a  liifilily  lloiirishiuf;  city,  tlie  largest 
and  most  importaut  iu  Asia  Minor. 
Snail. 

1.  TliL'  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  1/omet, 
one  prostrate  on  the  ground  (Lev.  xi.  ;J0  ;  in 
K.  V.  sand  li/.ard). 

2.  'i'lie  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Shabb'lid, 
moist,  slimy  one  (I's.  Iviii.  b),  a  genuine 
snail,  especially  of  the  shell-less  family  (Lim- 
ticidw). 

Snow. 

Snow  occurs  in  the  hilly  country  of  Pales- 
tine, as  at  Sopi)horis  in  (ialilee.  Nazareth, 
•feru.saleni,  Hebron  (1  Mac.  xiii. '22  ;  War  i. 
U),  2;  iv.  H,  aj.  It  nuiy  be  exjucted  in 
January  or  February,  although  tlic  winter 
often  i)a.sses  without  it.  It  sometimes  falls 
to  the  dei)th  of  a  foot,  but  .seldom  lies  longer 
than  a  day.  On  mount  Lebanon  it  is  found 
lingering  ou  the  heights  and  in  the  ravines 
late  in  the  summer,  and  it  crowns  the  sum- 
mit of  Ilernion  the  year  round.  It  is  fre- 
quently referred  to  in  Scripture  as  the 
standard  of  whiteness  and  the  emblem  of 
])urity  (Ps.  li.  7;  Is.  i.  IK;  Lam.  iv.  7;  Mat. 
xxviii.  .'{).  It  is  poetically  described  as  stored 
))y  fiod  in  liis  treasury  (.Tob  xxxviii.  22), 
(■ommanded  by  him  to  fall  (xxxvii.  (! ;  Ps. 
cxlvii.  Ki),  and  descending  like  wool  or  birds 
or  a  swarm  of  locusts  (ibid. ;  Ecclus.  xliii.  17). 
Its  value  as  a  source  of  moisture  to  the 
ground  was  recognized  (Is.  Iv.  10).  Men  took 
advantage  of  it  in  summer  to  cool  their  bev- 
erages (cp.  Prov.  XXV.  i'.i).  Clean  snow  would 
vield  pure  water  for  wasliing  i)urposes  (.Tol) 
ix.  :jn). 

So. 

King  of  Egyi)t.  whose  aid  against  Assyria 
Hoshea  king  of  Israel  endeavored  to  secure 
al)out  721  II.  «'.  (2  Kin.  xvii.  4).  As  the  Ile- 
l)rew  consonants  may  be  |;roiiiiMnce<l  Seve'. 
he  is  commonly  ideiitified,  and  doubtless 
correctly,  with  Sib'e,  tartan  of  I-".g.vi)t,  who 
in  720  B.  c.  in  alliance  with  Ilanun  king  of 
<!aza,met  Sargon  king  of  .\ssyria  in  battle 
at  i;ai)hia  on  the  Mediti'rraneau.  about  20 
mile-s  south  of  (ia/.a.  The  allii's  were  routed, 
Sib'e  fled,  Hanun  was  cajitured,  and  i)re.s- 
ently  Phanioh  i)aid  trihtite  to  .\ssyria.  It  is 
doulitful  whi-ther  .'^il)'<'  was  Shabako.  king 
<d'  Kgypt.  I'.tymology  is  against  the  identi- 
lication.  .M  this  lime  at  least  he  was  tartan 
ratlii'r  than  Pharaoh. 

Soap. 

Not  the  comi)osition  familiar  in  modern 
domestii'  use.  Tlie  Hebrew  words  boi-  and 
bdiilh,  that  which  cleanses,  denote  an  alkali. 


It  was  used  for  washing  the  jierson  (.loh  ix. 
;50,  K.  V.  margin,  lye),  for  washing  clothes 
(.ler.  ii.22;  Mai.  iii.  2),  and  as  a  (lux  in  .smelt- 
ing ores  (Is.  i.  2."),  K.  V.  margin,  lye).  The 
(ireek  I  ranslators  regarded  it  as  a  plant  or  ob- 
tained from  a  iilant,  for  I  hey  reiiresente<l  it  liy 
the  (ireek  word  poa,  grass,  grass-like  idant. 
The  root  of  the  soajiwort  {Siipuniiiiu  ojffic'niiilis) 
is  largely  u.sed  in  Palestine  for  washing  lin- 
ens, because  it  does  not  cause  them  to  shrink. 
The  employment  of  the  alkali  for  smelting 
purj)oses  indicates  that  it  was  in  the  form  of 
ashes.  It  was  doubtless  obtained  from  such 
plants  as  the  glasswort  {Saiicoruia  frnficosd) 
and  the  .sjiltvvort  (Salsola  kali),  which  are  to 
this  day  reduced  to  ashes  for  the  soda  which 
they  yield. 

So'co  and  Socoh,  according  to  the  alternate 
Hebrew  ortluigniphy ;  in  A.  V.  variously 
siicllid  Socoh,  Socho,  Sochoh,  Shocho,  Sho- 
choh,  Shoco  [ihiini,  hcd^ic  of  ilHini>]. 

J.  A  town  in  the  Shephelah  oi-  lowland  of 
.ludah  (Josh.  xv.  :i~>).  It  stood  on  the  hilly 
))order  of  the  valle.v  of  Elah,  in  a  strong 
])osition  isolated  from  the  rest  of  the  ridge. 
The  Philistines  ])itclied  ])etween  it  and 
.\zekah  just  before  (loliath  stood  forth  as 
their  chamiiion  (1  Sam.  xvii.  1).  It  was  re- 
built or  refortitied  by  Kehoboam  (2  Chron. 
xi.  7).  It  was  captured,  with  the  dependent 
villages,  iu  the  reign  of  Ahaz  (xxviii.  18). 
Robinson  successfully  identified  it  with  the 
ruins  of  Shuweikeh,  ]:>  miles  west  by  st>utli 
of  P.ethlehem.  The  modern  luinie  jjerpetuates 
the  ancient  one. 

2.  A  town  in  the  hill  country  of  .ludah 
(.Tosh.  XV.  48).  Its  site  is  found  at  another 
Sliuweikeh,  10  miles  south-southwest  of 
Hebron. 

It  is  doubtful  which  of  the  two  towns  is 
referred  to  in  1  Kin.  iv.  10 and  1  Chron.  iv.  18. 

So'di  [a  familiar  ac(iuaintance]. 

lather  of  the  sjty  from  the  tribe  of  Zebu- 
lun  (Num.  xiii.  10). 

Sod'om,  ill  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  once  Sodoma 
(Horn.  ix.  2!)). 

One  of  the  five  cities  in  the  plain  of  the 
Jordan  (fien.  xiii.  10).  When  Lot  .seinirated 
from  Abraham,  he  chose  it  for  liis  residence, 
though  even  then  the  jilace  was  notorious  for 
its  wickedness  (11,  12).  It  was  iilundered 
by  Chedorlaomer  (xiv.  11),  but  the  goods  and 
captives  were  recovt'red  liy  .\braham  and 
restored  (21-24).  Subse(|uently  it  and  at 
least  three  other  cities  of  the  jilain  wen'  de- 
stroyed by  (!od  on  account  of  their  wicked- 
ness, (iod  iirnbably  eU'ecIed  his  pur])ose  by 
causing  an  erii]ition  of  burning  asphalt  and 
sul|ihur.  Lot  ami  his  two  daughters  were 
si>ared  (xix.  1  20;  Dent.  xxix.  2.{ ;  Is.  i.  •), 
10  ;  iii.  0  ;  xiii.  1!» ;  Jer.  xlix.  18 ;  1.  40 ;  Lam. 
iv.  (i  ;  Ezek.  xvi.  4(!  o(i  ;  .\mos  iv.  11  ;  Zepli. 
ii.  !»  ;  Mat.  x.  1.");  xi.  24  ;  Luke  x.  12;  xvii. 
20;  Rom.  ix.  20;  2  Pet.  ii.  (i;  Jude  7).  In 
the  .\]iocalypse  the  great  city  of  sin  is  spir- 
itually called  Sodom  and  Egyjit  i  Rev.  xi.  8;. 


Sodomite 


696 


Solomon 


Tlio  exact  site  of  Sodom  is  unknown.  Two 
substantial  arguments  are  advanced  for  tlie 
northern  end.  1.  From  a  point  near  Hethel, 
Abraham  and  Lot  could  se(^  all  the  jilain  of 
Jordan  ((Jen.  xiii.  :>  with  l(t).  ("are  must  be 
exiTcised,  however,  in  interpretini;  (he  word 
all.  2.  ("hedorlaomer,  coming;  from  (he  south, 
had  smitten  the  Amorites  of  Hazezon-tamar, 
i.  e.,  En-jjedi,  befort;  he  was  opposed  by  the 
kinj;  of  Sodom  and  his  allies  {.\i  v.  7,  K),  a  fact 
which  seems  (o  indicate  tiiat  the  meeduj; 
took  i)lace  between  Eu-gedi  and  the  northern 
end  of  the  .sea.  t)n  the  other  hand,  there  are 
three  weighty  arguments  for  the  southern 
end.  1.  Asphalt  is  found  in  large  (luantities 
at  the  southern  end  of  the  sea  only  (cp.  Gen. 
xiv.  10).  2.  Assuming  that  the  sea  covers 
the  site  (cp.  xiv.  3),  the  cities  might  have 
been  situated  at  tin;  southern  end,  where  the 
water  of  the  bay  has  a  depth  of  from  2  to 
20  feet,  but  could  not  have  been  in  the  imrth- 
ern  i)art,  where  the  sea  is  from  (JUO  to  1000 
feet  dee]).  And  geologically  considered,  only 
the  southern  end  of  the  sea  can  be  of  origin 
at  all  recent.  3.  Zoar,  one  of  the  cities  (xiii. 
10),  lav  at  the  southern  end  of  the  sea  (War 
iv.  8,  -i). 

Sod'om-ite. 

A  person  guilty  of  the  unnatural  vice  of 
Sodom.  The  vice  itself  has  come  to  be  known 
as  sodomy.  The  word  is  employed  in  the  E. 
V.  to  render  the  Hebrew  Kadesh,  one  conse- 
crated, a  man  dedicated  to  impure  heathen 
worshi])  (Deut.  xxiii.  17;  in  Job  xxxvi.  14, 
unclean).  A  woman  thus  dedicated  prac- 
ticed uucleanness  as  a  priestess  in  the  service 
of  Ashtoreth  or  Asherah  in  Canaan,  of  Ish- 
tar  in  Babylonia  (Gen.  xxxviii.  21,  22  ;  Deut. 
xxiii.  17  ;  Hos.  iv.  14  ;  in  every  case  rendered 
harlot).  The  sin  of  sodomy  was  forbidden 
by  the  Mo.saic  law  (Deut.  xxiii.  17)  ;  but 
sodomites  of  Hebrew  descent  were  found  in 
.Tudah  during  the  reign  of  Rehoboam  (1  Kin. 
xiv.  24) ;  Asa  and  Jehoshajihat  cut  them  off 
(xv.  12 ;  xxii.  4(5)  ;  but  others  arose  in  their 
room,  and  Josiah,  to  rid  liimself  of  them, 
broke  down  their  houses  (2  Kin.  xxiii.  7). 

Sol'o-mon  [peaceable]. 

David's  youngest  son,  at  least  by  Bath- 
sheba  (2  Sam.  xii.  24  ;  1  Chron.  iii.  5 ;  and  cp. 
Antif].  vii.  14,  2).  He  was  burn  at  .Ti-rusalem. 
David  named  him  Solomon,  iicaccalile.  in  an- 
ticipation of  the  peace  and  (juit'tness  of  his 
reign  in  contrast  with  his  own  stormy  life 
(1  Chron.  xxii.  9)  ;  but  through  the  prophet 
Nathan  he  was  divinely  honored  with  the 
name  .ledidiah,  beloved  of  Jehovah  (2  Sam. 
xii.  2.")).  When  David  was  on  his  deathbed, 
Adonijah,  one  of  his  sons  born  at  Hebron, 
and  next  to  the  eldest  now  that  Amnon  and 
Absalom  W'ere  dead,  ,set  up  as  king  without 
his  father's  sanction.  On  this,  Bath-sheba, 
at  the  instigation  of  the  ]>ro])het  Nathan, 
went  to  David  and  reminded  him  of  aii  oath 
which  he  had  sworn  to  her  that  Solomon 
should  be  his  successor.   David  acknowledged 


his  obligation,  and  bj*  his  order  Zadok  the 
priest,  Nathan  the  prophet,  and  Bciuiiah  the 
military  commander,  supported  by  David's 
bodyguard,  lost  no  time  in  proclaiming  Sol- 
omon king  (1  Kin.  i.  .~)-4()),  and  the  i)arty  of 
Adonijah  at  once  colhii)scd.  David  soon 
afterwards  died,  and  Solomon  began  his  sole 
reign  about  the  year  970  B.  c,  being  at  the 
time  probably  about  twenty  years  old. 
Obedient  to  the  dying  charge  of  his  father, 
he  (h'alt  out  justice  to  Abiatliar  and  Shimei ; 
and  when  Adonijah  began  anew  to  plot 
against  the  king,  lie  put  him  to  death  and 
ordered  the  execution  of  Joab  likewise,  who 
was  implicated  in  the  conspiracy  (ii.  l-4(i). 
The  young  king  soon  brought  as  a  bride  to 
Jerusalem  Pharaoh's  daughter  (iii.  1).  At 
that  time  the  worship  at  the  sanctuary, 
which  had  been  broken  uj)  when  the  Lord  for- 
sook Shiloh,  was  still  interrupted.  The  taber- 
nacle was  at  Gibeon,  and  the  ark  at  Jerusa- 
lem. The  people  worshiped  at  high  places. 
Solomon  went  to  Gibeon  to  sacrifice.  There 
God  appeared  to  him,  and  invited  him  to  ask 
for  whatever  he  deemed  most  desirable.  He 
asked  for  an  understanding  heart,  that  he 
might  be  able  justly  to  judge  the  people  of 
God,  for  it  was  part  of  a  king's  duty  in  those 
days  to  administer  justice.  His  request  was 
granted,  as  he  soon  afterwards  showed  by  the 
skillful  manner  in  which  he  disentangled 
truth  from  falsehood  when  he  decided  be- 
tween the  two  women,  each  of  whom  claimed 
the  living  babe  as  her  own  (1  Kin.  iii.  2-28  ;  2 
Chron.  i.  3-12).  Twenty  or  more  years  later 
the  Lord  appeared  to  him  again,  and  made 
him  further  promises  and  gav(^  him  solemn 
warning  (1  Kin.  ix.  1-10  ;  2Chr(m.  vii.  12-22). 

His  father,  with  military  ability  and  cour- 
age, had  subdued  the  neighboring  nations  ; 
and  only  one  expedition  is  recorded  as  neces- 
sary for  Solomon  to  undertake,  and  that  one 
was  against  Hamath,  which  he  was  obliged 
to  control  in  order  to  secure  the  northeastern 
portion  of  his  dominions.  He  also  fortified 
Hazor  at  the  crossing  of  the  upper  .Jordan, 
and  built  a  tow^er  in  Lebanon,  in  order  to 
hold  Damascus  in  check.  Hadad  the  Edom- 
ite  was  an  adversary  unto  Solomon,  liut  the 
Hebrew  monarch  probably  gave  himself  but 
little  concern  about  this  opjtonent,  and  al- 
lowed him  to  reoccupy  the  throne  of  his 
fathers  and  rule  a  part  of  the  ancestral  realm  ; 
but  Solomon  saw  to  it  that  the  road  by  Edom 
to  Ezion-geber  was  open  and  safe.  Other- 
wise Solomon's  relations  ^vith  neighboring 
kings  were  friendly,  and  he  was  able  to  de- 
vote himself  to  the  organization  of  his  king- 
dom and  to  the  arts  of  peace. 

David  had  amassed  a  great  store  of  precious 
metals  for  the  construction  of  a  magnificent 
temple  to  .Tehovah.  Solomon  took  U]i  the 
work,  and  with  Tyrian  helj)  finished  it  in 
seven  years  (1  Kin.  v.,  vi. ;  2  Chron.  ii.). 
Then,  after  furniture  had  been  made  for  it, 
it  was  dedicated  (1  Kin.  vii.  13-viii.  (51  ;  2 
Chron.  ii.-vii.).     Next,  the  monarch  erected 


Solomon 


697 


Son 


a  i)aluce  for  himself,  which  took  thirteen 
years  in  hiiildin^  (1  Kin.  vii.  1-12)  ;  see 
i'.VLAi'K.  IK'  also  laid  mit  ganlcnsand  vine- 
yards in  various  jiarts  of  the  country,  as  at 
Etani,  iierliajis,  and  at  15aal-lianiou  (ix.  19, 
R.  V.  ;  2  C'liron.  viii.  (i,  11.  \.  ;  Ecc.  ii.  .">,  6  ; 
Sonic  viii.   11). 

Solomon  showed  saRacity  in  fjovornnient. 
He  surrounded  lii nisei f  with  eminent  officials, 
among  whom  the  .son  of  the  high  jiriest 
held  the  lii-st  jilace,  and  another  counselor 
also  was  a  priest  (1  Kin.  iv.  'J  (i).  For  ad- 
ministrative imrposes,  he  divided  the  king- 
dom into  twelve  districts,  entirely  indejjend- 
ent  of  the  old  trit.al  lines  ("-lit").  Nor  did 
he  fail  to  take  a  jironiiiK'nt  jiart  in  the  reli- 
gion of  the  state,  lie  led  the  nation  in  jirayer 
at  the  dedication  of  the  temple,  and  iu- 
v<)ke<l  the  divine  hlessing  upon  the  assem- 
bled multitude. 

Commerce  nourished  in  his  kingdom,  and 
brought  wealth  (1  Kin.  .\.  11-21  ;  2  Chron. 
i.\.  i;J,  II,  21,  27);  and  voyages  were  suceesis- 
fully  made  to  Ophir,  and  traffic  was  con- 
ducted with  India  (1  Kin.  x.  22,  23  ;  2  Chron. 
ix.  10-22).  For  the  jjrotection  and  fostering 
of  trade,  he  built  store  cities,  among  others 
Palmyra,  in  the  desert  midway  between 
Damascus  and  the  Eujdiratis  (1  Kin.  ix.  18, 
I'J). 

Solomon  was  interested  in  literary  ])ursuits : 
he  was  a  naturalist,  and  wrote  treatises  on 
plants,  from  the  cedar  that  gro\\-eth  on  Ei'b- 
anon  to  the  liysso]i  that  springeth  out  oi'  the 
wall.  He  spoke  also  of  beasts,  and  of  fowls, 
and  of  creejiing  things,  and  of  lishes  (1  Kin. 
iv.  3:5).  Hi-  collected  and  composi'd  many 
proverbs,  some  of  which  constitute  part  of 
the  O.  T. ;  see  Pkovkkhs.  Two  jisalnis  (Ixxii. 
and  cxxvii.)  are  attributed  t(»  him  by  their 
titles.  See  also  Ecci.ksiastks  and  Sonc;  ok 
Songs. 

The  splendor  of  his  court,  the  magnificence 
of  his  table,  and  his  pomp  wlien  on  excur- 
sions corres])onded  to  his  wealth  and  jiolitical 
power  (1  Kin.  x.  4,  .'>,  21  ;  .Song  iii.  7  11). 
People  came  from  all  j)arts  to  hear  his  wisdom 
(1  Kin.  iv.  34  ;  x.  23-25).  The  rejiorl  of  his 
wisdom  was  carried  even  to  southern  Arabia, 
and  the  ijueen  of  .Slieba  journeyetl  to  ,Ieru- 
salem  to  test  it  and  to  see  his  magniticence 
(1-13). 

Notwithstanding  all  his  gifts  and  graces, 
he  erred  in  two  resiiects.  He  established  a 
harcTn  on  the  same  sciile  of  greatness  as  his 
oth«'r  works.  It  included  from  first  to  last 
about  one  thou.sjind  members,  some  of  whom 
probably  wi-re  ])rinci'sses  given  him  as  pledges 
of  jiolitical  amity.  Many  were  f'oreign<'rs  by 
birth  and  idolatrous  in  their  religion,  an<l  he 
allowecl  liiniself  to  be  jiersuaded  by  them  to 
erect  idol  shrines,  including  one  for  Molecli, 
"horrid  king"  (1  Kin.  xi.  1-H).  For  thisapos- 
lasy  Solomon  was  |iunislied.  The  kingdom 
in  its  gnat  extent  ;ilid  power  was  taken 
from  the  ilynastv,  and  only  a  fragment  of  it 
left  to  the"  family   (!»   13).  "  The  example  of 


Solomon's  disloyalty  to  Jehovah  had  direct 
influence  in  jirodncing  this  ]ienal  result.  The 
announcement  by  the  proidiet  Abijah  to  Jero- 
boam was  also  inllueiitial  to  this  en<l.  jire- 
dicting  to  the  young  E]phraimite  that  (iod 
would  rend  ten  tribes  from  Solomon  and 
give  them  to  him  (2^-3!)).  Jeroboam  became 
a  recognized  oji])onent  of  tbi-  king;  but  not 
until  SolouKin's  .son  Kehoboam  ascended  the 
throne  did  Jeroboam  .secure  a  kingdom.  A 
less  obvious,  but  yet  an  imjiortant  error  was 
that  his  luxury  imposed  a  burden  on  his 
overtaxed  subjt^cts,  which  shook  their  loyalty 
to  the  throne  and  sowed  the  seeds  of  future 
rebellion.     See  IxKHohoam. 

Solomon  reigned  forty  years  (1  Kin.  xi.  42; 
2  Chron.  ix.  30,  31),  dying  about  il31  B.C. 
The  events  of  his  life  and  reign  were  re- 
corded in  the  Book  of  the  Acts  of  Solomon 
(1  Kin.  xi.  41),  the  History  of  Nathan  the 
Proj)het,  the  Prophecy  of  Ahijah  the  Shilo- 
nite,  the  Visions  of  Iddo  the  Seer  (2  Chron. 
ix.  2!»). 

Sol'o-mon's  Porcli. 

A  sjtlendid  colonnade,  reputed  to  have  been 
built  by  Solomon,  on  the  east  side  of  the 
temple  area,  on  an  artificial  embankment 
built  up  from  the  valley  of  the  Kidron 
(Antiq.  XX.  9,  7;  War  v.  '■>,  1).  It  is  once 
mentioned  that  Christ  walked  in  it  (John  x. 
23)  ;  and  the  apostles  wen-  not  infrequently 
there  (Acts  iii.  11  ;   v.  12). 

Soro-mon's  Serv'ants. 

Certain  jiersons  who.se  descendants  were 
associated  with  the  Nethinim,  390  f)r  392  of 
(he  two  (^lasses  combined  returning  with 
Zerubbabel  from  the  ca])tivity  (ICzra  ii.  ."i- 
~iH  ;  Nell.  vii.  r>7-t)0).  Some  of  tlu'ir  names 
have  a  foreign  asjpcct.  They  seem  to  have 
been  the  descendants  of  those  Canaanites  of 
various  tribes  from  whom  Solomon  exacted 
bond  service  for  the  sake  of  the  temple  and 
other  magnilicent  buildings  (1  Kin.  v.  13-l!S; 
ix.  21).      See  NinillNI.M. 

Sol'o-mon's  Song.    See  Soxc  of  Solomon. 
Soro-mon,  Wis'dom  of.     See  Ai'ocKvruA. 

Son. 

1.  .\  male  child;  an  immediate  male  de- 
scendant ((ten.  xxvii.  1).  tXher  prominent 
significations  are : 

2.  A  remoter  male  descendant.  For  in- 
stance", Jehu,  .son  of  Nimshi,  was  really 
Nimshi's  grandson,  for  he  was  the  son  of 
.lelioshaphat,  the  son  of  Nnnshi  (c]>.  2  Kin. 
ix.  20  with  2).  The  Israelites  were  known 
as  sons  or  children  of  Israel  or  Jacob  cen- 
turies after  the  death  of  the  i>atriarch  (Mai. 
iii.  (!;   Luke  i.  10). 

3.  A  follower,  adherent,  or  pupil,  as  the 
sons  of  the  prophets  (1  Kin.  xx.  3.">).  Mem- 
ber of  a  guild  f)r  |)rofe.ssion,  as  son  of  the 
apothecaries  (Neb.  iii.  8,  in  K.  V.  one),  sons 
of  the  singers  (xii.  2.'^).  Worsbiiter  of  a  god, 
as  the  sons  of  Cheiiiosh  (Num.  xxi.  29). 

4.  Inhabitant  of  a  city  or  country,  as  sons 


Son  of  God 


698 


Song 


of  Zion  (Lam.  iv.  2),  sons  of  Bethlehem 
(lizra  ii.  21,  in  E.  V.  cliiklren),  sons  of  the 
lirovince  (1,  in  E.  V.  children  J,  sons  of  Javan 
((.ten.  X.  4). 

5.  Possessor  of  a  quality,  as  son  of  Belial 
or  worthlessness  (1  Sam.  xxv.  17),  son  of 
strength,  i.  e.,  a  valiant  man  (xiv.  52),  son  of 
peace  (Luke  x.  (J). 

Son  of  God. 

A  term  expressive  of  the  mysterious  rela- 
tion between  tlie  eternal  Father  and  the 
eternal  Son.  In  the  N.  T.  (K.  V.)  Son  of  God 
occurs  about  forty-tive  times,  in  about  forty- 
four  unequivocally  pointing  to  our  Lord 
(Mat.  iv.  3,  () ;  xxvi.  63;  xxvii.  43;  Mark  i. 
1,  text,  etc.),  and  in  the  remaining  one  char- 
acterizing Adam  (  Luke  iii.  38).  In  John  iii.  18 
Christ  is  called  tlie  only  begotten  Sou  of  God. 
Two  reasons  are  suggested  for  the  appella- 
tion :  his  eternal  generation  (lleb.  vii. 3),  and 
his  miraculous  l)irth  by  the  operation  of  the 
Holy  (Jhost  (Luke  i. '35).  As  son  of  God, 
Christ  is  (tod  with  all  the  infinite  perfections 
of  the  divine  essence  (John  i.  1-14  ;  x.  30- 
33;  Phil.  ii.  6i,  and  is  equal  with  God  (John 
V.  17-25).  He  is  subordinate  in  mode  of 
subsistence  and  operation  ;  that  is,  he  is  of 
the  Father,  is  sent  by  the  Father,  and  the 
Father  operates  through  him  (John  iii.  16, 
17;  viii.  42;  Gal.  iv.  4;  Heb.  i.  2).  Accord- 
ingly, the  word  son  is  not  a  term  of  office, 
))ut  of  nature.  He  has  the  same  nature,  a 
fact  which  includes  equality  with  God. 

The  claim  was  put  forth  by  our  Lord 
(Luke  xxii.  70;  John  x.  30:  xi.  4;  xix.  7), 
and  urged  bv  the  apostles  (Acts  ix.  20;  Gal. 
ii.  20,  etc.  :  1  John  iii.  8 ;  v.  5,  10,  13,  20), 
and  it  was  for  maintaining  it  that  he  was 
condemned  })y  the  sanhedrin  on  a  charge  of 
blasphemy  (Mat.  xxvi.  63-60;  Mark  xiv. 
61-64) ;  but  the, justice  of  his  claim  had  i^een 
acknowledged  on  the  occasion  of  his  baptism 
by  the  descent  upon  him  of  the  Holy  Ghost, 
accompanied  by  an  audible  utterance  from 
his  heavenly  Father  (Mat.  iii.  16,  17;  Mark 
i.  10,  11;  Luke  iii.  22;  John  i.  32-34).  It 
was  similarly  acknowledged  at  the  transfig- 
uration (Mat.  -Kvii.  5;  Mark  ix.  7;  Luke  ix. 
35 ;  2  Pet.  i.  17).  It  was  sustained  by  his 
character  and  by  his  works  (John  i.  14 ;  x. 
36-38;  Heb.  i.  3).  And  he  was  declared  to 
be  the  Son  of  God  with  pow(>r,  according  to 
the  s])irit  of  holiness,  by  the  resurrection  of 
the  dead  (Rom.  i.  4),  and  by  his  ascension 
(Heb.  i.  3).  There  is  a  passage  in  the  O.  T. 
(Dan.  iii.  25,  A.  V.)  where  the  expression 
Son  of  God  appears,  but  the  U.  V.  alters  this 
to  a  son  of  the  gods.  The  speaker  was  a 
Babylonian  heathen. 

For  the_  title  sons  of  God  applied  to  men 
see  Soxs  ok  ( loi). 

Son  of  Man. 

A  person  i)ossessed  of  humanity  in  distinc- 
tion from  divinity;  a  human  being,  with  the 
emphasis  on  human  (Num.  xxiii.  1!);  Jol) 
xxv.   0;   P.s.   viii.  4;  Is.   Ii.    12);  see  Sox  5. 


When  Daniel  fell  affrighted  on  his  face  before 

the  heavenly  messenger,  (Jabriel  addressed 
him  as  son  ol'  man  (Dan.  viii.  17).  When 
Ezekiel  had  seen  the  vision  of  Jehovah  and 
fallen  ujion  his  face,  a  voice  said:  "  Sou  of 
man,  stand  upon  thy  feet"  (Ezek.  ii.  1),  and 
!  thenceforth  the  jirophet  is  constantly  ad- 
dressed as  .son  of  man.  It  was  foretold  (  Dan. 
vii.  13,  14,  I{.  V.)  that  the  hostile  worldly 
power  shall  succumb  before  the  Ancient  of 
days,  and  one  like  to  a  son  of  man,  coming 
with  the  clouds  of  heaven,  shall  receive  do- 
minion and  a  kingdom,  that  all  the  j)eoples. 
nations,  and  languages  shall  serve  him  ;  his 
dominion  is  an  everlasting  dominion  which 
shall  not  pa.ss  away,  and  liis  kingdom  that 
which  shall  not  be  destroyed. 

The  title  was  adopted  by  our  Lord.  He  is 
recorded  in  the  gospels  as  having  applied  it 
to  himself  seventy-eight  times.  It  is  also 
used  of  him  by  Stephen  (Acts  vii.  56)  ;  see 
also  Heb.  ii.  6  ;  and  Eev.  i.  13  ;  xiv.  14,  K.  V. 
margin.  Christ  did  nf)t  choose  the  title  to 
assert  that  he  had  a  fellow-feeling  for  man 
and  was  a  brother  to  all  men ;  nor  did  he 
employ  it  to  denote  that  he  was  a  mere  man 
and  not  divine,  for  he  constantly  claimed 
divine  attributes  (Luke  v.  24).  But  1.  He 
proclaimed  thereby,  but  in  such  a  Avay  that 
the  proclamation  should  not  be  understood 
at  first,  that  he  was  the  jiredicted  ruler  of 
the  kingdom  of  heaven,  with  an  everlasting 
dominion  (Pis.  viii.  4-6;  Dan.  vii.  13, 14).  2. 
The  emphasis  laid  on  his  humanity  shows 
some  peculiarity.  There  would  be  no  occasion 
for  asserting  the  humanity  of  a  man.  3.  The 
use  of  the  article  separates  him  from  other 
human  beings.  He  is  the  Son  of  man.  4. 
Son  of  man  and  Son  of  (iod  are  united  in 
the  same  person.  "  Who  do  men  say  that  the 
Son  of  man  is?  ...  .  Simon  Peter  answered 
and  said.  Thou  art  the  Christ,  the  Son  of  the 
living  God.  And  Jesus  answered  and  siiid  unto 
him.  Blessed  art  thou.  Simon  Bar-Jonah  : 
for  flesh  and  blood  hath  not  revealed  it  unto 
thee,  but  my  Father  which  is  in  heaven  " 
(Mat.  xvi.  13,  16,  17).  "  The  high  priest 
said  unto  him,  I  adjure  thee  by  the  living 
God,  that  thou  tell  us  whether  thou  be  the 
Christ,  the  Son  of  God.  Jesus  saith  unto  him. 
Thou  hast  said:  nevertheless  I  say  unto  you. 
Henceforth  ye  shall  see  the  Son  of  man  sitting 
at  the  right  hand  of  power,  and  coming  on 
the  clouds  of  heaven"  (xxvi.  63,  64). 

Song. 

A  poetical  composition,  generally  brief, 
capable  of  being  set  to  music  and  sung, 
whether  or  imt  it  was  intended  for  singing  or 
was  ever  actually  sung  (I%x.  xv.  1-18  ;  Dent, 
xxxi.  30-xxxii.  44).  It  was  often  sung  to 
the  accomi)animent  of  music  (Ex.  xv.  20,  21 ; 
Ls.  xxxviii.  20).  It  might  be  secular  or  re- 
ligious ((Jen.  xxxi.  27  ;  Num.  xxi.  17. 18  ;  and 
Ps.  xcii..  title  ;  cxxxvii.  .3,  4)  ;  in  praise  of 
men  or  of  God  (1  Sam.  xviii.  6,  7  ;  Ps.  xxviii. 
7) ;  the  expression  of   light-heartedness    or 


Song  of  Songs,  The 


699 


Song  of  Songs,  The 


(li-iji  emotion ;  the  utterance  of  innocent 
niirth  or  the  outfoinc  of  a  bacHrhaiialian  revel 
(Vs.  Ixix.  1:2). 

Song  of  Songs,  The. 

Tlic  last  (if  the  liv(r  ]>o('ti(al  Imuks  of  the 
< ).  T.  ill  Diir  present  Ihi^jlisli  HiMe.  This  ar- 
raii;,'eiiK-iit  is  derived  froiii  the  Si|itua;,'iiit. 
Ill  the  JIel>re\v  Scri](tiires  the  Si)iifi  stands 
hetweeii  .loli  and  Kiith,  in  the  thinl  section 
of  the  caiiiin,  and  is  one  of  tlie  five  smaller 
rolls  which  formed  a  jimuii  by  themselves 
l)eeaiise  they  had  coiiie  t(»  he  read  on  the  five 
j,'reat  anniversaries.  Tiie  Soiij;  was  read  on 
the  ei;;htli  day  of  the  jiassover  festival,  the 
l)ook  heiiij;  ailcKoricaliy  iiiteri>reted  with  ref- 
erence to  the  history  of  the  e.xodiis.  The 
Sonjc  of  Solomon  is  more  fully  called  The 
.Soiif;  <if  SoiiLTs.  which  is  Solomon's  (i.  1). 
The  redii|ili(aiioii  of  the  word  soiij;  was  not 
inleiided  to  denote  that  it  is  a  collection  of 
many  sonjjs,  nor  that  it  is  the  chief  one  of  the 
many  songs  of  Solomon  ;  Imt  it  has  super- 
lative force,  like  servant  of  servants,  holy  of 
holies,  Jjord  of  lords,  heaven  of  heavens, 
vaiiitv  of  vanities  ((Jen.  ix.  2.");  Ex.  xxvi. 
?>:i:  iVut.  X.  17;  1  Kin.  viii.  27;  Ecc.  i.  2), 
and  intimates  that  the  production  is  a  song 
of  the  hi;;hest  character.  In  the  Viiluate  the 
title  is  literally  translated  Ciiiilifinii  Ciniticoi- 
iDii,  from  which  the  name  Canticles  is  de- 
rived. 

Several  sjieakers  take  jiart  in  the  dialoKHe- 
The  distincliciii  lietweeii  them  is  (|llite  clear 
in  the  Ilelinw  original,  because  llie  gram- 
matical forms  indicate  gender.  Tlu'  K.  \'. 
marks  change  of  speaker  by  sjjace  between 
the  verses  or  sections.  How  many  i>romiiient 
personages  are  there  in  the  iioein  '.'  Are  there 
two.  besides  th<'  daughters  of  .lerusalem,  who 
resenil)lc  the  chorus  in  a  (Tfeek  iday  ;  or  are 
there  three,  either  actually  speaking  or  in- 
troduced in  the  remarks  of  the  Shulammite 
maid?  According"  to  the  latter  view  in  its 
general  form,  the  three  chief  speakers  are  a 
country  maid,  her  rustic  lover,  and  Sohjmon. 
The  maid  is  betrotlieil  to  her  country  swain  : 
hut  she  is  noticed  by  Solomon  and  his  compan- 
ions during  some  Journey  to  the  north  (vi. 
]()].'!),  brought  to  .lerusalem.  and  there,  sur- 
rounded by  the  women  of  the  pahu'e,  wooed 
by  the  king  in  the  liojie  (»f  gaining  her  adec- 
tions.  I?ut  the  maid  resists  all  enticements. 
When  Solomon  praises  her,  she  res])onds  by 
praising  her  rustic  lover.  She  longs  for  him 
by  day.  and  dreams  of  him  l)y  night.  She 
sustains  her  devotion  to  him  )>y  recalling  his 
speeches.  Siie  is  true  to  him  ami  to  her 
vows.  At  length  the  parted  lovers  are  re- 
Jiiiited  (viii.  '>-~).  and  she  is  luaised  by  lier 
brothers  for  resisting  all  allurements. 
Throughout  Solomon  ajipears  in  an  unfavor- 
able light.  lie  attemjits  to  persuade  the  m;iid 
to  forsake  her  itrojier  allegiance  ( vii.  1  !•),  and 
he  commits  greater  sin.  The  jtoein,  accord- 
ing to  this  view,  celehniti'S  a  juire  alfection, 
wliicli  hohls  out  against  the  templatiojis  of  a 


court,  and  is  strong  enough  to  resist  the  se- 
ductive arts  of  a  king. 

This  interpretation,  which  is  known  as  the 
shci>lu'rd  hyi)othesis,  .seeks  support  in  ex- 
jiressions  of  the  Shulammite,  which  are  cited 
as  jiassionate  exclamations  to  her  distant 
lover  (i.  -1,  7  ;  ii.  Kil.  liut  everything  is 
much  simpler  in  tliesi'  jias.sages  them.selves 
and  throughout  the  poem,  if  the  Shulam- 
mite's  avowals  of  love  are  in  all  eases  re- 
ferred to  king  Solomon  himself.  The  simple 
<-ouiitry  maid  has  no  aileiiuate  c(jncej)tion  of 
royal  life  and  occui>ations.  She  thinks  of  the 
king,  the  shepherd  of  the  jieople  {v\>.  Jer. 
xxiii.  4),  iimler  the  figure  of  a  rustic  shej)- 
lierd  of  her  native  hills,  and  she  addresses 
liim  in  language  borrowed  from  the  shtjjherd 
life  familiar  to  her.  And  everywhere  she 
naturally  <lraws  imagery  from  the  pastoral 
and  horticultural  mountain  life  to  whicli  she 
was  accustomed. 

Instead  of  regarding  the  Shulammite  as  a 
country  girl,  .some  interpreters,  esjjecially  in 
England,  see  in  her  the  daughter  of  Pharaoh 
whom  Solomon  married.  She  is  a  stranger, 
dark  of  comjilexion,  and  a  jirince's daughter 
(i.  5;  vii.  1).  The  blackne.s.s  of  skin,  how- 
ever, was  due  to  sunburn  (i.  (!).  and  the  title 
of  Jirince's  daughter  jirobably  does  not  indi- 
cali'  her  birth,  which  was  aii]iaiently  lowlj' 
(ibid.  ;  ii.  !M,  liut  her  present  high  rank  to 
wliichshe  has  been  raised  (cp.  vi.  12;  1  Sam. 
ii.  S),  daugliter  meaning  female  or  woman  in 
general  (cj).  Song  vi.  !» ;  1  Sam.  i.  Ki).  and  the 
jihra.se  signifying  '"  <)  nobk'  woman."' 

The  Song  has  been  regarded  as  a  drama. 
Few,  liowever,  have  imagined  that  it  was  de- 
signed for  jiresentation  on  the  stage.  It  lias 
been  thought  to  consist  of  four  acts  (I'.wald 
at  lirst,  Frie(lrich),  or  of  five  acts  containing 
from  thirteen  to  fifteen  scenes  (Ewald,  Bott- 
cher,  and  others),  or  of  six  acts  with  two 
scenes  each  (I)elitzsch,  Ilahni.  Bossuet  dis- 
covered seven  acts,  each  filling  a  day,  con- 
cluding with  the  Sabbath,  inasmuch  as  the 
bridegroom  on  this  day  does  not,  as  usual,  go 
forth  to  his  rural  emiiloynients.  His  several 
davs  are:  i.  1-ii.  (i ;  ii.  7-17  ;  iii.  1-v.  1  ;  v. 
2-vi.  !i;  vi.  10-vii.  11  ;  vii.  12  viii.  Ii  :  viii. 
4-14.  Delitzsch's  scheme  is  as  follows  :  Act  1. 
Mutual  ]iassion  of  the  lovers  (i.  2-ii.  7),  con- 
cluding with,  "  I  adjure  you,  ()  daughters  of 
Jerusalem."  The  scene  is  laid  in  the  palace 
of  SolonioTi.  Scene  1.  Dialogue  bi'tween  the 
Shulammite  maid  and  the  court  ladies, 
daughters  of  Jerusalem,  at  a  meal  (i.  2-S). 
Scene  2.  Enter  Solomon  :  dialogue  between 
liini  and  the  maiden,  who  is  not  yet  hisbride 
(9  ii.  7).  .\ct  2.  Mutual  seeking  and  finding 
(ii.  s-iii,  ;'),  concluding  with  "I  adjure  you." 
The  scene  is  the  Shulammite's  country  home. 
Scene  1.  She  relates  a  raidurous  meeting  with 
Solomon  (ii.  s  17).  Scene  2.  She  relates  a 
ilrejuii.  in  which  she  thought  she  had  lost  lier 
beloved,  but  found  him  again  (iii.  1  -,")).  Act  .'!. 
Bringing  the  betrothed  to  the  cai>ital  and  the 
marriage  (iii.  (iv.  1',  with  the  introductitm, 


Song  of  Songs,  The 


700 


Song  of  Songs,  The 


"  Who  is  this?"  and  the  conclusion,  "  Eat,  O 
frit'iiils;  drink,  yua.  drink  alunuhmtly,  O  be- 
loved." Sivne  1.  I'rort'ssion  ti>  thi-  i)alac-e 
(iii.  ti-U).  Scene  "2.  Dialo-jiie  ))i.'twtH-n  Solo- 
nitin  and  his  lictrotiu'd  in  tin;  wedding  cham- 
ber (iv.  l-l(i).  Tlie  wedding  must  he  sup- 
posed to  folliiw;  and  tlien  v.  1,  Solomon's 
morning  greeting  to  liishride,  and  afterwards 
hisexliortation  to  tlie  guests.  Act  4.  Love  dis- 
dained, hut  regained  (v.  "i-vi.  9).  Scene  1. 
Shadows  fall  on  tlie  married  life.  The  Shu- 
laniniite  dreams  of  seeking  lier  beloved,  but 
finding  liim  not  ( v.  "J-vi.  .'i).  Scene  2.  Slie  has 
found  lier  belove^l  again  (vi.  1-9).  Act  5.  The 
Shulammite  the  beautiful,  lint  humble  prin- 
cess (vi.  10-viii.  4),  with  the  introduction, 
"  Wlio  is  slieY"  and  the  conclusion.  "  I  adjure 
you."  Scene  1.  In  the  royal  gardens;  dia- 
logue between  the  Sliulammite  and  the 
daughters  of  Jerusalem  (vi.  10-vii.  6).  Scene 
2.  In  the  palace  ;  Sohmion  and  the  Shulam- 
mite alone  (vii.'7-viii.  4 ).  Act  (i.  The  confirma- 
tion of  love's  bond  in  the  Shulammite's  old 
home  (viii.  5-14),  lieginning  "  Who  is  this?" 
Scene  1.  Solomon  and  his  bride  appear  in 
the  presence  of  her  kinsfolk  (5-7).  Scene  2. 
The  Shulammite  in  her  paternal  home  ;  dia- 
logue between  her  and  her  brothers  and  the 
king  (8-14). 

But  the  opinion  that  the  Song  is  a  drama, 
although  widely  entertained  in  modern  times 
and  unobjectionable  in  itself,  has  not  failed 
to  meet  with  decided  and  well-founded  op- 
position. The  Song  does  not  naturally  con- 
form to  the  rules  of  dramatic  unity.  A  reg- 
ular plot  is  not  yielded  by  the  poem  itself.  A 
consecutive  narrative  can  only  be  made  out 
by  supplying  connecting  links  of  which  the 
poem  knows  nothing.  Indeed,  the  several 
parts  have  been  made  to  tell  very  different 
continuous  tales,  according  as  interpreters 
have  supplied  this  or  that  connecting  link. 
The  Song  as  it  stands  is  a  continuous  comjio- 
sition,  with  the  love  of  Solomon  and  his  bride 
for  its  one  theme  ;  but  the  several  scenes  are 
grouped  rather  than  linked,  and  the  tran- 
sitions are  abrujit.  The  arrangement  is  not 
pleasing  to  the  occidental  mind,  which  loves 
order  and  logical  se([nence,  ))ut  the  structure 
of  the  i)oein  is  in  entire  Jiaruiony  with  orien- 
tal methods  of  literary  com])osition. 

Three  leading  metliods  of  interpretation 
have  been  adopted,  and  all  still  find  advo- 
cates :  the  allegorical,  the  literal,  and  the 
tyi)ical  metliods.  The  .Tews,  wlio  have  al- 
ways greatly  prized  the  Song  of  Songs,  have 
generally  regarded  it  as  a  spiritual  allegory. 
Its  sole  intention  was  to  teach  God's  love  for 
ancient  Israel.  He  is  the  Lover,  and  it  the 
being  beloved.  The  allegorical  interjireta- 
tion  was  introduced  into  the  Christian 
church  by  Origen,  a  great  allegorizer,  early 
in  the  third  century,  but  it  underwent  a 
modification.  Christ  became  the  Lover,  and 
his  church  or  the  individual  soul  the  be- 
loved one.  The  details  of  this  scheme  maybe 
learned    froni    the   headings   of  the   several 


chapters  in  the  A.  V.     On  the  literal  inter- 

jiretation  the  poem  is  an  historical  tale,  a 
true  story  of  Solomon's  love  for  the  Shulam- 
mite. The  typical  interpretation,  to  a  cer- 
tain extent,  harmonizes  the  other  two.  The 
pure,  spontaneous,  mutual  love  of  a  great 
king  and  an  humble  maid  was  seen  to  exem- 
plify the  mutual  all'ection  lietwein  .Jehovah 
and  his  peoi)le,  and  the  story  was  told,  not 
merely  because  it  was  beautiful,  but  chielly 
because  it  was  typical  of  this  great  religious 
truth.  The  Song  of  Songs  is  thus  analogous 
to  Messianic  psalms,  which  are  based  on  the 
]iersonal  experiences  or  ofhcial  position  of 
David  or  Solomon,  and  exhibit  truths  re- 
garding the  great  king.  Tlie  comparison  of 
the  mutual  love  between  the  church  and  its 
divine  head  to  that  of  a  bride  and  a  bride- 
groom frequently  occurs  in  the  N.  T.  (Eph. 
V.  25-33;  Rev.  xix.  7-9;  xxi.  9,  etc.). 

liegarding  the  date  and  authorship  of  the 
Song,  it  will  be  perceived  at  once  that  the 
shei)herd  theory  disposes  of  the  possibility 
that  the  poem  proceeded  from  the  pen  of 
Solomon.  The  king  had  his  faults,  but  there 
is  no  reason  to  believe  that  he  was  a  monster 
of  iniquity  such  as  the  poem,  when  inter- 
preted on  the  .shepherd  hypothesis,  depicts 
him.  The  shepherd  hypothesis  requires 
the  assumption  of  another  and  a  later  author 
than  Solomon.  Turning  to  the  marks  of 
authorship  and  date  found  in  the  poem,  the 
title  first  engages  attention:  "The  Song  of 
songs,  which  is  Solomon's"  (i.  1).  The  words 
are  ambiguous,  according  to  the  Hebrew 
idiom  ;  they  may  mean  either  that  Solomon 
was  the  author  of  the  Song  (cp.  Hah.  iii.  1, 
Hebrew),  or  that  the  Song  is  about  Solomon 
(cp.  Is.  V.  1,  Hebrew).  The  ambiguity  is  ad- 
mitted, but  the  probabilities  unquestionably 
favor  the  belief  that  the  title  attributes  the 
poem  to  Solomon.  The  mind  of  the  author 
as  revealed  in  the  Song  admirably  comports 
with  all  that  is  known  of  Solomon.  The 
figurative  language  in  the  speeches  of  the 
king  not  merely  reflects  nature,  but  mirrors 
the  gardens  of  exotics  of  which  Solomon  was 
fond.  Extensive  knowledge  of  all  realms  of 
nature,  such  as  he  possessed  who  spake  of 
trees,  from  the  cedar  even  unto  the  hyssop, 
and  of  beasts,  fowl,  creeping  things,  and 
fishes,  is  exhibited  throughout  the  poem. 
And  a  minute  and  accurate  picture  of  the 
time  of  Solomon  is  presented.  Aramaisms 
are  urged  as  indicating  a  later  date  than 
Solomon.  But  the  orthography,  apart  from 
three  words,  is  not  Aramaic ;  and  the  syn- 
tactic peculiarity  of  the  poem  is  confined  to 
the  use  of  a  relative  pronoun  which  occurs 
among  other  places  in  the  song  of  Deborah 
and  tiie  history  of  Elisha,  both  of  which  are 
confessedly  ancient  Hebrew  compositions,  the 
former  antedating  the  reign  of  Solomon  by 
several  centuries.  Ewald  and  Hitzig  believed 
that  the  poem  was  ]>roduced  in  the  best  period 
of  the  Hebrew  language,  and  at  a  time  of 
great  national  prosperity.  They  attributed  it 


Sons  of  God 


701 


Sons  of  God 


I 


t<)  a  ])()ct  wlio  lived  in  tin-  generation  after 
Sulnnnin.  The  three  Aramaic  forms,  ii'ltir, 
keep  (i.  6;  viii.  11,  12),  h'luth,  lir  (i.  17), 
s'thav,  wiuter  (ii.  11),  are  regarded  hy  these 
eritics  as  an  iiliom  in  tlie  dialect  of  nortliern 
Palestine,  and  tliey  acc()rdinf;ly  attriluite  the 
song  to  a  piiet  of  the  northern  kingdom. 
But,  assuming  that  these  words  were  cliarac- 
teristic  of  the  north,  Solomon  himself  in  ad- 
dressing the  Shulanimite  maid,  wh(»  was 
j)rohahly  from  Shnnein,  and  in  (|Uoting  lur 
speeches,  may  have  adoi)ted  these  words  in 
order  to  give  to  his  poem  tlie  northern  flavor. 
It  is  alHrmed  that  pdnle.t,  orchard,  jiark  (iv. 
13),  and  'ujijilii/on,  palantjiiin  (iii.  '.),  li.  V  ;  in 
Sanscrit  jxtri/iiiui  :  others,  (Jreck  jihon-iun)  are 
of  Aryan  origin,  and  accordingly  hetray  the 
post-exilic  date  of  the  jmem.  IJut  even  if 
they  are  of  Aryan  origin,  why  should  it  he 
thought  strange  that  a  king  who  sent  bis 
ships  to  distant  (>pliir,  traili'd  with  India,  and 
brought  to  I'alestine  Indian  goods  and  ob- 
jects with  Aryan  names,  such  as  aj)es,  ]iea- 
cocks,  algum  wood,  should  also  imiK)rt  the 
palaiKiuin  and  retain  its  native  name,  and 
give  the  oriental  designation  to  the  gardens 
which  he  filled  with  oriental  plants? 

Sons  of  God. 

Worshipers  and  l)eneficiaries  of  Ood  ;  see 
Son  ."5.  Such  was  its  common  Semitic  meaning 
in  early  times.  Theri'  is  abundant  reason  to 
believe  that  this  is  its  signification  in  the 
celebrated  jni.ssiige  where  it  first  ajipears  in 
the  rjible.  "It  came  to  pass,  when  men 
began  to  niultijily  on  the  face  of  the  ground, 
and  daughters  were  born  tmto  them,  that 
the  sons  of  (4od  .siw  the  daughters  of  men 
that  they  were  fair;  and  they  took  them 
wives  of  all  that  they  cho.se"  ((icn.  vi.  1,  2). 
Three  inten)retations  have  been  proposed. 
The  sons  of  (iod  are  :  1.  The  great  and  noble 
of  the  earth,  and  tlie  daughters  of  men  arc 
women  of  inferior  rank  (Samaritan  version; 
CJreek  translation  of  Symraachus;  Targtims 
of  Onkelos  and  Jonathan).  2.  Angels,  who 
left  their  first  estate  and  look  wives  from 
among  tlie  children  of  men  (I'ook  of  Enoch, 
riiilo,  .losejihus,  Justin  JIartyr,  Clement  of 
Alexandria.  Tertullian).  3.  Pious  men,  wor- 
shijiers  of  (^od,  who  were  especially  repre- 
sented by  the-  descendants  of  Seth.  They 
were  attracted  by  the  beauty  of  women  who 
did  not  belong  to  the  godly  line,  married  with 
tliem,  and  became  .secularized  (.lulitis  Afri- 
canns,  ("hrysostoni,  ("yril  of  Alexandria, 
Augustine,  Jerome).  The  first  inter]U'etation 
lias  no  longer  any  advocates.  In  fa\or  of 
the  second,  it  is  asserted  that  the  term  de- 
notes angels  everywhere  else  in  the  <).  T. 
(Jol)  i.  (i;  ii.  1;  xxxviii.  7;  cp.  a  similar 
ex|)re.ssion  Ps.  xxix.  1;  Ixxxix.  (i ;  IJ.  V. 
margin;  but  not  Dan.  iii.  2."));  that  the 
designation  describes  atigels  a<'conling  to 
their  nature,  whereas  the  ordinary  word  for 
angels,  marakim.  messengers,  refers  to  their 
official  emjiloyment ;  and  that  this  interjire- 


tation  is  confirmed  by  Judc  (i  and  2  Pet.  ii. 
4.  Hut  that  the  term  relates  to  the  nature 
of  angels  lacks  proof;  it  is  quite  as  natural 
that  it  should  describe  angels  as  worshipers 
of  (iod.  As  to  the  jias-sages  in  Jude  and 
Peter,  to  cite  them  is  begging  the  question, 
since  exegetes  point  out  other  references,  as 
Is.  xxiv.  21-23.  And  unless  the  title  be  re- 
stricted to  the  special  form  wliidi  it  has  in 
the  iias.sage  under  discussion,  it  is  not  true 
that  the  term  denotes  angels  in  all  other 
jjlaces  where  it  occurs  in  the  O.  T.  The 
worshipers  of  the  heathen  deity  t'hemosh 
are  called  the  jieople  of  Chemosh,  and  his 
sons  and  daughters  (Num.  xxi.  2!);  Jer. 
xlviii.  4<)).  When  the  men  of  Judah.  jiro- 
fessed  worshi]iers  of  Jehovah,  took  heathen 
women  to  wife,  Judah  was  siiid  to  have  mar- 
ried the  daughter  of  a  strange  god  (Mai.  ii. 
11 ).     Moses  was  directed  to  .say  to  Pharaoh  : 

"Thus  saith  the  Lord,  Israel  is  my  son 

IjCt  my  .son  go  "  (Ex.  iv.  22,  23).  "  Ye  are  the 
children  [or  sons]  of  the  Lord  your  (Jod" 
(Dent.  xiv.  1).  "They  have  dealt  corrnjitly 
with  him,  they  are  not  his  children."  "Is 
not  he  [the  Li'.rd]  thy  father?"  "The  Lord 
siiw  it,  and  abhorred  them,  because  of  the 
provocation  of  his  sons  and  his  daughters" 
(xxxii.  .">,  (j,  19).  "  Yearethesonsof  the  living 
God  "  (Hos.  i.  10).  "  When  Israel  was  a  child 
....  I  .  .  .  .  called  my  son  out  of  Egyjit " 
(xi.  1).  "Bring  my  sons  from  far,  and  mj' 
daughters  from  the  end  of  the  earth  ;  every 
one  that  is  called  by  my  name,  and  whom  I 
have  created  for  my  glory  "  (Is.  xliii.G,  7).  The 
pious  are  the  generation  of  God's  children 
(Ps.  Ixxiii.  l.">).  and  Ejihraim  is  his  dear  son 
(Jer.  xxxi.  20).  Taking  a  broader  survey, 
and  examining  Semitic  literature  other  than 
Hebrew,  one  observes  the  siinie  fact.  Many 
a  Babylonian  styled  himself  the  son  of  the 
god  whom  he  worshi]ied  and  njiou  whom  he 
relied  for  ]>rotcction  and  care. 

Furthermore,  the  ojiinion  that  the  title  in 
Gen.  vi.  2  means  angels  is  not  the  earliest 
view,  .so  far  as  the  records  go.  The  earliest 
attested  interpretation,  that  of  the  Samaritan 
version,  regariled  the  sons  of  (iod  as  men  ; 
and  later  when  the  angelic  theory  arose,  it 
was  the  o])inion  of  a  jiarticular  school  among 
the  Jews,  while  the  more  intluential  jiarty 
in  religious  matters  still  taught  that  the  sons 
of  (iod  were  7iicn. 

The  interpretation  that  the  sons  of  (Jod  in 
Gen.  vi.  2  were  pious  people,  the  worslii]>crs 
of  the  true  God,  more  esjiecially  that  they 
were  the  godly  descendants  of  Adam  through 
Seth,  whose  geneabigy  is  given  in  (ien.  v.,  is 
not  only  in  accordance  with  Semitic,  and 
particularly  biblical,  nsjige  of  the  designa- 
tion, as  already  shown,  but  it  is  consistent 
with  the  context.  The  sons  of  God  are  con- 
trasted with  the  daughters  of  men,  that  is, 
of  other  men.  So  Jeremiah  .says,  "God  did 
set  signs  in  Israt'l  and  among  men  ;  "  and 
the  English  version  supidies  the  word  other 
before  men.  in   order  to  bring  out  the  sense 


Sons  of  God 


702 


Sorek 


(Jer.  xxxii.  20).  Likewise  the  psalmist  stiys 
that  tiic  wicked  "arc  not  in  trouble  as  men  ; 
ni'itluT  arc  tlicy  plaj^iicil  like  men;''  and 
again  tlie  Hnglisli  version  sii]ii>lies  the  word 
other  (Ts.  Ixxiii.  5).  After  tiie  same  manner 
Gen.  vi.  1,  2  may  be  read  :  "  Wlieii  mankind 
began  to  miilti])ly  on  tlic  face  of  the  gronnd, 
and  diuiglilers  were  i(orn  unto  them,  the  sons 
of  Cod  saw  the  daughters  of  other  men  that 
they  wen^  fair;  and  they  took  them  wives 
of  all  that  they  chose."  The  meaning  of  the 
writer  is  that  when  men  began  to  increase  in 
number,  the  worshipers  of  (iod  so  far  degen- 
erated tliat  in  choosing  wives  for  them.selves 
they  neglected  character,  and  esteemed  beauty 
of  face  and  form  ai)ove  i>iety.  Tiic  oll'siiring 
of  these  marriages  were  iierhai)s  stalwart 
and  violent  il).  Mixture  of  race  in  marriage 
often  produces  pliysical  strength  in  the  de- 
.scendants,  and  lack  of  religion  in  the  parents 
is  apt  to  be  reproduced  in  the  children.  The 
intermarriage  of  tlie  sons  of  God  and  the 
daughters  of  men  was  otfensive  in  the  sight 
of  God.  Sentence  was  pronounced  against 
the  wrongdoers  (;i).  The  penalty  is  not  de- 
nounced on  angels,  who  were  not  only  im- 
plicated, but  were  the  chief  sinners,  if  the 
sons  of  <io<l  were  angels.  The  punishment 
is  proimunced  against  man  only.  Man,  not 
angels,  had  oliended. 

Sons  of  God  everywhere  in  Scripture,  from 
the  earliest  to  th<^  latest  times,  means  the 
wor.shii>ers  and  b(  luliciaries  of  God,  both 
among  mortal  and  immortal  beings.  But  the 
content  of  this  idea  did  imt  remain  the  same 
through  the  ages.  It  became  larger  with  in- 
creasing knowledge  of  the  riches  of  God. 
It  enlarged,  for  example,  at  the  time  when 
the  Israelites  were  delivered  from  Egypt. 
God  said  :  "  I  have  seen  the  affliction  of  my 
people"  (Ex.  iii.  7);  and  again:  "Say  usito 
Pharaoh,  Israel  is  my  son,  my  firstborn ; 
who  is  as  dear  to  me,"  so  the  following  words 
imply,  "  as  Pharaoh's  firstborn  is  to  him  "  (iv. 
22  with  23) ;  and  again  :  "  I  will  take  you  to 
me  for  a  people,  and  I  will  })e  to  you  a  God  " 
(vi.  7).  Heretofore  the  title  liad  emphasized 
a  filial  relation  of  men  to  God,  tlieir  de- 
pendence iijion  him  for  jirotectiou  and  care, 
and  their  duty  of  reverence  and  obedience. 
Now  God  formally  accepts  the  obligations 
which  imiilicitly  devolve  on  him.  Tlie  con- 
tent <if  the  title  was  furtlier  enlarged  through 
the  teaching  of  Jesus  ( 'lirist.  He  took  truths 
already  known,  shed  light  on  them,  and 
connected  them  with  this  designation.  He 
exhibited  the  fact  tiiat  God  is  an  actual 
father  and  that  his  peojile  are  actual  chil- 
dren of  God.  They  are  such  bv  the  new 
birth  (.lohn  iii.  .'}.  5,  6,  8  ;  cp.  Rev.  xi.  11), 
begotten  of  God  (.Tohn  i.  12.  13;  v.  21 ;  and 
so  Eph.  ii.  .");  .Tas.  i.  is  :  1  Pet.  i.  23),  made 
partakers  of  the  divine  nature  through  the 
mediation  of  the  indwt'lliug  S]>irit  (.Tohn  vi. 
4H-.")1  ;  .w.  4,  .") ;  and  so  1  .Tohn  iii.  !l).  atid 
possessing  a  like  character  with  (iod,  re- 
sembling him   in   holiness,  love,  and  eleva- 


tion above  the  illusions  of  earth  (1  John  iii. 
9  ;  iv.  7;  v.  4),  although  falling  far  short  of 
the  divine  character  in  this  life  (i.  8,  10). 
They  have  been  adoi)ted  as  sons  (Gal.  iv.  5), 
are  taught  by  the  Spirit  to  say  Abba,  Father 
(6  ;  Horn.  viii.  1.") ),  and  are  led  bj-  the  Spirit  (14). 

Sooth'say-er  [saver  of  truth]. 

A  diviner  (Josli.  xiii.  22,  with  Nam.  xxii. 
7),  one  who  jirognosticates  future  events  (Jer. 
xxvii.  9,  K.  v.,  in  Hebrew  'on'mm).  As  ren- 
dering of  the  Aramaic  Gastrin,  it  denotes  one 
who  profes.sed  to  be  able  to  interpret  dreams 
(Dan.  iv.  7)  and  explain  dark  sentences  (9; 
v.  11,  12),  and  to  whom  men  in  desperation 
resorted  to  obtain,  if  possible,  the  revelation 
of  secrets  (ii.  27). 

Sop'a-ter  [of  good  parentage]. 

A  Christian  from  Bercea  who,  with  other 
converts,  accompanied  the  apostle  l\aul  from 
Greece  as  far  as  the  province  of  Asia,  when 
the  apostle  was  returning  from  his  third 
missionary  journey  (Acts  xx.  4).  He  was 
son  of  Pyrrhus  (R.  V.). 

Soph'e-retli,  in  R.  V.Hassoplieretli,with  the 
Hel)rew  article  [secretariat,  secretaryship]. 

One  of  the  class  known  as  Solomon's  ser- 
vants. He  founded  a  family,  members  of 
which  returned  from  captivity  with  Zerub- 
babel  (Ezra  ii.  55;  Neh.  vii.  57). 

Sor'cer-er. 

One  wdio  practices  sorcery,  uses  potions 
that  derive  a  supposed  efficacy  from  mag- 
ical spells,  and  professes  to  possess  super- 
natural power  or  knowledge,  gained  in  any 
manner,  especially  through  the  connivance 
of  evil  spirits  (Ex.  vii.  11  ;  Antiq.  xvii.  4,  1  ; 
Life  31).  Sorcerers  were  found  in  Egypt 
(Ex.  vii.  11),  Assyria  (Xah.  iii.  4),  Babylonia 
(Is.  xlvii.  9  ;  Dan.  ii.  2),  and  other  heathen 
lands  (Dent,  xviii.  10)  ;  but  were  strictly  for- 
bidden in  Israel  (Ex.  xxii.  18;  Deut.  xviii. 
10),  and  warning  was  uttered  against  their 
deception  (Jer.  xxvii.  9),  and  their  punish- 
ment was  foretold  (^lic.  v.  12 ;  Mai.  iii.  5  ; 
Rev.  xxi.  8).  The  Hebrew  and  Greek  words 
for  sorcerer  and  sorcery  are  sometimes  ren- 
dered witch  and  witchcraft  in  the  English 
versions.  Simon,  called  Magus  or  magician, 
and  Bar-jesus  were  prominent  sorcerers  in 
apostolic  history  (Acts  viii.  9,  11  :  xiii.  (>,  8). 
A  sorceress,  and  likewise  the  sorcerer  and  the 
practiccr  of  other  forms  of  the  black  art, 
W'Cre  not  to  be  permitted  to  live  (Ex.  xxii.  18: 
Lev.  XX.  27 ;  Deut.  xviii.  10-12).  God's  own 
attitude  toward  such  persons  and  those  who 
consulted  them  was  also  one?  of  destruction 
(Lev.  XX.  (J,  23  ;  Deut.  xviii.  12  ;  Wisd.  xii.  4  (>). 

So'rek  [a  choice  vine]. 

.\  valley  in  which  Delilah  lived  (Judg. 
xvi.  4).  It  is  doubtless  the  wady  es-Surar, 
which  commences  about  13  miles  west, 
slightly  south,  of  Jerusalem,  and  ])ursues  a 
tortuous  cour.se  in  a  northwesterly  direction 
toward  the  Mediti'rranean  Sea.  It  is  traversed 
by  a  stream  wliich  falls  into  the  sea  about  8i 


Sosipater 


r03 


Soul 


miles  south  of  Joppa.  The  name  Sfirik  is 
still  l)(»rne  by  a  ruin  north  of  the  valley,  2 
miles  Iroin    Zorah,   Samson's  hirtlijilaee. 

So-sip'a-ter  [siiviour  of  a  father]. 

A  Christian  who  joined  with  I'aul  in  send- 
ing siilutations  (Kom.  xvi.  21 1. 

Sos'the-nes  [of  sound  stniijith]. 

A  ruler  111"  the  Jewish  syna^ojiue  at  ("orinth 
when  Paul  was  there.  Jn  the  outbreak  whicli 
Paul's  jireaehing  excited,  the  riotous  Jews 
seized  Sostliencs  and  beat  him  before  the 
jud).'menl  seat  of  (!allio  (Acts  xviii.  17). 
Sosthenes  was  associated  with  I'aul  as  a 
brother  Christian  in  the  addre.ss  to  the  Corin- 
thians (1  Cor.  i.  1). 

So'tal  [deviator]. 

One  of  the  class  known  as  Solomon's  serv- 
ants. He  founded  a  family,  members  of 
which  returned  with  Zerubbabel  from  cap- 
tivity (Kzra  ii.  55;  Neb.  vii.  57). 

Soul. 

In  ordinary  English  usage,  a  .s))irit  is  an 
immaterial,  incorporeal  being,  which  may  or 
may  not  be  a.ssociatid  with  a  body, as  "  God  is 
a  Spirit,"  "My  spirit  hath  rejoiced  in  God  my 
S;iviour''  (John  iv.  24  ;  Luke  i.  47)  ;  a  .soul  is 
a  spirit  that  is  or  at  least  has  been  embodied, 
as  the  souls  of  them  that  had  been  slain 
'  Uev.  vi.  9) ;  and  a  ghost  is  a  disembodied 
spirit. 

Theologians  entertain  two  main  views  as 
to  the  soul,  and  consef|nently  as  to  the  nature 
of  man  and  irrational  animals.  f)ne  is  em- 
bniced  under  the  doctrine  of  trichotomy. 
Trichotomists  differ  considerably  among 
themselvi-s  :  but  according  tf)  the  doctrine, 
in  its  geni'ral  outline,--,  man  consists  of  three 
jiarts  or  essential  elements,  body,  soul,  and 
s|>irit  (1  Thes.  v.  2:j).  The  i)ody  is  the  ma- 
terial part  of  man's  constitution.  The  soul, 
in  Hebrew  iiephc.ih,  in  (Jreek  ]isiich?,  is  the 
]irin<'iple  of  animal  life  :  man  ]iossesses  it  in 
comnion  with  the  brutes;  to  it  belong  under- 
standing, enn)tion,  and  sensibility,  and  it 
cease»s  to  exist  at  death.  The  sjiirit,  in  He- 
brew )v/<r/i.  in  (ircek  jDiriniui.  is  the  mind,  the 
liritK'iple  of  man's  rational  and  iinniortal  life, 
the  possessor  of  reason,  will,  and  conscience. 
(!od  created  man  by  enlivening  inorganic 
matter  formed  intoa  body,  and  then  creating 
a  rational  s])irit  and  infusing  it  (( !en.  ii.  7). 
and  at  death  the  dust  nr  body  returns  to  the 
•  artli  as  it  was,  ami  the  sjjirit  returns  unto 
Cud  who  gave  it  (Ecc.  xii.  7).  The  soul  of 
life,  in  Hebrew  vrpheKh  liiii/ynh,  in  the  in- 
stance of  the  animal  ((ien.  i.  21.  24)  is  only 
the  animal  soul,  which  is  jihysical  and  ma- 
fi-rial  ill  its  nature,  and  jierishes  with  the 
lii.dy  of  which  it  is  the  vital  jirinciple:  but 
the  siiul  of  life  in  the  instance  of  man  (ii.  7) 
;  ;  •'  liiL'her  jirinciple,  the  rational  soul,  which 
\\;:s  inbreathed  by  th(^  Creator  ami  made  in 
Ii-  iina'.'e.  I'sually  the.  biblical  writers  do 
I'.i't  distinguish  the  pxiirhr  or  animal  soul, 
which  is  the  lower  side  of  the  human  soul, 
friin\   the  pneitmn  or  nilional  soul,  the  higher 


side,  since  they  constitute  one  sou],  j'xi'chr,  in 
distinction  from  the  body,  and  they  are  some- 
times designated  in  their  unity  by  ptieuma, 
and  sometimes  by  jiKiirhr.  Commonly  the 
sacred  writers  speak  of  man  as  constituted 
of  body  and  soul,  or  budy  an<l  spirit,  and 
not  of  body,  soul,  and  sjiiiit  :  but  in  1  Cor. 
XV.  44,  as  in  1  Tlies.  v.  23  and  Heb.  iv.  12, 
Paul  requires  the  distinction  between  the 
animal  and  the  rational  soul  for  thi'  jmrposes 
of  his  discussion,  and  he  accordingly  makes 
it. 

According  to  dichotomy,  on  the  other  hand, 
there  are  only  two  essential  elements  in  the 
constitution  of  man:  the  body  f<irmed  from 
the  dust  ot  the  earth,  and  the  soul  or  jirin- 
ciple of  life  ((ien.  ii.  7).  The  soul  is  the 
princijile  of  the  whole  life  of  whatever  sub- 
.ject  is  sjioken  of,  whether  man  or  beast.  It 
is  the  jirincijile  of  all  life,  jihysical,  intel- 
lectual, moral,  religious.  There  is  not  one 
substance,  the  soul,  which  feels  and  remem- 
bers, and  another  substance,  the  sjiirit,  that 
has  conscience  and  the  knowledge  of  God. 
The  soul  of  the  brute  is  the  living  principle 
in  the  bruti-:  it  is  conscious  of  the  imjires- 
sions  which  are  made  by  external  objects  on 
the  organs  of  sense  belonging  to  the  body  ;  it 
is  endowed  with  that  measure  of  intelligence 
wiiich  experience  shows  the  lower  animals 
to  possess,  but  it  is  irrational  and  mortal. 
Brutes  jierish  because  God  does  not  will  that 
the  living  j>rincii>le  in  them  should  continue. 
The  soul  of  man  is  the  siime  in  kind  with 
that  of  the  brute,  but  it  differs  in  being  of  a 
higher  order:  in  addition  to  the  attributes 
of  .sensibility,  mi'mory,  and  instinct,  it  has 
the  higher  jiowers  which  jiertain  to  the  in- 
tellectual, moral,  and  religious  life,  and  it 
has  continued  existence  after  the  death  of 
the  body,  not  because  of  its  inherent  nature, 
but  because  God  wills  to  j)reserve  it.  It  is 
argued  from  the  usage  of  words  in  Scrijiture 
in  defense  of  this  dualism  that  1.  Soul  of 
life,  in'phesh  hnyyah,  means  simjily  animate 
existence,  a  being  in  which  there  is  a  living 
soul,  and  there  is  no  authority  to  make  it 
mean  one  thing  in  the  case  of  a  brute  and 
(|nite  another  thing  in  the  case  of  a  man.  2. 
The  Bible  does  not  ascribe  to  beasts  a  jisuche 
only,  and  both  a  jhsiichr  and  ptieiinia  to  man. 
Till'  living  jirincijile  in  brutes  is  called  sjiirit, 
riuih.  as  well  as  soul,  iiciihr.sh,  pmichr.  "Who 
knowetb  the  sjiirit  of  man  whether  it  goeth 
upward,  and  the  sj>irit  of  the  beast  whether 
it  goeth  downwanl  to  the  earth'/"  (Ecc.  iii. 
21  ;  ei«.  1!»,  K.  V.  margin  :  (Jen.  vii.  1.".).  .■?. 
No  distinction  is  observed  in  the  nsi-  of  the 
words  soul  and  sjiirit.  The  souls  of  them 
that  were  slain  for  the  word  of  (lod  are  in 
heaven  (Hev.  vi.  !> ;  xx.  4),  and  likewi.>;e  lie 
sjiirits  of  just  men  made  perfect  (Heb.  xii. 
2:5). 

Trichotomists  quote  1  Thes.  v.  23:  "The  God 
of  jieace  himself  sanctify  you  wluilly  :and  may 
your  sjiirit  and  soul  and  body  be  jircservod 
entire,  willinut   blame  at   the  coining  of  our 


Soul 


704 


Sparrow 


Lord  Jesus  Christ"  (op.  Heb.  iv.  12),  as  evi- 
di'iicr  tliat  Paul  distinguishes  the  animal 
soul  from  the  rational  sjjirit.  But  diclioto- 
mists  reply  that  Paul's  lanfjuajic  is  quite 
analo;;(ius  io  that  employed  in  tlu' command, 
"Tiiou  shalt  love  the  Lord  thy  (iod  with  all 
thy  Jieart,  and  with  all  thy  soul,  and  with 
all  thy  mind,  and  with  all  thy  strength" 
(Mark  xii.  30  ;  cp.  Luke  i.  4(),  47).  The  in- 
tention in  the  demand  for  love,  and  in  the 
prayer  for  preservation,  is  simi>ly  to  lay 
stress  on  the  whole  man,  and  the  description 
is  accordingly  plethoric.  As  heart,  soul, 
strength,  and  mind  are  not  so  many  essential 
elements  in  man's  constitution,  so  there  is 
no  ])roor  tliat  body,  soul,  and  spirit  are.  The 
main  jiassage  relied  upon  to  sui)port  the  tri- 
chotomist  position  is  1  Cor.  xv.  44 :  "  It  is 
sown  a  natural  body ;  it  is  raised  a  spiritual 
body.  If  there  is  a  natural  body,  there  is 
also  a  spiritual  body.''  Trichotoniists  inter- 
pret the  noma  p.tuchikon  or  natural  body  as 
one  marked  by  the  qualities  of  the  psuche  or 
animal  soul ;  luiniely,  by  physical  appetites 
and  passions,  such  as  luinger,  thirst,  and 
sexual  appetite.  These  are  founded  in  "flesh 
and  blood,"  or  that  material  substance  of 
which  the  present  human  body  is  composed. 
The  resurrection,  or  spiritual  body,  on  the 
other  hand,  will  be  marked  by  the  qualities 
of  the  pneumn  or  rational  soul.  It  will  not 
be  composed  of  flesh  and  blood,  but  of  a  sub- 
stance which  is  more  like  the  rational  than 
the  animal  soul.  There  is,  however,  another 
interpretation,  not  only  in  harmony  with 
the  doctrine  of  the  dual  constitution  of  man, 
but  in  accord  with  the  general  usage  of  the 
words  psHchikofi  and  piieunmtikox.  natural  and 
spiritual.  The  resurrection  l)ody  of  the  re- 
deemed will  not  be  marked  by  the  qualities 
of  ordinary  animal  life,  right  and  proper 
though  that  life  is,  but  the  resurrection  body 
will  be  opposed  to  everything  carnal,  and 
will  be  characterized  by  the  qualities  which 
belong  to  the  Spirit-led  man.  This  appears 
from  a  study  of  the  words.  In  established 
usage  among  the  Creeks  psuche  was  the  com- 
mon word  for  the  vital  principle ;  which, 
however,  might  be  thought  of  as  a  disem- 
bodied soul,  the  immortal  part  of  man,  and 
the  organ  of  thouiiht  and  judgment  (Herod. 
ii.  123;  v.  124;  Plato,  Tim.  x.,  i.  e.,  p.  30i^), 
hence  psuchikos  referred  primarily  to  the 
ordinary  animal  life,  and  is  so  used  by 
Paul,  James,  and  Jude  (1  Cor.  ii.  14 ;  Jas. 
iii.  15  ;  Jude  19).  Pneumnfikos,  on  the 
other  hand,  almost  exclusively  has  refer- 
eiu'c  in  Serijiture  to  the  Piieiima  'aqiort,  the 
Holy  Si)irit.  It  is  opposed  to  carnal  and 
fleshly,  to  human  nature  deprived  of  the 
Spirit  of  God ;  it  refers  to  possession  and 
contnd  by  the  IIolv  Spirit  as  contrasted  with 
the  domination  of 'the  llesli  (1  Cur.  iii.  1)  ;  it 
denot(^s  what  is  etrccted  by  the  Spirit  and 
pertains  to  the  Si)irit  (Koui.  i.  11  ;  1  Cor.  ii. 
13;  xii.  1).  Hence  a  spiritual  body,  con- 
trasted with  a  natural  body,  is  a  body  not 


only  free  from  fleshly  lusts,  but  elevated 
above  the  physical  i)a.ssions  and  appetites 
which  are  natural  to  nuiii  (Mat.  xxii.  30),  in 
vital  union  with  the  Spirit  of  (iod,  and 
marked  by  the  cpialities  which  characterize 
the  Spirit-led  man. 

South  Ra'moth.     See  Kamah  6. 

Sow.     See  Swine. 

Sow'er  and  Sow'ing. 

Sowing  bigan  with  the  rain  of  October; 
see  Year.  The;  seed  was  required  to  be 
ceremonially  clean  (Lev.  xi.  37,  38).  The 
sower  held  the  vessel  containing  the  seed  in 
the  left  hand,  and  scattered  the  seed  with 
his  right ;  see  illustration,  article  Plow. 
When  the  soil  was  favorable,  he  seems  some- 
times to  have  cast  in  front  of  the  plow,  which 
then  served  the  purpose  of  a  harrow  to  cover 
the  seed.  Wheat  was  best  sown,  it  was 
thought,  in  rows  (Is.  xxviii.  2.5,  R.  V.).  The 
sowing  of  mixed  seed  was  forbidden  (Lev. 
xix.  19  ;  Dent.  xxii.  9),  as  being  contrary  to 
nature  as  established  by  the  Creator  ;  but  the 
planting  of  several  kinds  of  seeds  in  diflTerent 
sections  of  the  same  field  was  permitted. 

Spain. 

The  well-known  country  in  the  south- 
western portion  of  Europe.  Its  mines  yielded 
gold  and  silver  (1  Mac.  viii.  3).  Paul  desired 
to  vi.sit  it  (Rom.  xv.  24,  28),  but  it  is  unknown 
whether  or  not  he  was  able  to  carry  out  his 
intention.    See  Tarshish. 

Spar'row. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Sippor, 
chirper,  in  Ps.  Ixxxiv.  3 ;  cii.  7 ;  and  R.  V. 
of  Prov.  xxvi.  2.  The  word  is  more  fre- 
quently translated  bird  ;  in  fact,  it  is  often 
employed  as  a  general  term  for  bird  or  fowl 
(Ps.  viii.  8;  cxlviii.  10;  Ezek.  xvii.  23).  It 
may  be  a  bird  of  prey  (Jer.  xii.  9 ;  Ezek. 
xxxix.  17),  such  as  the  raven  and  crow, 
which  are  passei'ine  birds,  although  they 
feed  on  carrion ;  or  it  may  be  a  bird  cere- 
monially clean,  and  large  enough  to  be  eaten 
as  food  (Lev.  xiv.  4;  Neh.  v.  18).  It  may 
live  in  the  mountains  or  in  the  town  (Ps.  xi. 
1 ;  Ixxxiv.  3),  and  may  build  its  nest  in  trees 
or  on  the  ground  or  about  human  habita- 
tions (Deut.  xxii.  6 ;  Ps.  Ixxxiv.  3).  The 
term  includes  doves  and  ])igeons  (Gen.  xv.  9, 
10),  and  the  etymologj'  indicates  that  in  the 
first  instance  it  designates  chirping  birds, 
like  the  sparrow  and  the  finch. 

In  the  N.  T.  sparrow  is  the  rendering  of 
the  Greek  f^tronthhin,  which  denotes  any 
small  bird,  esjiecially  one  of  the  sparrow 
kind.  It  wa,s  sold  and  eaten  (Mat.  x.  29; 
Luke  xii.  (J,  7). 

The  house  .sparrow  (Passer  domestieus), 
familiarly  known  as  the  Engli.sh  sparrow,  is 
found  through  Kurope,  northern  Africa,  and 
western  Asia,  and  is  common  in  the  coast 
towns  of  Palestine.  Two  species  of  southern 
Europe,  closely  allied  to  it,  the  Italian  spar- 
row  (Passer  italix)  and  the  marsh  sparrow 


Spartans 


705 


Spikenard 


(Passer  hispaiiiolmsi.s),  also  occur,  the  hitter 
cliielly  in  the  Jonhiu  valley,  where  it  breeds 
in  vast  miiiil)ers  in  the  thorn  trees.  Tlu^ 
tree  sparrow  (I'dssfr  moutaiitis)  is  a  near  rela- 
tive of  the  house  si)arrow,  anil  jierhaps  in 
Palestine  should  luit  hi-  separated  from  it; 
but  the  sparrows  which  freijuent  the  sacred 
precincts  on  the  ti'iiiple  hill  and  arc  connnon 
on  tiie  mount  of  Olives  have  sonictiiucs  been 
8])oken  of  by  writers  of  authority  as  tree 
sparrows.  Another  sparrow  {I'as.ser  moabit- 
icus)  is  found  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Dead 
Sea,  but  is  rare.  The  rock  or  foolish  sparrow 
{] 'ft  roil  id  stiilta)  is  common  on  the  central 
ridfic  of  I'alestine.  It  never  resorts  to  in- 
liabited  dwi'llin};s.  Thomson  says  that  a 
sparrow  which  has  lost  its  mate  is  often  seen 
sitting  alone  on  the  housetop,  lamenting  its 
fate  (cp.  Ps.  cii.  7).  Tristrani  is  inclined  to 
see  in  this  jmssape  a  reference  to  the  blue 
thrush  {Miiuthola  ci/atius),  a  solitary  bird 
wliicli  ]>erchcs  on  the  honseto]i,  uttering 
meanwhile  a  monotonous  and  ]>laintive  note. 

Spar 'tans. 

Inhabitants  of  the  celebrated  city  of 
Sjiarta  in  (Jreece.  It  was  known  also  as 
Lacedjenion.  .Tonathan  Maccabwus  refers  to 
an  aiuient  friendshi))  which  existed  between 
the  Sjiartans  and  the  Jews  in  the  days  of 
king  Arius  and  the  liigh  i)riest  Onias,  about 
3(10  R.  c.  (1  Mac.  xii.  7,  VJ-S.i  ;  in  A.  V.  Lace- 
demonianst  ;  and  he  sent  letters  to  them, 
when  he  sent  an  embassy  to  Rome,  to  renew 
the  friendshii)  with  them  (2,  o).  Jonathan 
did  not  live  to  hear  their  answer,  but  Simon 
received  cordial  letters  from  them  (xiv.  I(i, 
2(1 -•,•:{  I. 

Spear. 

The  spear,  called  in  Hebrew  {/"uith,  con- 
sisted of  a  metallic  head  on  a  shaft  (1  Sam. 
xiii.  19;  xvii.  7;  Is.  ii.  4).  It  could  be  car- 
ried in  the  hand;  stuck  in  the  ground  when 
not  wanted  :  and  tiiough  used  for  thrusting, 
could  be  hurled  (1  Sam.  xviii.  10,  in  A.  V. 
javelin  ;  xxvi.  7,  ii;  2  Sam.  ii.  23;  John  xix. 
34). 

A  long  .spear,  tlie  Arab  riimh.  was  used 
(Jiidg.  V.  H;  1  (bron.  xii.  H.  '21  ;  Xeh.  iv.  13; 
Jer.  xlvi.  -1).  It  was  called  romah  by  the 
Hebrews,  and  was  used  for  thrusting  (Num. 
XXV.  7,  H,  11.  v.),  not  for  throwing.  In  K.  V., 
it  is  once  rendered  lance  (1  Kin.  xviii.  28), 
in  A.  V.  of  IGll  lancer,  later  corrupted  into 
lancet. 

Spear'men. 

The  rendering  f)f  the  (ireek  Dfxiolahos  or, 
as  in  the  .\lexan<lrian  nianuscri|)t,  Drjiobolos 
in  Acts  xxiii.  'S.i,  a  body  of  tntops  distin- 
guished from  the  legioiuiry  soldiers  and  the 
cavalry.  In  tiie  only  other  ])assage  where 
the  Word  occurs,  which  is  late,  they  are 
distinguished  from  archers  and  targeteers. 
I'.vidently  they  were  light-armed  .soldiers 
who  carried  a  weapon  in   the  right  hand. 

Spelt. 

The  revised  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Kns- 
45 


semeth  (Ex.  ix.  32  and  Is.  xxviii.  2.5,  in  A.  V. 
rye  ;  Kzek.  iv.  !l,  in  A.  V.  fitches).  Spelt  is 
an  inferior  kind  of  wheat,  the  cliatt'  of 
which  slightly  adheres  to  the  grain.  It  was 
sown  in  Egypt,  sjiringing  uj)  after  the  barley 
(Ex.  ix.  32).  The  Egyjitians  made  their 
bread  of  it  (Herod,  ii.  36,  77).  Rye  is  a 
northern  i)lant,  and  is  not  grown  in  Egypt 
and  Palestine. 
Spice. 

1.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Bosenx  and 
its  plural  B'samim,  which  are  used  generically 
for  fragrant  stufl",  si)ice,  spicerv  (Ex.  xxv.  6 
with  XXX.  23,  24;  1  Kin.  x.  lo";  Song  iv.  10, 
14).  Spice  is  a  vegetable  substance  pos.sess- 
ing  aromatic  and  i)ungent  qualities  (Song  iv. 
1(>).  The  chief  spici'S  were  myrrh,  cinna- 
mon, calannis,  and  cassia  or  costus  (Ex.  xxx. 
23,  24).  Soulliern  Arabia  was  the  great,  hut 
not  exclusive,  jyrodncer  of  them  (1  Kin.  x.2; 
Ezek.  xxvii.  22).  Bosem  in  Song  v.  13;  vi. 
2,  and  basam  in  v.  1,  are  probably  applied 
sjiecifically  to  balsam  or  balm  of  Gilead  (R. 
V.  margin). 

2.  N'ko'th  (Gen.  xxxvii.  25;  xliii.  11)  is 
probably  a  specific  term  for  tragacanth  or 
storax  (R.  V.  margin).  A  form  of  this  word 
is  perliaps  used  in  2  Kin.  xx.  13;  Is.  xxxix. 
2  for  spices  in  general. 

3.  i^ammim,  fragrant  odors,  were  aromatic 
substances  used  in  (he  i>reparation  of  incense 
(Ex.  XXX.  7).  Three  are  specified  :  stacte  or 
opobalsamnm,  onycha,  and  galbanum  (34). 

4.  The  rendering  of  the  Greek  Aroma,  a 
generic  term  (Mark  xvi.  1),  including  myrrh 
and  aloes  (John  xix.  40). 

Spice  Mer'chant. 

The  reH(l(  ring  of  the  Hebrew  Eokel  in  1 
Kin.  X.  1.").  It  means  simply,  as  the  R.  V. 
makes  it,  a  merchant ;  and  A.  V.  renders  it 
so  elsewliere,  e.  g.  Ezek.  xxvii.  13. 

Spi'der. 

An  animal  of  the  class  Arachnida,  called 
in  Hebrew  'akkahixh.  It  weaves  a  web  (Job 
viii.  14  ;  Is.  lix.  f)).  The  number  of  sjiecies 
in  Palestine  amounts  to  (iOO  or  70(1.  In 
A.  V.  .spider  is  the  rendering  of  the  Hebrew 
S'nKniiith,  jioisouous  thing  (Prov.  xxx.  28,  in 
R.  V.  li/ard). 

Spike'nard. 

A  fragrant  i)Iant.  in  Hebrew  Jirrr?  (Song  iv. 
13,  14),  from  which  an  aromatic  ointment 
was  made,  called  vanlos  in  (Jreek  (Mark  xiv. 
3).  It  is  believed  to  be  AardoKtachi/s  jafa- 
mansi,  a  plant  with  very  fragrant  root.s, 
growing  in  the  Himalaya  Mountains,  at  an 
elevation  of  ll.dOd  to  17.000  feet.  It  was 
u.sed  by  the  Hindus  as  a  mediciiu'  and  jier- 
funie  from  reniote  anti(|uity,  and  was  early 
an  article  of  commerce.  Tlie  long  distance 
which  it  had  to  be  brought  to  Palestine  ren- 
dered it  on  its  arrival  very  precious.  The 
alabaster  cruse  of  it,  which  was  itonred  over 
the  head  of  Jesus,  was  worth  3(M)  denarii 
(Mark  xiv.  3, .'»).  According  to  Pliny,  the  oint- 
ment varied  in  price  from  2.")  to  300and  even 


Spinning 


706 


Star 


400  denarii  a  pound,  according  to  the  (juality 
(Hist.  Nat.  xii.  26;  xiii.  2,  4).  In  Mark  xiv. 
3;  John  xii.  3  (sec  R.  V.  margin),  the  spike- 
nard  is   described   by  the   Greek    adjective 


m/  W^y 


spikenard  (Xardontachys  jalamansi). 

pistiko.t,  a  variant  of  pistos,  genuine,  or  of 
pistos,  liquid.  Some  interpreters,  however, 
think  that  the  adjective  denotes  the  place 
where  this  variety  was  obtained. 

Spin'ning. 

Spinning  was  the  work  of  the  women  (Ex. 
XXXV.  25i.  The  wheel  was  unknown,  and 
spinning  was  done  by  hand.  Distatf  and 
spindle  were  used  (Prov.  xxxi.  19).  The 
flax  or  wool  was  wound  on  the  distatf,  which 
was  held  under  the  arm  or  stuck  upright  in 
the  ground,  and  the  thread  was  drawn  out 
by  hand.  To  the  end  of  this  thread  the 
spindle,  with  a  circular  rim  to  steady  it 
when  revolving,  was  attached  and  by  rotating 
it  the  spinner  twisted  the  thread.  See  illus- 
tration, article  Weaving. 

Spir'it.     See  Soul  and  Holy  Ghost. 

Spring.     See  Fountain. 

Sta'chys  [an  ear  of  grain]. 

A  Cliristian  at  Rome  to  whom  the  apostle 
Paul  sent  a  salutation  (Rom.  xvi.  9). 

Stac'te. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Nataph,  a 
drop.  It  denotes  a  sweet  spice,  which  was 
used  for  incense  (Ex.  xxx.  34;  cp.  Ecchis. 
xxiv.  1.")).  The  Septuagint  interprets  iitttaph 
by  utaktr,  which  likewise  signifies  a  drop  or 
exudation,  and  was  employed  for  tlie  oil 
which  trickles  from  fresh  myrrh  or  cinna- 
mon.    It  is  believed,  however,  that  nataph  is 


the  gum  of  the  storax  tree,  or  else  opobal- 
samum  (R.  V.  margin). 

The  storax  iStj/rax  officinalis)  is  a  resinous 
shrub  or  small  tree,  from  10  to  20  feet  high, 


Stacte  (Slyrax  officinalis). 

with  flowers  resembling  those  of  the  orange 
in  color,  size,  and  fragrance,  and  mostly 
growing  in  spikes  of  four  or  five.  The  tree 
is  very  showy  when  in  bloom.  It  is  native 
in  Asia  Minor  and  Syria,  and  abounds  in 
Galilee.  The  officinal  storax  is  the  inspis- 
sated juice  of  the  bark  ;  it  is  used  medici- 
nally as  an  expectorant,  and  also  in  per- 
fumery. The  liquid  storax  of  commerce  is 
the  product  of  an  entirely  diflercut  plant. 

Opobalsamum  (R.  V.  margin)  is  a  resinous 
juice,  also  called  balm  and  balm  of  Gilead 
(q.  v.). 

Star. 

The  number  of  the  stars  and  their  grouping 
in  constellations  early  attracted  man's  atten- 
tion (Gen.  xxii.  17;  Is.  xiii.  10).  Orion, 
Pleiades,  the  Bear,  the  zodiac  were  pointed 
out  (Job  ix.  9;  xxxviii.  31.  32),  planets  were 
known  and  named  (2  Kin.  xxiii.  5:  see 
Babylonia,  Chiun,  Iatifer),  perhaps 
meteors  or  comets  are  referred  to  (Jude  13), 
the  position  of  certain  stars  served  as  dates 
(Antiq.  xiii.  8,  2),  and  in  Egypt  the  .succes- 
sive rising  of  thirty-six  constellations  marked 
oft"  an  equal  number  of  ten-day  periods  in 
the  year  ;  see  Week.  The  stars  were  recog- 
nized in  Israel  as  the  handiwork  of  God 
(Gen.  i.  16  ;  Ps.  viii.  3),  and  as  under  his 
control  (Is.  xiii.  10;  Jer.  xxxi.  35). 


star 


•07 


Stephen 


But  among  the  heathen  and  the  degenerate 
Israelites  the  stars  beeanie  objects  of  wor- 
sliip  (I)eut.  iv.  19;  2  Kin.  xvii.  1(j)  ;  altars 
were  reared,  and  incense  was  burnt  to  them 
(xxi.  o ;  xxiii.  5).  Tiiej'  were  believed  to 
exercise  inlluence,  not  only  in  the  ordinary 
economy  of  nature  (cj).  Job  xxxviii.  :il,  A. 
v.),  but  also  over  tlie  affairs  of  men.  This 
belief  was  widespread  among  the  lieathen. 
Deboraii  may  jicrliajis  be  subsidizing  a  phrase 
of  current  siiecch,  in  wiiich  a  reminiscence 
of  lieathen  notions  lingers,  when  she  poeti- 
cally describes  the  stars  from  their  courses 
figiiting  against  Sisera  (Judg.  v.  20)  ;  but 
IJertheau  is  probably  correct  in  understand- 
ing her  to  speak  poetically  of  divine  assist- 
ance (iv.  1.")),  as  if  heaven  or,  to  use  her  own 
words,  as  if  the  stars,  forsaking  their  usual 
orbits,  had  fought  against  Sisera  (cp.  Ps. 
xviii.  !)).  A  reference  has  also  been  seen  in 
lier  words  to  a  providential  storm  which  dis- 
comtited  the  Canaanites;  and  ver.  'Jl  and 
.Iose]ihus  (Antiq.  v.  5.  4)  are  cited  in  con- 
firmation: but  Josephus  jjrobably  deduces 
this  storm  from  the  analogy  of  Josh.  x.  10, 
11  and  1  Sam.  vii.  10.  The  stars  were  also 
supposed  by  the  heathen  to  jiortend  coming 
events,  and  they  were  ob.served  with  a  view 
to  prognostication  (Is.  xlvii.  13).  See  As- 
trih>o(;ers.  j.  d.  D. 

Several  stars  mentioned  in  the  N.  T.  re- 
quire ]iarticular  notice  : 

1.  The  day-star  {■->  Pet.  1.  19)  is  probably  a 
figui-ative  description  of  tlie  signs  immedi- 
atelj'  jireceding  the  second  advent.  Others 
understand  it  as  the  Spirit's  illumination  of 
the  believer's  heart. 

'2.  The  morning  star  (Rev.  ii.  is)  :  the 
bright,  the  morning  star  (xxii.  Ki,  K.  V.). 
Both  these  phra.ses  are  probably  designations 
of  Christ  as  the  herald  to  his  people  of  the 
eternal  day.     See  Llcifkr. 

.'5.  The  star  of  the  wise  men  ;  see  Magx. 
The  usual  view  has  been  that  this  was  a 
purely  supernatural  ])henomenon,  a  starlike 
object  which  appeared  to  the  Magi  in  their 
eastern  sky.  and  suggested  to  them,  jierliaps 
through  their  ac(|uaintance  with  the  proph- 
ecy of  Balaam  (Num.  xxiv.  171  or  other  jtre- 
dictions,  that  the  king  of  the  .lews  was  burn, 
and  which  afK-rwards  n^appeared,  as  they 
journeye(l  from  .(crusalem  to  Bethlehem, ami 
guided  them  on  their  way  until  it  rested  over 
the  bouse  in  which  Jesus  was.  Others,  how- 
ever, consider  it  a  natural  iihenomeiion  provi- 
dentially used  to  direct  the  Magi.  In  Dec, 
1(!().'{,  the  astronomer  Kejiler  noted  a  con- 
junction of  ,Fui)iter  and  Saturn,  joined  in 
Starch,  Kid  I,  l)y  Mars,  and  in  Oct.,  KilM,  by 
a  brilliant  new  star,  whirh  gra<lually  faded 
and  vanished  in  Feb.,  ItKli!.  Kepler  calcu- 
lated that  the  iilanets  were  in  conjunction  in 
7  and  (>  n.  <-.,  and,  suii|iosing  that  the  new 
or  variable  star  had  fnllowed  the  conjunction 
then  as  it  did  in  Ifin  I,  believed  it  t<>  be  the 
stiir  of  the  Magi.  Otlu  rs  have  identified  the 
Magi's  star  with   the  iilanetary  conjunction 


itself,  and  tlie  calculations  of  Kepler  have 
been  corrected  by  Ideler,  Pritchard,  and 
Elncke,  with  the  result  that  we  know  that  in 
7  B.  c.  there  were  three  conjunctions  of 
Jujiiter  and  Saturn,  in  May,  September,  and 
December.  Hence,  it  has  been  supposed  that 
the  Magi  saw  the  heavenly  spectacle  in  May  ; 
connected  it,  through  their  astrology  and 
knowledge  of  Hebrew  profjhecy  and  expecta- 
tion, with  the  birth  of  a  .lewi.sh  king:  and. 
when  going  from  Jerusalem  to  Bethlehem  in 
Decendier,  saw  again  the  conjunction  over- 
head. But  the  word  star  can  hardly  mean  aeon- 
junction,  and  this  view  would  place  Christ's 
birth  earlier  than  other  considerations  war- 
rant. If  we  can  believe  that  Kejiler's  variable 
star  followed  the  conjunction,  as  he  supposed, 
it  would  answer  the  conditions  better  than 
the  conjuncticm  itself.  It  is  on  some  accounts 
more  jirobahle  that  the  event  was  a  natural 
rather  than  a  supernatural  phenomenon.  The 
Magi  were  doubtless  astrologers,  and  would 
attach  si)ecial  ideas  to  the  positions  and  vari- 
ations of  tlie  stars.  The  star  did  not  go  be- 
fore them  to  Judiea,  but  only,  after  its  reap- 
pearance, did  it  seem  to  lead  them  from  Je- 
rusalem to  Bethlehem.  On  the  other  haiul, 
many  think  that  Mat.  ii.  9  cannot  fairly  be 
understood  of  anything  but  a  supernatural 
phenomenon  ;  nor  can  the  astronomical  cal- 
culations above  described  safely  be  held  to 
have  identified  the  star,  even  if  it  be  regarded 
as  a  natural  object.  (j.  t.  p. 

Sta'ter.     See  Money. 

Steel. 

A  modified  form  of  iron,  resulting  in  elas- 
ticity and  hardness.  The  earliest  known  and 
sinijilest  method  of  reducing  iron  from  its 
ore  was  capable  of  yielding  steel.  The  (ha- 
lybes  in  I'oiitus  were  celebrated  for  hardening 
iron,  and  their  name  was  used  by  the  Greeks 
for  steel.  Steel  seems  to  have  been  used  in 
ancient  Egypt.  Comparison  with  Syriac 
pni'dn',  as  well  as  the  context,  suggests  that 
the  Hebrew  word  paldnh  in  Nah.  ii.  3  means 
steel  (R.  v.,  in  A.  V.  torches). 

Where  steel  occurs  in  A.  V.,  brass  is  cor- 
rectly substituted  in  R.  V. 

Steph'a-nas  [crowned]. 

A  Chrisiian  convert  at  Corinth.  Hishouse- 
hold  was  the  first  fruit  of  Paul's  labors  in  the 
province  of  Achaia.  The  ajiostle  himself 
baptized  its  members,  and  they  set  tlieniselves 
to  minister  unto  the  saints.  Stejihanas  also 
visited  the  apostle,  bringing  him  aid,  and 
was  with  him  when  the  First  Epistle  to  the 
Corinthians  was  jienned  (1  Cor.  i.  16;  svi. 
1.-.,  17). 

Ste'phen  [a  wreath  or  crown]. 

The  first  Christian  )iiartyr.  He  is  first 
mentioned  as  first  in  the  list  of  the  seven 
men  cho.sen  by  the  .Jerusalem  Christians,  at 
the  suggestion  of  the  apostl(>s,  to  sujierintond 
the  distribution  of  the  church's  alms  I  .\cts  vi. 
.'j).  Since  the  ajipointment  of  these  .seven 
men,   usually  regarded  as  the  first  deacons, 


Stephen 

arose  from  the  complaints  made  by  the 
Orvek-speakinf;  or  lli'llciiistic  .Ti-wish  Chris- 
tians that  tlicir  witlovvs  wt'ri'  ni'jik'fted  in 
the  (hiily  niiiiistralion,  and  since  Stcplien  is 
it  sell'  a  (ircfk  name,  and  since  tht;snbse(iuent 
IHTsfcution  of  Stci>hen  arose  among  the 
(Jreek-speakinjr  Jews  of  Jerusalem,  it  is 
l)rohahk'  tliiit  Stci)hen  himself  was  a  Hellen- 
ist, and  jierliaps  had  come  from  al>roiid.  Ik- 
was  a  notal)ie  man  ;  full  of  faith  and  of  the 
lIoly(4host  ('>),  who,  after  his  appointment, 
became  more  than  ever  conspicuous  as  a 
preacher  and  worker  of  miracles  (8).  His 
activity  occasioned  for  the  first  time  oppo- 
sition to  the  church  among  the  foreign 
Jews,  who  had  synagogues  in  Jerusalem. 
The  trouble  originated  i)articularly  in  the 
synagogue  of  the  libertines  (or  freedmen) 
and  C'yrenians  and  Alexandrians,  with 
whom  united  certain  .Jews  from  Cilicia 
and  Asia  (',»).  These  charged  Stephen  with 
Idasitheming  Moses  and  God,  and,  more  es- 
]iecially,  with  declaring  that  Jesus  would 
destroy  the  temple  and  change  the  customs 
derived  from  Moses  (11-14).  Luke  states 
that  the  witnesses  produced  against  Stephen 
were  suborned  and  false,  as  those  against 
Christ  had  been ;  but  Stephen  must  have 
said  something  which  could  be  thus  perverted. 
He  was  brought  bt'fore  tlie  saiihedrin,  and 
from  his  defense,  reported  in  Acts  vii.  2-53, 
we  can  understand  his  position.  He  first  re- 
cited God's  early  choice  and  guidance  of  the 
l)atriarchs  (2-22),  apparently  to  bring  out  the 
fact  that  God  from  the  beginning  had  been 
leading  Israel  to  a  definite  goal ;  then,  con- 
tinuing the  history,  he  showed  that  the  He- 
brews had  repeatedly  resisted  God's  purpose 
with  thom,  both  in  the  days  of  Moses  and 
subsequently  (23-4.3),  and  had  failed  to  see 
the  temporary  and  typical  character  of  both 
tabernacle  and  temple  (44-50).  Then,  sud- 
denly stopping  his  argument,  he  bitterly 
charged  them  with  resisting,  as  their  fathers 
had  done,  the  Holy  Ghost,  with  having 
slain  the  Christ  as  their  fathers  had  slain 
the  prophets,  and  with  failing  to  keep  in 
reality  their  own  law  (Sl-SS).  At  this 
point  the  listeners  gnashed  ujjon  him  with 
their  teeth  and  prepared  to  rush  ujion  him. 
A  vision  was  given  him  of  the  Son  of  man 
standing  (as  though  to  receive  him)  at  the 
right  hand  of  God;  and,  when  he  declared 
it,  they  seized  him,  cast  him  out  of  the  city, 
and  stoned  him.  It  was  not  lawful  for  them 
to  put  anyone  to  death  without  permission 
from  the  Romans,  but  the  martyrdom  was 
evidently  the  result  of  an  uncontrollable  out- 
lireak.  The  speech  and  death  of  Steiihen 
mark  the  transition  of  Christianity  from  its 
earliest  Jewish  form  to  its  extension  among 
the  gentiles.  Peter  preached  Christianity  as 
the  fulfillment  of  projjhecy;  Stephen  ijreached 
it  as  the  goal  of  Hebrew  history.  Yet  while 
Stephen  declared  that  Christianity  could  not 
be  limited  by  Judaism,  he  did  not  set  forth, 
like  Paul  afterwards,  its  gentile  mission  or 


708 


Stoics 


its  deliverance,  by  the  doctrine  of  salvation 
by  faith  alone,  from  its  Jewish  environment, 
lie  marks,  therefore,  the  transiiion  from 
Jewish  to  gentile  Christianity.  Moreover, 
the  i)ersecution  which  followed  his  martyr- 
dom led  to  the  disi)ersion  of  the  disciples, 
and  so  in  fact  to  the  carrying  of  the  gospel 
to  the  Samaritans  and  then  to  the  gentiles. 
Stephen's  personal  character  also  was  very 
beautiful.  As  a  man  he  was  "full  of  faith 
and  of  the  Holy  Ghost "  ( vi.  5) ;  as  a  preacher, 
"full  of  faith  and  jiower"  (8);  before  the 
council,  his  enemies"  saw  his  face  as  it  had 
been  the  face  of  an  angel "  (15)  ;  and  his  last 
words  were :  "  Lord,  lay  not  this  sin  to  their 
charge  "  (vii.  60). 

The  in.spiration  of  Stephen,  so  far  as  his 
recorded  speech  is  concerned,  is  a  disputed 
question.  He  is  said  (vii.  55)  to  have  been 
"full  of  the  Holy  Ghost,"  but  some  of  his 
historical  statements  are  thought  by  many 
not  to  harmonize  with  the  O.  T.  Others  hold 
that  they  can  be  harmonized,  or  at  least 
might  be,  if  we  knew  all  the  facts.  Either 
view  can  be  adjusted  to  the  doctrine  of  in- 
spiration, since  the  phrase  "full  of  the  Holy 
Ghost"  need  not  mean  "inspired"  in  the 
technical  sense  (see  Acts  vi.  3;  Eph.  v.  18), 
and  since  the  inspiration  of  Luke  merely 
guara)itees  the  correctness  of  his  report  of 
what  Stephen  .said,  not  the  correctness  of 
Stephen's  utterances  themselves.      G.  t.  p. 

Stocks. 

An  instrument  of  punishment,  called  in 
Hebrew  sod,  consisting  of  a  wooden  frame, 
hence  called  xuJoii  in  Greek,  in  which  the 
feet  were  put  and  firmly  held  (Job  xiii.  27  ; 
xxxiii.  11  ;  Acts  xvi.  24).  The  i)risoner  sat 
meanwhile.  A  special  form  of  the  appai'atus, 
apparently,  was  called  in  Hebrew  mdhpeketh, 
turning,  torsion,  because  the  body  was  forced 
into  an  unnatural  position  (2  Chron.  xvi.  10, 
R.  V.  margin ;  Jer.  xx.  2).  It  included 
shackles  or  rather  a  collar ;  at  least  these  could 
be  used  on  the  prisoner  at  the  same  time 
(xxix.  26,  R.  v.),  so  that  his  neck,  arms,  and 
legs  could  all  be  held  fast  together. 

Sto'ics  [Greek  stoikos,  pertaining  to  the 
porch]. 

A  sect  of  philosophers,  one  of  two  which 
Paul  encountered  at  Athens  (Acts  xvii.  18). 
Their  founder  was  Zeno  of  Citium  in  Cyprus, 
who  must  not  be  confounded  with  an  earlier 
philosopher,  Zeno  of  Elea,  in  Italy.  The 
Cyprian  Zeno  was  born,  it  is  believed,  be- 
tween 357  and  352  i;.  c,  and  died  between 
263  and  2.59,  having  lived  little  short  of  a 
century.  Removing  from  his  native  place  to 
Athens,  he  taught  for  about  fifty-eight  years 
in  a  stoa.  or  porch,  on  the  public  market 
place.  His  doctrine  was  essentially  panthe- 
istic. The  Stoics  distinguished  matter  and 
force  as  the  ultimate  principles  in  the  uni- 
verse ;  and  the  force  working  everywhere 
they  called  reason,  providence,  God,  and  re- 
giirded  it  as  conscious  and  thinking,  yet  de- 


stomacher 


ro9 


stone 


pendent  and  iniporsonal,  a  hroath  or  a  fire 
which  forms,  iK-rnieates,  and  vivifies  all 
tiling!',  and  which  in  accordance  witli  inex- 
orable necessity  calls  heintis  and  worlds  into 
existence  an<l  destroys  them  at;ain,  so  that 
at  the  end  of  a  cosmical  iicriod  the  universe 
is  resolved  into  fire  in  a  jjeneral  cnnllagration, 
and  the  evolution  of  the  world  hegins  ajrain, 
and  so  on  without  end.  The  human  soul  is 
a  s]iark  or  emanation  of  this  conscious  hut 
imjiersonal  deitw  It  survives  tln'  liody,  hut 
lives  only  for  a  cusmical  period,  and  is  reab- 
.sorhcd  at  last  into  tlu;  source  from  which  it 
came.  The  Stoics  classed  themselves  among 
the  followers  of  Socrates,  and  resembled  him 
in  their  the<iry  of  life.  Tiiey  ri^;iilly  sj'Vered 
the  mnrally  good  from  the  af;reealile.  They 
declared  that  an  act  is  good  or  evil  in  itself, 
an<l  that  i)leasure  should  never  be  made  the 
end  of  an  action.  The  hiiihest  good  is  virtue. 
N'irtueis  a  life  conformed  to  naturt',  <ir  thi' 
agri'enu'iit  of  human  conduct  witli  the  law  of 
tiie  universe,  and  of  the  human  with  the  di- 
vine will ;  it  ises])ecially  resignation  in  respect 
to  fate.  The  cardiiuil  virtues  are  ]iractical 
wisdom  as  to  what  is  good  and  evil,  courage, 
l)rudence  or  self-restraint,  and  justice.  Zeno 
encouraged  his  followers  to  liold  their  feel- 
ings in  rigid  control,  so  as  to  be  as  much  as 
jiossible  inde|ieudent  of  all  disturbing  influ- 
eiu'cs,  whatever  occurrences  might  take  place. 
Stoicism  made  noble  cliaracters.  It  contin- 
ued as  a  power  for  about  400  years,  its  most 
eminent  professors  being  the  slave  Epictetus, 
the  ]ihilosoi)her  Seneca,  and  theemperor  Mar- 
cus Aurelius. 

Stom'a-cher. 

A  (lart  of  dress,  once  worn  by  women, 
covering  the  ]>it  of  the  stomadi  and  the 
breast,  and  often  highly  ornamented.  It  is 
the  rendering  adoi)ted  in  Is.  iii.  '^4  of  the 
Hebrew  P'thujil.  aiii)lied  to  an  article  of 
female  attire.  The  meaning  of  the  Hebrew 
Word  is  not  detinitely  known. 

Stone. 

Palestine  is  a  stony  country,  and  it  was 
often  necessary  to  clear  a  field  of  stones 
preparatory  to  its  cultivation  (Is.  v.  2).  An 
eneni.v's  fields  were  marred  by  throwing 
stones  on  them,  and  his  wells  were  choked 
with  stones  ('-i  Kin.  iii.  lil,  'jro.  Stones  were 
put  to  various  uses:  1.  For  the  foundations, 
walls,  pillars,  and  pavements  of  the  statelier 
da.ss  of  buildings;  see  Counkr  Stonk,  M.\r- 
BLK,  I'ai.aci;.  For  these  ]nirposes  the  stone 
was  hewn  aucl  sawn.  Tiie  I'JKrnicians  were 
famed  for  their  skill  in  this  work  ( ;i  Sam.  v. 
11).  Stones  of  very  large  size  were  often 
eniplo.yed  (Mark  xiii.  1);  see  .Tkri'salkm. 
The  walls  of  cities  were  often  built  of  stone 
(1  Kin.  XV.  x.''.j),  and  in  Ilirodian  times  at 
least  streets  were  jiaved  with  stone;  see 
Stuket.  Aqueducts,  reservoirs,  bridges,  and 
piers  were  constructed  of  stone.  2.  For 
altars,   unhewn   stones   being   employed    by 


the  Hebrews  (Ex.  xx.  25;  .Tosh.  viii.  31),  for 
walls  or  dikes  around  fields  and  vineyards 
(Prov.  xxiv.  .30,  ;51),  l>oundary  marks  (Dent, 
xix.  14),  pillars  commemorative  of  pi'rsous 
and  events  (see  Pii.i,.\i{;  ep.  Herod,  ii.  106), 
and  iirobably  as  way  marks  (,Ier.  xxxi.  21). 
In  Uoman  times  mile  stones  were  j-rected 
along  the  chief  public  highways.  They  are 
still  to  be  seen  on  the  road  between  Tyre 
and  Sidon,  and  between  Pella  and  (ierasa. 
Stones,  both  in  their  natural  state  and 
graven,  served  as  idols  (I)eut.  xxix.  17;  2 
Kin.  xix.  18;  cp.  Is.  Ivii.  (J);  and  certain 
stones,  called  in  Greek  huitiiloi  and  bailnlia, 
which  were  often,  if  not  always,  meteorites 
and  held  sacred  because  they  fell  from  heaven, 
have  been  worshiped  in  various  i)laci"S 
throughout  western  Asia.  An  etymological 
connection  between  these  Greek  words  and 
beih  'el  has  not  been  established,  and  is  very 
(luestionable.  .'5.  For  closing  the  mouth  of 
cisterns  and  wells,  and  the  entrance  of  tombs 
(Gen.  xxix.  2;  Mat.  xxvii.  60),  as  tablets  for 
written  documents  (Ex.  xxiv.  12  ;  Dent,  xxvii. 
4,  8),  in   mills  for  grinding  grain  (xxiv.  6). 

4.  In  slings  and  catapults  (1  Sam.  xvii.  40;  2 
Chron.  xxvi.  15;  Wisd.  v.  22;  1  Mac.  vi.  51), 
and  for  the  execution  of  criminals,  being 
hurled  by  the  witnesses  and  bystanders. 
Flints  were  used  for  striking  fire  (2  Mac.  x. 
.■>),  and  were  shaped  into  rude  form  to  serve 
as  knives  (Josh.  v.  2).  Weights  for  scales 
were  often  cut  out  of  stone  (Dent.  xxv.  13) ; 
see  Weights.  Heaps  of  stones  were  made 
to  commemorate  an  event  (t^en.  xxxi.  4fi)  or 
to  mark  the  grave  of  a  notorious  ofiendcr 
(Josh.  vii.  2(3;  viii.  29:  2  Sam.  xviii.  17).  a 
custom  still  in  vogue  in  Syria  and  Arabia, 
but  not  restricted  to  the  graves  of  evildoers. 

5.  Limestone  was  crushed  and  burned  to 
secure  the  lime  (Is.  xxxiii.  12). 

The  white  stone  mentioned  in  Kev.  ii.  17 
has  been  variously  interpreted.  1.  One  of 
the  stone  tablets,  written  with  the  name  of  a 
person,  which  were  used  in  some  methods  of 
casting  the  lot.  2.  The  stone  or  bean,  bear- 
ing the  name  of  a  candidate,  which  was  cast 
at  elections  in  (ireece.  3.  The  pebble  of 
accpiittal  used  in  Greek  courts.  4.  The 
ticket  presented  to  the  victor  at  the  01ym])ic 
games.  5.  The  instructions  which  the  Koman 
enijierors  caused  to  be  thrown  to  victorious 
contestants  in  the  arena.  And  best — (>.  A 
small  stone,  a  common  writing  material, 
white  to  .sym!)olize  the  heavenly  character 
of  the  victorious  believer,  and  marked  with 
the  tiame  bestowed  as  sign  and  seal  of  his 
future  glory. 

Figuratively  stone  denotes  hardness  or  in- 
sensibility (1  Sam.  xxv.  37;  Ezek.  xxxvi.26), 
firmness  or  strength  (Job  vi.  12;  xli.  24).  A 
living  stone  is  a  stone  in  its  natural  condi- 
tion, sound  and  not  disintegrating.  Tlie  fol- 
lowers of  Christ  are  living  stones  built  into 
the  spiritiuil  temjde,  of  which  Christ  himself 
is  the  chief  cornerstone  (Eph.  ii.  20-22;  1 
Pet.  ii.  4-8). 


stones,  Precious 


710 


Stranger 


stones,  Pre'cious. 

All  the  iincidus  stones  referred  to  in  the 
("iiioiiiciil  Scriiitiires,  except  tliree,  are  enu- 
nierateil  in  K.  V.  of  Ex.  xxviii.  17-20  and 
Kev.  xxi.  11,  19-21,  text  and  margin.  The 
three  remaining  ones  are  adamant  (Kzek.  iii. 
9),  and  ligiire  and  sardine  (Ex.  xxviii.  19; 
Kev.  iv.  :>.  hotli  A.  v.).  and  of  these  at  least 
two  are  merely  other  names  for  two  of  those 
already  mentioned.  The  precious  stones  are 
adamant,  agate,  amber,  amethyst,  beryl,  car- 
l.iincli'.  chalcedony,  clirysolite,  chrysoprase 
or  chrysoiirasus.  crystal,  diamond,  emerald, 
jacinth  or  hyacinth.  Jasper,  lapis  lazuli, 
iigure.  onyx,  "pearl,  ruby,  sapphire,  sardius 
or  sardine,"  sardonyx,  and  topaz.  Ornaments 
were  made  from  them ;  as  seal  rings.  See 
the  several  articles. 

Ston'ing. 

The  ordinary  mode  of  cajutal  punishment 
prcscrilied  by  Hebrew  law  (Lev.  xx.  2);  see 
Punishment.  It  was  an  ancient  method; 
and  it  was  not  confined  to  the  Hebrews,  but 
was  pr.icticed  by  the  Macedonians  and  Per- 
sians as  well.  The  execution  took  place  out- 
side the  city  (Lev.  xxiv.  14;  1  Kin.  xxi.  10, 
13;  Acts  vii.  5S).  The  witnesses  placed  their 
hands  on  the  head  of  the  criminal  in  token 
that  the  guilt  rested  on  him  (Lev.  xxiv.  14). 
They  laid  aside  any  clothing  that  might  im- 
pede them  in  their  solemn  duty  (Acts  vii. 
58).  In  cases  of  idolatry,  and  apparently  in 
other  cases  also,  the  witnesses  hurled  the 
first  stones  (Deut.  xiii.  9;  xvii.  7;  cp.  John 
viii.  7  ;  Acts  vii.  58).  The  rabbins  state  that 
the  culprit  was  stripjied  of  all  clothing  ex- 
cept a  clotli  about  the  loins,  and  was  thrown 
to  the  ground  from  a  scaffold  about  10  feet 
high  by  the  first  witness,  the  first  stone  was 
cast  by  the  second  witness,  on  the  chest  over 
the  heart  of  the  criminal,  and  if  it  failed  to 
cause  death,  the  bystanders  completed  the 
execution.  Sometimes  the  body  was  after- 
wards suspended  until  sundown  or  burnt 
(Deut.  xxi.  23:  Josh.  vii.  25;  Antiq.  iv.  8, 
24),  and  according  to  late  Jewish  law  was 
not  buried  in  the  family  grave. 

Stool,  in  R.  V.  Birth'stool. 

A  chair  of  peculiar  form,  upon  which  the 
patient  sat  during  parturition.  It  was  de- 
nominatt-d  'obnaj/iin,  double  stones,  by  the 
Het)rews  (Ex.  i.  10),  on  account  of  its  like- 
ness to  the  potter's  wheel.  It  is  called  kursee 
el-mladch  by  the  modern  Egyptians. 

Stork. 

A  bird  called  in  Hebrew  h"f!idah.  affection- 
ate, on  account  of  its  love  for  its  young.  It 
was  ceremonially  unclean  (Lev.  xi.  19;  Deut. 
xiv.  18).  It  dwelt  in  fir  trees  (Ps.  civ.  17), 
but  was  a  migratory  bird  (Jer.  viii.  7).  It  is 
the  Ciconia  alba,  a  white  heron-like  bird, 
which  s])ends  its  winter  in  central  and  south- 
vrn  Africa,  but  in  si)ring  visits  continen- 
tal Euroi>e,  Palestine,  and  northern  Syria  in 
large  num))ers.  It  is  about  4  feet  higli.  with 
bright  red  bill  and  legs,  white  plumage,  and 


glossy  black  wings.  It  feeds  on  frogs  and 
small  reptiles  ;  but  failing  to  get  these  it  eats 
olfal,  and  hence  was  ceremonially  unclean. 
It  is  regarded  us  a  sacred  bird,  and  in  most 


Stork. 


places  is  unmolested,  so  that  it  has  uo  scruple 
in  visiting  the  haunts  of  man.  Another 
species  found  in  Palestine,  is  Ciconin  nir/ra, 
the  black  stork,  named  so  from  the  color  of 
its  back  and  neck.  It  breeds  in  trees.  It  is 
common  in  the  valley  of  the  Dead  Sea. 

Stran'ger. 

A  stranger  in  the  Mosaic  law.  and  in  the 
0.  T.  generally,  means  one  not  of  Israelitish 
descent  dwelling  with  the  Hebrews,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  a  foreigner  temporarily  visit- 
ing the  land  (Ex.  xx.  10;  Lev.  xvi.  29;  xvii. 
8;  2  Sam.  i.  13  ;  Ezek.  xiv.  7).  The  stranger 
was  not  a  full  citizen,  yet  he  had  recognized 
rights  and  duties.  He  was  under  the  pro- 
tection of  God,  and  the  Israelites  were 
charged  to  treat  him  kindly  (Lev.  xix.  33, 
34  ;  Deut.  x.  18,  19).  His  rights  were  guarded 
by  injunctions  in  the  law  (Ex.  xxii.  21; 
xxiii.  9).  When  poor,  he  enjoyed  the  same 
privileges  as  the  Hebrew  poor  (Deut.  xxiv. 
19,  20).  The  prohibitions  that  rested  on  an 
Israelite  rested  on  him  (Ex.  xii.  19;  xx.  10; 
Lev.  xvi.  29;  xvii.  10;  xviii.  26;  xx.  2; 
xxiv.  16;  and  xvii.  15,  which  was  modified 
later  by  Deut.  xiv.  21) ;  but  he  was  not 
obligated  to  all  positive  religious  duties 
which  devolved  on  the  Israelite.  He  w-as  ex- 
empt, if  he  chose  to  be  and  if  he  was  a  free 
man,  from  circumcision  and  participation  in 
the  passover  (Ex.  xii.  43-46).  The  Israelites 
were  encouraged  to  invite  him  to  the  sacri- 
ficial meals  (Deut.  xvi.  11,  14).  He  was  al- 
lowed to  sacrifice  to  the  Lord,  he  shared  in  tlie 
atonement  made  for  the  sin  of  the  congrega- 
tion on  account  of  sin  unwittingly  committed, 
he  had  the  iirivilege  of  a  sin  offering  for  aught 
done  unwittingly  by  himself,  and  the  city 
of  refuge  offered  him  asvlnm  in  case  of  need 
(Lev.  xvii.  8;  Num.  xv.  14,  26.  29;  xxxv. 
15).  In  case  he  contracted  uncleanness  he 
was  required  to  employ  the  rights  of  purifi- 
cation (Lev.  xvii.  15;  Num.  xix.  10).     If  he 


straw 


(11 


Succoth 


acceptfd  circumcision  for  his  houseliold,  he 
was  adinitti-rl  to  the  jiassovor  (Kx.  xii.48,  49). 
Tlie  cliiet"  disaliility  under  wliicli  hf  labored 
was  tliat  in  case  lie  hccanio  a  lioiidnian.  the 
year  of  juhilc  did  not  l)rini:  liiiii  rcioasc.  lie 
<'ould  l)c  Ixinu'lit  and  niatlc  an  inlieritancc  for 
the  jiurcliascr's  cliildn-n  (l^ev.  xxv.  15,  10). 

Aninionites  and  Moaliitcs  fctnued  an  ex- 
cept ional  class  ainon;;  tlic  strangers.  They 
could  not  he  admitted  vo  nieiiihershi])  in 
Israel  even  liy  circumcisinn  (l)eut.  xxiii.  3). 
With  the  idolatrous  C'anaanites  who  were  in 
the  land  at  the  time  of  the  concpiest  inter- 
marriage was  strictly  forbidden  (vii.  3),  hut 
the  remnant  which  was  left  after  the  conquest 
eventually  became  to  a  large  extent  jirose- 
lytes.  In  Solomon's  reign  the  census  re- 
vealed l.">3,(i00  strangers  in  the  realm  (2 
Chron.  ii.   17*. 

In  the  N.  T.  tite  word  strajiger  does  not 
have  this  technical  signitication,  hut  denotes 
one  who  is  unknown  (John  x.  5),  an  alien 
(Luke  xvii.  l(i,  Ih).  a  .sojourner  awav  from 
home  (xxiv.  IH.  A.  V.:  Acts  ii.  10.  A.  V.),  an 
Israi'lite  dwelling  in  the  Dispersion  (1  Pet.  i. 
1,  A.  v.). 

Straw. 

\\  111  at  and  harley  straw,  ground  and  cut 
to  small  pieces  in  the  process  of  threshing, 
and  doubtless  often  mixed  with  beans  or 
barley,  was  used  by  the  ancient  Hebrews  as 
fodder  for  their  cattle,  camels,  asses,  and 
liorses  (Gen.  xxiv.  25,  32;  .Tudg.  xix.  19;  1 
Kin.  iv.  2H ;  Is.  xi.  7).  The  Egyptians,  in 
making  bricks,  mixed  it  with  clay  to  render 
them  more  comjiact  and  prevent  their  crack- 
ing. Wlieii  riiaraoh  withlield  the  choi>ped 
straw,  the  Hebrew  slaves  were  comi>elled  to 
go  forth  into  the  field  and  gather  stubble,  or 
rather  stalks,  for  themselves,  and  chop  their 
own  straw  (Kx.  v.  7,  12,  1(5).  Straw  was 
probably  not  used  by  the  ancient  Hebrews  as 
a  litter  in  the  stall.  The  peojile  of  Palestine 
in  the  jiresent  day  are  accustomed  to  use 
dried  (lung  for  the  purpo.se. 

Stream.     See  Kiveu. 

Street. 

The  streets  of  an  oriental  town  were  doubt- 
less in  ancient  times,  as  they  are  to-day, 
narrow,  tortuous,  and  dirty.  They  are  seldom 
wide  enough  to  jiermit  two  lailen  camels  to 
jiass  each  other;  and  ,T(ise]dius  iiu'identally 
attests  the  narrowness  of  the  streets  of  .Teru- 
salem  in  his  day  (Antiq.  xx.  .">,  3;  War  ii.  14, 
9;  !.'>,  .""i) ;  liut  some  were  sutHciently  broad 
for  chariots  to  be  driven  through  them  (.ler. 
xvii.  2.">-.  Xah.  ii.  t).  The  street  in  Damascus 
<'allcd  .Straight  was  an  exception.  It  was  a 
magnificent  thoroughfare,  U)()  feet  broad 
Mild  dirided  into  three  avenues  by  rows  of 
iiijiimus.  Many  streets  were  flanked  hy 
blank  walls,  si-ldum  ]iierce<l  excejit  by  doors, 
the  windows  of  the  houses  ojieningon  interior 
courts.  The  streets  devoted  to  stores  were 
lini'd  hy  salesrooms  with  o|)en  fronts,  and  ]ire- 
sented  a  lively  aiijicarance.     The  character- 


istic liazaar  streets,  each  surrendered  to  one 
kind  of  business,  were  features  of  the  ancient 
city  (Jer.  xxxvii.  21  ;  War  v.  8,  1).  The  in- 
tersections of  the  street.s,  since  they  allbrch'd 
more  room,  were  centers  of  concourse  and  dis- 
play (Prov.  i.  21  ;  Mat.  vi.  ."> ;  Luke  xiii.  20). 
At  the  gates  were  broad,  open  ))laces  where 
business  was  transacted.  There  is  no  evidence 
that  the  streets  were  paved  in  ancient  times, 
although  .loseiihusallirmsthal  Solomon  paved 
the  roads  leading  to  .lerusjilem  with  black 
stones  (Antiq.  viii.  7,  4).  At  the  time  of  the 
Hej'ods,  however,  ])avements  were  laid  (xvi. 
5,  3  ;  XX.  9,  7),  and  efforts  were  in  some  in- 
stances made  toward  keeping  the  streets 
clean  (xv.  9,  G). 

Stripes.    See  Scourge. 

Strong  Drink. 

Intoxicating  liquor,  in  Hebrew  shekay  (1 
Sam.  i.  13-1.5;  Prov.  xx.  1  ;  Is.  xxix.  9). 
Wine  and  .strong  drink  were  forbidden  to 
the  priest,  when  about  to  enter  the  sanctuary 
(Lev.  X.  9;  c]i.  Ezek.  xliv.  21),  and  kings 
and  ]irinces  were  warned  against  its  use.  lest 
it  lead  to  perversion  of  judgment  (Prov. 
xxxi.  4,  5)  ;  yet  Isaiali  was  com])eiled  to 
point  to  the  .sad  spectacle  of  ])riests  and 
prophets,  even  in  Judah,  scandalously  failing 
in  duty  through  wine  and  strong  drink  (Is. 
xxviii.  7).  Wine,  strong  drink,  vinegar,  any 
liquor  of  grajn's,  and  even  fresh  grapes  were 
forbidden  the  Nazirite  (Num.  vi.  3;  cp.  Judg. 
xiii.  4 ;  Luke  i.  15) ;  see  Naziritk.  Both 
wine  and  strong  drink  were  allowed  at  the 
feast  spread  by  tlu'  bringer  of  tithes  (Deiit. 
xiv.  26).  On  the  basis  of  tlie  exhortation, 
"  Give  strong  drink  unto  him  that  is  ready 
to  perish"  (Prov.  xxxi.  0),  kind-hearted 
women  of  Jerusalem  jirovided  stupefying 
draughts  for  criminals  condemned  to  deatli 
(Misiina  ;  cp.  Mark  xv.  23). 

Stub'ble.     See  Straw. 

Su'ah  [sweepings]. 

An  Asherite,  a  son  of  Zoj)hah  (1  Chron. 
vii.  36). 

Su'cath-ite,  in  A.  V.  Suchathite. 

.\  native  or  an  inhabitant  of  an  unknown 
place  called  Sucah  (1  t'hron.  ii.  55). 

Suc'coth  [booths  or  huts]. 

1.  A  place  east  of  thi^  Jordan  (Judg.  viii. 
4,  5;  and  Jenune  on  (ten.  xxxiii.  17i.  at 
which  Jacob,  on  his  return  from  Mesopota- 
mia, after  cros.siiig  the  Jahhok  (Gen.  xxxii. 
22),  built  liimself^  a  house,  with  booths  for 
his  cattle,  giving  tlie  s]iot  l"rom  the  latter 
circumstance  the  name  of  .Succoth  ((Jen. 
xxxiii.  17).  He  journeyed  thence  to  Shechem 
(18).  It  was  in  the  valley  of  tlie  Jordan, 
near  Zarethan  (1  Kin.  vii.  40;  I's.  Ix.  0; 
cviii.  7).  and  was  assigned  lo  the  Gadites 
(.Josh.  xiii.  27).  In  the  time  of  (iideon  it  was 
an  im))ortant  town,  ruletl  by  seventy-seven 
elders.  They  refused  him  assistance  when 
lie  was  ]>ursuing  Zebah  and  Zainiunna.  and 
were  in  consequence  punished  by  him  when 


Succoth-benoth 


712 


Suphah 


he  returned  a  victor  (Jiidg.  viii.  5-16).  The 
site  must  he  sou>{Iit  near  the  ford  of  Dainieh, 
on  tl\e  road  between  es-Salt  and  Xahhis. 
Toll  Deir  'Alia  seareely  marks  the  place, 
althoufjh  the  Talmud  states  that  the  latter 
name  of  Succoth  was  Dar'alah ;  for  the  tell 
is  on  the  northern  side  of  the  Jahbok,  and 
the  narrative  almost  certainly  indicates  that 
Succoth  was  on  tlie  soutlu-rn  side. 

2.  The  fii-st  camping  ground  of  the  Israel- 
ites after  leaving  Kameses  (Ex.  xii.  37;  xiii. 
20;  Xum.  xxxiii.  .'>,  (!).  Succoth  is  probably 
the  Hebrew  modification  of  Thuku,  the 
Egyptian  name  of  the  civil  city  surrounding 
the  sacred  buildings  of  Pithoni  (q.  v.). 

Suc-coth-be'noth. 

An  idol  which  the  Babylonian  colonists  set 
np  in  Samaria  (2  Kin.  xvii.  30).  The  tute- 
lary deity  of  Babylon  was  ^larduk,  and  his 
consort  was  Zarpanitum,  although  numerous 
other  deities  were  worshiped  in  the  city. 
The  historian  Rawlinson,  followed  by  Schra- 
der,  propo.scd  to  identify  Succoth-benoth  with 
Zarpanitum,  the  latter  part  of  the  two  names 
being  essentially  the  .same.  Friedrich  De- 
litzsch  has  a  more  plausible  theory.  He  re- 
gards Succoth-benoth  as  a  Hebraization  of 
the  As.syrian  words  sakkut  hinutl,  supi-eme 
judge  of  the  universe,  and  he  considers  it  to 
have  been  in  this  instance  a  title  of  Marduk. 

Su'chath-ite.    Sec  Sucathite. 

Suk'ki-im,  in  A.  V.  Sukkiims  [to  the  He- 
brew ear,  i)eople  living  in  huts,  nomads]. 

One  of  tlie  peoples  furnishing  soldiers  to 
the  army  of  Shishak,  king  of  Egypt,  when 
he  invaded  Palestine.  They  were  evidently 
an  African  race  (2  Chron.  xii.  3). 

Sun. 

The  luminary  of  the  day,  created  by  God 
(Gen.  i.  10;  Ps.  Ixxiv.  16;  cxxxvi.  8),  pre- 
served by  God  (Jer.  xxxi.  35;  Mat.  v.  45), 
and  subject  to  God  (Ps.  civ.  19)  ;  influential 
in  promoting  vegetation  (Deut.  xxxiii.  14;  2 
Sam.  xxiii.  4),  and  also  burning  it  with  its 
heat  (Jon.  iv.  8).  It  is  spoken  of  as  rising 
and  setting,  and  is  poetically  described  as 
occupying  a  tent  in  the  heavens,  yet  under 
the  earth,  whence  it  issues  in  the  morning 
and  whither  it  returns  at  night  (Ps  xix. 
4-6).  Death  when  in  the  meridian  of  one's 
days,  and  the  sudden  loss  of  prosperity,  are 
likened  to  the  setting  of  the  sun  at  mid- 
day (Jer.  XV.  9;  Amos  viii.  9;  Mic.  iii.  0). 
The  sun  was  worshiped  by  the  nations  con- 
temporary with  the  Hebrew.s,  notably  by  the 
Phoenicians  under  the  name  of  Baal,  by  the 
Assyrians  under  that  of  Shamash,  and  by  the 
Egyptians  under  that  of  Ra ;  see  Assyria, 
Baal,  Egypt  II.  (i.  Ox.  The  Hebrews  were 
warned  against  all  such  heathenism,  but  sun 
worship  nevertheless  found  entrance  among 
them.  Altars  were  erected  to  all  the  host  of 
hea%'en  (2  Kin.  xxi.  5),  incense  was  burned 
to  the  sun  and  horses  were  dedicated  to  it 
(xxiii.  5,  11 ;  cp.  the  Persian  worshij),  Herod. 


i.  189 ;  vii.  54),  and  kisses  were  thrown  to  it 
with  the  hand  (Job  xxxi.  26,  27). 

Joshua  commanded  the  sun  to  stand  still. 
The  older  commentators  referred  the  words 
of  Hal),  iii.  11  to  this  event,  but  the  Hebrew 
construction  and  the  context  are  against  it. 
Sun  and  moon  withdraw  into  their  habita- 
tion. Dread  before  the  presence  of  the  Lord 
seizes  all  nature,  and  reveals  itself  in  the 
trembling  of  the  mountains,  in  the  raging  of 
the  sea,  and  in  the  withdrawal  of  their  light 
by  sun  and  moon  (10,  11).  The  first  refer- 
ence to  the  astronomical  lengthening  of  the 
day  at  Beth-horon  is  found  in  Ecclesiasticus, 
and  its  author  evidently  believed  that  the 
sun  and  moon  were  checked  in  their  courses. 
"  Did  not  the  sun  go  back  by  his  hand  V  And 
did  not  one  day  become  as  two"  (Ecclus. 
xlvi.  4).  Josephus  also  understood  that  the 
day  was  lengthened  (Autiq.  v.  1,  17).  Un- 
questionably God  could  work  this  wonder, 
with  all  that  it  involved.  The  circumstances, 
however,  scarcely  atibrded  an  adequate  occa- 
sion for  so  stupendous  a  miracle.  Another 
interpretation  has  much  in  its  favor.  It  is 
certain  that  Josh.  x.  12''  and  13*  are  poetry. 
Verses  12-15  in  all  probability  form  a  para- 
graph by  themselves  (cp.  the  repetition,  1,5 
and  43),  and  are  quoted  from  the  Book  of 
Jashar,  a  collection  of  poems  with  introduc- 
tory and  perhaps  concluding  remarks  in 
prose  (see  Jaskar  ;  cp.  Job  with  its  prose 
introduction  and  conclusion ;  cp.  the  position 
of  the  quoting  clause  in  Josh.  x.  13  and  2 
Sam.  i.  18).  Joshua's  words  are  the  impas- 
sioned utterance  of  a  general  inspii-ing  his 
army  on  the  field  of  battle.  Desirous  that 
Israel  may  hav'e  time  completely  to  over- 
throw the  foe,  he  apostrophizes  sun  and 
moon.  In  fervent,  imperious  words,  he  de- 
mands time.  "  Sun,  stand  thou  still  upon 
Gibeon  ;  and  thou,  Moon,  in  the  valley  of 
Aijalou."  God  granted  the  prayer.  A  hail- 
storm assisted  the  Israelites,  they  drove  the 
enemy  to  Azekah  and  Makkedah,  and  made 
a  great  slaughter.  This  event,  it  seems,  was 
worked  up  poetically  in  the  Book  of  Jashar, 
and  nuist  be  interpreted  as  poetry,  as  one 
interprets  the  psalmist  when  telling  of  the 
gift  of  manna,  he  says:  "He  commanded 
the  skies  above,  and  opened  the  doors  of 
heaven ;  and  he  rained  down  manna  upon 
them  to  eat,  and  gave  them  of  the  corn  of 
heaven"  (P.s.  Ixxviii.  23,  24) ;  or  as  one  un- 
derstands the  poet  who,  after  relating  the 
passage  of  the  Red  Sea  and  the  Jordan,  adds : 
"The  mountains  skipped  like  rams,  and  the 
little  hills  like  lambs  "  (cxiv.  6) ;  or  as  one 
understands  the  prophet  Habakkuk  when  he 
pictures  Jehovah  as  a  warrior  and  says: 
"Thou  didst  ride  ujion  thine  horses,  upon 
thy  chariots  of  salvation"  (Hab.  iii.  8). 

Su'phah  [a  rotatory  storm,  cultivable  soil 
in  the  midst  of  dry  land]. 

Probably  a  ])roiier  name,  denoting  the  re- 
gion in  which  Vaheb  was  situated  (Num.  xxi. 


Surety 


-13 


Swine 


14,  li.  v.).  Tristram  conuccts  it  with  what  is 
now  fiilli'd  l>y  the  Arabs  the  Sutiih  or  (ihor : 
t.  f.,  the  ;;roat  (U'prfssion  in  whicli  the  .lonhin 
runs  antl  t\w  Ik-ad  Si-a  lies,  continiu-it  .south- 
ward to  till-,  line  ot  dill's  10  iniks  soutli  of 
that  si-a. 

Sure'ty. 

A  iKT.soii  who  makes  himself  liable  for  the 
ol)liyalions  of  anotlier  (I'rov.  xxii.  '26,  27). 
A  surety  was  sometimes  otlered  for  a  service 
to  he  renden^d  ((Jen.  xliv.  32);  and,  when 
commercial  tran.sactions  were  conimon,  a 
surely  was  ofuii  ri<|iiired  to  be  f<iun<l  Ik  lore 
credit  was  ;;iven.  Tlie  formalities  consisted 
in  giving  ihe  hand,  iu  the  presence  of  wit- 
nesses, to  the  person  to  whom  the  debt  was 
due,  and  i)n)mising  to  discharge  the  obliga- 
tion in  case  llie  debtor  defaulted  (I'rov.  vi. 
1,  2  ;  xvii.  lb).  The  folly  of  becoming  surety, 
especially  in  behalf  of  a  stranger,  was  i)ro- 
verbial  (xi.  1.5;  xvii.  18;  xx.  1*!);  but  it  was 
regarded  as  i>roper  under  circumstances  and 
for  a  moderate  amount,  and  as  a  neighborly 
act  (Kcclus.  viii.  1.'3;  xxix.  11,  20),  yet  its 
grave  dangers  and  its  liability  to  abuse  by 
a  dishonest  client  were  recognized  (xxix. 
KJ-lb). 

Su'san-chite.     See  Shush.\xciiite. 

Su-san'na  [a  lily]. 

One  of  Ihe  women  who  ministered  to  Jesus 
of  their  substance  (Luke  viii.  3). 

Su'si  [horseman]. 

Father  of  (iaddi,  tlie  sj)y  from  the  tribe  of 
Manassch  (Xum.  xiii.  11). 

Swallow. 

1.  A  bird,  in  biblical  and  talmndic  Hcl)rew 
d'rur,  shooting  straight  onl   or  freedom.     It 


fre(iuented  the  sanctuary  at  Jerusalem,  and 
nested  there  (Ps.  Ixxxiv.  3),  and  it  was  found 
in  comi)any  wilh  olher  small  birds.  lik('  the 
sparrow  (ibid.  ;  I'rov.  \.\\  i.  ■_'.  R.  \'.i.  The  barn 
swallow  of  (Jnat  I'.ritain  [llininiln  rusliai)  is 
almndant  in  I'alestinc  from  March  to  the 
approach  of  winter.  Sevenil  other  species 
also  occur,  but  are  K'ss  common. 

2.  The  rendering  in  the  ]{.  V.  of  the  He- 
brew Siis  (»r  Sin,  a  bird  with  a  chattering  note 
(Is.  xxxviii.  II).  and  migratory  (.ler.  viii.  7). 
Swallow  is  the  rendering  ailopte<l  \>y  the 
Sejitiiagint,  \'ulgate,  and  Syria(-  versions,  but 


the  A.  v.,  following  tlie  rabbins,  translates  it 
crane.  Tristram  lielieves  that  the  swift  i.s 
intended.  He  says  that  the  conimon  swift 
iCi/jtseius  iijius)  is  called  .vi.s  in  the  vernacular 
.\rabic.  It  visits  Palestine  in  immense  num- 
bers in  its  migrations,  remaining  from  Ajiril 
to  November,  and  building  in  the  interval. 
Two  other  species  of  the  genus  occur  in  Pal- 
estine, the  white-bellied  f,\\H't(Cy])iieliis  melba) 
and  the  while-riimjied  swift  (Ci/jiseluxaffiiiis). 
3.  The  rendering  in  A.  V.  of  the  Hebrew 
'Aijur  (Is.  xxxviii.  14;  Jer.  viii.  7).  'i'he 
K.  V.  iu  both  passages  renders  it  crane 
(q.  v.). 

Swan. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Tinshemeth, 
breathing,  inllation,  a  name  apj)lied  to  an 
unclean  bird  (Lev.  xi.  IS;  Deut.  xiv.  IfJ ; 
text  of  A.  v.,  margin  of  K.  V.).  The  li.  V. 
text  makes  it  the  horned  owl.  The  same 
name  belonged  to  a  reptile  cla.s.sed  with  the 
lizards  (Lev.  xi.  30,  in  K.  V.  clianieleon.  in 
A.  V.  mole).  Tristram  thinks  that  tin-  bird 
was  jirobably  either  the  purple  gallinule 
(Pnrphyrio  cseruleus)  or  the  glossy  ibis  {Ibis 
fulciuclh(s). 

Swear'ing.     See  0.\th. 

Sweat. 

It  is  a  common  occurrence  for  jierspiration 
to  break  out  suddenly  over  the  body  when 
the  individual  is  under  the  influence  of 
strong  mental  excitement.  V>'ell-authenti- 
cated  cases  have  been  recorded  in  which  this 
perspiration  has  been  colored  with  blood. 
The  iihenomenon  is  recognized  in  medical 
science,  and  is  called  diapcdi'sis,  or  the  oozing 
of  th(^  blood  corjiuscles  through  the  walls  of 
the  blood  vessels  without  ru])tiire.  During 
Christ's  agony  in  (letlisemane  his  sweat  be- 
came as  it  were  great  drojis  of  blood  falling 
down  ni)on  the  ground  (Luke  xxii.   II). 

Swine. 

Tht'  swine  was  a  ci'remonially  unclean 
aninml  (Lev.  xi.7  ;  Dent.  xiv.  S).  It  is  dirty, 
does  jiot  refuse  to  eatoflal  and  carrion,  and  the 
use  of  its  tiesli  for  food  in  hot  countries  issup- 
jiosed  to  ]irod  lice  cutaneous  diseases.  It  was  not 
raised  by  the  Arabs  (Pliny,  Hist.  Nat.  viii. 78), 
and  was  regarded  as  unclean  by  PlKvnicians, 
Ethiopians,  and  Egyjitians.  In  Kgyjit,  how- 
ever, a  pig  wassacriliced  and  eaten  on  the  an- 
nual festival  of  the  mooii-god  and  Osiris  (Uac- 
clius) ;  nevertheless,  a  man  who  acciileiitally 
touched  a  i)igat  once  washed,  a  swineherd  was 
not  allowed  to  enter  a  tt-niple,  and  was  cotii- 
jielled  to  fmd  a  wife  among  the  i)eo]>le  of  his 
own  occu])ation,  as  no  other  man  would  givi'  a 
daughter  to  him  in  marriage  (Herod,  ii.  17; 
con.  Apion.  ii.  11).  To  the  .Jews  swine's  llesh 
was  abominable  (Is.  Ixv.  4),  the  Jiig  was  tlu' 
emblem  of  lilth  and  coarseness  (I'rov.  xi.22: 
.Mat.  \ii.  (i ;  2  Pet.  ii.  22),  and  to  feed  swine 
was  the  lowest  and  most  desi>ic;ible  occujia- 
tioii  to  which  a  Jew  could  be  reduced  (Luke 
XV.  l,"i).  Yet  jiork  found  entrance  to  the 
idolatrous  feasts  of  di'generate   Hebrews  (Is. 


Sword 


714 


Synagogue 


Ixv.  4;  Ixvi.  17).  In  the  reign  of  Antiochus 
P^pipbani's  the  coininaiKl  to  :i  Jew  to  ofFor  or 
to  taste  swine's  llcsli  was  used  as  a  means  of 
deterniininj;  wliether  he  was  h)\al  to  tlie  re- 
ligion ol'  iiis  lathers  or  was  willing  to  accei)t 
the  worsiiiji  favored  by  his  conquerors  (1  Mac. 
i.  47,  50:  'J  Mac.  vi.  IK,  21 ;  vii.  1,  7).  I'.ut  many 
Jews  alleeted  (ireeian  manners,  and  .lolm 
llyreannssome  years  later  found  it  advisable 
to  issue  an  edict  that  no  one  should  keep 
swine.  In  the  time  of  Christ  one  large  herd 
of  swine  at  least  was  pastured  in  the  Decapo- 
lis  (Mark  v.  ll-l.'J),  a  region  colonized  by 
(ireuks,  among  whom  the  swine  was  highly 
esteemed  as  an  article  of  food.  There  is  no 
reason  to  sujjpose  that  Jews  owned  either 
tliese  swine  or  those  in  the  far  country  fed  by 
the  prodigal  sou  (Luke  xv.  13).  See  Boar. 
Sword. 

A  weajion  with  which  an  adver.sary  was 
cut  by  being  struck  or  was  thrust  through  (1 
Sam.  xvii.  51  ;  xxxi.  4  ;  2  Sam.  ii.  16  ;  Mat. 
xxvi.  51).  It  had  hilt  and 
blade  (Judg.  iii.  22),  was  car- 
ried in  a  siieath  (1  Sam. 
xvii.  51 ;  Jer.  xlvii.  6),  and 
girded  on  the  loins  (Ex. 
xxxii.  27;  2  Sam.  xx.  8), 
usually  at  the  left  side 
(Judg.'  iii.  1()  with  1.5,  21). 
The  hilt  was  often  highly 
ornamented,  at  least  among 
the  Egyptians  and  Assyr- 
ians. The  blade  was  com- 
monly made  of  iron  (Is.  ii. 
4),  perhaps  also  of  ))ronze, 
as  not  seldom  in  Egypt. 
It  was  straight  or  slightly 
curved,  long  or  short  (Judg. 
iii.  1(5,  a  cul)it  long),  single 
or  double  edged  (ii)id. ;  Ps. 
cxlix.  6). 

In  the  Eoman  ])eriod  a 
short,  slightly  curved  dag- 
ger was  worn  under  the 
clothing  by  the  Jewish 
sicarii,  or  assassins  (Antiq. 
XX.  8,  10;  War  ii.  1.3,  3). 
Koinan  infantry  wore  the 
sword  on  the  left  side  and 
the  dagger  on  the  right,  but  the  cavalry  wore 
the  sword  on  the  right  (iii.  5,  5).  This,  how- 
ever, was  not  an  invariable  rule. 

Syc'a-mine  Tree. 

The  nuill)crry  tree,  called  in  Greek  siil-a- 
mitiofi  (Luke  xvii.  fi).  The  reference  is  to  the 
black  mulberry  {MoriiK  nuira),  a  tree  20  or 
30  feet  high,  which  is  the  s])ecies  commonly 
cultivated  for  its  fruit,  as  well  as  for  its 
leaves,  on  wliich  the  silkworm  feeds.  The 
fruit  is  dark  red  or  black,  with  an  uneven 
surface.  Th(>  tree  has  been  planted  exten- 
sively ill   Palestine. 

Sy'char. 

A  town  of  Samaria,  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
land  given  by  Jacob  to  his  son  Joseph,  near 


Jacob's  well  (John  iv.  5  ;  cp.  Gen.  xlviii.  22). 
Formerly  it  was  supi)oscd  to  be  a  Greek  cor- 
ru])tioii  of  Sheclicm,  or  a  nickname  for  the 
city  after  it  became  the  abode  of  the  Samari- 
tans, either  from  Hebrew  sheker,  falsehood, 
or  shikkor,  drunkard  ;  but  it  is  now  believed 
by  many  to  be  the  village  of  'Askar,  on  the 
eastern  declivity  of  mount  Ebal,  a  little  north 
of  .lacol)'s  well. 

Sy'cliem.     See  Shechem. 

Syc'o-more. 

A  fig  tree,  called  in  Hebrew  shikmah,  in 
Greek  sukomorea.  It  was  abundant  in  the 
lowland  of  Judah  (1  Kiu.  x.  27;  1  Chron. 
xxvii.  28;  2  Chron.  i.  15;  ix.  27);  and  it 
grew  in  the  Jordan  valley.  Zacchseus  climbed 
one  in  order  to  see  Jesus  as  he  i)assed  (Luke 
xix.  4).  Amos  was  a  dresser  of  sycomore 
trees  (Amos  vii.  14,  R.  V.).  It  was,  and  still 
is,  cultivated  also  in  Egypt  (Ps.  Ixxviii.  47). 
As  a  building  material,  sycomore  timber  is 
contrasted   with   cedar,   as  bricks  are  with 


Branch  and  Fruit  of  the  Sycomore. 

stone,  the  less  durable  with  the  more  valua- 
ble (Is.  ix.  10).  The  tree  is  the  Ficus  si/co- 
morus,  a  fig  tree,  25  to  50  feet  high  and  60 
feet  broad,  with  persistent,  heart-shaped 
leaves  downy  beneath,  and  eatable  fruit.  It 
afl'ords  grateful  shade  the  year  round.  The 
fruit  grows  in  clusters  on  twigs  which  spring 
directlj'  from  tlie  trunk  and  larger  branches. 
The  tree  is  quite  common. 

The  sycomore  must  not  be  confounded  with 
our  sycamore  (Plufainis  orcidoitalis),  which  is 
not  mentioned  in  the  Bible. 

Sy-e'ne.     See  Sevkxeh. 

Sym'e-on.     See  Simp:on. 

Syn'a-gogue  [in  Greek  an  assembly,  a  syn- 
agogue]. 


Synagogue 


ri5 


Synagogue 


A  Jewish  iihice  of  worshi]).     The  l)uildiiig 
starved  also  I'or  local   law  court  and  school. 
I'revious   to   the   captivity,    worsliii>   of  the 
hifjhest  kind  could  he  i>erfonned  only  at  the 
temiile  at  Jeriisali-iii.     ( )f  course,  tht'  Scrip- 
turi'S  couhl    he   pulilicly  reatl  (•isewhcre  (.Icr. 
xxxvi.  <i,  10,  l:i  !.')),  and  the  jieople  couhl  re- 
sort to  the  projjhet.s  anywhere  for  religious 
instruction  (J  Kin.  iv.   38).     Worshij)  at  Je- 
nisjileni  was  iuipossil>le  when  the  i)eo])le  were 
ill  captivity  in  Hahyluii,  and  it  .seems  to  hav<' 
heeii   then   and    tiiere   that   syna};ofiiies  lirst 
arose.     They  were  designed  to  he  places,  not 
of  .sacrifice,  hut  of  scriptural  instruction  and 
])rayer.    The  Enjjiish  word  syna;:of;iie  occurs 
only  once   in   the  ().  T.  (I's.  Ixxiv.  S).     The 
margin  of  K.    V.   has  "  ]>laces  of  assenihly  " 
instead   of   synagofjues.  and  the  Sejituagint 
renders  hy  a  word   which   means  a   feast,  a 
festival,  a  holiday.     It  is  not,  therefore,  cer- 
tain that  there  is  any  reference  toasynagojcue 
in  th<!  ().  T.     In  the  first  century  they  were 
found    wherever   Jews  dwelt.     Even   small 
communities   of    Jews   iu    the    le.sser    cities 
outside  of  Palestine  had  their  synagogues; 
as  in  Salamis  in  Cyprus  (.\cts  xiii.  5),  Antioch 
of  risi<lia  (14),  Iconiuin  (xiv.  1),  Hera'a(xvii. 
10).      In  large  cities  synagogues  were  often 
numerous;  as  in  Jerusjilem  (vi.  !))  and  Alcx- 
anilria.     The.se  religious  communities  main- 
tained an  existence  sei)arate  from  the  state, 
and   managed  their  own  religious  and  civil 
atlairs.  suhordinate,  of  course,  to  the  law  of 
tlie  land  (Antii|.  xix.  '>,  li).    A  hoard  of  elders 
managed  the  aliairs  of  the  synagogue  and  of 
the    religious   coinmuuity    which    it    repre- 
sented   I  Luke    vii.    :j-5).      The  special    oHi- 
cers,  who  directed   the   worship,  maintained 
order   and    looked    after   the    temjioralitics, 
were:  1.   The  ruler  of  the  synagogue  (Act- 
xviii.  >*).     In  some  synagogues  several  ruler-, 
were  inoince(xiii.  !.">  :  Mark  v.  22).    The  ruler 
])resided    at    the    .service;   ai>i)ointi'd  or  ]ier- 
mitted   suitat)le  members  to  pray,   read  the 
Scriptures,   and   exhort  (Acts  xiii.  15) ;   and 
was   responsible    for   the    projirieties    (Luke 
xiii.  lt|.     The  services  were  nut  condiict<  d 
by  |)ernianent  otlicers  set  ajiart  for  the  (liit\  , 
but    by    private    members    who    had    shown 
(jualifications  for  it.     Thus  Jesus  read    the 
Scriptures  in  the  synagogue  at  Nazareth  (iv. 
llil,  and  he  often  taiiglit    in   the  synagogues 
(Mat.  iv.  "j;!).   Paul  and  l!arual)as  were  called 
on  by  the  rulers  of  the  synagogue  at  Antioch 
of    I'isidia   for  words  of    exhortation    (A<'ts 
xiii.  l.">).     2.  One  or  more  attendants  for  the 
liiimbler  and   menial  duties.     They  brought 
the  .Scriptures  to  the  reader  and  replaced  the 
roll  in  its  depository  (Luke  iv.  'Jdi,  and  thi'y 
indicted  the  corporal   |>unishment  to  which 
the  authiirities  sentenced  a  member.     .'5.   Dis- 
l)ensers  of  alms  (<p.  Mat.  vi.  2).     4.   Wealthy 
men  of  leisure,  if  ]iossible  ten  or  more,  who 
represented   the  (congregation  at  every  .serv- 
ice.    The  congr<-gatii>n  assembled  every  Sab- 
bath for  worship  (.Vets  xv.  'Jl),  and  on   the 
seconil  and  lifth  days  of  the  week  to  hear  a 


portion  of  the  law  read.  The  men  and  the 
women  sat  a])art.  At  the  Sabbath  service 
prayer  was  oll'ered  by  a  member  of  the  con- 
gregation. It  consisted  chielly  in  reading 
Deut.  vi.  4  !l;  xi.  i:j~'Jl  ;  Num.  xv.  :j7-41  ; 
and  ollering  some  or  all  of  the  eighteen  Jiray- 
ers  and  beni'dictions.  The  jieople  were  ac- 
customed to  stand  during  this  i)rayer  (Mat. 
vi.  r> ;  Mark  xi.  25),  and  united  in  saying 
Amen  at  its  clo.se.  A  lesson  from  the  law 
was  read  (.\i'ts  xv.  21)  by  several  members, 
each  taking  a  short  paragrajdi  in  turn.  This 
readitig  was  prefaced  and  concluded  by 
thanksgiving.  Then  came  a  les.son  from  the 
]iroi)hels.  riad  by  the  jiersoii  who  had  (ii)ened 
the  service  with  juityer.  TIk'  n-adiiig  was 
followed  by  an  exjiosilion  and  an  exhortation 
given  by  the  reader  or  some  other  person 
(Luke  iv.  16-22  ;  Acts  xiii.  15).  The  .service 
was  concluded  by  a  benediction,  which  was 
Iu-(inounced  by  a  i)riest,  if  one  were  present, 
and  the  congregati(»n  said.  Amen.  The  syiui- 
gogue  was  called  by  tlie  Jews  in  their  own 
language  assembly  house.  Kuins  of  these 
buildings  still  exist  in  (ialilee  at  Tell  Hum, 
which  is  ]ierhai)s  the  site  of  ('a])ernaum, 
at  Irbid,  Kefr  liir'im,  Ncbartein,  and  some 


I'niiit  of  ruined  Synagogue  at  Kefr  Bir'ini. 


other  ])laces.  They  were  rectangular  struc- 
tures. All  lay  north  and  south,  and  had 
a  large  middle  portal  and  two  smaller  side 
doors  on  the  southern  sid»\  The  iiiti-rior 
was  divided  into  tive  aisles  by  four  rows  of 
columns,  ami  the  two  northern  eorm-rs  were 
formed  by  double-engaged  c(ilumns.  At  Tell 
Hum  there  are  Corinthian  capitals ;  at  Irliid 
a  mixture  of  Corinthian  and  Ionic.  The 
faces  of  the  lintels  over  the  gateways  have 
as  a  frer|Uent  ornament  tlu-  reiiresentation  of 
a  scroll  (if  vine  leaves  with  bunches  of  grajies. 
At  Nebarfeiu  there  is  a  tigure  of  the  seven- 
branched  candlestick,    with   an    in.-icription ; 


Syntyche 


716 


Taanach 


at  Kefr  Bir'iin  what  is  intended  apparently 
for  the  pasi'hiil  hmil) ;  while  at  Toll  Hum, 
there  are  holh  the  laiiihand  the  jxtt  of  manna. 
The  as.senii)ly  room  was  provided  with  a 
reading  desk,  a  chest  or  closet  for  the  Scrip- 
tures, and  seats  for  at  least  the  elders  and 
richer  nienihers  (Mat.  xxiii.  (J;  Jas.  ii.  2,  3). 
The  more  honorahle  seats  wert- near  the  place 
where  the  Scriptures  were  kept.  'J'lie  con- 
};regation  was  divided  ;  the  men  on  one  side, 
the  women  on  the  other.  Punishment  or- 
dered l)y  lh(!  authorities  of  the  synagogue 
was  intlicted  in  the  huilding,  ])Ossihly  in  some 
chamber  (.Mat.  x.  17;  Acts  xxii.  1!)). 

The  great  synagogue  denotes  a  council, 
said  to  have  been  organized  by  Nehemiah 
about  410  B.  c.  It  consisted  of  120  nunihers 
(Megillolh,  17,  18),  Ezra  was  its  iiresideut. 
To  this  body  the  jiropliets  transmitted  the 
law  of  Mo.ses  (Pirke  aboth  i.  1).  Simon  the 
Just,  who  died  about  275  b.  c,  was  one  of 
the  last  of  its  members  (ibid.).  It  was  suc- 
ceeded by  the  .sanhedrin  (x.  1).  Its  special 
work  was  to  reorganize  religious  worship 
among  the  returned  captives  and  gather  to- 
gether the  canonical  books.  Such  is  the 
Jewish  tradition.  The  existence  of  the  great 
synagogue  has  been  doubted,  since  there  is 
no  mention  of  any  such  body  in  the  Apocry- 
pha, in  Josephus,  or  in  Philo.  Nor  does  the 
name  appear  anywhere  in  Scripture.  But 
the  tradition  is  not  to  be  wholly  rejected. 
The  great  synagogue  was  probably  a  council 
of  scribes  for  the  decision  of  theological 
questions ;  contained  from  first  to  last,  dur- 
ing an  existence  of  a  little  more  than  a  cen- 
tury and  a  half,  about  120  prominent  mem- 
bers ;  and  numbered  among  them  all  the 
leading  scribes  from  Ezra  to  Simon  the  Just. 

Syn'ty-che  [fortunate]. 

A  female  in  the  Philippian  church  whom 
Paul  exhorted  to  make  up  her  quarrel  with 
another  female,  Euodia  (Phil.  iv.  2). 

Syr'a-cuse. 

A  celebrated  city  on  the  east  coast  of 
Sicily.  It  was  founded  about  73.5  b.  c.  by 
Archias  of  Corinth,  who  led  thither  a  colony 
of  Corinthians  and  Dorians.  It  greatly  flour- 
ished, and  in  414  its  inhabitants  defeated 
and  destroyed  an  Athenian  fleet  of  200  ves- 
.sels.  In  212  B.  c.  it  was  taken  by  the  Ro- 
mans. Paul  visited  it  on  his  voyage  to  Rome 
(Acts  xxviii.  12).  It  was  taken  by  the  Sara- 
cens in  A.  D.  878.  It  is  still  called  Siracusa, 
but  is  now  much  reduced  in  size  and  popu- 
lation. 

Syr'i-a. 

A  country  along  the  eastern  coast  of  the 
Mediterranean  and  ext^'udiiig  far  inland.  It 
conipreliended  most  of  the  regions  known  in 
().  T.  limes  as  Canaan  and  Aram.  The  wis- 
dom of  introducing  the  name  into  the  E.  V. 
of  the  ().  T.  is  (luestionable,  for  the  country 
referred  to  in  the  ( ).  T.  is  Aram,  an  inland  re- 
gion. Tlu'  name  Syria  is  an  abbreviated  form 
of  Assyria,  and  became  current  after  the  con- 


quests of  Alexander  the  Great.  Syria  formed 
the  most  important  province,  both  commer- 
cially and  from  a  military  point  of  view,  of 
the  kingdom  of  the  Seleucidie,  whose  capital 
was  at  Babylon.  It  soon  became  apparent 
that  western  Asia  required  a  government  of 
its  own,  more  in  the  Greek  spirit  than  was 
the  system  suitable  for  the  far  east.  Fortius 
purpose  Antioch  was  founded  as  a  royal  city 
about  300  H.  c.  (cp.  1  Mac.  iii.  37  and  31,  32). 
The  kingdom  of  the  Seleucidaj  was  gradually 
reduced  by  the  encroachment  of  its  foes,  un- 
til at  the  close  of  the  second  century  B.  v. 
onlj'  Syria  was  left.  With  the  Roman  con- 
quest in  64  B.  c,  the  kingdom  was  erected 
into  the  province  of  Syria,  with  a  Roman 
governor  resident  in  Antioch.  The  name 
Syria  was  limited  to  this  province,  which  in- 
cluded the  country  west  of  the  Euphrates 
from  the  Taurus  mountains  to  the  borders 
of  Egypt.  From  the  time  of  Augustus  it 
was  governed  by  a  consular  legate  of  the  em- 
peror. In  A.  D.  70  Judaja  was  separated  from 
Syria  and  made  a  distinct  province  under  an 
imperial  legate. 

Syr'i-ac  Ver'sion.     See  Versions. 

Syr'i-an. 

One  of  the  Syrian  race,  or  an  inhabitant  of 
Syria.  In  O.  T.  times  the  word  Syria  was  not 
in  use  ;  and  where  Syrian  occurs  in  the  E.  V. 
of  the  O.  T.  it  denotes  a  native  of  Aram, 
properly  called  an  Aramaean  (Gen.  xxviii.  5)  ; 
see  Aram,  Damascus,  and  for  the  period 
after  the  conquests  of  Alexander  the  Great, 
Syria. 

Sy-ro-phce-ni'ci-an,  in  A.  V.  Syropheni- 
ciau. 

A  Phoenician  of  Syria  in  distinction  from 
the  Libyphcenicians  of  north  Africa  (Mark 
vii.  26;  cp.  Mat.  xv.  22).  A  new  distinction 
arose  toward  the  end  of  the  second  century 
of  the  Chri.stian  era,  when  the  province  of 
Sj'ria  was  divided  into  Syria  Magna  and 
Syria-Pluenice. 

Syr'tis.     See  Quicksand. 


T. 


Ta'a-nach,  in  A.  V.  once  Tanach  (Josh. 
xxi.  25). 

A  Canaanite  city,  the  king  of  which  was 
defeated  and  slain  by  Joshua  (Josh.  xii.  21). 
It  lay  within  the  limits  of  Issachar  or  Asher, 
probably  the  former,  but  was  nominally  pos- 
sessed by  the  Manassites  (.Tosh.  xvii.  11:  1 
Chron.  vii.  29).  It  was  assigned,  with  its 
suburbs,  to  the  Kohathite  Levites  (Josh.  xxi. 
25).  The  lyianassites  could  not  expel  the 
Canaanite  inhabitants,  though  when  strong 
they  rendered  them  tributary  (Judg.  i.  27). 
The  great  battle  betweeii  Barak  and  Sisera 
was  fought  near  Taanach  (v.  19).  The  place 
was  important  in  Solomon's  reign  (1  Kin.  iv. 
12).     The  name  remains,  as  Ta'annuk,   on 


Taanath-shiloh 


7i: 


Tabernacle 


the  southeast  side  of  a  low  mound  among 
the  liills  l)ounding  the  southern  side  of  the 
l)hiiii  of  Juzn-cl,  about  7  miles  west-south- 
west of  the  city  of  that  name.  There  are 
rock-cut  lomhs  in  the  vicinity.  Taanak  is 
one  of  the  jihices  mentioned  in  an  in.si'ription 
at  Karnak,  in  iOjiypt,  in  connection  with  the 
conquisis  of  'I'liothmcs    ill.,  ahout  ll!(f(l  U.  C. 

Ta-a-nath-sM'loli  [aiipruach  to  sliiloli]. 

.V  town  oil  tilt'  houndary  line  between 
ICliJiraim  and  Jlanassch  (Josh.  .\vi.  (j).  It  is 
tlif  ruin  Ta'na,  7  mik'S  southeast  by  east  of 
Shcciieni. 

Tab'ba-oth  [iinj;s]. 

.\  family  of  Ncliiinim,  members  of  which 
n-tu riled  with  Zcrul)babel  from  captivity 
(E/.ra  ii.  i:j  ;  Neh.  vii.  4tj). 

Tab 'bath. 

.\  phice  near  Abel-mcliolali  (Judg.  vii.  2S). 
Site  unknown. 

Ta'be-al,  in  U.  V.  Tabeel  [probal)ly,  {jood- 
not  ;  a  scornful  moditicatiou  of  Tabeel 
(q.  V.)]. 

A  man  whose  son  was  to  have  been  set  up 
as  j)iipiiet  king  in  Jerusiilem  by  Kezin,  king 
of  Dama.scus,  and  Pekah,  king  of  Israel,  if 
they  had  succeeded  in  capturing  the  city  (Is. 
vii.  (i). 

Ta'be-el  [.\ramaic,  (iod  is  good]. 

1.  l'nil)ably  the  original  pronunciation  of 
Tabeal  (<).  v.). 

2.  A  Persian  petty  governor,  jirobaltly  of 
Syrian  descent,  one  of  those  who  comjilained 
to  .\rtaxer.\es  Longimanus  that  the  wall  of 
Jerusalem  was  being  rebuilt  (Ezra  iv.  7). 

Tab'e-rah  [burning]. 

-V  iilace  where  the  Israelites  murmured, 
and  the  fire  of  the  Lord  burnt  among  them 
in  the  uttermost  jiart  of  the  camji  (Num.  xi. 
1-3;  Deut.  ix.  2-').  The  burning  abated  at 
the  intercession  of  Moses.  TIh^  tvcnt  ])er- 
haps  occurred  at  no  formal  encaiupmeiit,  or 
only  in  the  uttermost  i)art  of  the  camp  at 
Kibroth-hattaavah  (Nutn.  .\i.  1,  35). 

Ta'ber-ing. 

Striking  frequently,  as  on  a  tabor,  tabret, 
tamliorinc,  or  timbrel  (Nab.  ii.  7). 

Tab'er-na-cle  [a  tcnl]. 

1.  .V  provisional  tent  wliere  the  Lord  met 
liis  jieople  (Ex.  .xxxiii.  7-10);  see  Tknt  of 
Mki;tin(j. 

2.  The  movable  s;inctuary  in  the  form 
of  a  tent  which  (Jod  dircctol  .Moses  at 
Sinai  to  make,  tliat  (iod  might  dwell  as  king 
an)ong  his  ])eople  (Ex.  xxv.  K,  {)).  Hence 
it  was  (!alled  "the  dwelling"  (f);  xxvi.  1, 
margin  of  U.  V.),  and,  as  the  i)lace  where 
.lehovab  met  his  iieople,  "the  tent  of  meet- 
ing" (xl.  .tl.  ."{;">,  in  K.  V.).  and  as  the 
dejiository  of  the  tables  of  the  law  or  tes- 
timony, "the  tent  of  the  testimony" 
(xxxviii.  21  ;  cp.  xxv.  2L  22;  Num.  ix.  !.">). 
The  materials  for  its  construction  were  largely 
ohtiiined  in  the  vicinity  :  the  acaci;i  wood  of 
the  wilderness,  hair  and  skins  of  the  (locks, 


skinof  the  tachash,  a  porpoise  or  similar  brute, 
from  the  Ked  Sea.  fJoid,  silver,  brass,  and 
linen,  or  jierhaps  muslin,  were  liberally  fur- 
nished by  the  people,  who  gave  their  orna- 
ments for  the  work  (Ex.  xxxv.  2I-2!>).  The 
tabernacle  had  the  form  of  a  parallelogram, 


0"vf^ 


□ 


(iround  rian  of  tlie  'J  abernacle. 


30  cubits  long  by  10  broad,  with  the  entrance 
at  the  eastern  end.  The  rear  end  and  the 
two  sides  were  made  of  boards,  is  in  number, 
20  on  each  side  and  8  in  the  rear,  of  wliich  2 
formed  the  posts  at  the  angles.  Each  iilank 
was  10  cubits  long  by  ll  cubits  broad,  and 
was  overlaid  with  gold.  They  were  scarcely 
cut  from  the  log  in  a  single  piece,  but  were 
])robahly  framed  of  several  ])ieces.  They 
were  set  on  end,  and  were  held  in  ])lace  at 
the  bottom  by  tenons  sunk  in  sockets  of 
silver,  two  to  each  jilank.  and  they  were 
bound  together  laterally  by  transverse  bars 
of  acacia  wood,  which  were  arranged  five 
on  a  side  externally  and  thrust  through 
rings  attacheil  to  each  jilank  (xxvi.  l.")-30). 
Tlu;  entire  front  was  left  as  an  entrance. 
This  jiortal  consisted  of  a  row  of  five  i)ilhirs 
overlaid  with  gold,  resting  in  socket.s  of 
bi-a.ss,  and  siiiqiorting  a  curtain.  'J'he  in- 
terior was  divided  into  two  apartments 
by  four  similar  )>illars  sunk  in  sockets  of 
silver  .ind  hung  with  a  curtain  (32,  37). 
These  rooms  were  resi)ectively  the  western, 


Tabernacle 


718 


Tabernacles,  Feast  of 


called  the  holy  of  holies,  measuring  10 
ful)its  ill  evory  (liroction,  and  tlio  sanctuary 
or  lidly  iilaiT'",  which  was  -JO  cubits  lung  by 
10  culiits  iu  brcadtli  and  heijiht.  The  hang- 
ings were  four:  1.  Tlie  ceiling  and  ai)par- 
ently  the  walls  were  hung  with  a  curtain  of 
white  twined  linen,  blue.  i)uri)le,  and  scarlet, 
and  tigured  with  cherubim.  This  curtain 
was  made  in  ten  i)ieces,  each  2^  cubits  l>y  4, 
sewed  together  in  two  sheets.  These  sheets 
were  then  looped  together.  One  formed  the 
ceiling  and  three  sides  of  the  holy  of  holies, 
and  the  other  the  ceiling  and  two  sides 
of  the  sanctuary  (1-G).  2.  The  main  ex- 
ternal covering  was  of  goats'  hair,  and 
consisted  of  eleven  narrow  curtains,  each  30 
cubits  by  4;  that  is,  2  cubits  longer  than 
the  under  curtain  of  linen  (cp.  13).  These 
strips  were  united  into  two  great  curtains, 
which  were  looped  together.  The  smaller 
one,  which  was  made  of  five  strips,  covered 
the  top  and  three  sides  of  the  holy  of  holies; 
the  larger  one  covered  the  top  and  sides  of 
the  sanctuary,  and  had  one  breadth  depend- 
ing over  the  portal  in  front  (7-13).  3.  Over 
this  covering  of  goats'  hair  a  double  roof  of 
red-dyed  rams'  skins  and  tachash  (perhajis 
porpoise)  skins  was  thrown  (14).  4.  Two 
veils  were  hung,  one  at  the  entrance  to  the 
sanctuary  and  the  other  in  front  of  the  holy 
of  holies.  Each  was  wrought  of  blue,  purple, 
scarlet,  and  fine  twisted  linen ;  but  on  the 
inner  veil,  which  s<^parated  the  holy  of  holies, 
were  figures  of  cherubim,  in  token  of  the 
presence  and  unapproachableuess  of  Jehovah, 
while  the  outer  veil,  which  was  passed  by 
the  priests  wdien  they  entered  the  sanctuary 
to  minister,  lacked  symbols  to  prevent  man's 
ingress  (31-37). 

The  tabernacle  stood  in  a  courtyard,  like 
itself  rectangular  iu  form,  its  longer  sides, 
running  east  and  west,  being  100  cubits,  and 
the  shorter  two,  running  north  and  south,  50. 
The  court  was  inclosed  by  a  fence,  5  cubits 
high,  formed  of  ]iillars  filleted  with  silver, 
resting  iu  sockets  of  brass,  placed  5  cubits 
apart,  and  hung  with  fine  twisted  linen. 
The  entrance  was  at  the  east.  It  was  20 
cubits  wide  and  was  closed  by  a  curtain  of 
blue,  purple,  scarlet,  and  fine  twisted  linen, 
hung  on  four  pillars  (Ex.  xxvii.  9-18).  The 
tabernacle  was  pitched  in  the  western  half 
of  this  area,  the  laver  aiul  the  altar  of  burnt 
otfering  being  erected  in  the  o])en  eastern  half. 
The  ark  was  the  central  feature.  The  de- 
scription given  in  the  Bible  starts  from  this 
essential  object.  The  ark  stood  in  the  holy 
of  holies.  In  the  sanctuary  were  the  altar 
of  incense,  which  however  belojiged  to  the 
oracled  Kin.  vi.  22.  R.  V.;  Heb.  ix.  3,  4), 
the  table  of  showbread,  and  the  golden  can- 
dlestick. In  the  court  stood  the  laver  and 
the  altar  of  burnt  offering.  For  the  descrip- 
tion of  these  objects  and  their  symbolism, 
.see  the  several  articles.  The  tabernacle 
was  dedicated  on  the  first  day  of  the  sec- 
ond year  after  the  departure  of  the  Israel- 


ites from  Egypt.  A  cloud  rested  on  it  by 
day  and  a  i>illar  of  fire  by  night  during  all 
the  period  of  the  wandering.  When  the 
people  broke  camp,  the  Levites  took  the 
structure  to  pieces  and  put  it  together  again 
at  the  new  camping  ground  ( Ex.  xxvi. ;  xxvii. 
y-19  ;  xxxv.  4-xxxvi.  3«  ;  xl.  1-38).  During 
the  conijuest  of  Canaan,  the  ark  remained  in 
the  camp  at  Gilgal.  After  the  .settlement  of 
the  Israelites,  Joshua  set  up  the  tabernacle 
at  Shiloh,  where  it  remained  during  the 
period  of  the  judges  (Josh,  xviii.  1).  By 
the  capture  of  the  ark  by  the  Philistines, 
the  tabernacle  lost  its  glory  and  its  value  (Ps. 
Ixxviii.  60).  In  the  reign  of  Saul  it  was  at 
Nob  (cp.  1  Sam.  xxi.  1  with  Mark  ii.  26). 
During  the  greater  part  of  David's  reign, 
and  in  that  of  Solomon  to  the  building  of 
the  temple,  the  tabernacle  was  at  the  high 
place  of  Gibeon  (1  Chron.  xxi.  29).  After- 
wards Solomon  laid  it  up  in  the  temple 
(1  Kin.  viii.  4  ;  2  Chron.  v.  5),  which  was 
constructed  on  the  same  model,  but  in  every 
part  was  of  dimensions  twice  as  great. 

Tab'er-na-cles,  Feast  of. 

The  last  of  the  three  great  annual  festi- 
vals at  which  every  man  of  Israel  was  re- 
quired to  appear  before  the  Lord  at  the 
sanctuarv,  and  the  second  of  the  harvest 
festivals  "(Deut.  xvi.  16;  2  Chron.  viii.  12,  13; 
cp.  1  Kin.  ix.  25 ;  xii.  32,  33 ;  Zech.  xiv.  16). 
It  took  its  name  from  the  custom  of  dwelling 
in  booths  during  its  celebration  (Lev.  xxiii. 
40-42),  which,  after  the  establishment  of  the 
sanctuary  at  Jerusalem,  were  erected  in  the 
open  places  of  the  city,  on  the  roofs  and  in 
the  courts  of  the  houses,  in  the  precincts  of 
the  temple  (Neh.  viii.  16),  and  in  the  open 
country  outside  the  walls.  It  was  the  cul- 
minating festival  of  the  year ;  and  while 
preeminentlj'  and  essentially  agricultural,  it 
combined  an  historical  association,  the  re- 
verse in  this  respect  of  the  passover  (Lev. 
xxiii.  39,  43).  It  was  kept  in  the  seventh 
month,  which  by  reason  of  the  number  was 
sacred,  at  the  close  of  the  agricultural  season, 
when  all  the  products  of  the  year  from  grain- 
field,  oliveyard,  and  vineyard  were  gar- 
nered. Hence  the  name  feast  of  ingather- 
ing, under  which  it  was  instituted  (Ex.  xxiii. 
16;  xxxiv.  22;  Lev.  xxiii.  39;  Deut.  xvi.  13, 
15).  It  was  celebrated  during  seven  days. 
The  special  burnt  ofiering  amounted  to  sev- 
enty bullocks,  distributed  on  a  decreasing 
scale  over  the  week,  together  with  two  rams 
and  fourteen  lambs  daily  ;  and  as  a  sin  offer- 
ing a  he  goat  was  daily  sacrificed  (Num.  xxix. 
12-34 ;  cp.  Lev.  xxiii.  36  ;  Ezra  iii.  4).  The 
booths  made  of  the  boughs  of  trees  suggested 
the  vintage  life;  but  they  were  also  made  a 
reminder  of  the  march  from  Egyjit  through 
the  wilderness  (Lev.  xxiii.  43 ;  cp.  IIos.  xii. 
9).  Every  seven  years  the  law  of  JIoscs  was 
publicly  read,  the  year  of  reading  coinciding 
with  the  year  of  release,  when  there  was  no 
occasion  to  celebrate  an  ingathered  harvest 


Tabernacles,  Feast  of 


19 


Tabor 


(Dent.  xxxi.  9-13).  The  festival  occurred 
almost  irn mediately  after  the,  day  of  atotie- 
ineiit.  Tile  jieojile,  pllfKed  ceremonially 
from  their  sinfulness,  could  keej)  the  feast 
witli  a  tihi'l  sense  of  their  liiness  to  com- 
mune with  the  liountifnl  (Jod.  The  needy 
were  rememhered  (I)eut.  xvi.  11).  Aneiglith 
day  of  solemn  a.sseinljly  was  addetl  to  the 
festival.  It  was  distinct  from  the  festival  ; 
the  re(iuirenu-nt  to  <lwell  in  hooths  did  not 
extend  to  it,  and  its  oHeriuj;s  stood  in  no  re- 
lation to  those  of  the  festival  jirojier  (Lev. 
xxiii.  :i(i,  3'J  ;  Num.  xxix.  :i.")-38 ;  Autiq.  iii. 
1(1,  4).  It  was  not  intended  to  conclude  the 
feast  of  tahernacles,  hut  only  to  hriufj  the 
annual  cycle  of  festivals  to  a  litlinn  close. 
Later,  however,  the  festival  was  s])oken  of 
as  continuing  for  eight  days  (2  'Slnv.  x.  (i ; 
Antiii.  iii.  10,  4).  It  is  di.sputed  ^^•hethe^  the 
se\cnth  or  the  eighth  day  was  the  great  day 
referred  to  in  .Tolin  vii.  ."57.  ."^iiltinlid  cere- 
monies were sulise(iuently  added  to  tiiose  jire- 
scrihed  in  the  law  for  tlie  festival.  At  the 
tinu'  of  tin;  morning  sacrifice  the  iieojde  took 
hranches  of  i)alm,  myrtle,  and  willow  inter- 
twined and  fruit  in  their  liaiids,  reiiaired  to 
the  tem]ile,  and  marched  around  tlie  altar  of 
hurnt  offering  once  daily  and  seven  times  on 
the  seventh  day,  after  the  manner  of  com- 
l)assing  .Jericho  (.\nti(i.  iii.  10.  4  ;  xiii.  V.i.  ."> ; 
<•]>.  2  .Mac.  X.  (i,  7).  Another  custom,  jiossihly 
also  iu  vogue  in  Christ's  day,  was  that  daily 


ceived  with  trumpet  hlast  and  the  words  of 
I  Ls.  xii.  :i :  "  With  joy  shall  ye  draw  water  out 
of  the  wells  of  siilvation."  It  was  mixed  with 
I  the  wine  of  the  sacrifices  and,  while  jiriests 
j  hiew  truni])ets  and  Levites  played  on  instru- 
1  nieiits  and  sang  ii.salms,  was  poured  out  he- 
side  the  altar,  whence  it  was  conducted  liy  a 
sewer  into  the  Kidron  valley.  It  was  also 
customary  in  the  evening  following  the  lirst 
day  of  the  festival,  and  jierhajis  on  the  siih- 
sequeiit  evenings,  to  illuminate  the  court  of 
the  women  from  two  lofty  stands,  eiich  sup- 
jiorting  four  immense  lamps,  which  threw- 
their  light  not  only  into  the  courts  of  the 
temple,  hut  far  and  wide  over  the  city.  The 
wicks  were  made  of  the  cast-olf  linen  of  the 
Jiriests.  Levites,  stationed  on  the  steps  of 
the  court,  rendered  instrumental  music  and 
sang  psalms  ;  and  a  dance  was  performed  hy 
jiromiiient  laymen  and  priests. 

.Tews  wild  wen-  iiiiahle  to  attend  the  cele- 
hration  at  Jerusalem  on  account  of  the  dis- 
ttmce  of  the  city  from  their  home,  esjiecially 
Jews  dwelling  in  foreign  countries,  kept  the 
festival  at  the  synagogue  of  the  town  where 
they  lived,  hut  of  course  without  the  offering 
of  sacrifices. 

Tab'i-tha.     See  Dorc.\p. 

Ta'bor. 

1.  A  mountain  on  the  houndary  of  the 
territory  of  Issachar  (Autiq.  v.  1,  22 ;  perhaps 


'^^^^P^ 


i§,^^^^^,J<^^-' 


-Mount  Tulior,  us  .si'eii  Iroin  Naiu. 


during  the  festival,  at  the  time  of  tlic  morn- 
ing anil  evening  ohiation,  a  priest  filled  a 
golden  vessel  with  water  at  the  jiool  of  .Siloam 
and  carried  it  to  the  temiile,  where  it  was  re- 


Josh,  xix.  '2:1).  r?ar.ik  as.seml)led  there  the 
forcesof  Issacharand  Zehiilun  with  which  it 
was  designed  to  tight  with  ."^isera  l.ludg.  iv.  (i, 
12,  14).    Tahor  is  vastly  inferior  in  size  to  Her- 


Tabret 


720 


Tahpanhes 


nidii,  yet  as  a  notable  mountain  is  cou])led  with 
itin  Ps.  Ixxxix.  12.  Tabor  was  situated  inland 
among  the  mountains,  and  not,  like  Carmel, 
by  the  sea  (Jer.  xlvi.  IH).  Jo.sepluis  t'ortilied 
its  summit,  inelosinjjit  with  a  wall  ( IJfe  '.i~ ; 
War  iv.  1,  S).  Tabor,  now  eaik'd  Jebel  et- 
Tor,  is  a  detaclu'd  hill  1H13  feet  above  tlie 
level  of  the  Mediterranean,  in  the  north- 
eastern part  of  the  plain  of  jezreel,  about  12 
miles  north  of  mount  (Jillioa,  oj  east  by 
south  of  Nazareth,  and  12  west  by  south 
*>f  the  southern  eurvc  of  the  lake  of  Geii- 
nesaret.  From  the  west-northwest  it  looks 
like  a  truncated  cone,  and  from  the  south- 
west the  segment  of  a  sphere.  The  sides, 
which  are  not  particularly  steep,  have  oak 
thickets.  inlial>ited  by  wild  swine.  The  top 
is  Hat  and  elliptical.  In  the  fourth  century 
the  o])inion  si>rang  u|)  that  Tabor  was  the 
scene  of  the  transfiguration,  but  Robinson 
has  shown  the  high  improbability  of  this 
being  correct,  as  in  the  days  of  C'hrist  there 
was  a  fortified  city  on  the  hilltop.  The 
effect  of  the  tradition,  however,  was  that 
ecclesiastical  buildings  in  memory  of  the 
transfiguration  were  erected  to  a  larger  and 
larger  extent.     Their  ruins  remain. 

2.  A  town  of  Zcl)iilun,  given  to  the  Me- 
rarite  Levites  (1  Chron.  vi.  77).  It  maybe 
the  place  on  the  border  of  Issachar  (Josh. 
xix.  22).  The  latter  is  scarcely  identical 
with  the  border  town  Chisloth-tabor  (12), 
which  rather  corresponds  with  ChesuUoth 
(18). 

3.  An  oak  or  terebinth  (1  Sam.  x.  3  ;  not 
plain,  as  in  A.  V.),  which  seems  to  have 
grown  within  the  territory  of  Benjamin,  but 
the  exact  spot  is  unknown. 

Tab'ret. 

A  musical  instrument  (1  Sam.  x.  5),  a  tim- 
brel  (().  v.). 

Tab-rim'mon,  in  A.  V.  Tab'rim-on  [Ara- 
maic, Rinimon  is  good]. 

A  son  of  Heziou,  and  father  of  Beuhadad 
I.,  king  of  Syria  (1  Kin.  xv.  18). 

Tache. 

A  catch  for  taking  hold  or  holding  together. 
It  was  used  about  the  tabernacle  for  coupling 
curtains  together  (Ex.  xxvi.  6,  11,  in  R.  Y. 
clasp). 

Tach'mo-nite,  in  R.  V.  Tahcbemonite. 

A  word  found  in  2  Sam.  xxiii.  S.  It  is 
doubtless  a  corruption,  in  the  Hebrew  text 
itself,  of  "the  Hachmonite,"  a  copyist  hav- 
ing mistaken  lle))rew  h  for  t.     See  Hach- 

MOXI. 

Tad'mor  [formed  from  fifmnr,  a  palm  tree], 
A  town  in  the  desert  (2  Chron.  viii.  4).  It 
was  fortified  by  Solomon,  doubtless  to  control 
the  caravan  route  across  it.  In  the  parallel 
passaged  Kin.  ix.  18,  R.  V.)  it  is  called 
Tamar  in  the  wilderness,  and  d(>.scribed  as 
being  not  only  in  the  desert,  but  also  in  the 
land.  Tins  latter  ])hrase  is  probably  broad 
enough  to  denote  the  extensive  kingdom  of 


Solomon  (19;  iv.  21,  24).  The  suggestion 
has  been  made  that  the  town  may  be  identi- 
cal with  Tamar  at  the  southeastern  corner 
of  the  promised  l)oundaries  of  the  land 
(Ezi'k.  xlvii.  1!)  ;  xlviii.  2.^),  probably  on  the 
road  from  Hebron  to  IJlath  ;  see  Tamak  5. 
This  identification  is  in  itself  suitable,  and 
may  include  or  correct  Tadnior  in  2  Chron. 
viii.  4,  which  has  been  jirojiosed  in  exi)lana- 
tion  of  1  Kin.  ix.  IS.  But  the  text  of  Kings 
is  suspicious  :  for  the  phrase  "  in  the  land" 
is  suj)ertluous,  since  all  the  towns  mentioned 
were  in  the  land,  and  the  text  departs  from 
the  j)arallel  enumeration  in  Chronicles  in 
failing  to  locate  in  Hamath  the  store  cities 
of  Solonjon.  rerliai)s  the  original  text  was 
"Tamar  in  the  wilderness,  in  the  land  of 
Hamath  all  the  store  cities."  Tadmor  eventu- 
ally became  subject  to  the  Romans,  who 
Latinized  the  name  into  Palmyra  (Autiq. 
viii.  6,  1).  Between  A.  D.  251  and  273  it  was 
at  fir.st  partially,  and  then  for  a  time  totally, 
independent.  The  ])lace  still  retains  the 
name  of  Tadmur.  It  is  in  an  oasis  about  140 
miles  east-northeast  of  Damascus,  and  about 
120  from  the  Euphrates.  It  is  now  a  ruin, 
stretching  more  than  a  mile  and  a  half.  It 
has  long  rows  of  Corinthian  columns  and  a 
few  of  the  Ionic  order,  with  a  number  of 
tower-like  tombs.  The  inscriptions  found 
in  the  place  have  been  chiefly  Greek  and 
Semitic. 

Ta'han  [perhaps,  inclination]. 

A  descendant  of  Epliraim,  and  founder  of 
a  tribal  family  (Num.  xxvi.  35).  His  descent 
was  probal)ly  through  Telah,  Rephah,  and 
Beriah  to  Ejihraim  (1  Chron.  vii.  25). 

Ta-bap'a-nes.     See  Tahpanhes. 

Ta'hash,  in  A.V.Tlialiasli  [porpoise  or  sim- 
ilar lishlike  animal]. 

A  son  of  Nahor  by  his  concubine  Reumah 
(Gen.  xxii.  24). 

Ta'hath  [that  which  is  beneath]. 

1.  A  station  of  the  Israelites  in  the  wil- 
derness (Num.  xxxiii.  26,  27).  Situation  un- 
knov^Mi. 

2.  A  Levite,  family  of  Kohath,  house  of 
Izhar,  and  of  the  line  of  Korah  and  Abiasaph 
(1  Chron.  vi.  24,  37).  From  him  two  families 
branched,  Uriel  and  Zephaniah. 

3.  An  Ephraimite,  son  of  Bered,  family  of 
Sbuthelah  (1  C^hron.  vii.  20). 

4.  A  son  of  Elcadah,  and  a  descendant  of 
Tahath,  son  of  Bered  (1  Chron.  vii.  20). 

Tab-che'mo-nite.     See  Tachmoxitk. 

Tah'pan-hes,  and  once  Tebaplmebes 
(Ezek.  XXX.  IH) ;  in  A.  V.  once  also  Tahapa- 
nes  (Jer.  ii.  l(i). 

An  Egyi)tian  city  (Ezek.  xxx.  18),  to  which 
Jews  fled  to  escape  Babylonian  vengeance 
after  the  murder  of  Gedaliah  (,Ter.  xliii.  7-9). 
Jews  .seem  to  have  become  ])ermanent  resi- 
dents there  (xliv.  1  ;  xlvi.  14).  Tlie  Septu- 
agint  translators  render  the  name  Taphne  or 
Taphnai,  obviously  the  same  as  Daphne,  a 


Tahpenes 


721 


Tamarisk  Tree 


fortified  city  on  the  Pelusiac  cliannel  of  the 
Nile  (Herod,  ii.  :«»,  107).  Tlie  site  is  helieved 
to  have  l)een  at  a  iiiutind  still  called  Dcrciiiii'li, 
ajipareiitly  a  iiioilideatioii  of  the  old  name. 

Tah'pe-nes. 

A  (iMci  II  of  Kfjriit,  wife  of  that  Tllaraoh 
who  received  Jla(lad  when  he  was  a  fugitive 
from  Solomon  (1    Kin.  .\i.  H),  'JU). 

Tab're-a  an<l  Tarea  [perhajis,  adroitness 

or  cUMiiin;,'). 

.\  (Usccndant  of  king  Saul  through  Jona- 
than (1  Cliroii.  viii.  ;i'>;  ix.  41). 

Tab-tim-hod'shi. 

.\  r<'j;ion  visited  hy  David's  census  takers 
in  connection  with  (iilead,  hefore  they  came 
to  l)an-jaan  an<l  roundahout  to  Zidon  (2Sam. 
x.xiv.  <ij.  The  name  is  <'lsewhere  unknown, 
and  iierhaps  stands  for  "the  llittites  toward 
Kadesh  ;  "  see  Kadksu  2. 

Tal'ent. 

A  weij^ht  used  l)oth  for  ordinary  commod- 
ities an<l  for  the  ]irecioiis  metals,  hut  of  dif- 
ferent standard  in  tlie  resjiective  cases  ;  see 
Wki(;ht.s.  The  value  of  the  talent  of  gold 
was  ahout  .S".2!'.374.50 ;  and  that  of  silver 
ahout  sV.t-,().  The  talent  of  the  (ireeo-Roman 
jieriod  was  .\ttic,  varying  from  .-sllbO  to  .'?!»tj(). 
From  the  i>aral)le  of  the  talents,  in  which 
a  master  distrihutes  talents  among  his  serv- 
ants, according  to  their  several  ability, 
to  he  put  to  profitahle  use 
(Mat.  XXV.  14-:50).  the  Eng- 
lish figurative  use  of  the 
word  talents  is  jirohahly 
derived  in  such  expressions 
as  that  oni-  uses  his  talents 
well. 

Tal'i-tha  cu'mi  [.\ra- 
maic,  maiden  arise]  (Mark 
V.   ID. 

Tal'mai  [pertaining  to 
furrows]. 

I.  A  son  of  .\nak,  and 
Jirohahly  founder  of  a  fam- 
ily of  .\nakini  (Num.  xiii. 
U".'),  dri\cn  from  Ilehron 
hv    Caleh    (.losl 


1.  The  wife  of  Er,  son  of  Judah.  Wlien 
left  a  widow,  she  hecamo  the  mother  of  I'erez 
and  Zerali  hy  Judah  ((ien.  xxxviii.  li-titi), 
and  thus  the  ancestress  of  .several  tribal  fam- 
ilies (Num.  xxvi.  20,  21). 

2.  'i'he  htautifulsisterof  Ab.salom,  who  had 
his  brother  Amnion  assiissinated  for  ill-using 
her  (2  Sam.  xiii.  l-;5!»;   1  Chron.  iii.  !)). 

^5.  A  daughter  of  Absalom,  nami-d  doubt- 
less after  his  sister  (2  Sam.  xiv.  27). 

4.  A  town  in  the  desert  (1  Kin.  ix.  18). 
The  Hebrew  K'ri,  or  ])referred  reading,  the 
A.  ^'.,  the  margin  of  the  K.  V.,  and  2  Chron. 
viii.  4  have  Tadmor;  see  Tadmdr. 

5.  A  jilace  at  the  eastern  end  of  the 
])rojni.sed  .southern  frontier  of  Palestine 
(Ezek.  xlvii.  U)  ;  xlviii.  2H).  It  would  lie 
south  of  the  Dead  Sea;  and  perha]is  is  idi'ii- 
tical  with  tlu^  village  Tamara,  located  by 
Kuscbius  on  till'  roatl  between  Hebron  and 
Elalh. 

Tam'a-risk  Tree. 

The  tamarisk  (  Tmuarix  articulafa)  is  called 
'iitlil  in  Arabic,  'athla'  in  Aramaic;  and  accord- 
ingly the  cognate  Hebrew  word  'cshel  doubt- 
less likewise  denotes  the  tamarisk.  Abraham 
jilanted  one  in  I'eer-sheba  ((ien.  xxi.  33  ;  in 
A.  V.  grove),  Saul  dwelt  beneath  one  in 
Eamah  (1  Sam.  xxii.  (J ;  in  A.  V.  a  tree),  and 
the  hones  of  Saul  and  his  sons  were  buried 
beneath  one  in  Jabesh-gilead  (xxxi.   13 ;  in 


XV.    II; 

(Jeshnr. 

Maacah 
il's  wives, 
nother  (2 
1 


Judg.  i.  10). 

2.    A    king    of 
whose     daughter 
was  one  of  Davie 
.•iiid    Absalom's 
Sam.    iii.    3;    xiii.    3' 
Chron.  iii.  2). 

Tal'mon  [o])|tres.sed]. 

.\  porliT.  and  the  family 
whii-h  he  founile(l  (1  Chron. 
ix.l7;  Neb.  xi.  lit;  xii.2."i).    Some  of  them  re- 
lumed from  captivity  with  Zeiiihbabel  (l-'/.ra 
ii.  42;   Nell.  vii.  4.")),  and  jKiformed  the  s;ime 
-ervice  at  tlic  new  temple. 

Ta'mah.    SeeTioMAii. 

Ta'mar,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Thamar  [a  [lalm 
tree,  sjiecially  a  date  jialm]. 
4<) 


Tainnrisk  'free. 

A.  V.  a  tree).  Tlie  chronicler  states  tliat  tlie 
liones  of  the  king  and  his  .sons  were  interred 
beneath  the  'fhih  in  Jabesh  (1  Chron.  x.  12; 
in  E.  V.  oak,  K.  V.  margin  terebinth).  Heniay, 
hiiwever,  use  the  term  'tlitli  in  its  hroail  signifi- 
cation of  strong  tree  :  see  <  >.\K.  The  tamarisk 
is  a  small  tree,  growing  from  HI  to  20,  2.">,  or 
.'it)    feet    hi;ih,  with   durable   w<»o(l,  dccidnous 


Tammuz 


722 


Tarpelites 


branches,  and  minute,  scale-like,  evergreen 
leaves.  Nine  species  occur  in  Palestine.  Tlie 
must  widely  distributed  is  Tmnnrix  pnJlns'ii, 
which  attains  a  height  of  IVoni  10  to  'JO  feet. 
The  largest  species  is  Tninnrlx  (triiculata,  from 
15  to  30  feet.  It  is  found  along  the  western 
border  of  the  desert  of  the  wandering. 
Tamarix  mainiifera,  from  10  to  IT)  feet  in 
height,  growing  in  ancient  Moab,  Kdom,  and 
the  peninsula  of  Sinai,  yields  the  substance 
poi)uiarly  known  as  manna;  see  Manna. 

Tam'muz. 

A  deity  of  the  Babylonians,  called  by  them 
DuiiiH-zi' or  I)u-zi,  probably  meaning  son  of 
life,  from  which  the  name  Tammuz  is  de- 
rived. He  was  w'orshiped  throughout  Baby- 
lonia, and  in  Assyria.  Phfenicia.  and  Pales- 
tine ;  and  he  gave  name  to  the  fourtli  month 
of  the  Semitic  year:  see  Year.  He  was  the 
husband  of  the  goddess  Ish tar,  and  king  of 
the  nether  world.  He  was  also  god  of  the 
pasture,  the  patron  of  Hocks  and  their  keep- 
ers, and  hence  was  himself  entitled  shep- 
herd. He  was  represented  as  dying  annually 
and  returning  to  life  with  each  recurring 
year.  It  was  understood,  by  some  at  least, 
that  he  was  slain  by  the  sun-god  Shamash. 
The  story  is  confessedly  a  nature  myth. 
However  its  details  may  be  explained,  it 
symbolizes  more  or  less  inclusively  the  an- 
nual withdrawal  and  invariable  return  of 
the  sun,  and  the  death  and  revival  of  vegeta- 
tion. Ezekiel  in  vision  saw  the  worship  of 
Tammuz  in  favor  among  the  Jews,  and 
women  sitting  at  the  northern  gate  of  the 
temple  weeping  for  the  god  (Ezek.  viii.  14). 
Cyril  of  Alexandria  and  Jerome  identilied 
him  with  the  Phoenician  Adonis.  Though 
not  proven,  their  conjecture  has  found  much 
favor.  Jerome  says  that  the  Syrians  cele- 
brated an  annual  solemnity  to  Adonis  in 
June,  when  he  was  lamented  by  the  women  as 
dead,  and  afterwards  his  coming  to  life  again 
was  celebrated  with  songs.  From  other  sources 
it  appears  that  Byblos  in  Phcenicia  was  the 
headquarters  of  the  Adonis  worship.  The 
annual  feast  in  his  honor  was  held  at  the 
neighboring  temple  of  Ajjhrodite  in  mount 
Lebanon,  and  lasted  seven  days.  It  began 
with  a  commemoration  of  the  disappearance 
of  the  god.  Vessels  tilled  with  mold  and 
containing  stalks  of  wheat,  barley,  lettuce, 
and  fennel,  and  called  gardens  of  Adonis, 
were  exposed  to  the  heat  of  the  sun.  The 
witliering  of  the  plants  symbolized  the 
slaughter  of  the  youth  by  the  fire-god  Mars. 
Then  followed  a  search  for  Adonis  by  the 
women.  At  length  his  image  was  found  in 
one  of  the  gardens.  The  finding  was  cele- 
brated by  lewdness  and  song.  The  image 
was  then  coffined,  and  the  wound  made  by 
the  symbolical  boar  which  slew  the  young 
god  was  shown  on  his  body.  The  people  sat 
on  the  ground  around  the  bier  witli  their 
clothes  rent,  and  the  women  raised  loud 
lamentation.  Sacrifice  was  offered  for  the 
dead  god,  and  the  image  was  buried. 


Ta'nacli.    See  Taanach. 

Tan'liu-metli  [consolation]. 

A  N\toiiliathitei2  Kin.  xxv.  23  ;  Jer.  xl.  8). 

Ta'phath  [a  dro])]. 

A  daugliler  of  Solomon,  and  wife  of  Abin- 
adal)  il  Kin.  iv.  11). 

Ta'phon.     See  Tkphon. 

Tap'pu-ah  [apple  or,  perhap.s,  quince  or 
apricot]. 

1.  A  town  in  the  lowland  of  Judah  (Josh. 
XV.  34).     Site  unknown. 

2.  A  town  of  Manasseh  west  of  Shechem 
and  on  the  boundary  of  Ephraim  (Josh.  xvi. 
8  ;  xvii.  7,  8). 

3.  A  son  of  Hebron  (1  Chron.  ii.  43). 

Ta'rah.     See  Terah. 

Tar'a-lah  [staggering,  reeling]. 
A  city  of  Benjamin  (jfosh.  xviii.  27).     Site 
unknown. 
Ta're-a.     See  Tahrea. 

Tares. 

The  rendering  of  the  Greek  Zisanion  in 
Mat.  xiii.  -25-27,  29,  30 ;  on  R.  V.  margin  dar- 
nel. The  tare  (Vicia  safiva),  a  vetch,  with 
pinnate  leaves  and  purple-blue  or  red  papil- 
ionaceous flowers,  would  be  easily  distin- 
guished from  the  wheat.     The  Greek  word 


Bearded  Darnel. 

zisanion  corresponds  to  the  Arabic  zmrdn, 
which  denotes  LoUum,  and  to  the  talmudic 
sonin.  The  bearded  darnel  (LoUnm  teinukn- 
tum)  is  a  poisonous  grass,  almost  undistin- 
guishable  from  wheat  while  the  two  are  only 
in  blade,  but  which  can  be  separated  without 
difficult}'  when  they  come  into  ear  (cp.  ver. 
29,  .30). 

Tar'get.     See  Armor. 

Tar'gum.    See  Versions. 

Tar'pel-ites. 

The  inhaliitants  of  an  unknown  place, 
presumably  called  Tarpel,  and  situated  near 
Babylonia  or  Elam.  They  were  lirousbt  Iiy 
Asuapper  to  Samaria  after  the  deportation  of 
the  ten  tribes  (Ezra  iv.  9). 


Tarshish 


723 


Tatnai 


Tar'shlsh,  in  A.  V.  four  timos  Tharshlsll 
(1  Kin.  X.  22;  xxii.  48;  1  Chron.  vii.  lU). 

1.  A  pooplo  descended  from  Juvau  ((Jen. 
X.  4)  iind  their  country.  As  Jonah  entered 
a  ship  at  .Iupjia  in  order  to  flee  tliitlier,  the 
route  to  it  was  evidently  across  the  waters 
of  the  Mediterranean.  It  was  a  distant  land 
(Is.  Ixvi.  lit).  Tyre  was  the  "daughter"  of 
Tarshish  (xxiii.  10),  i)erliaps  in  the  sense 
that  tiie  coninierce  with  Tarshish  was  the 
niakinj;  of  Tyre.  The  imports  from  Tarshish 
were  silver  heaten  into  jiiates  (Jer.  x.  i)),  also 
iron,  tin,  and  lead  (Kzek.  xxvii.  12).  It  is 
believed  that  Tarshish  was  Tartessus,  in  the 
south  of  .Si)ain,  near  (riiiraltar  (Herod,  iv. 
152),  and  the  country  of  the  Turti  or  Turdi- 
tani.  to  which  the  town  helonged.  The 
mineral  wealth  of  the  ref:cion  attracted  the 
Phcenicians,  who  established  a  colony  there 
and  Semitized  the  name.  Spain  has  long 
been  noted  for  its  mineral  wealth. 


Tar'sus  [not  from  (ireck  tarsos,  a  crate  of 
wickerwork,  any  broatl,  Hat  surface].  The 
name  was  pronounced  Tarzi  by  the  Asisyri- 
ans,  and  ai)pears  written  on  c(jins  in  Aramaic 
character  as  Trz. 

The  diief  city  of  Cilicia,  in  the  eastern 
l)arl  of  Asia  Minor.  It  was  situated  on  both 
i)anks  of  the  river  Cydnus,  about  12  miles 
from  the  sea.  About  i~.3;i  B.  c.  it  is  men- 
tioned by  Shalmaneser,  king  of  Assyria. 
When  the  Romans  formed  the  province  of 
Cilicia  in  ()4  B.  c,  they  made  Tarsus  the 
residence  of  the  governor.  To  compensate 
it  for  the  sufferings  it  endured  in  its  alle- 
giance to  the  ])arty  of  Ciesar,  Marc  Antony 
granted  it  fn-edom  and  e^emjition  from  taxa- 
tion. It  was  ])articularly  celebrated  for  its 
schools,  which  almost  rivaled  those  of  Athens 
and  Alexandria.  It  was  the  birthplace  of 
the  ai)ostle  Paul,  and  he  revisited  it  at  least 
once  after  his  conversion  (Acts  ix.  11.  '.iO:  xi. 


Tarsus. 


Ships  of  Tarshish  were  originally  ships 
trading  to  and  from  Tarshish,  but  ultimately 
ships  of  tlrst-rate  magnitude  to  whatever 
jtlace  their  voyages  may  have  been  made 
(Ps.  xlviii.  7;  Is.  ii.  Ki ;  xxiii.  1,  11;  lx.it; 
Ezek.  xxvii.  2r>).  Such  vessels,  built  by  Je- 
hoshaphat  to  go  to  Ophir,  lay  in  the  harbor 
at  Kzion-geber  on  the  Red  Sea  (1  Kin.  xxii. 
4S).  The  term  Tarshish  ship  is  paraphnised 
as  "shij)  going  to  Tarshish"  (2  Chnm.  i.x. 
21,  Hebrew  text;  cp.  1  Kin.  x.  22)  and  "ship 
to  go  to  Tarshisii  "  12  (."hron.  xx.  3fi). 

2.  A  Benjamite,  son  of  Bilhan  (1  Chron. 
vii.  10). 

3.  One  of  the  .seven  highest  princes  of 
Persia  (Esth.  i.  14). 


25;  xxi.  39;  xxii.  3).  Though  much  de- 
cayed from  its  former  grandeur,  it  still  exists 
as  a  considerable  town.  There  are  few  rem- 
nants of  anticiuity  at  the  old  site. 

Tar'tak. 

An  idrd  .set  up  bv  the  Avvites  in  Samaria 
(2  Kin.  xvii.  31). 

Tar'tan. 

The  title  of  the  commander-in-chief  of 
the  Assyrian  army  (2  Kin.  xviii.  17:  Is.  xx. 
1).  The  name  was  jinmounced  by  the  .\s- 
syrians  both  tartmiu  and   turtatiit. 

Tat'nai. 

.\  Persian  governor  west  of  the  river  Ku- 
]ihrates.     He   opposed    the    building   of  the 


Tau 


■24 


Tebah 


temple  by  the  returned   exiles  (Ezra  v.  3; 
.vi.  (J). 

Tau. 

Till'  twi'iity-si'cond  and  last  letter  of  the 
Hclircw  aliiliahut,  inonoimced  t  or  th  ac- 
cording' to  iwsition.  Kufjlish  T  comes  from 
the  sanu-  source,  and  with  th  represents  it 
in  anKlicized  Hebrew  names;  as  Taniar, 
Natluui.  It  heads  the  twenty-second  section 
of  I's.  cxix..  in  wliicli  section  eacli  verse  of 
the  original  begins  with  tiiis  letter. 

Scribes  occasionally  confused  tau  and  he 
(q.  v.). 

Tax'es. 

Under  the  judges  the  regular  payments 
obligatory  on  the  Israelites  were  for  the 
worship  "of  Jehovah.  There  was  as  yet  no 
army  and  no  royal  court  to  support.  But 
there  was  a  tabernacle  and  a  priesthood,  and 
these  were  maintained  by  the  tithes  and 
other  offerings,  and  by  the  land  which  was 
permanently  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the 
Levites. 

.\fter  the  establishment  of  the  kingdom, 
revenue  for  its  support  was  obtained  from 
various  sources:  1.  Taxes  in  kind  were 
levied  by  Solomon  on  the  produce  of  the 
field  and  the  flock  (1  Kin.  iv.  7-28;  cp. 
Amos  vii.  1).  2.  Special  gifts  were  brought 
to  the  king  at  the  commencement  of  his 
reigu  (1  Sam.  x.  27)  or  in  time  of  war  (xvi. 
20;  xvii.  18).  3.  Tribute  was  rendered  by 
subject  peoples  (2  Sam.  viii.  G,  14;  1  Kin.  x. 
L") ;  2  Kin.  iii.  4),  and  service  was  exacted 
of  the  Canaanites  wlio  dwelt  in  the  midst 
of  Israel  (Judg.  i.  28,  .30;  1  Kin.  ix.  20,  21). 
When  tlie  Hebrews  were  sulyect  to  a  foreign 
])rince,  they  had  to  pay  tribute  to  him  in 
addition  to  taxes  for  the  support  of  their 
own  government.  4.  Duties  were  paid  by 
tradesmen  and  merchants  (1  Kin.  x.  15). 
Without  levying  taxes  in  money  or  produce, 
and  with  little  expense  to  himself,  David  at- 
tained the  olyect  of  a  standing  army  b.y  divid- 
ing the  men  of  military  age  into  brigades  of 
24,000  men,  and  requiring  each  brigade  in 
turn  to  hold  itself  in  readiness  during  one 
montli  for  instant  service  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  1). 
I'jKlcr  Solomon  the  people  were  oppressed  by 
taxation,  and  this  grievous  burden  was  an 
immediate  cause  of  the  disruption  of  the 
kingdom  (1  Kin.  xii.  4).  Exemption  from 
taxation  was  a  reward  for  service  (1  Sam. 
xvii.  25;   Antiq.   xvii.  2,  1). 

Under  the  Persian  enii>ire,  by  decree  of 
Darius  Hystaspis  the  .satrajjs  of  each  prov- 
ince paid  a  fixed  sum  into  the  roval  treasurv 
(Herod,  iii.  89).  The  inhabitants  had  to 
]>rovide  for  the  maintenance  of  the  govern- 
or's liousehold  also.  This  provision  was 
railed  the  bread  of  the  governor,  and  so  far 
as  .ludah  was  concerned  included  food  and 
forty  shekels  daily  in  money  (Neh.  v.  14,  15). 
The  revenue  was  derived  from  tril)Ute,  cus- 
toms, and  toll  (Ezra  iv.  13,  20).  Priests, 
Levites,  and  Nethinim  were  exempted  from 


these  taxes  in  Judah  (vii.  24) ;  but  the  bur- 
dens pressed  heavily  on  the  great  body  of 
the  i>eople,  wlio  had  the  sanctuary  likewise 
to  support,  and  many  were  forced  to  mort- 
gage their  fields  and  vineyards  to  raise  money 
for  the  tribute  (Neh.  v.  4  ;  ix.  37;. 

Under  tiie  Egyj)tian  and  Syrian  king.s,  in- 
stead of  a  fixed  amount  being  levied  by  the 
crown  on  the  people,  tlie  i)rivilege  of  collect- 
ing the  taxes  of  a  district  was  put  up  at 
auction  and  sold  to  the  highest  responsible 
bidder.  The  jiarty  who  promised  the  most 
revenue  from  a  ])roviiice  was  authorized  to 
collect  it  and  was  furnished  with  military 
power  sufficient  to  enable  him  to  enforce  his 
demands  (Antiq.  xii.  4,  1-5).  The  Syrian 
kings  imposed  a  poll  tax  and  a  duty  on  salt, 
exacted  a  sum  of  money  in  lieu  of  the  an- 
nual present  of  a  crown  of  gold,  which  it 
had  l)ecome  customary  to  demand,  took  one- 
third  of  the  grain  and  one-half  of  the  fruit, 
and  in  addition  levied  on  the  tithes  and  tolls 
paid  into  the  temple  at  Jerusalem  ( 1  Mac. 
X.  29-31 ;  xi.  34,  35;  xiii.  37,  39;  Antiq.  xii. 
3,  3). 

When  the  Romans  under  Pompey  took 
Jerusalem  in  63  b.  c,  tribute  was  imposed 
on  the  Jews  which  in  a  short  time  amounted 
to  more  than  10,000  talents  (Antiq.  xiv.  4,  4, 
and  5).  Julius  Ciesar  decreed  that  the  tribute 
should  not  be  farmed,  that  it  should  not  be 
levied  in  a  Sabbatic  year,  and  that  in  the 
year  following  a  Sabbatic  year  only  one- 
fourth  of  the  usual  amount  should  be  col- 
lected (10,  5  and  6).  Herod  the  Great  taxed 
the  produce  of  the  field  (xv.  9, 1),  and  levied 
duties  on  commodities  bought  and  sold  (xvii. 
8,  4).  When  Judtea  was  placed  under  proc- 
urators, the  financial  system  of  the  empire 
was  introduced.  The  revenues  were  farmed ; 
see  Publican.  There  were  levied  :  1.  Trib- 
ute of  the  soil,  paid  either  in  kind  or  in 
money.  2.  A  poll  tax  (Mat.  xxii.  17)  and, 
under  the  same  name,  a  tax  on  personal 
property.  3.  Export  and  import  duties,  col- 
lected at  seaports  and  at  the  gates  of  cities. 
In  Jerusalem  a  house  duty  was  paid  by  the 
inhabitants  (Antiq.  xix.  6,  3). 

After  the  exile  a  temple  tax  of  half  a 
shekel  w'as  imposed  on  every  Israelite  who 
had  reached  the  age  of  twenty  years  (Mat. 
xvii.  24).  The  collectors  visited  each  town 
of  Judfea  annually  at  a  fixed  time,  and  in 
foreign  countries  places  were  designated 
where  it  might  be  paid.     See  Teibute  2. 

Tax'ing. 

An  enrollment,  ordered  by  the  Roman  em- 
peror Augustus,  which  in  the  providence  of 
God  brought  Joseph  and  Mary  to  Bethlehem, 
and  led  to  the  fulfillment  of  the  ancient 
prophecy  that  the  Messiah  should  be  born  in 
that  town  (Mic.  v.  2;  Mat.  ii.  .5,  6;  Luke  ii. 
1-20).  A  later  enrollment  led  to  tumults 
among  the  .lews  (Acts  v.  37).     See  QuiRiNiU.s. 

Te'bah  [slaughter  (specially  of  cattle)]. 
A  sou  of  Nahor  by  Reumah,  his  concubine 


Tebaliah 


725 


Temple 


(fien.  xxii.  24),  and  the  tribi-  doscendcd  from 
him.  Tlic  name  is  found  in  il  Sam.  viii.  8, 
according  to  the  Sejjtiiagint  and  the  Kyriac 
version,  and  also  in  1  t'hron.  xviii.  K  in  the 
form  Tihhath,  and  denotes  a  town  of  Aram- 
zohali. 

Teb-a-li'ah  [.Iiliovali  hath  immersed,  i.e., 
ceri'monially  imrilifd]. 

.\  Mcrarite  Levile,  the  tliird  son  of  Hosah 
1 1  (  liiiiM.  xxvi.  11). 

Te'beth. 

riic  lentil  month  of  the  Semitic  calendar 
(i:>tli.  ii.  Ifi;.     See   Yeak. 

Te-haph'ne-hes.     See  Tahi'ANHJ':s. 

Te-hin  nah  [},'race,  suiiiilieations]. 

A  man  of  .liuhih,  descended  from  Cheluh, 
and  ancestor  of  the  inliahitants  of  Ir-nahash 
(1  C'hron.  iv.  12). 

Teil  Tree. 

Tilt  linden,  a  tree  of  the  genus  Tilia.  The 
IK  l)re\\  word  U'luh  is  once  translated  thus  in 
A.  \'.  (Is.  vi.  1.'5  ;  in  K.  V.  teri'hinth)  ;  see 
Oak  1  and  Tekebinth.  The  teil  tree  does 
not  f;ro\v  in  Palestine. 

Te'kel.    See  Mene. 

Te-ko'a,  in  A.  V.  thrice  Tekoah  (2  Sam. 
xiv.  -..',  I,  !l),  and  so  in  K.  V.  of  1  Mac.  ix.  33, 
where  A.  V.  has  Thecoe. 

A  town  in  Jiidah  (1  Chron.  ii.  24;  iv.  5; 
Sei>tuaj;int  of  Josh.  xv.  tiO),  in  the  wilderness 
toward  Kn-fjedi  (2  (  hron.  xx.  20;  ep.  2.  16). 
It  was  fortified  liy  Uehoboam  (2  Chron.  xi.  6). 
It  was  the  home  of  the  ]irui)het  Amos  (Amos 
i.  1).  In  Xelieiiiiairs  time  the  common  i)eo- 
jde  of  Tekoa  heljied  to  rebuild  the  wall  of 
Jerusiilem.  while  the  nobles  of  the  place 
showed  indifference  to  the  work  (Neh.  iii.  5, 
27).  The  name  .still  lingers  as  Teku'a,  a 
ruined  villaf;e  .">  miles  sontli  of  Bethlehem. 
It  is  on  a  hill  broad  at  the  top,  where  are 
found  the  remains  of  the  foundations  of 
houses,  often  witli  beveled  stones,  the  whole 
oceniiyinfr  an  area  of  4  or  5  acres.  There  is 
al.so  a  castle,  but  of  more  modern  date. 

Te-ko'ite. 

A  native  or  inhabitant  of  Tekoa  (2  Sam. 
xxiii.  2('>). 

Tel-a'bib  [heap,  or  hill  of  ears  of  ^rain]. 

A  place  in  Habylonia,  near  the  river  Che- 
bar.  .Jewish  exiles  were  located  there  (Ezek. 
iii.  If)).    Situation  unknown. 

Te'lah  [fracture]. 

.•\  ilcsccnilant  of  l'',phniim,  jjrobably  tlirough 
Htriab  ( I  (  broM.  vii.  2.">). 

Tera-im  [little  hunbs]. 

.\  jilace  where  Saul  assembled  his  army  to 
war  against  the  Amalekites  (1  Sam.  xv.  4  ; 
and  XX vii.  H,  Seiituagint).  It  may  be  Telem 
of  .losh.  XV.  24  ;  but  file  two  names,  as  tra- 
ditionally pronounced,  have  a  different  mean- 
ing. 

Te-laa'sar,  in  A.  V.  once  Thelasar  (2  Kin. 
xix.  121  [probably,  hill  of  Asshur,  or  the  As- 
syrians]. 


A  place  inhabited  by  the  children  of  Eden 
(2  Kin.  xix.  12;  Is.  xxxvii.  12).  and  hence 
in  western  Mesojiotamia,  near  llaran.  Exact 
situation  unknown. 

Te'lem  [perhaps,  oppression]. 

1.  A  town  in  the  extreme  south  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  21).    Site  unknown.    Sie  Tei.aim. 

2.  A  porter,  whom  Ezra  induced  to  jiut 
away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  21). 

Tel-har'sha,  in  A.  V.  Tel-bar'sa  and  Tel- 
har'e-sha  [in  Hebri'W  and  Assyrian,  mound 
of  the  artificer's  work  or  of  encbantnifnt]. 

A  j)Iace  in  Habylonia  wlu'nce  certain  jjcojile 
who  claimed  to  be  Israelite  exik'S  returned 
with  Zerubbabel  to  Jerusalem  (Ezra  ii.  .59; 
Neh.  vii.  (Jl).     Situation  unknown. 

Tel-me'lah  [bill  of  salt]. 

A  place  in  Habylonia,  whence  certain  people 
who  claimed  to  be  Israelite  exiles  came  to 
Jerusiilem  with  Zerulibabel  (  Ezraii.  59  ;  Neh. 
vii.  Gl).     Situation  unknown]. 

Te'ma. 

A  tribeof  Ishmaelites  and  the  district  they 
inhabited  (Gen.  xxv.  15  ;  Is.  xxi.  14).  Their 
caravans  were  well  known  (Job  vi.  19). 
Tema  is  often  identified  with  Taima  in  the 
Ilauran  ;  but  it  rather  denotes  the  imjiortant 
peojtle  who  dwelt  in  and  about  Taima,  east 
of  the  .ilClanitic  gulf  of  the  Red  Sea  and  mid- 
way between  Damascus  and  Medina. 

Te'mali,   in   A.  V.   Tamab  and   Thamah 

[perhaps,  laughter]. 

Founder  of  a  family  of  Xethinim,  mem- 
bers of  which  returned  with  Zerubbabel 
from  the  cajitivity  (Ezra  ii.  5.3  ;  Neh.  vii.  55). 

Te'man  [southern]. 

A  tribe  descended  from  Esau,  and  the  dis- 
trict they  inhabited  ((Jen.  xxxvi.  11,  1.5,  34). 
The  territory  was  in  Edom  (Jer.  xlix.  20; 
Amos  i.  12),  apparently  in  the  northern  part 
(Ezek.  xxv.  13).  Its  inhabitants  were  noted 
for  their  wisdom  (Jer.  xlix.  7). 

Te'man-ite,  in  A.  V.  once  Tem'a-ni  ((^eu. 
xxxvi.  34). 

A  member  of  the  tribe  of  Tenian  (Gen. 
xxxvi.  34),  or  of  Tema.  It  is  not  certain  in 
which  sense  Eliphaz,  Job's  friend,  was  a 
Tenianite  (Job  ii.  11). 

Tem'e-ni. 

A  son  of  Ashhur  (1  Chron.  iv.  5,  G). 

Tem'ple  [in  Hebrew,  large  house,  palace, 
as  1  Kin.  i.  21 ;  2  Kin.  xx.  18 ;  Dan.  i.  4 ; 
iv.  4]. 

A  building  dedicated  to  the  worship  of  a 
deity  (Joel  iii.  5;  Ezra  v.  14  willi  i.  7:  Acts 
xix.  27).  In  three  jia.ssages  it  is  ajiplied  to 
the  tabernacle  (1  Sam.  i.  9;  iii.  3;  2  Sam. 
xxii.  7;  cp.  Kev.  xv.  5) ;  hut  generally  the 
reference  is  to  some  one  of  the  temples  suc- 
ce.ssivelj'  erected  to  Jehovjih  at  .lerusalem. 

1.  Solomon's  Temple.  The  erection  of  a 
|)ermaneiit  hou.se  of  the  Lord,  inst«'ad  of  the 
movable  tabernacle,  wa-s  proposed  by  David, 
and    the    nece.s.sary    materials    were    largely 


Temple 


■26 


Temple 


amassed  by  him  (2  Sam.  vii. ;  1  Kin.  v.  3-5  ; 
viii.  17;  1  Chron.  xxii.  ;  xxviii.  11-xxix.  9). 
Ih'  Kathcri'd  lOO.OOd  talents  of  iio\d  and 
l,OtH).()00  tak'nts  ol"  .silvi-r  fur  tlif  prospective 
structure  and  its  furnishinfis  (1  Cliron.  xxii. 
14),  and  added  from  his  own  private  for- 
tune 3000  talents  of  gold  and  7000  tiil- 
ents  of  silver,  and  the  princes  contributed 
5000  talent.s  of  gold,  10,000  darics  of  gold, 
and  10,000  talents  of  silver  (xxix.  4,  7), 
making  a  total  of  lOH.OOO  talents  of  gold, 
10,01)0  darics  of  gold,  and  1,017,000  talents 
of  silver.  This  sum  is  etiuivaleut  to  nearly 
4900  million  dollars  or,  if  it  may  be  legiti- 
mately reckoned  by  the  lighter  system  of 
weights,  nearly  24r)0  million  dollars.  Tliis 
latter  amount  is  perhaps  not  incredible,  in 
view  of  the  booty  which  David  brought 
home  from  his  wars  and  received  as  tribute. 
Still  the  sum  is  very  large,  and  it  is  well  to 
admit  the  probability  of  the  text  being  cor- 
rupt. This  store  of  i)recious  metals  was 
placed  at  the  disposal  of  Solomon  for  the  use 
of  the  temple,  but  it  was  not  all  expended 
(1  Kin.  vii.  51;  2  Chron.  v.  1).  Solomon 
began  the  work  in  the  fourth  year  of  his 
reign,  and  it  was  completed  in  seven  years 
and  six  months  (1  Kin.  vi.  1,  38).  The  alli- 
ance with  Hiram,  king  of  Tyre,  rendered  it 
easy  to  obtain  timber  from  Lebanon,  and 
skilled  Phoenician  artificers.  30,000  Israel- 
ites were  levied,  and  sent  in  detachments  of 
10.000  for  a  month  to  the  Lebanon  mountains 
(1  Kin.  v.  13),  and  the  remnant  of  the  Ca- 
naanites  was  impressed  to  the  number  of 
1.50,000  to  serve  as  hewers  of  stone  and  car- 
riers (1  Kin.  V.  15  ;  ix.  20,  21 ;  2  Chron.  ii.  2, 
17,  IS).  Overseers  were  appointed,  appa- 
rentlv  550  chiefs  and  3300  subordinates  (1 
Kin.  v.  16;  ix.  23),  of  whom  .3600  were  Ca- 
naanites  and  2.50  Israelites  (2  Chron.  ii.  17; 
viii.  10).  The  building  was  erected  on  mount 
Moriah,  at  the  spot  where  the  threshing  floor 
of  Oman,  or  Araunah,  the  Jebusite,  had 
stood  (2  Chron.  iii.  1).  Its  general  plan  was 
that  of  the  tabernacle,  but  the  dimensions 
were  double  and  the  ornamentation  was 
richer.  The  interior  of  the  edifice  measured 
60  cubits  in  length,  20  in  breadth,  and  .30  in 
height,  in  this  last  particular  deviating  from 
the  proportions  of  the  tabernacle  (1  Kin.  vi. 
2).  The  walls  were  built  of  stone  made 
ready  at  the  quarry  (7).  The  roof  was  con- 
structed of  beams  and  planks  of  cedar  (9), 
the  floor  was  laid  with  cypress,  and  the  walls 
from  the  floor  to  the  ceiling  were  lined  with 
cedar  (15;  and  2  Chron.  iii.  5,  where  the 
Greek  translators  read  cedar,  not  fir).  The 
whole  interior  was  overlaid  with  gold  (1 
Kin.  vi.  20,  22,  30  ;  2  Chron.  iii.  7  et  passim), 
and  its  walls  were  carved  not  only  with  cher- 
ubim, but  also  with  palm  trees  and  flowers. 

The  holv  of  holies  was  a  cube.  Each  side 
mea.sured  20  cubits  (1  Kin.  vi.  16,  20).  The 
space,  nearly  10  cubits  high,  between  its  ceil- 
ing and  the  roof  was  probably  occupied  by  up- 
per chambers,  gold  lined  (1  Chron.  xxviii.  11 ; 


2  Chron.  iii.  9).  In  the  holy  of  holies  itself 
was  placed  the  ark  (1  Kin.  viii.  6),  nnder  the 
wings  of  two  colossal  cherubim  of  olive  wood 
overlaid  with  gold.  Each  cherub  was  10 
cubits  in  height,  and  had  wings  5  cubits  long. 
With  the  tip  of  one  wing  it  touched  a  side 
wall,  and  with  the  other  wing  it  reached 
forward  to  the  center  of  the  room  and 
touched  the  corresponding  wing  of  its  com- 
I)anion.  The  four  wings  thus  extended  across 
the  width  of  the  house,  while  the  cherubim 
turncid  their  faces  toward  the  sanctuary 
(1  Kin.  vi.  23-28;  2  Chron.  iii.  13).  Under 
their  wings  the  ark  was  placed  (1  Kin.  viii. 
6).  The  partition  between  the  holy  and  the 
most  holy  place  was  of  cedar  boards,  overlaid 
on  both  sides  with  gold,  and  it  had  two  doors 
of  olive  wood,  decorated  with  (lalm  trees, 
flowers,  and  cherubim,  and  overlaid  with 
gold  ;  see  Le.\^f.  This  was  hung,  toward  the 
sanctuary,  with  chains  of  gold  and  a  cur- 
tain patterned  after  that  of  the  tabernacle 
(1  Kin.  vi.  16,  21,  31,  32;  2  Chron.  iii.  14;  cp. 
Antiq.  viii.  3,  3  and  7). 

The  holy  place  or  sanctuarj'  was  40  cubits 
long,  20  wide,  and  30  high.  Its  walls  were 
jtierced  by  latticed  windows ;  probably  near 
the  roof,  above  the  top  of  the  exterior  build- 
ing, and  intended  for  ventilation  and  the 
escape  of  smoke  (1  Kin.  vi.  4).  The  altar  of 
incense  was  made  of  cedar,  instead  of  acacia, 
and  overlaid  with  gold  (20,  22 ;  vii.  48). 
It  belonged  to  the  holy  of  holies  (22,  E.  V. ; 
Heb.  ix.  3,  4),  but  stood  in  the  holy  place, 
doubtless  because  the  priest,  who  might  en- 
ter the  holy  of  holies  but  once  in  the  year, 
had  occasion  to  offer  incense  daily.  There 
were  ten  golden  candlesticks  instead  of 
one,  and  likewise  ten  tables,  although 
doubtless  the  showbread  was  displayed  on 
but  one ;  see  Candlestick  and  Showbread. 
The  entrance  to  the  sanctuary  from  the  court 
had  doors  of  cypress  (vi.  33,  34). 

Against  the  two  exterior  sides  and  the  rear 
of  the  temple  a  three-story  building  was 
erected,  containing  chambers  for  officials  and 
for  storage  (vi.  5-10).  Before  the  front  en- 
trance a  portico  was  built,  10  cubits  wide,  20 
long,  and  120  or  more  pro])ably  20  high  (3 ; 
2  Chron.  iii.  4;  cp.  Septuagint;  Syriac).  By 
it  .stood  the  two  brazen  jiillars,  Boaz  and 
Jachin,  each  18  cu])its  high,  and  richly  orna- 
mented (1  Kin.  vii.  15-22  ;  2  Chron.  iii.  1.5-17). 

The  courts  of  the  temple  were  two  ;  the 
inner,  ujjper  court  of  the  priests,  and  the 
great  court  (2  Kin.  xxiii.  12  ;  2  Chron.  iv.  9; 
Jer.  xxxvi.  10).  They  were  separated  from 
one  another,  both  by  the  difitrence  of  level 
and  by  a  low  wall,  consisting  of  three  courses 
of  hewn  stone  and  one  course  of  cedar  beams 
(1  Kin.  vi.  36;  vii.  12).  In  the  court  of  the 
priests  were  a  brazen  altar  for  sacrifice  (viii. 
64  ;  2  Kin.  xvi.  14 ;  2  Chron.  xv.  8),  in  size 
nearly  four  times  that  used  at  the  tabernacle 
(iv.  1)  ;  and  a  brazen  sea  and  ten  brazen 
lavers  (1  Kin.  vii.  23-39).  The  sea  was  for 
the  priests  to  wash  in ;  the  lavers  were  for 


Temple 


727 


Temple 


■washing  such  things  as  belonged  to  the  burnt 
oflTeriug  (2  (bron.  iv.  (>) ;  see  Altak,  Ska, 
Lavkk.  The  great  outer  court  was  for  Israel 
(cj).  1  Kin.  viii.  II).  It  was  paved  12  Chron. 
vii.  3) ;  and  it  was  surrounded  by  a  wall,  for 
gates  are  mentioned  (iv.  !»;  cp.  Kzek.  xl.  5). 

This  temple  was  idunderecl  and  burned  by 
the  I'abylouians  when  they  (•ai)tured  Jerusa- 
lem in  .".■^7  r..  c.  (2  Kin.  x.w.  b-17). 

2.  Znithlmficrx  Temple. — Cyrus  authorized 
the  erection  of  a  teniide  ♦)()  cubits  in  breadth 
and  height  (K/.ra  vi.  '.i  ;  Antiq.  xi.  1,  (i).  The 
limits  which  Cyrus  set  may  have  been  at- 
tained by  the  exterior  of  the  new  building  ; 
for  Ilerod  the  (ireat,  with  2  Chron.  iii.  4  in 
mind,  assigns  fiO  cubits  to  the  height  (xv.  11, 
1).  It  was  begun  in  the  yi'ar  .">.'i7  n.  c, 
the  second  year  after  the  return  from  caj)- 
tivity;  and,  after  much  opjiosition  from 
the  inhal)itants  of  Samaria,  was  completed 
in  the  sixth  year  of  Darius,  515  b.  C. 
(Kzra  iii.  8;  vi.  15  ;  con.  Ajiion.  i.  21).  The 
dimensions  of  the  seveml  jiarts  are  not 
known.  The  i>lan  of  Sidonion's  tenijile  was, 
however,  followed  ;  though  the  new  building 
was  jirojected  on  a  scale  of  far  less  magnifi- 
cence. In  the  construction  of  the  Ikjusc, 
cedar  from  Lebanon  was  used  (Ezra  iii.  7)  ; 
and  precious  metals,  which  were  i)rovided,  as 
in  the  wilderness,  liy  the  freewill  ott'e  rings  of 
the  pei)iile  (i.  (>  :  ii.  fih,  t)!»i.  Many  of  the 
vessels  used  in  the  former  temi)le  were  re- 
stored (i.  7-11).  Tlie  interior  walls  were 
overlaid  with  gold  ;  and  the  house  was  di- 
vided, as  Usual,  into  the  lioly  of  holies  and 
the  ,s;nictnar.\-,  a]ii)areutly  separated  from 
each  other  i)y  at  least  a  veil  H  Mac.  i.  21,22  ; 
iv.  48,  51).  The  holy  tif  holies  was  empty, 
for  the  ark  of  the  covenant  had  disappeared 
(Cicero,  pro  Flac.  2s  ;  Tacitus,  Hist.  v.  0). 
The  sanctuary  was  furnished  with  an  altar 
of  incense,  and,  like  the  tabernacle,  with 
onlv  one  candlestick  and  one  table  for  show- 
bread  (1  Mac.  i.  21,  22:  iv.  4^t).  Exterior 
chambers  were  attached  to  the  building 
(Xeh.  X.  37-39;  xii.  44;  xiii.  4;  1  I\Iac.  iv. 
38)  ;  and  the  whole  was  surrounded  with 
courts  (Neh.  viii.  16  ;  xiii.  7  ;  Anti(j.  xiv.  IG, 
2).  A  brazen  sea  (Ecclus.  1.  3)  and  an  altar 
for  sacrifice  were  tised  (Ezra  vii.  17).  The 
altar  was  built  of  stones  il  Mac.  iv.  44- 
47».  The  court  of  the  priests  was  event- 
ually sei)arated  from  the  outer  court  by 
a  wooden  railing  (Antiq.  xiii.  13,  5).  Tlie 
tenii>le  and  its  ]>recincts  were  close<l  by  doors 
and  gates  (Neb.  vi.  10  ;  1  Mac.  iv.  .3si, 

3.  Ilerotl'K  temjtif  superseded  Zerubbabel's. 
It  is  fully  descriU'd  i)y  .loseiihus,  who  was 
thoroughly  familiar  with  the  building  (An- 
tic). XV.  11  :  War  v.  5),  and  in  the  Mishna 
iMiddoth).  The  materials  wen-  brought  to- 
gether before  the  old  structure  was  taken 
down.  Work  was  commeni'cd  in  the  eight- 
eenth year  of  Herod's  reigii,  l!l  n.  c.  Tlie 
main  edifice  was  built  by  ])riests  in  a  year 
and  a  iialf,  and  the  cbiisters  were  finished 
in  eight  years,  either  in  11  or  9  H.  c  ;  but  the 


work  on  the  entire  complex  of  courts  and 
buildings  was  not  completed  until  the  jiroc- 
unitorsliip  of  Albinus,  A.  I).  ti2-(!4  (Antiq. 
XV.  11,5  and  (i ;  xx.  9,  7;  cp.  John  ii.  20). 
Th'-  old  area  was  enlarged  to  twice  its  former 
dimensions  (War  i.  21,  1).  The  temjile 
l)roper  stood  ujxin  the  highest  ground  in  the 
inclosure.  It  was  built  of  great  blocks  of 
white  stone.  Its  interior  had  the  length  and 
breadtli  of  Solomon's  temi)le  ;  but  a  height 
of  40  cubits,  exclusive  of  an  upper  chamber, 
instead  of  .30  cubits.  It  was  divided  into  the 
holy  of  holies  and  the  sanctuary  on  the  cu.s- 
fomary  lines.  The  holy  of  holies  was  empty. 
It  was  separated  from  the  holy  place  by  a 
veil  i.\\cT  V.  5.  5).  The  rending  of  this  veil 
by  an  earthquake  at  the  death  of  Christ  sig- 
nified that  the  way  to  tlie  mercy  seat  is  no 
longer  clo.sed  to  all  save  the  mediating  high 
jiriest.  but  is  at  all  times  open  to  the  sincere 
worshiper  (Mat.  xxvii.  51  ;  Heb.  vi.  19;  x. 
20).  The  holy  jilace  contained,  as  usual,  a 
golden  altar  for  incense,  a  table  for  show- 
bread,  and  a  candlestick.  It  was  entered 
from  the  east  by  a  great  doorway  closed  by 
golden  doors,  each  .55  cubits  high  and  16 
liroad  ;  hung  with  a  veil  of  blue,  i>urple, 
scarlet  and  fine  linen  ;  and  encompassed  on 
the  outer  or  court  side  by  a  golden  vine  from 
which  depended  immense  clusters  of  golden 
grapes.  Against  the  two  sides  and  rear  of 
the  temple,  a  three-story  building,  40  cubits 
high,  containing  chambers,  was  constructed 
(cp.  War  vi.  4,  7).  and  in  addition  two  wings, 
one  coiitainiug  winding  stairs,  sjjrang  fnmi 
the  front  corners.  The  building  meas- 
ured externally  KJO  cubits  in  lengtii  and  54 
or,  including  the  two  wings  at  the  front,  70 
cubits  in  Avidth.  Over  the  holy  place  and 
the  holy  (jf  iiolies  was  an  attic,  which  had 
the  same  dimensions  as  the  sacred  aiiartnunts 
beneath.  This  attic,  together  with  its  floor 
and  the  roof,  increased  the  height  of 
tlie  sacred  edifice  to  over  90  cubits.  A  ves- 
tiliiile  or  porch  ran  along  the  entire  front 
of  the  house,  100  cui)its  long  and  high 
auil  20  broail.  Its  jiortal  was  70  cubits  high 
by  25  broad  (or,  according  to  the  Mishna,  40 
and  20),  without  doors,  allowing  the  great 
doorway  of  the  sanctuary  to  be  seen  from 
without.  Above  this  jiorch  Herod  erected 
the  celebrated  golden  eagle  (Antiq.  xvii.  (i,  2 
and  3;  War  i.  .33,  2  and  3).  Twelve  steps  de- 
scended from  the  vestibule  to  the  court  of 
the  priests.  This  court  surrounded  the  sacred 
edifice.  It  contained  the  altar  for  burnt 
offerings,  of  which  the  height  was  15  cnl)its, 
and  the  base  a  square  measuring  50  cubits  to 
till'  side.  According  to  the  Mishna,  it  was 
built  of  unhewn  stones  ;  ami  contracted  from 
a  base  32  cubits  .sijuare  to  a  toji  24  cubits 
scjuare.  It  was  reache(l  by  an  inclined  plane. 
A  bnizen  sea  or  laver  was  also  in  use  (Mish- 
na). This  court  was  enr()m]>as,sed  br  a  wall 
or  co])ing.  about  a  cubit  in  height.  All 
around  the  court  of  the  jiriests  lay.  as  of  old, 
the  great  court,  now  dout)le.    It  was  inclosed 


Temple 


728 


Temple 


by  a  wall,  whose  top  was  25  cubits  higher 
than  the  pavement.  Against  the  inner  side 
of  this  wall  stoi'age  chambers  were  built 
(War  vi.  5,  2),  and  in  front  of  these,  that  is, 
on  the  temple  side,  ran  a  covered  colonnade. 
This  court  was  divided  into  two  parts  by  a 

CASTLE    OF 
A  N  "T  O  N  I  A 


gate  in  the  center  of  the  partition  wall  and 
by  a  descent  of  fifteen  steps.  Only  Israelites 
might  enter  this  court,  and  women  might 
not  advance  farther.  These  three  courts  and 
the  temple  were  embraced  in  the  chel,  or 
sacred  inclosure.     The  inclosing  barrier  was 


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CO  U  R  T 

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Approximate  Plan  of  Herod's  Temple  and  its  Courts. 


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wall.  The  western  portion,  that  encompass- 
ing the  court  of  the  priests,  was  the  court  of 
Israel.  Only  the  men  of  Israel  were  allowed 
within  it.  The  court  of  the  women  was  the 
eastern  and  lower  portion.  It  was  reached 
from  the  court  of  the  men  through  a  great 


triple :  the  wall  of  the  courts  of  Israel  and 
the  women,  which  has  been  already  men- 
tioned, and  which  was  very  thick,  like  the 
walls  of  a  fortress  (cp.  War  vi.  4,  1)  ;  a  ter- 
race, of  which  the  top  was  level  and  10  cubits 
broad ;  and  at  the  foot  of  the  terrace  a  wall 


Temple 


729 


Temple 


3  cubits  in  height,  surmounted  hy  i)iHiirs,  on 
which  were  inscriiitions  forbidding  all  per- 
sons siive  those  of  the  conunonwealth  of  Is- 
rael, from  entering  the  inclosure.  "Let  no 
gentile,"  so  ran  the  (ireek  iiiscrijition,  "en- 
ter inside  of  the  barrier  and  the  fence  around 
the  siinctuary.  AnvDUe  trespassing  will  iiring 
death  upon  himself  as  a  i)enalty."  This 
tripli-  wall  of  i)artiti(jn  (Kph.  ii.  1-1)  was 
jiierced  by  nine  gates.  These  tower-like 
structures  were  sheathed  with  gold  and  sil- 
ver. Four  were  on  the  northern,  and  luur 
nil  the  southern  side.  Of  these,  one  on  each 
side  led  into  the  court  of  the  women  and  three 
into  that  of  Israel.  The  ninth  was  the  great 
eastern  gate,  the  only  one  on  that  side,  prob- 
ably the  gate  Beautiful  (Acts  iii.  2,  lOj.    The 


forming  three  aisles.  Each  column  was  a 
monolith  of  white  stone,  25  cubits  high. 
The  roof  was  ceiled  with  cedar,  curiously 
carved  and  carefully  polished.  The  other 
colonnades  consisted  of  two  rows  of  columns. 
That  along  the  eastern  side  of  the  court  was 
regarded  as  a  remnant  of  the  tirst  temple, 
and  was  called  Solomon's  porch  (.John  x.  23  ; 
Acts  iii.  11  ;  Antiq.  xx.  9,  7 ;  War  v.  .5,  1). 
It  was  this  court  which  was  so  far  abused 
that  money  changers  were  allowed  to  .set  uj) 
their  tables  and  traders  were  permitted  to 
expose  cattle  for  sale  there  (Mat.  xxi.  12 ; 
John  ii.  14).  Finally  the  sacred  area  was 
surrounded  by  mas.sivo  walls.  The  western 
wall  was  pierced  by  four  gates  :  the  two  more 
northerly  ones  led  to  the  suburbs ;  the  third 


stones  in  the  \\ .  m.  ■  u  w  ,. , ,     i    ,,     j      i 

difl'erence  of  level  between  the  vestibule  of 
the  temple  within  the  inclosure  and  the 
court  of  the  gentiles  witliont  appears  to  have 
lieen  about  15  cubits.  From  the  vestibule  to 
the  court  of  the  priests  were  12stei)s;  from 
the  court  of  Israel  to  that  of  the  women  15; 
thence  to  the  terrace  5.  and  thence  to  the 
court  of  the  gentiles  14.  This  court  of  the 
gentiles  occupied  the  remainder  of  the  temple 
yard  and  coinidetcly  surrounded  the  sacred 
inclosure.  It  was  foursiiuare  (War  vi.  5,  4), 
and  measured  fully  fi  stades,  or  three-quarters 
of  a  mile,  in  circuit  (War  v.  5.  2).  It  was 
paved  throughout.  At  the  northwestern  cor- 
ner stood  the  castle  of  .Vntoiiia  ((|.  v.).  Excejit 
jK-rhiips  at  that  point,  it  was  bordered  on  all 
sides  by  magnificent,  covered  colonnades  or 
cloisters  (Antiq.  xvii.  10,  2  ;  cp.  War  vi.  3.21. 
Those  on  the  south  were  the  finest.  They 
contained  l(i2  columns,  arranged  in  four  rows. 


•  ,  riiifL'  of  the  Jews. 

cro.ssed  the  Tyropoeon  valley  at  a  point  now 
marked  by  Wilson's  arch  :  and  the  fourth, 
still  farther  south,  opened  into  the  valley, 
and  was  reached  by  stejis  from  the  temple 
yard  (Antiq.  xv.  11.  5).  In  the  southern  wall 
were  two  gates,  known  by  the  name  of  Hul- 
dah.  In  the  eastern  wall  was  the  Shushan 
gate.  One  is  mentioned  in  the  northern 
wall  (War  vi.  4,  1). 

During  the  siege  of  .Terusalem  by  the 
Romans  in  A.  P.  70,  the  .lews  themselves, 
who  were  tising  the  temjile  yard  as  a  fortress, 
set  fire  to  the  outer  cloistei-s  ;  but  the  temple 
itself  was  fired  by  a  Koman  soldier  contrary 
to  the  orders  of  Titus,  and  all  that  was  com- 
bustible was  destroyed  (War  vi.  3,  1;  4,  5; 
ci>.  5,  1  :  !»,  2).  Afterwards  the  conquerors 
threw  down  the  walls  (vii.  1,  1).  (~)n  its 
site  the  emi)eror  Hadrian  dedicated  a  temple 
to  Jupiter  Capitolinus  in  \.  d.  13G  or  earlier. 


Ten  Commandments 


rso 


Ten  Commandments 


In  A.  D.  363  the  emperor  Julian,  in  order  to 
defeat  tin-  prophecy  of  Christ  (Mat.  xxiv.  1, 
2),  iindert(U)k  to  rebuild  the  temple  ;  hut  his 
l)lans  were  frustrated  by  flames  which  burst 
from  the  foundation.  The  Dome  of  the 
Kock.  generally  called  the  Moscjue  of  Omar, 
now  occupies  the  place  where  the  old  tem- 
])les  stood.  Warren  between  February,  1867, 
and  Ai)ril,  1>7(),  sunk  shafts  in  the  rubbish,  in 
.•>.inie  jilaces  100  and  in  one  place  12")  feet  deep, 
which  now  covers  portions  of  mount  Moriah. 
Tlie  corner  stones  of  the  foundations,  which 
still  remain,  are  14  to  15  feet  long,  and  from 


the  free  citation  of  the  words  by  Moses  in 
Dent.  V.  6-21.  The  principal  dilference  is 
that  the  law  of  the  Sabbath  is  enforced,  in 
the  original  law,  by  reference  to  God's  rest- 
ing on  the  seventh  day  from  the  work  of 
creation  ;  wliereas  when  Mo.ses  cites  the  law 
in  his  public  address,  he  omits  this  funda- 
mental basis  of  the  command  and  urges  the 
deliverance  from  Egypt  as  the  reason  why 
Israel  should  remember  the  day.  Another 
ditference,  and  one  upon  wliich  undue  stress 
has  been  laid,  is  that  when  Moses  rejieats 
the  tenth  commandment,  he  uses  the  word 


Thp  Warning  Tablet  of  Herod's  Temple. 

Discovered  bv  Cleimunt-Ganneau  in  1871. 


3i  to  4i  feet  high.  Some  of  those  at  the  south- 
east angle  have  on  them  Phcenician  charac- 
ters, coming  down  at  least  from  Herod's,  and 
perhaps  from  Solomon's  time.  The  walls 
surrounding  the  temple  area  were  found  to 
have  been  1000  feet  long,  and  the  platform 
on  wliich  the  holy  place  stood  to  have  been 
su])])orted  by  a  buttress  200  feet  high  from 
the  valley  beneath.  Finally,  one  of  the 
actual  inscriptions  has  been  recovered  which 
forbade  any  foreigner  to  enter  the  second 
court. 

Ten  Com-mand'ments. 

The  fundamental  lawof  the  Hebrew  state; 
.see  TnKocu.vcY.  The  Hebrews  called  them 
the  ten  words  (R.  V.  margin  of  Ex.  xxxiv. 
28;  Dent.  iv.  13;  x.  4).  They  were  spoken 
by  God  at  Sinai,  and  written  by  him  on 
tables  of  stone.  They  a]>pear  in  two  forms: 
the  original  form,  contained  in  Ex.  xx.,  and 


covet  in  one  clause  only  and  employs  de- 
sire instead  of  covet  in  reference  to  a 
neighbor's  house,  field,  etc.  iR.  V.).  These 
dilTerences  are  not  contradictions,  and  they 
are  fully  explained  by  the  character  of 
Deuteronomy.  See  Deutekonomy,  Sab- 
bath. 

The  ten  commandments  are  not  indi- 
vidually numbered  in  the  Bible.  Later  Jews 
regarded  the  words  "  I  am  the  Lord  thy  God, 
which  have  brought  thee  out  of  the  land  of 
Egypt,  out  of  the  house  of  bondage"  (Ex. 
XX.  2)  as  the  first  commandment.  These 
words,  however,  are  not  in  the  form  of  a 
command.  They  constitute  the  preface  to 
the  ten  laws  which  follow.  Omitting  the 
preface,  there  are  two  methods  of  enumera- 
tion :  1.  According  to  the  received  teaching  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  and  Lutheran  churches, 
based  on  Augustine,  the  first  table  contains 
three  commandments  and  the  second  table 


Ten  Commandments 


■:^1 


Tent  of  Meeting 


seven.  Augustine  adopted  tbis  classification 
because  it  exbibits  tbc  symbolical  numbers 
tbroe,  seven,  ten,  and  rei)rcst-nts  a  n-al  dif- 
feri'nce  in  tlie  nature  of  tlie  ccminiands,  tbe 
first  three  beinj;  duties  toward  (Jod  and  tbe 
last  seven  duties  toward  man.  Tbe  lii-st 
division  inchidi'd  tlie  coniniand  to  rcnieinl)er 
tlie  Sahbatli  ;  and  to  make  out  three  com- 
mands in  this  tatile,  .Auj^ustine  joined  into 
one  tbe  commands  to  have  no  otlier  gods 
and  to  make  no  graven  image;  and  to  secure 
seven  in  the  second  tal)le  be  divided  the 
cr)mniaiid  against  covetousucss  into  two  hiws. 
He  foUowed  the  text  of  Deuteronomy,  and 
made  the  command  not  to  covet  a  neigb))or's 
wife  the  ninth  commandment,  and  that 
against  desiring  a  neighl)()r"s  i)ro]ierty  tlie 
tenth.  Tlie  Roman  Catholic  chuicb  follows 
the  text  of  Exodus,  and  makes  tbe  command 
not  to  covet  a  neighl)or's  bouse  the  ninth, 
and  that  against  coveting  a  neighbor's  wife, 
manservant,  etc.,  tbe  tenth.  Tbe  great  ob- 
jectifins  to  tbis  method  of  enumeration  are 
tliat  it  makes  no  distinction  between  jioly- 
tbeisnj  and  idolatry,  and  introduces  an  arbi- 
trary distinction  regarding  kinds  of  cov- 
etousness.  *J.  The  division  whicb  numbers 
tbe  command  against  ]iolyt]ieism  as  tlie  lirst, 
that  against  idolatry  as  tbe  second,  and  that 
against  covetousness  as  the  tenth.  This  divi- 
sion is  the  oldest  that  is  known.  It  was 
recognized  liy  Jo.sephus  (Anticj.  iii.  5,  '■>),  by 
I'hilo  (de  Dec.  i.),  and  by  Origen  ;  and  it 
was  ado])te<l  by  the  Reformed  churches  at 
the  Reformation.  But  there  are  two  methods 
of  distributing  the  ten  between  the  two 
tables:  (1)  They  are  ordinarily  groU])ed  as 
four  relating  to  man's  duty  toward  (4od  and 
six  to  his  duty  t<i  his  fellows.  Tbis  divi.sion 
is  simi)le  enough,  and  it  is  ethically  correct; 
but  it  lacks  symmetry.  (2)  Five  are  as- 
signed to  each  talde  (Anti(|.  iii.  5,  8).  This 
arrangement  preserves  the  grouping  of  laws 
into  decads,  subdivided  into  pentads, 
which  characteri/.es  much  of  the  li'gisla- 
tion.  And  from  th(^  .Jewish  i)oint  of  view, 
doubtless,  tbe  division  is  ethically  correct ; 
for  tbe  first  table  includes  duties  of  piety, 
whicb  imply  no  corres])onding  rights,  and 
tbe  second  table  embraces  duties  of  jus- 
tice, whicb  involve  rights.  The  duty  of 
honoring  i)arents  to  the  extent  of  maintain- 
ing them  if  need  be,  was  regarded  as  absolute 
and  unconditional  (Mark  vii.  10-1.'5).  It  was 
a  i>ious  duty,  a  religious  <luty.  and  iiro]ierly 
belonged  to  tbe  first  table.  I'aul  is  .some- 
times cited  as  lending  countenance  to  tbis 
division  ;  for  when  summing  up  tbe  duties 
wliich  are  comiinbended  in  the  command  to 
love  one's  neighbor  as  one's  self,  be  enumer- 
ates tbe  last  I'ommandments.  and  makes  no 
mention  of  honoring  parents  (Kom.  xiii.  it). 
But  Paul's  enumeration  is  not  intended  tol)e 
com])lete.  He  omits  tbe  ninth  commiind- 
ment.  Jesus  ]ila<'ed  tbe  fifth  conimandnient 
in  the  same  grouj)  with  the  last  five  (Mark 
X.  19). 


Tent. 

1.  A  movable  habitation  ;  such  as  is  used 
by  nomads,  shephenls,  and  soldiers  ((ien.  iv. 
20;  XXV.  27;  Judg.  viii.  11).  The  tent  was 
frecjuently  made  of  black  cloth  woven  from 
goats'  hair  (Song  i.  .'>),   fastened  with  cords 


Arab's  Tent. 

and  stakes  (Ex.  xxxv.  18:  Is.  liv.  2).  There 
were  both  round  and  tapering  tents ;  and 
flat,  oblong  tents. 

2.  A  habitation  generally :  a  part  of  the 
dwellings  being  put  for  all,  or  oue  kind  for 
another,  according  to  circumstances  iGeu. 
ix.  27;  1  Kin.  viii.  ()(> ;  2  Kin.  xiii.  r>:  Job 
viii.  22,  R.  V.:  Ps.  Ixxxiv.  10;  Jer.  xxx.  18; 
Lam.  ii.  -1,  R.  \.;  Zech.  xii.  7;  Mai.  ii.  12, 
R.  V.I. 

Tent  of  tbe  Con-gre-ga'tion.  See  next 
article. 

Tent  of  Meet'ing,  in  A.  V.  Tent  or  Taber- 
nacle of  the  Congregation  [tent  where  Jeho- 
vah meets  bis  ]>e<iiile]. 

1.  A  iirovisional  tent  where  Jehovah  met 
with  bis  jieoiik'  ilCx.  xxxiii.  7-11:  xxxiv. 
34.  3.')).  After  the  g(.lden  calf  was  made, 
Jehovah  refused  to  acknowledge  Israel  any 
longer  as  bis  people  and  to  dwell  in  their 
midst.  He  was  estranged  and  distant.  Be- 
cause of  tbis  fact  and  to  syml)olize  it,  Moses 
used  to  i)itch  the  tent  outside  the  camp. 
Wliat  tent  tbis  was  is  uncertain.  A  tent  was 
needed  in  wliidi  to  kee]>  the  book  of  the 
covenant  (xxiv.  3-7).  Doubtless  Moses  sat 
there  in  judgment,  and  the  ]>eople  resorted 
thither  to  iinpiire  of  the  Loril  (xviii.  l.")-20'. 
It  was  jirobably  this  tent  (tbe  (Jreek  tnins- 
lators  read  "his  tent")  which  Moses  now 
Iiitcbed  without  the  camji.  He  called  it  tbe 
tent  of  meeting,  because  it  was  a  ])lace  of 
revelation:  there  Jehovah  met  liis  ]ieople  in 
their  representative,  when  tbe  i)illar  of  cloud 
desceniled  to  tbe  door  of  the  tent  :  and 
thither  went  I'Very  one  that  sought  tbe  Lord 
(xxxiii.  7,  !•).  It  may  have  borne  its  appro- 
priate  name   from   the   beginning;    if  not. 


Tent  of  the  Testimony 


732 


Teresh 


Moses  borrowed  the  name  from  the  in- 
structions wliieh  he  received  reganliiif;  the 
perrnaiieiit  tal)ernack-,  since  it  represented 
the  same  truth  (xxvii.  21).  The  tent  was 
cared  for  by  Moses'  minister,  because  the 
lioiise  of  Aaron  and  the  tribe  of  Levi  liad 
not  vet  been  set  ajiart  for  the  service 
of  the  sanctuary.  Tlie  ch)ud  descended 
upon  this  tent  when  Moses  entered  it  to  in- 
quire of  God  ;  but  the  chmd  abode  on  the 
]iiTnianeiit  tabernack".  and  the  glory  of  the 
Lord  liUed  it,  and  Moses  could  not  enter  it 

(xi.  :5t,  ;5.'..  ::.-^i. 

•2.   The  tabernacle  ((i.  v.). 

Tent  of  the  Tes'ti-mo-ny  (Num.  ix.  15). 

See   T.VHEKNACLK. 

Te'phon,  in  A.  V.  Taphon. 

A  town  of  .Tudiea  fortified  by  Bacchides  (1 
Mac.  ix.  .W).  Tephon  is  perliaps  a  modifica- 
tion of  Tai)iiuah,  a  name  which  was  borne 
by  several  towns. 

Te'rah,  in  A.  V.  twice  Tarah,  (Num.  xxxiii. 
27.  28)  once  Tliara  (Luke  iii.  34)  [prob- 
ably, wild  goat]. 

l".  The  son  of  Nahor.  and  the  father  of 
Abraham,  another  Nahor.  and  Haran.  He 
was  a  resident  at  Ur  of  the  Chaldces  dur- 
ing the  greater  part  of  his  life  ;  serving  other 
divinities  than  Jehovah  (Josh.  xxiv.  2),  prob- 
ably among  the  rest  the  moon-god,  who  had 
a  celebrated  temple  at  Ur.  With  Abraham 
and  Lot,  he  removed  to  Haran,  where  he 
died,  at  the  age  of  205  (Gen.  xi.  25-32). 

2.  A  station  of  the  Israelites  in  the  wilder- 
ness (Num.  xxxiii.  27,  28).  The  site  is  un- 
known. 

Ter'a-phim. 

Images,  but  not  of  a  particular  deity,  which 
were  used  in  the  household  and  by  private 
individuals,  and  which  varied  in  size  from 
such  as  were  small  enougli  to  be  easily  car- 
ried in  ha.sty  flight  and  concealed  in  the 
furniture  of  a  camel  (Cien.  xxxi.  19,  30,  34, 
K.  V.)  to  one  apjiarently  large  enough  to 
represent  a  man  (1  Sam.  xix.  13,  E.  V.). 
They  were  i)robably  regarded  as  bringers  of 
good  luck.  They  were  consulted  with  re- 
spect to  the  advisability  of  proposed  actions 
(Ezek.  xxi.  21 ;  Zech.  x.  2,  both  R.  V.).  The 
word,  like  the  usual  word  for  God,  is  plural 
in  form,  but  may  be  singular  in  significatioii 
(1  Sam.  xix.  13).  Terapbim  were  employed 
in  ]5ut)ylonia  (Ezek.  xxi.  21).  Laban  used 
them  in  Haran,  and  his  daughter  Rachel 
stole  them  and  carried  them  witli  her  to 
Canaan  (Gen.  xxxi.  19.  34).  This  was  done 
without  .Jacob's  knowledge  (32).  When  he 
reached  Shechem,  be  demanded  the  surren- 
der of  all  the  strange  gods  which  members 
of  his  com])any  had  brought  with  them,  and 
he  removed  them  from  his  ])eoi)l(!  (xxxv.  2-4). 
In  the  days  of  the  judges  Micab  of  mount 
Ephraim  bad  a  i)rivate  sanctuary  with  priest, 
ejihod,  and  ti'ra|diim  (.Iiidg.  xvii.  5),  and 
eventually  a  molten  image  and  a  graven 
image  (4 ;   xviii.  14).     Through  them  prob- 


ably the  Lord  was  consulted  (5, 6).  All  these 
idols  the  band  of  Danites  carried  off  for  their 
own  us(!  (17-20).  Samuel  tlie  pi'ojjhet  classed 
terapliim  with  witchcraft  and  rebellion  (1 
Sam.  XV.  23,  R.  V.) ;  nevertheless,  there  was 
one  in  David's  house,  doubtless  belonging  to 
his  wife  (xix.  13,  R.  V.).  Terapbim  figured 
largely  in  the  corrupt  religion  of  the  north- 
ern Israelites  (Hos.  iii.  4).  The  terapbim 
were  condemned  with  other  idols  as  abom- 
inations, and  were  destroyed  by  Josiah  in 
his  work  of  reformation  (2  Kin.  xxiii.  24, 
R.  V.)  ;  but  they  still  found  favor  with  a 
part  of  the  people  after  the  exile  (Zech. 
X.  2). 

Ter'e-bintli. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  'Elah,  a  ro- 
bust tree,  on.  the  R.  V.  margin  with  oak  in 
the  text.  Twice,  when  it  is  associated  with 
another  word  which  is  rendered  oak,  it  ap- 
pears in  the  text  of  the  R.  V.  (Is.  vi.  13; 
Hos.  iv.  13).  'Elah  is  probably  the  terebinth. 
The  terebinth  or  turpentine  tree  (Pistacia 
terebinthus)  is  a  small  tree  witli  pinnate  leaves, 


Terebinth. 

inconspicuous  flowers,  with  the  sexes  sepa- 
rated, and  little  roundish  dark-purple  fruit. 
It  is  a  native  of  southern  Europe,  northern 
Africa,  and  western  Asia,  including  Palestine. 
The  turpentine  is  obtained  by  making  in- 
cisions in  the  trunk.  It  merges  into  Pistacia 
pitlirstiiKi,  which  is  also  found  in  Palestine, 
and   is  tint  a  variety  of  the  species. 

Te'resh  [perhaps  Persian,  austere]. 

A  chamberlain  who  kept  a  door  in  the 
palace  of  king  Ahasuerus,  and  plotted  the 


Tertius 


733 


Theocracy 


nuinliT  of  his  niasti-r  and  kiiiK,  a  crime  for 
wliicli  lu;  and  an  acconiiilico  were  executed 
(K^tli.  ii.  21-2:i;   vi.  -J). 

Ter'tl-us  [third]. 

Paul's  amanuensis,  who  wrote  for  liini  the 
Episllc  to  the  Ixonians  (Uom.  xvi.  22). 

Ter-tul'lus  [diniinntive  of  Tertius]. 

A  Ivonian  adv(»eate,  einphn-ed  hy  the  Jew- 
ish authorities  to  jirosecnte  Paul  before  the 
tribunal  of  Felix,  the  Roman  i)roeurator 
(Aets  xxiv.  1-8).  His  rhetorical  address  is 
thoroii;;hly  in  the  style  atlected  by  Roman 
advocates  of  the  time. 

Tes'ta-ment. 

The  renderinji  of  tlie  Greek  Diaihrke,  a 
will,  a  covenant.  A  third  meanin};  has  no 
liearing  on  the  i)re.sent  subject.  In  Hcl). 
ix.  lU,  17  d'mthrkc  is  clearlj-  a  will.  But  in 
viii.  (j-10,  13  and  ix.  1,  4  the  meaning  is 
evidently  covenant,  and  the  term  is  so  trans- 
lated in  the  text.  The  Old  Covenant  and 
the  Xew  Covenant  would  ))e  more  accuratt^ 
designations  of  the  two  parts  of  the  Bible 
than  the  Old  Testament  and  tlie  New  Testa- 
ment. See  Heik,  New  Testament,  Old 
Testament. 

Teth. 

The  ninth  letter  of  the  Hebrew  alphabet. 
(Jreek  tlieta  conies  from  the  same  source  ;  but 
the  (ireek  versions  rei)resent  it  in  Hebrew 
names  l)y  tan,  reserving  theta  for  the  aspi- 
rated Helu'ew  tan.  In  the  English  versions 
teth  is  rei>resent(d  )>y  t.  It  stands  at  the 
beginning  of  the  ninth  .section  of  Ps.  cxix. 
in  several  versions,  in  which  section  each 
verse  begins  with  that  letter. 

Te'trarch. 

One  who  rules  over  the  fourth  part  of  a 
kinudoiii  or  province.  Philip  of  Macedon 
divided  The.ssaly  into  four  disti'icts  called 
tetrarcliies.  l^ventually  the  word  was  used 
loosely  fora  i)etty  subject  |>rince,  even  though 
the  lanil  was  not  divided  among  four  such 
rulers.  The  Romans  ado])ted  the  t<'rm,  and 
used  it  as  a  convenient  title  for  a  luiiice  to 
whom  they  granted  a  small  territory  only, 
and  whom  they  were  unwilling  to  dignity 
with  the  authority  and  rank  of  a  king.  The 
N.  T.  names  three  of  these  jietty  digni- 
taries: Herod,  tetrarch  of  Calilee.  p'liilip.  te- 
trarch  of  Itursea  and  Trachonilis,  and  Lysa- 
nias,  tetrarch  of  Abih'ne  (Luke  iii.  1).  In  the 
easeof  the  tetrarchs  Ilerod  Anti|)asand  Philip 
the  title  was  a|i]iropriate.  even  in  its  original 
sense,  for  .Vu^Mistus  gave  one-half  of  the 
kingilom  of  Ilemd  the  (ireat  to  Arcbelaus, 
witli  the  title  of  ethnarch.  and  divided  the 
remainder  into  two  tetrarcliies,  which  he  gave 
to  (hem  (Antii|.  xvii.  II,  1 ;  War  ii.  C,  :{).  A 
letrarcli  was  sometinu's  in  courtesy  called  a 
kiuK  (  Mat.  xiv.  1  with!*;  see  also  Mark  vi. 
Ml. 

Tbad-dse'us.     See  .If  das  ,5. 

Tha'hash.     See  Tahasii. 

Tha'mali.    SecTEMAii. 


Tha'mar.     See  Tamak. 

Tham'na-tha.    See  Timnah. 

Thank  Of'fer-ing.    See  Offerings. 

Tha'ra.     See  Tkuah. 

Thar'shlsli.     See  Tarshish. 

The'a-ter. 

A  i)lace  where  dramatic  ])erformances  are 
given.  The  theater,  with  its  auditorium, 
orchestra,  and  stage,  and  capable  of  seating 
immense  throngs  (see  Ei'HESu.s),  was  admir- 
ably adai)ted  for  large  public  meetings  and 
the  transaction  of  jiublic  business,  and  was 
often  put  to  that  use  (Acts  xix.  29,  31 ;  An- 
tiq.  xix.  H,  2). 

Thebes.    See  No. 

The'bez  [i)erhai>s,  brightness  or  sjilendor]. 

A  town  near  Sliechem,  having  in  it  a 
strong  tower,  in  besieging  which  Abimelech 
was  killed  (Judg.  ix.  50-5,5  ;  2  Sam.  xi.  21). 
It  continues  to  exist  in  the  large  village  of 
TCibris,  iti  miles  northeast  of  Shechem,  on 
t)ie  road  ro  Beth-shean. 

The-co'e.     See  Tekoa. 

The-la'ser.     See  Telassab. 

The-oc'ra-cy. 

.Tose]>lius  coined  the  word  theocracy  to  de- 
scribe the  government  instituted  at  Sinai. 
"Our  legislator  .  .  .  ordered  our  government 
to  be  what  I  may  call  by  a  strained  expres- 
sion a  theiK'racy.  attributing  the  ]»ower  and 
the  autliority  to  <iod"  (con.  A]iion.  ii.  17). 
.Jehovah  was  the  head  of  tlic  nation,  dwell- 
ing in  its  midst  between  the  cherubim  (Ex. 
XXV.  22).  In  him  all  the  powers  of  the  .state, 
legislative,  executive,  judicial,  were  united. 
As  legislator,  he  announced  thi'  fundamental 
law  of  the  state  in  the  hearing  of  the  con- 
gregation. After  that  immediate  presenta- 
tion of  himself  to  the  nation,  he  exercised 
his  governmental  otlices  for  the  most  part 
through  men  whom  he  raised  nji.  Like  all 
l)otentatis,  he  delegated  the  jiulicial  func- 
tion for  the  most  part  to  judges  ;  only  the 
most  diflicult  matters  were  referred  to  .leho- 
vah  (Ex.  xviii.  19)  ;  see  I'KIM  AND  TiiiM- 
MIM.  His  legislative  function  he  exercised 
through  Moses  and  through  ju'oiihi'ts  (Dent, 
xviii.  15-1!)).  Legislation  was  intermittent ; 
the  given  body  of  laws  was  a  sutlicient  rule, 
and  seldom  required  moditication  or  enlarge- 
ment. The  executive  function  was  likewi.se  ex- 
ercised formany  years  intermittently  thr<iugh 
leaders,  called  judges,  who  wi're  raised  u]) 
from  time  to  time,  and  who.  accredited  by  the 
great  deeds  which  were  wrought  by  (heir 
hands,  secured  ])ublic  confidence  and  became 
the  acknowledged  head  in  state  atl'airs. 

The  theocrati<'  government  was  jirojiosed 
by  (iod  at  Sinai  on  condition  of  obedience 
(Ex.  xix.  4-!»).  The  terms  were  accej)ted  by 
the  elders  of  the  iieojile  (7,  H).  The  ten  com- 
mandments, which  formed  tbe  basis  of  the 
covenant,  were  ]iroclaimed  by  .bhovah  him- 
self in  such  a  manner  (hat  all  the  people  could 


Theocracy 


734 


Theophany 


hear  (XX.  1,  19,  22;  Deut.  iv.  12,  33,  36  ;  v. 
4,  22),  in  ordir  that  they  mijfht  believe  (Ex. 
xix.  it).  At  tlie  people'.s  request,  the  reiiiiiin- 
iiii:  laws,  wliicli  are  a  i>ractieal  ajiiilicatioo 
and  iiiter|iretatiiiii  ol'  the  teiieoiiiinaudiiuiits, 
were  not  spiiken  directly  to  tlieni,  but 
through  Moses  (xx.  18-21).  Then  the  cov- 
enant was  ratified.  Moses  wrote  all  the 
words  of  the  Lord,  erected  an  altar  and 
twelve  jiillars.  ordered  a  saeritice,  and 
sprinkled  the  altar  with  half  the  blood.  He 
read  the  book  of  the  covenant  in  the  audi- 
ence of  the  people,  and,  on  their  formal  ac- 
ceptance of  it,  sjirinkled  the  reniaining  por- 
ti<»n  of  the  bloo<l  iijion  the  iieojile.  >aying: 
■■  Behold  the  blood  of  the  ciivenant,  which 
the  Lord  hath  made  with  you  concerning  all 
these  words"  (xxiv.  3-8).  Thus  the  theocra- 
cy was  established. 

This  book  of  the  covenant  contains  the 
c<mstitution  and  earliest  laws  of  Israel.  The 
ten  commandments  formed  the  fundamental 
law  of  the  state.  In  modern  mode  of  thought 
and  expression,  they  would  be  called  the  con- 
stitution ;  in  Hebrew  concejitiou  and  as  a 
matter  of  fact,  they  were  a  covenant  between 
<iod  and  the  nation.  There  was  a  treaty, 
not  between  several  communities,  but  be- 
tween the  community  and  God.  Being  fun- 
damental law,  they  were  engraven  on  stone, 
and  deposited  in  the  ark  ;  they  were  known 
MS  the  covenant  (Dent.  iv.  13;  ix.  9,  11  ;  1 
Kin.  viii.  9-21 ;  see  also  Num.  x.  33  ;  Judg. 
XX.  27  ;  1  Sam.  iv.  3)  ;  or  the  testimony  (  Ex. 
xxxi.  18;  xxxii.  15,  etc.).  The  laws  which 
follow  the  ten  commandments  are  by-laws 
or  statutes.  They  are  constitutional,  involv- 
ing no  principle  contrary  to  the  organic  law 
of  the  state  ;  they  are  expository,  being  the 
apjdication  of  the  doctrines  of  the  constitu- 
tion to  the  affairs  of  daily  life  ;  they  are  tem- 
porary, liable  to  altrogation  and  amendment 
and  numerical  increase  to  meet  the  new  con- 
ditions and  peculiar  needs  of  each  age.  They 
are  i)resented  in  the  form  of  a  code  ;  they 
are  not  a  loose  aggregation  of  statutes,  but 
are  disposed  in  orderly  arrangement :  1. 
Laws  relating  to  the  form  of  worship  (xx. 
23-26).  2.  Laws  to  protect  the  rights  of  man. 
(a)  To  protect  liberty  (xxi.  2-11).  (b)  Con- 
cerning injury  of  person  (12-36).  (c)  Concern- 
ing iirojierty  rights  (xxii.  1-17).  3  Laws  to 
govern  personal  conduct  (18-xxiii.  9).  4. 
Laws  concerning  sacred  seasons  and  .sacrifice 
(10-19).     .5.  The  promise  annexed  (20-33). 

At  the  institution  of  the  theocratic  govern- 
ment at  Sinai,  the  idea  before  the  jieople  was 
simply  that  (iod  was  ruler  and  Moses  his 
accredited  representative  through  whom  he 
exercised  the  legislative,  judicial,  and  execu- 
tive oiriccs.  Moses  already  had  subordinate 
judges  to  assist  him  (Ex.  xviii.  21-2f)  ;  and 
at  the  end  of  the  wilderness  jjcriod,  promise 
was  made  of  future  legislation,  that  is  the 
continued  revelation  of  the  will  of  God 
(Deut.  xviii.  1.5-19).  The  expectation  was 
also  entertained  by  Moses  that  God  would 


appoint  leaders  to  succeed  him,  and  that 
eventually,  on  account  of  the  peojjle's  lack 
of  faith,  a  king  would  be  needed  as  earthly, 
visible  representative  of  the  executive  i)ower 
when  the  people  should  be  settli-d  in  Pales- 
tine. Accordingly  a  general  hiw  of  the  king 
was  framed  (xvii.  14-20). 

The  stability  of  the  state  under  theocratic 
form  of  government  depended  in  the  first  in- 
stance and  ultimately  on  the  faithfulness  of 
tiod  to  his  election  and  his  promises;  but  the 
success  of  the  theocracy  at  any  given  period 
was  conditioned  by  the  attitude  of  the  people 
toward  CJod  and  toward  the  provisions  of  the 
covenant.  Their  obedience  to  God  and 
reliance  on  him  were  requisite.  The  the- 
ocracy was  based  on  the  conception  of 
Israel  as  a  community,  and  it  is  well 
to  note  the  weakness  of  the  bond  which 
at  the  first  bound  Israel  into  a  commun- 
ity. The  children  of  Israel  were  divided 
into  twelve  tribes ;  they  were  bound  to- 
gether by  common  blood  and  common  lan- 
guage, by  common  misfortune  and  common 
need.  They  were  held  together  in  pursuit 
of  a  great  end  by  the  enthusiasm  and  expec- 
tation which  one  man  had  awakened,  by  the 
hope  of  freedom  and  a  country,  by  the  prom- 
i.se  and  evidence  of  God's  protection.  They 
were  kept  together  by  providence.  All  these 
unifying  elements  save  the  last  were  weak. 
They  were  bonds  that  might  easily  be,  and 
constantly  were,  broken.  This  lack  of  com- 
munal strength  was  an  obstacle  to  the  theoc- 
racy, which  even  the  establishment  of  the 
monarchy  did  not  I'ectify. 

The-oph'a-ny. 

A  manifestation  of  God  to  man  by  actual 
appearance.  It  was  not  an  immediate 
revelation  of  God  the  Father  (.John  i.  18 ;  1 
Tim.  vi.  16)  ;  but  a  manifestation  of  Jehovah 
in  the  person  of  the  angel  of  the  Lord  (Gen. 
xvi.  7),  the  angel  of  the  presence  or  the  Lord's 
presence  (Ex.  xxxii.  34 ;  xxxiii.  14),  the 
angel  of  the  covenant  (Mai.  iii.  1),  or  Christ. 
A  common  classification  is:  1.  The  O.  T.  the- 
ophany, an  epiphany  of  the  future  Christ. 
2.  The  incarnation  of  Christ,  as  the  revelation 
of  God  in  the  flesh.  3.  The  second  coming 
of  Christ. 

The  O.  T.  theophanies  were  transient  man- 
ifestations and  permanent  localization.  They 
were  temporary  manifestations  to  the  patri- 
archs, and  became  abiding  in  the  shekinah. 
The  theophanies  which  were  granted  to  the 
])atriarchsmay  have  been  unsubstantial  mani- 
festations, incorporeal  and  merely  the  appear- 
ance of  the  human  form.  Some  interpreters, 
like  Tertullian,  believe  that  occasiimally  at 
least  there  was  actual  flesh,  not  putative 
flesh;  real  and  solid  hiniian  substance  ;  just 
as  Christ,  who  was  (iod  manifested  in  the 
flesh,  had  flesh  and  blood  both  before  and 
after  his  resurrection,  and  could  be  seen 
and  handled  (Luke  xxiv.  30-43 ;  John 
XX.  27).     If  the  angel  of  the  Lord  assumed 


Theophany 


735       Thessaloniaus,  Epistles  to  the 


an  actuiil  body,  lie.  did  fio  niir;iciil()\isly, 
as  Christ  made  llic  water  wine;  and  it 
disappeared  iniraciilously,  as  Christ  who 
jMissessed  a  human  body  of  flesh  and  blood 
vanished  from  men's  sifjht.  In  the  O.  T. 
theophany  the  angel  of  tiie  I.ord  ate  aetual 
food  (Cen".  xviii.  1-H).  Does  this  jirove  that 
the  angel  had  assumed  an  aetual  body?  1. 
Josephus  interprets  the  eating  as  mere  ap- 
pearance (Anlicj.  i.  11,  2)\  so  also  Phiio  (Op. 
ii.  liS)  and  the  writer  of  Tohit  (Tob.  xii.  lit). 
2.  Justin  Martyr  speaks  of  the  angel  as  con- 
suming food  "as  tire  consumes"  (Dial.  c. 
Tryph.  xxxiv.).  The  angel  of  the  Lord  who 
ajijieared  to  Manoah,  touched  the  food,  and 
it  was  burnt.  "The  thirsty  earth  absorbs 
water  in  one  manner,  the  hot  ray  of  the  sun 
in  another"   (Augustine). 

The  transient  manifestations  gradually  gave 
place  to  the  permanent  localization.  The 
shekinab  was  the  visible  majesty  of  the  divine 
presence,  especially  when  dwelling  between 
the  cherubim  in  the  tabernacle  and  temple  in 
the  midst  of  (iod"s  ]ieople  Israel.  It  lirst  ap- 
peared at  the  exodus.  The  Lord  went  be- 
fore the  Israelites  in  a  i)illar  of  cloud  by  day, 
and  bv  night  in  a  pillar  of  fire  to  give  them 
light  (Kx.  xiii.  21,  22).  A  tliick  chnid  rested 
upon  mount  Sinai,  and  the  mountain  was  al- 
together on  smoke,  because  the  Lord  de- 
scended upon  mount  Sinai  in  fire  (xix.  IG,  18). 
Later  the  glory  of  the  Lord  abode  on  mount 
Sinai,  and  the  cloud  cinered  it  six  days;  and 
the  seventh  day  he  called  unto  Moses  out  of 
the  midst  of  the  elouil,  and  the  aiijiearancc 
of  the  glory  of  the  Lord  was  like  devouring 
fire  on  the  top  of  tlie  mount  in  the  eyes  of 
the  children  of  Israel  (xxiv.  IG,  17).  When 
Moses  entered  the  first  tent  of  meeting  the 
cloud  descended  and  hovered  at  the  door,  and 
the  Lord  talked  with  Moses  face  to  face  (Ex. 
xxxiii.  11  ;  cp.  Dcut.  v.  4).  When  the 
tabernacle  was  erected,  the  Lord  took  pos- 
sessi(»n  of  it.  The  cloud,  dark  by  day  and 
luminous  bv  night,  covered  the  tent,  and  the 
glory  of  the  Lord  filled  it  (Ex.  xl.  34,  :ir,; 
Num.  ix.  1.1,  IG).  Wlien  ]Moses  ai)peared 
before  the  Lord  in  the  tabernacle,  he 
heard  the  voice  of  one  sjieaking  unto  him 
from  off  the  mercy  seat  (Num.  vii.  8!> :  cp. 
Ex.  XXV.  22  ;  Lev.  xvi.  2).  Probably  the 
glory  was  not  seen  constantly,  but  gleamed 
forth  occasif)nally  from  the  cloud  whicli  con- 
cealed it  (Ex.  xvi.  7.  11);  Lev.  ix.  G,  23; 
Num.  xiv.  10;  xvi.  I!l,  42;  xx.  G).  From 
fre(|uent  references,  it  seems  that  God  con- 
tinued to  manifest  his  ])re.sence  between  the 
chcruliim  on  th(^  ark.  .\t  length,  when  the 
teniplf  of  .Solomon  was  dedicated,  the  cloud 
filled  the,  house  of  the  Lord,  so  that  the 
jiriests  could  not  stand  to  minister  bv  reason 
of  thi-  cloud  :  for  the  glory  of  the  L<".rd  filled 
the  house  (1  Kin.  viii.  10.  111. 

The  t<-m|iorary  manifestations  had  given 
place  to  the  abiding  |iresen<'e  in  tlie  tabernacle 
and  Sol(pmon"s  temple:  ami  finally  the  Word 
became  flesh  and  dwelt  among  men  ;  and  men 


beheld  bis  glorv,  glorv  as  of  the  only  Ix'gotten 
from  the  Father  (.loliii  i.  14).  The  latter 
glory  of  the  house  was  greater  than  the  for- 
mer (Hag.  ii.  !),  K.  V.).  The  divine  presence 
dwelt  in  Christ's  body  as  in  the  temi)le. 

The-oph'i-lus  [loved  by  (iod]. 

The  (  liristian  to  vvhcmi  Luke  addressed  his 
Gospel  (Luke  i.  3)  and  The  Acts  of  the  Apostles 
(Acts  i.  1).     See  AcT.s  OF  the  Apostles,  The. 

Thes-sa-lo'ni-ans,  Epistles  to  the. 

The  First  Ejiistle  <,f  Paul  thr  Aiiostle  to 
the  Thessaloniaus  is  the  earliest  of  Paul's 
epistles.  It  was  written  by  the  apostle  in 
conjunction  with  Silvanus  (Silas)  and  Timo- 
thy, to  the  church  at  Tlu^ssalonica.  Paul 
had  founded  this  church  on  his  second  mis- 
sionary journey,  and  had  been  driven  from 
Thessalonica  to  Herd-a  and  from  Benea  to 
Athens  by  the  persecuting  .lews;  see  P.VUL. 
The  epistle  contains  allusions  (1  Tlies.  ii.)  to 
his  life  at  Thessalonica.  It  also  relates  that, 
when  at  Athens,  he  had  sent  Timothy  back 
to  Thess;ilonica  to  encourage  the  Christians 
amid  their  i>ersecutions  (iii.  1-3)  and  that 
Timothy  had  recently  brought  him  good 
news  of  their  steadfastness.  In  Acts  xviii. 
.")  we  learn  that  Silas  and  Timothy  rejoined 
the  apostle  at  Corinth.  Hence  the  e]>istle 
was  written  from  that  city,  jirobably  in  the 
year  A.  D.  52.  The  allusions  which  the  ej)istle 
contains  to  Paul's  life  in  Thessalonica  and  to 
the  distress  felt  by  the  Thessalonians  over  the 
death  of  their  friends,  as  well  as  the  ele- 
mentary character  of  the  instruction  given, 
confirm  this  dale.  There  appear  to  have 
been  three  special  features  in  the  condition  of 
the  Thessalonians  which  occasioned  anxiety 
to  the  apostle,  and  led  him  to  writi'  this 
epistle  :  (1)  a  tendency  to  neglect  their  daily 
work,  probably  under  the  idea  that  the 
second  advent  would  soon  take  place. — and 
with  this  was  sometimes  found  a  failure  to 
preserve  moral  purity  of  lite;  (2l  distress 
lest  their  Christian  friends  who  died  would 
fail  to  enjoy  the  glories  of  the  kingdom 
which  the  returning  Christ  was  to  estiiblish  ; 
(3|  friction  between  the  regular  t>llic(rs  of 
the  church  and  those  who  iiossessed  miracu- 
lous endowments  of  the  Spirit.  Hence  the 
analysis  of  the  e])istle :  1.  A  grateful  state- 
ment of  their  Christian  earnestness,  their 
endurance  of  trial,  and  the  inlluence  they  had 
already  exertid  over  others  li.).  2.  A  re- 
minder of  the  uprightness  and  industry  with 
which  he  had  lived  among  them,  and  of  the 
enthusiasm  with  which  they  had  received 
his  ])reaching  even  in  the  face  of  persecu- 
tion from  the  .lews  (ii.).  .'{.  A  recital  of  the 
joy  he  had  had  in  Timothy's  good  report  of 
their  condition  (iii.).  4.  Instructiim  on  sjh- 
cial  jioints  liv.  1-v.  24)  :  (a)  Concerning 
jiurity  in  the  relation  of  the  sexes  liv.  3-M. 
(b)  Concerning  a  life  of  mutual  love  and 
orderliness  (it-12i.  (c)  Concerning  dead  be- 
lievers, declaring  that  at  the  ail  vent  they 
will  rise  first   and   be   caught   up   with  the 


Thessalonians,  Epistles  to  the 


rsf) 


Thessalonica 


liviiiR  to  meet  the  Lord  in  the  air,  and  thus 
will  not  fail  of  thoir  reward  (i:VlH).  (d)  (^on- 
ceriiiufj  watchfiihu'ss  and  subriety  of  lifi;  (v. 
1-11).  (o)  Concerning;  rcsiuct  for  otUccrs  of  tlu; 
fluircli,  consideration  for  I  hose  in  need,  culti- 
vation of  spiritual  fjifts,  and  otlierdutiesof  the 
t;hristian  lilV  (12-'J  1).  5.  Closing  words  (-Jo-^H). 

The  ei)istle  strikingly  illustrates  the  dif- 
ficulties natural  to  a  newly  formed  gentile 
church  and  the  hreadth  and  practical  wisdom 
of  the  apostle's  instructions. 

The  Second  Epistle  of  Paul  tlie  Apostle  to 
the  Thessalonians  evidently  followed  the 
first  after  but  a  short  period.  It  too,  there- 
fore, is  to  be  assigned  to  A.  V>.  52,  and  was 
written  from  Corinth.  We  learn  from  it 
that  the  ditlicultiesof  the  Thessalonians  had 
become  more  serious,  but  were  still  of  the 
same  general  character  as  those  dealt  with  in 
the  first  epistle.  Like  the  first,  this  was 
written  by  Paul  in  conjunction  with  Sil- 
vanus  (Silas)  and  Timothy:  it  deals  largely 
with  the  second  advent  and  misconceptions 
about  it:  and  refers  again  to  the  tendency 
of  some  to  disorderly  living  (2  Thes.  iii.  6- 
12).  If,  however,  tlie  first  epistle  treated  of 
the  relation  of  the  advent  to  believers,  the 


The  epistle  may  be  divided  as  follows: 
1.  Thanksgiving  for  their  fidelity  amid  per- 
secution, and  assurance  that  persecution 
should  only  make  strong(;r  their  faith  in 
the  vindication  of  the  saints  and  in  the 
punishment  of  the  ungodly  which  will  take 
place  at  the  second  advent  (i.).  2.  Warning 
against  supposing  that  "  the  day  of  tlie  Lord 
is  now  present,"  and  description  of  the  apos- 
tasy and  rise  of  the  man  of  lawlessnes.s, 
which  mnst  precede  the  coming  of  the  Lord 
(ii.  1-12).  3.  Expression  of  his  confidence 
in  their  election  and  fidelity  (13-17).  4. 
Concluding  exhortations, — that  they  jiray  for 
him,  that  they  avoid  those  who  are  disor- 
derly, that  they  be  industrious  and  faithful, 
that  they  all  subject  themselves  to  the 
authority  which  he  as  an  apostle  exercised, 
etc.  (iii.).  From  ii.  2  it  appears  that  a  forged 
letter  of  Paurs  had  been  (tirculated  ;  hence  in 
iii.  17  he  appends  his  signature.  We  thus  see 
also' that  from  the  beginning  the  same  author- 
ity was  attached  in  the  church  to  the  apos- 
tle's letters  as  to  his  oral  teaching.  The 
statements  concerning  the  apostasy  and  the 
man  of  lawlessness  have  been  variously  in- 
terpreted.    We  think  it  most  probable  that 


Sahjniki. 


second  treats  of  its  relation  to  the  wicked 
(i.  5-10).  Further  the  apostle  warns  them 
not  to  supi)ose  that  "  the  day  of  the  Lord  is 
now  jiresent"  (ii.  2,  R.  Y.),  and  that  the 
visible  advent  would  therefore  soon  come; 
for,  before  that  happens,  there  must  be  the 
apostasy  (predicted  by  Christ;  cj).  Mat. 
xxiv.  9-12)  and  the  revelation  of  the  man 
of  lawlessness  (2  Thes.  ii.  3,  K.  V.  ;  see 
Antuhkist),  wh(mi  the  Lord  will  destroy 
at  his  coming.  He  had,  when  with  them, 
told  them  of  these  things  (ii.  5). 


the  apostasy  was  contemplated  liy  Paul  as 
arising  within  the  church  ;  the  man  of  law- 
lessness as  the  culiiiinatioii  of  the  apostasy  in 
a  personal  antichrist;  and  he  or  that  which 
hindercth  (ii.  7)  as  either  the  civil  power  or 
else,  and  with  much  probability,  the  Holy 
Spirit.  G.  T.  p. 

Thes-sa-lo-ni'ca  [conqiiest  of  Thessaly]. 

A  city  on  the  Thermaic  (tulf,  now  called 
the  gulf  of  Saloniki.  The  city  was  first 
called  Therme,  or  Therma,  hot  spring;  but 


Theudas 


737 


Thief 


Cas,sander,  one  of  the  succeasors  of  Alexander 
the  (Jreat,  made  it  his  residence  and  nnanied 
it  Thessjilonic'a,  after  Jiis  wife  Tliessaloiiike, 
a  daughter  iif  tiie  coniiiieror  of  llie  Clierso- 
nesiis  and  sister  of  tlie  threat  Alexander. 
Under  tlie  Honiiiiis  it  was  the  capital  of  the 
second  district  out  of  four  into  whidi  they 
had  dividitd  .Macedonia.  Tiie  Jews  had  a 
synajjofiue  in  the  city.  Paul  jireached  there 
and  made  converts,  who  hecame  the  nucleus 
of  a  Christian  cliurch  {.\cls  .xvii.  l-]:j;  cp. 
I'hil.  iv.  Kil.  'l"o  this  cliurch  I'aul  sent  two 
Itdters.  Two  of  his  coworkers,  Aristarchusand 
yecundus,  were  men  of  Thes.salonica  (Acts 
XX.  A  ;  xxvii.  2).  Thessalonica  was  taken 
hy  tlie  Saracens  in  A.  i>.  WOl.  After  other 
vicissitudes,  it  was  cajitured  hy  the  Turkish 
sultan  Amurath  11.  in  IIIJO.  "jt  still  exists 
as  .'^aloniki,  with  a  ])oiiulation  of  ahout 
100,()()(t  Mohammedans,  Christians,  and  Jews. 

Theu'das. 

(iainaliel,  in  his  sjieech  hefore  the  sanhe- 
drin,  ahout  A.  D.  32,  referred  to  Theudas, 
who  gave  himself  out  to  be  somebody,  to 
whom  a  number  of  men,  about  100,  joined 
themselves,  who  was  slain,  and  all.  as  many 
as  obeyed  him,  wen-  disin'rscd  and  came  to 
nought,  and  after  whom  Judas  of  Galilee 
rose  up  in  the  days  of  the  enrollment  (Acts 
V.  3(>,  37).  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the 
Judas  here  s])oken  of  was  .ludas  the  (iaulon- 
ite  of  tiamala,  who,  in  tlie  times  of  tjuirinius, 
<luring  the  iirocunitorship  of  Coponius,  raised 
an  insurrection  bv  ojiposing  the  enrollment 
(Anti(|.  xviii.  1,  i;  War  ii.  8,1).  Theudas 
accordingly  arose  sometime  before  A.  i).  6. 
Now  Joseplius  mentions  a  magician  named 
Theudas.  who,  while  Fadus  was  i)rocurator 
of  Judiea,  A.  I).  41-4(i,  j)ersuaded  a  great  part 
of  the  peiii)l(>  to  follow  him  to  the  river 
Jordan,  fur  he  told  them  that  he  was  a 
prophet,  and  that  at  his  command  the  waters 
would  divide  and  alhtw  them  a  pas.siige.  But 
Fadus  sent  a  troop  of  horse  against  him, 
who  fell  njion  the  ^leople  unex|>ectedly,  slew 
many  ami  took  many  others  alive,  and  se- 
cured Tlieiulas,  cut  off  bis  head,  and  carried 
it  to  .Jerusalem  (.\nti<|.  xx.  5,  1). 

The  (piestion  is.  Do  Luke  and  Josephus 
refer  to  the  same  ])erson  ?  Some  answer  that 
they  do.  and  say  that  either  Luke  or  Josephus 
errs.  Josephus  scarcely  is  mistakeu,  for  he 
gives  details.  I'.ut  Luke  has  fully  estab- 
lished his  creilibility  as  a  historian,  and  it  is 
a  rash  thing  to  accu.se  him  of  an  error. 
Accordingly  other  iiit<'rpreters  believi-  that 
it  is  (|uite  prol)able  that  two  persotis  by  the 
name  of  Thiudas,  at  a  distanee  of  forty  years 
or  more  from  each  other,  laid  themselves 
o|)eii  to  the  Just  vengeance  or  jusliliable  sus- 
])icions  of  the  Romans  and  were  punished. 
It  is  not  at  all  cb-ar  that  Theudas  the  ma- 
gician was  an  insurgent  of  the  same  ela.ss  as 
Theudas  whom  (iamaliel  cites.  The  one  was 
an  impostor,  a  pretended  prophet,  who,  on 
the  faith  of  the  people  in  his  supernatural 
47 


powers,  drew  crowds  of  followers  after 
him.  The  other  made  some  sort  of  claim 
to  greatness,  gained  a  following  of  400 
men,  and  canu-  to  naught.  Who  then  was 
Theudas  t<j  whom  (iamaliel  refers?  lie  was 
I>robably  one  of  the  insurrectionary  chiefs, 
who  led  belligerent  bands  in  the  closing  year 
of  Herod  the  (Jreat.  That  year  was  remark- 
ably turbulent.  Josei)hus  mentions  three 
disturbers  by  name,  and  makes  general  allu- 
sion to  others.  Theudas  was  either  1.  One 
of  these  unnamed  insurrectionists,  whom 
(jamaliel  cites  to  show  that  a  bad  cause  and 
its  leaders  come  to  grief.  Theudas  was  a 
comiuon  name,  and  within  a  period  of  half 
a  century,  might  be  borne  by  two  jiersons  of 
some  ])roniinence  and  somewhat  similar  in 
their  career.  Aiuilogously  Jo.sejibus  gives 
an  account  of  four  men  named  Simon, 
who  followed  each  other  within  forty 
years,  and  of  three  named  Judas,  within 
ten  years,  who  were  all  instigators  of  rebel- 
lion. Or  2.  One  of  the  three  insurgents  who 
are  named  by  Jose])hus.  Two  are  advocated 
as  identical  with  Theudas.  (1)  Simon  (Antiq. 
xvii.  10,  (j;  War  ii.  4,  2),  a  slave  of 
Herod,  who  attempted  to  make  himself 
king  when  Herod  died.  He  was  noted  as  a 
disturber  of  the  peace  at  this  time  and  his 
name  would  be  apt  to  occur  to  Gamaliel ;  he 
was  a  man  of  bd'ty  pretensions;  he  died  a 
violent  death  :  he  a]ipears  to  have  had  com- 
l)aratively  few  adherents;  he  was  a  slave, 
and  it  was  quite  coumion  among  the  Jews 
to  assume  a  new  name  on  changing  occui)a- 
ti<in  or  mode  of  life.  Gamaliel  s]ieaks  of  him 
as  Theudas.  the  name  he  liad  borne  longest, 
and  by  which  he  was  best  known  in  Jeru.sa- 
lem  and  to  the  members  of  the  sanhedrin, 
while  Josephus  calls  him  by  the  name  Simon, 
which  he  had  adoi)ted  when  ajipearing  as 
king  of  the  .Tews  and  by  which  be  was  nat- 
urally known  to  the  Koman  government  and 
people.  (2)  The  man  called  Matthias  by 
Josei>hus  (Antiq.  xvii.  (j,  2;  War  i.  33,  2). 
Matthias  is  a  (ireek  form  of  the  Hebrew 
Mittlniii/fih,  {i\ft  iti'  (Jod,  and  is  e(|uivalent  to 
the  (4reek  name  Theudas,  which,  it  is  urged, 
is  the  same  as  Tlifudnn.  shortened  from  Theo- 
doras, gift  of  (Jod.  Matthias  was  an  ehxiui'iil 
teacher,  who  with  another  teacher  beaded  a 
band  in  the  days  of  king  Herod,  and  de- 
stroyed the  golden  eagle  .set  uji  by  the  king 
over  the  great  gate  of  the  temjile.  He  was 
caught  and  burnt  alive  with  some  of  his 
comjianions,  and  many  of  the  rest  were  jiut 
to  death  by  other  means. 

Thief. 

In  a  broad  sen.se.  anyone  who  appropriates 
what  is  not  his  own,  as  the  Jietty  pilferer 
(.John  xii.  (>),  the  robber  or  higbwavman 
(Luke  X.  30,  H.  V.  robbert,  the  burglar  "(Mat. 
vi.  20).  Tiie  highwayman  was  often  :i  rebel 
against  Konian  rule  and  a  foTuenter  of  strife, 
like  Harabbas  (Mark  xv.  7),  who  was  com- 
pelled by  the  exigi'ucics  of  the  case,  as  much 


Thimnathah 


738 


Thorns  and  Thistles 


as  by  the  lust  of  plunder,  to  flee  from  the  sol- 
(licrs  and  adopt  the  wild,  roliber  life.  Under 
the  Mosiie  law  a  lliief  eaujjht  had  to  make 
restitution  of  twice  the  amount  lie  had 
taken,  and  if  he  were  nnable,  could  be  sold 
into  tenii)orary  servitude  till  he  had  earned 
tlie  re(|iiisite  amount.  If  a  thief  entered  a 
house  and,  coming  into  contact  witli  the 
owner  in  the  dark,  was  killed,  the  homicide 
was  not  to  be  charjrcd  with  hlood-guiltiness ; 
hut  if  the  sun  had  risen,  the  householder 
was  held  to  be  jiuilty  if  he  killed  tlie  in- 
truder (Ex.  xxii.  1-1).  That  the  tliieves  on 
the  cross  were  something  far  beyond  petty 
])ilferers  is  plain  fmm  the  Greek  term  applied 
to  them,  the  .severity  of  their  punishment 
(War  ii.  V.i.  2).  and  the  fact  that  one  of  them 
acknowledged  tlie  .ju.stice  of  the  death  pen- 
alty inflicted  on  him  (Luke  xxiii.  41);  he 
must  have  been  a  robber  at  the  least  (^lat. 
xxvii.  3f^,  K.  v.),  and  (juite  possibly  even  a 
brigand.  Both  reviled  Jesus  on  the  cross  (44), 
but  subsequently  one  was  touched  with  awe  at 
the  meekness  aud  forgiving  spirit  of  Jesus, 
and  with  tlie  fear  of  God  in  his  heart,  the 
confession  of  the  sinfulness  of  his  past  life, 
the  acknowledgment  that  Jesus  had  done 
nothing  amiss,  and  was  the  true  King,  and 
would  reign  in  power  after  the  death  on  the 
cross,  turned  to  Jesus  for  acceptance  after 
death    Luke  xxiii.  39-43). 

TMm'na-thah.    See  Timn.\h. 

This 'tie.    See  Thokns  and  Thistles. 

Thom'as   [Greek,  from    Hebrew  taom,   a   | 
twin].  I 

One  of  the  twelve  apostles  (Mat.  x.  3).  He  j 
was  als(j  called  Didymus,  a  Greek  name, 
meaning,  like  Thomas,  a  twin.  When  the 
disciples  were  astonished  that  Jesns  intended 
going  again  to  Judaea,  where  a  little  before 
the  Jews  had  threatened  to  stone  him  (John 
xi.  7,  8).  Thomas,  in  devotion  to  Jesus,  de- 
termined to  share  the  peril,  and  said  to  his 
fellow-disciples:  "Let  us  also  go,  that  we 
may  die  with  him "  (16).  When  Jesus,  in  j 
anticipation  of  his  departure,  spoke  of  going  , 
to  pre])are  a  jilace  for  them,  and  added  that 
they  knew  whither  he  was  gf)ing  and  the  1 
way,  Tlioiiias  said:  "Lord,  we  know  not 
whither  thou  goest ;  and  how  can  we  know 
the  way?"  To  which  the  reply  commenced  ! 
with  the  well-known  words:  "I  am  the 
way.  the  truth,  and  the  life"  (xiv.  1-6). 
Thomas  was  not  at  the  first  meeting  at  which 
the  privilege  was  granted  of  seeing  the  risen 
Lord,  and  when  he  heard  that  Jesus  had 
been  present  he  said  :  "  Except  I  shall  see  in 
his  hands  the  ]n-int  of  the  nails,  and  put  my 
finger  into  the  jirint  of  tlie  nails,  and  thrust 
my  hand  into  his  side,  I  will  not  believe  "  (xx. 
•Jl,  -J.')).  This  incident  has  given  rise  to  his  des- 
ignation, "doubting  Thomas."  But  God 
turned  the  doubt  of  Thomas  to  the  good  of  oth- 
ers. ••  He  doubted  that  we  might  not  doubt" 
(.\ugustinei,  and  ei<:ht  days  later  Jesus  gave 
him  the  evidence  he  required,  and  elicited 


from  him  the  adoring  exclamation :  "  My  Lord 
and  my  God  ! "  (26-29).  He  was  on  the  sea 
of  (ialilee  with  six  other  discijdes  wlien  Jesus 
liailed  them  from  the  beach  and  told  them 
where  to  cast  the  net  (xxi.  1-8)  ;  and  was  with 
the  rest  of  the  apostles  in  the  upper  room  at 
Jerusalem  after  the  ascension  (,\cts  i.  l.'J). 
Trailition  makes  Thomas  afterwards  labor  in 
I'arthia  aud  Persia,  dying  in  the  latter  coun- 
try. At  a  later  period  India  was  named  as 
the  place  where  he  had  preached  and  sutTercd 
martyrdom,  and  a  place  near  Madras  is  called 
St.  Thomas'  mount. 

Thorns  and  This'tles. 

In  most  jiassages  where  these  words  occur 
the  terms  are  generic  rather  than  specilic. 
Thorny  weeds,,  bushes,  and  small  trees  of 
various  kinds  are  abundant  in  Palestine. 
Among  them  may  be  mentioned  the  thorny 
burnet  (Poteiium  spinosum),  which  is  burnt  as 
fuel  in  lime  kilns  and  ovens;  the  thorny 
caper  {C'<ii>paris  spinosa),  seen  everywhere 
hanging  from  rocks  and  walls ;  the  James- 
town orjimson  weed  {Datura  stramonium)  by 
the  roadside  and  in  waste  places  -;  the  arti- 
choke ( Cynara  syriaca) ;  aud  in  the  uplands 
the  acanthus  with  its  whitish  flowers.  The 
prickljr  pear  (Opuniia  ficus  indica),  a  cactus 
with  yellow  flowers,  is  the  characteristic 
hedge  plant  of  modern  Syria  ;  but  it  was  in- 
troduced from  America  and  was  unknown  in 
ancient  times.  For  hedge  purposes  there  are 
also  used  the  box  thorn  (Lycium  europium) 
and  the  bramble  (Rubus  discolor).  Various 
hawthorns  are  found,  Cratiegus  azarohis.  C. 
monociyna,  and  east  of  the  Jordan  C.  orietitalis. 
Numerous  thistles  grow  in  the  fields  and 
waste  places :  such  as  Cirsium  acanm.  with 
its  leaves  tipped  with  long,  yellow  s])ines ; 
Carthamus  lanatus.  with  yellow  flowerets.  C. 
glaucus,  with  purjde,  C.  cxruleus,  with  blue, 
and  C.  tiiictorius,  with  red  flowerets,  which 
are  used  as  a  red  dye  ;  Carduus  pycnoccphalus 
and  ar(ieiit<i!ii>i :  Echinops  riscnsus :  the  tall 
Koiohnsis  syriaca.  with  pink  flowers  and  pow- 
erful spines;  cotton  thistles  {Onopordun  illy- 
rieum  and  cynarocfphnluin) ;  the  milk  thistle 
{Silyhnm  mariaiiuiii)  :  sow  thistles  (Sonchus 
olfrarcna  and  (iluucesrcns)  ;  star  thi.stles  (fV/(- 
taurcn  calcitrapa  and  reriitnm),  the  former 
with  purple,  the  latter  with  yellow  flowers. 
The  cocklcbur  {Xanthium)  is  common,  as  is 
also  teasel  (Dipsacus  sylvestris). 

Several  words  rendered  thorn  or  thistle 
appear  to  be  used  specifically  :  1.  Hebrew 
dardar.  Greek  triholos,  which  grows  in  fields 
(Gen.  iii.  18;  Hos.  x.  8  ;  Mat.  vii.  16  ;  all  in 
E.  V.  thistle  ;  and  Heb.  vi.  8.  in  A.  X.  brier)  is 
probaldy  a  siiecies  of  Tribulus.  perhaps  T.  ter- 
restris.  one  of  the  plants  called  caltrop.  It  is 
common  in  the  fields  and  by  the  roadside. 
The  fruit  is  composed  of  bony  cells  armed 
with  i)rickles  on  the  back.  It  does  not  be- 
long to  the  Ciimpositie.  as  do  the  thistles.  2,  3, 
and  4,  see  Br.vmblk,  Bkier  5,  6,  Nettle  2. 

The  crown  of  thorns,  which  was  plaited  by 


Three  Taverns 


739 


Throne 


the  liomau  soldiers  and  pliuid  on  the  head 
of  Jesus  to  torture  and  insult  him  (Mat.  xxvii. 
29),  is  fienerally  believed  to  have  heen  made 
of  tin-  ZiziJiihnx  xpiiid  Cliristi,  a  sjieeies  of 
jujulie  or  lotus  tree,  with  soft,  round,  jiliant 
hramhes,  and  with  leaves  resemhliiij;;  the 
ivy  with  whieh  emperors  and  jtenerals  were 
wont  to  lie  erowned.     See  Hkamhi.K. 

The  tliorn  in  tiie  flesh  was  some  bodily 
jiain  or  intirmity,  sent  as  a  messenger  of  Sa- 
tan to  hull'et  the  aitostle  I'aul  and  keep  him 
hunihle  amid  all  hisspiritual  triumphs  (2  Cor. 
xii.  7).     Its  nature  is  unkuowu. 

Three  Tav'erns. 

A  small  station  on  tlie  .Apjiian  Way,  about 
a  mile  from  Ajijiii  Koruni,  and  IJ(J  miles  from 
Komi',  where  a  number  of  Ivoman  C'iiristians 
met  I'aul  ou  his  way  to  Rome  (Aets  xxviii. 
15). 

Thresh'ing. 

The  proeiss  of  separating  grain  from  the 
straw.  Small  (juantities  of  grain  were  beaten 
out  with  a  .stiek  or  flail  (.Judg.  vi.  11  ;  Kuth  ii. 
7),  and  this  was  the  eiistomary  method  of  hull- 
ing titehes  aiul  enmmin  (Is.  xxviii.  "^7)  ;  hut 
when  mueh  work  was  to  be  done,  oxen  and 
threshing  floors  were  emjiloyed.  The  weather 
of  Palestine  permits  the  threshing  floor  to  be 
under  the  ojjen  sky  ( Judg.  vi.  37).  It  is  gen- 
erally eommon  to  the  whole  village,  but 
may  have  a  private  owner  C.^  Sam.  xxiv.  Kj). 
If  possible,  it  is  the  surfaee  of  a  flat  rock  on 
the  top  of  a  hill,  exposed  to  any  wind  that 
blows.  If  such  a  natural  floor  is  not  avail- 
able, an  artifieial  floor  is  laid  out  by  the 
roadside,  and  soon  assumes  a  circular  shape, 


^:^umMft' 


Thre.shinj,'  Kb 


about  .SO  feet  in  diameter,  and  becomes  firm 
and  hard  under  the  tramiiiing  of  the  oxen. 
The  slieaves  are  loosened  and  arranged  in  a 
circle  on  the  floor:  or,  if  the  straw  is  to  be 
preserved  whole,  the  ears  are  cut  from  the 
stock  and  cast  on  the  floor.  t)xen.  which  to 
this  day  are  unmuzzled  except  by  the  nig- 


gardly (Deut.  XXV.  4),  are  driven  round  and 
round  to  tramjjle  out  the  kernels;  or  else  are 
made  to  drag  a  .sled  or  cart,  weighted  by  a 
heavy  stone  or  the  driver,  to  facilitate  the 
operation.  The  sled  is  made  of  two  heavy 
planks,  curved  upward  at  the  front  and  fast- 
ened side  by  side.  Sharp  ])ieces  of  stone  are 
fixed  in  holes  bored  in  the  bottom.  The  cart, 
at  least  as  used  in  Egypt,  consists  of  a  frame 
containing  three  wooden  rollers  set  with 
sharp  iron  knives.  If  there  is  any  wind,  the 
threshed  grain  is  tos.sed  high  in  the  air  with 
a  shovel  or  a  fork  (Is.  xxx.  24  ;  Mat.  iii.  12; 
Iliad  xiii.  5^.-),  when  the  chaff  is  blown 
away  and  the  clean  grain  falls  to  the  ground  ; 
but  if  there  is  no  wind,  a  large  fan  is  jilied 
by  one  man,  while  another  tosses  the  grain 
with  his  shovel.  The  fan.  however,  isj  sel- 
dom used  excejit  to  purge  the  floor  of  the 
refuse  dust,  ^^'innowing  is  done  in  the  even- 
ing for  the  sake  of  the  wind  ;  and  it  is  cu.s- 
tomary  for  the  owner  of  the  grain  to  spend 
the  night  at  the  floor  during  the  time  of 
threshing  to  prevent  stealing  (Ruth  iii.  2 
seq.).  The  grain  is  finally  passed  through  a 
sieve  to  cleanse  it  from  dirt,  after  which  it  is 
ready  for  grinding  (Amos  ix.  9). 

Thresh'olds  of  the  Gates. 

A  buildini,'.  in  Hebrew  '"xuppim,  which  was 
intended  lor  the  storage  of  temple  goods  (Neh. 
xii.  25.  A.  v.).     See  Asuppim. 

Throne. 

A  chair  of  state,  in  Hebrew  kisse',  in  Greek 
thronos,  which  was  occuiiied  by  a  jiersou 
of   authority,    whether    liigh    priest,   judge, 


lit  i;-\  I 


military  Uader.  gii\crnor.  or  king  ((ien.  xii. 
l(t;  1  Sam.  i.  9;  2  Sam.  iii.  10  :  Neh.  iii.  7; 
Ps.  cxxii.  5 ;  Jer.  i.  15;  Mat.  xix.  28).     Eoyal 


Thummim 


740 


Tiberias 


tliroiii'S  were  often  i.ortiiMe,  like  those  of 
Aliab  and  Jchosliaiilial  (1  Kin.  xxii.  10),  and 
the  one  used  liy  Sennat-iierib  at  Lucliisli  ;  sec 
Sennachkuib.  Solomon's  throne  was  an 
elevated  seat  reached  by  six  steps.  Its  frame 
was  i>n.l)al)ly  made  of  cedar.  It  was  inlaid 
with  ivory,  and  elsewhere  overlaid  with  j,'old  ; 
tile  l)ack'of  it  was  arched  or  roundeil  oil';  it 
was  furnished  with  arms  and  was  provideti 
with  a  footstool.  A  lion  stood  at  each  side, 
ornanientinf;  the  arms,  and  on  each  end  of  each 
(.r  the  six  steps  (1  Kin.  x.  LS-'iO  ;  2('hron.  ix. 
17-1!»).  It  resembled  the  thrones  of  the  As- 
syrian and  Egyptian  nionarchs,  but  with  its 
dais  was  tlie  most  mat,Miilicent  royal  chair  of 
the  time. 

The  king,  arrayed  in  his  royal  robes,  regu- 
larly sat  on  liis  throne  when  granting  audi- 
ences, receiving  homage,  administering  jus- 
tice, or  promulgating  commands  (1  Kin.  ii. 
19;  vii.  7;  xxii.  10;  2  Kiu.  xi.  19;  Jon. 
iii.  fi). 

The  throne  symbolized  supreme  power  and 
authority  ((4en.  xli.  40).  It  is  constantly  at- 
tributed to  .lehovali. 

Thum'mim.     See  Uhim  and  Thummim. 

TJiun'der. 

The  noise  which  follows  a  flash  of  light- 
ning. It  intensifies  tlie  awfulness  of  a  ter- 
rific storm  (Ex.  ix.  23).  Thunder  is  an  un- 
usual event  during  summer,  which  is  the 
dry  season  in  Palestine  (Prov.  xxvi.  1)  ;  and 
hence,  when  it  occurred  at  that  time  of  year 
after  prayer  for  it,  it  was  an  evident  answer 
and  served  as  a  sign  (1  Sam.  xii.  17).  It  was 
often  called  simply  kid,  voice,  sound,  noise ; 
and  was  i)oetically  described  as  the  voice  of 
Jehovah  (Job  xxxvii.  2-5 ;  xl.  9  ;  Ps.  xxix. 
3-9),  who  sends  and  directs  the  storm  (Job 
xxviii.  20).  It  accompanied  manifestations 
of  God's  presence  when  he  came  in  dread 
majesty  (Ex.  xix.  16;  Hev.  iv.  >5)  ;  it  was  an 
indication  of  divine  power  at  work  in  nature 
(Ps.  xxix.  3-9) ;  and  as  thunder  is  a  precursor 
of  tlie  destructive  storm,  it  symbolized  divine 
vengeance  (1  Sam.  ii.  10 ;  2  Sam.  xxii.  14,  1.5  ; 
Ps.  Ixxvii.  18). 

Thy-a-ti'ra. 

A  city  of  Asia  Jlinor,  in  Lydia,  near  the 
boundary  of  Mysia.  It  was  on  the  road  from 
Pergamos  to  Sardis.  It  had  already  come 
into  existence  and  been  known  as  Pelopia 
and  Euhipjtia  when  Seleucus  Nicator  about 
280  B.  c.  (Milonined  it  with  Greeks,  giving  it 
the  name  of  Thyatira.  Its  inhal)itaiits  were 
famed  for  their  skill  in  dyeing  ]nirple ;  and 
Lydia,  the  seller  of  jiurple  at  Philijjpi,  came 
from  Thyatira  (Acts  xvi.  14).  It  contained 
one  of  tlie  seven  churches  in  Asia  (Rev.  i.  11  ; 
ii.  18-24).  Traces  of  its  existence  remain  in 
fragments  of  columns  built  into  the  streets 
and  edifices  of  its  modern  successor,  Ak  His- 
sar.     (Iiristians  still  live  in  the  place. 

Thy'ine  Wood. 

One  of  the  commodities  sold  in  the  mar- 
kets of   the    mystic   Babylon,    Eome   (Rev. 


xviii.  12).     It  was  the  wood  of  Callitris  quad- 
rivalvis,  a  large  tree  of  the  cypress  family.   It 


Thyine  Wood. 

is  reddish-brown,  hard,  and  fragrant  ;  and 
was  greatly  prized  by  the  Romans  for  orna- 
mental purposes.  They  ran  it  up  to  a  high 
price.  The  resin  which  exudes  from  the  tree 
is  gum  sandarac. 

Ti-be'ri-as. 

A  city  on  the  sea  of  Galilee  (John  vi.  23), 
built  b.y  Ilerod  the  tetrarch,  and  named  by 
him  after  the  then  reigning  Roman  emperor, 
Tiberius  Cajsar  (Anticj.  xviii.  2,  3 ;  War  ii.  9, 
1).  Tiberias  was  fortified  bv  Josephus  during 
the  Jewish  war  (Life  8;  War  ii.  20,  6).  It 
opened  its  gates  to  Vespasian.  A  number  of 
the  inhabitants  of  Tarichea^,  a  neighboring 
town,  whom  he  had  assured  of  their  lives, 
were  afterwards  slain  in  cold  blood  in 
the  race  course  of  Tiberias  (War  iii.  10, 
l-lOi.  After  the  destruction  of  .Jerusalem 
and  after  the  expulsion  of  the  Jews  from 
Judaea,  conse(pient  on  the  failure  of  Har- 
cocheba's  rebellion,  Tiberias  became  the 
virtual  metropolis  of  the  Jewish  nation,  and 
coins  of  the  city  have  been  found,  bearing 
the  names  of  Tiberius,  Claudius,  Trajan, 
Adrian,  and  Antoninus  Pius.  The  sanhedrin 
was  tran.sferred  to  Tiberias  about  the  middle 
of  the  second  century,  and  the  city  became 


Tiberius  Caesar 


V41 


Tiglath-pileser 


the  cciitcr  of  .Ti-wisli  IciirniiiK.  A  ci'U'bratcd 
school  \v;i.s  ist;il)li.slicil  in  it,  \vlii(  li  i)ro(lu(r(l 
the  volmiif  oi"  Scriiituri.'  tnnlitioii  culli'il  tlif 
Misliiia  ai)out  A.  i>.  1!H)  or  'JxIO,  ami  its  siiji- 
plenit'iit,  the  (Joiiiara,  wliich  was  coditicd  in 
the  fcniith  (M-ntiiry.  'I'lic  Masorah,  or  Ixxly 
of  traditions  \\iii(  li  transmitted  tin- <letails  of 
the  Hehrew  text  of  the  ().  T.and  preserved  its 
]ironiinciation  l)y  means  of  vowel  sij^ns,  orig- 
inated in  a  great  measure  at  Tiberias  ;  see 
(»MJ  Tkstamknt.  The  •Jews  regard  Ti- 
berias as  one  of  tlieir  four  sacred  cities,  Jcru- 


eom|ietitor   for    the    throne   of    Israel    with 
Omri   (1   Kin.  xvi.  21,  22j. 

Ti'dal. 

Kill?;  of  Goiiin  aud  one  of  Chedorlaomer's 
confederates  ((Jen.  xiv.  1,  9,  R.  V.).  He  was 
Tndliul,  king  of  (Uitium,  northeast  of  Baby- 
lonia. 

Tig-lath-pi-le'ser,  in  Chronieles  Tllgath- 
pilneser  [Assjrian  Tnkulti-apil-Jislt<t)a,  nij- 
strength  is  the  god  Niuib]. 

A  king  of  Assyria,  who  reigned  from  745  to 


Tiberias. 


saleni.  Hebron,  and  Safed  being  the  others, 
in  which  jirayer  must  be  offered  continually, 
or  tlie  worUl  will  instantly  fall  back  into 
chaos.  It  still  exists  under  the  name  of 
Tiibariya,  on  the  wt'stern  shore  of  the  sea 
of  (Jalilee,  Hi  miles  fmin  the  entrance  and 
(>  from  the  exit  of  the  .Ionian.  At  that  i)lace 
the  steep  mountain  ridge  does  not  closely 
apiiroach  the  lake,  l)ut  U-aves  on  its  margin 
a  narrow  strip  of  undulating  land,  at  the 
norlbern  jiarl  of  which  Tilicrias  stands.  It 
extends  about  half  a  mile  aloiiy  the  shore, 
and  is  defended  on  the  land  side  l)y  a  wall, 
towers,  and  a  castle.  Tlu^  houses  are  mostly 
of  black  basalt.  On.Ianuary  1.  ls;{7,  itsui'- 
I'ered  .•severely  from  an  earllKpiake.  but  has 
since  in  a  lar^^e  nu'asure  been  rebuilt.  The 
.Jewish  ((uarter  is  near  the  lake. 

Thi^   sea   of   Tiberias   is   more   commonly 
called  the  sea  of  (ialilee  (J(»hn  vi.  1  ;  xxi.  1). 

Ti-be'ri-us  Cae'sar.    See  C'.icsak. 
Tlb'hath  [slau-ibterl. 

A  town  of  .\rani-zobah  (1  Chnm.  xviii.  8). 
Site  unknown.    Sec  lli-.r \n  and  Ti-;nAir. 
Tib'ni. 


A 


>f    Cinatli, 


the    unsuccess 


ful 


727  n.  c.  Tiglath-pileser  isbutanother  name 
for  Pul,  as  ajipears  from  the  fact  that  where 
Ptolemy's  list  of  P.abylonian  kings  gives 
Poros.  and  the  so-called  dynastic  tablets  of 
the  Babylonians  give  Pulu,  the  Babylonian 
chronicle  <;ivesTiglath-])ileser.  Probal)ly  Pul 
was  his  orijiinal  name,  and  when  he  secured 
the  throne  he  assumed  the  grander  title  ipf 
Tij;lath-i>ileser,  which  had  already  been  made 
famous  by  a  fj;i"''al  kiiiK  of  the  jiast.  There 
is  reason  to  believe  tiiat  he  owed  his  eleva- 
tion to  the  throne  to  the  disturbances  in 
Calah.  which  are  recorded  forthe  year  746  b.  c. 
He  seated  himself  upon  the  Assyrian  throne 
on  the  twelfth  day  of  the  second  month, 
anil  in  the  seventh  month  was  marchiuK 
against  P>aby Ionia.  He  tirst  became  known 
to  the  Israelites  as  Pul.  Durini;  the  years 
74:5-710  his  military  headcpiarters  were  at 
Arpad  in  nortlu'rn  .*^yria.  not  far  from  the 
site  of  the  later  .\nlioch  ;  but  be  found  op- 
l>(n-liinity  to  send  or  lead  ex]pe(iitions  and 
terrify  the  country  within  a  radius  of  IdO 
miles  or  more.  Among  other  places  a>rainst 
which  became  at  that  time  or  a  little  later 
was  the  bind  ot  Israel,  but  Menabeiii  paid 
him  tribute  and  the  .\ssvrian  contirnied  the 


Tigris 


Timna 


kingdom  to  Mciiiihem  and  left  the  country 
(2  Kin.  XV.  19,  20) ;  see  Pekah.  Tiglath- 
pilcscr  records  the  names  of  kings  who  about 
7.'5^  r..  V.  paiil  him  triluite,  and  aniouj;  others 
the  name  of  Mi^nalicm  of  Samaria.  During 
the  ne.xt  few  years  he  was  conducting  war 
tirst  in  the  far  east,  and  then  in  tlie  country 
nurth  and  northwest  of  Nineveh ;  but  in 
7:!1  iu-  was  again  in  the  west.  The  alliance 
uf  I'i'kali  and  Ue/.in  against  Ahaz  of  Judah 
impelled  Aiiaz.  contrary  to  the  exhortation 
of  tlie  prophet  Isaiah,  to  turn  for  hell)  to  a 
liuman  pntentate.  Tiglath-pileser  was  in- 
duced by  large  money  (xvi.  7,  S),  and  by  the 
favoralde  (iiiiiortunity  allbrded  him  of  ex- 
tending his  authority,  to  side  with  Ahaz. 
He  marc  lied  against  Philistia,  capturing  cities 
on  the  PlKcniciau  coast  as  he  proceeded.  He 
apparently  i-ecords  tlie  seizure  of  towns  iu 
northern  Israel ;  but  whether  he  makes  the 
record  or  not,  it  was  during  his  advance 
south  or  as  he  returned  north  that  he  took 
Ijon,  Abel-beth-maacah.  Janoah.  Kedesh, 
Hazor.  Gilead,  and  Galilee,  all  the  land  of 
Naphtali,  and  carried  them  captive  to  Assyria 
(XV.  2!)).  He  captured  Gaza.  Thus  he  pun- 
ished the  Philistines,  who  had  taken  advan- 
tage of  Judah's  straits  to  pillage  (2  Chrou. 
xxviii.  18).  In  the  years  733  and  732  he 
was  at  Damascus,  according  to  the  Assyrian 
records.  During  the  siege  or  immediately 
after  the  capture  of  the  city,  he  ravaged 
sixteen  districts  of  Damascus;  leaving  them, 
as  he  says,  like  ruins  after  a  flood-storm. 
He  slew  Kezin  king  of  Damascus.  At  this 
time  God  stirred  up  the  .spirit  of  Pul  king 
of  Assyria  and  (or  rather,  as  it  may  equally 
well  be  translated,  even)  the  spirit  of  Tiglath- 
pileser  king  of  Assyria,  and  he  carried  them 
away,  even  the  Heubenites  and  the  Gadites, 
and  the  half  tribe  of  Manasseh  (1  Cliron.  v. 
26).  He  reports  his  reception  of  tribute 
from  many  kings,  among  others  from  the 
kings  of  Ammon,  Moab,  and  Edom,  and 
from  Jehoahaz  of  Judah.  This  statement 
agrees  with  the  biblical  record  that  king 
Ahaz  w(!nt  to  Damascus  to  meet  Tiglath- 
pileser  (2  Kin.  xvi.  10).  In  730  B.C.,  accord- 
ing to  biblical  chronology,  Hoshea  revolted 
against  Pekah.  The  revolt  was  instigated 
or  assisted  by  Tiglatli-i)ileser,  who  may  have 
been  in  Nineveh  at  the  tinu\  for  he  says: 
"  Pekah  I  slew  and  ai)point(>d  Hoshea  to  rule 
over  them."  After  the  fall  of  Daniascu.s  in 
733  or  7.32  Tiglath-pileser  returned  to  Nin- 
eveh. During  the  remainder  of  his  life  he 
was  much  engaged  in  building  ojierations  ; 
but  he  fiiniid  time  for  war,  and  among  other 
exjH'ditions  he  conducted  an  army  into  Baby- 
lonia and  made  himself  king  of  Babylon. 
He  died  in  the  tenth  month.  Tebeth'  727 
B.  c,  after  having  occuiiied  the  throne  for 
eighteen  years  and  having  raised  the  As- 
syrian empire  to  a  i)ower  and  glory  unknown 
to  it  under  any  of  his  predecessors. 

Ti'gris.     See  Hiddekel. 


Tik'vah  [expectation]. 

1.  The  father  of  Shallum,  the  husband  of 
Huldah  the  prophetess  (2  Kin.  xxii.  14).  In 
2  Chroii.  xxxiv.  22  the  name  ajipears  as 
T(dchath.  in  A.  V.  Tikvath  :  but  tlie  Hebrew 
form  is  i)robably  a  corruption  of  Tikvah  (cp. 
Lucian's  Sejituagint). 

2.  The  father  of  a  certain  Jahaziah  (Ezra 

X.  1.")). 

Tik'vath.     See  Receding  article. 

Tile. 

A  slab  or  plate  of  baked  clay.  Tiles  were 
the  common  writing  material  of  Babylonia 
(Ezek.  iv.  1).  The  characters  were  impressed 
on  the  surface  while  it  was  yet  soft,  and  the 
clay  was  then  baked  to  render  the  writing 
indelible.  Tiles  were  used  in  many  countries 
as  roofing  material  (Luke  v.  19),  but  not,  or 
not  commonly,  in  Palestine.  Probably  either 
Luke,  accustomed  to  the  tiled  roofs  of  Greek 
houses,  uses  the  expression  "  through  the 
tiles  "  for  through  the  roof,  without  reference 
to  the  material  of  the  roof  in  question,  or 
else  in  this  particular  hou.se  there  was  an 
opening  in  the  roof  to  permit  the  inmates  to 
ascend  from  the  room  to  the  coolness  of  the 
outer  air.  but  which  during  the  winter  was 
closed  with  a  frame  and  bricked  over. 

Til-gath-pil-ne'ser.     See  Tiglath-pile- 

SEE. 

Ti'lon. 

A  son  of  Shimon,  whose  registry  was  with 
the  tribe  of  Judah  (1  Chron.  iv.  20). 

Ti-mse'us  [highly  prized]. 

Father  of  the  blind  beggar  of  Jericho 
(Mark  x.  46). 

Tim'brel  or  Tab 'ret. 

An  humble  kind  of  drum,  which  has  de- 
veloped into  our  modern  tambourine.  By 
the   Hebrews    it    was    called    to2)h,    an    in- 


Tiiiibrel. 

strument  that  is  beaten.  It  was  much  used 
in  domestic  festivities,  was  often  jilayed  by 
women  to  accompany  song  and  beat  time  for 
dances,  and  was  employed  alone  or  in  orches- 
ti-a  in  the  worship  of  God  (Gen.  xxxi.  27 ; 
Ex.  XV.  20;  Judg.  xi.  34  ;  1  Sam.  x.  5 ;  xviii. 
6;  1  Chron.  xiii.  8;  Job  xxi.  12:  Ps.  Ixxxi. 
2  ;  Is.  V.  12). 

Tim'na,   in    A.   V.    twice    Timnah   (Gen. 
xxxvi.  40 ;  1  Chron.  i.  51),  and  so  once  in 


<. 


Timnah 


743 


Timothy 


E.  v.,  oddly  eiumgh    ((ieii.   xxxvi.   40)    [re- 
straint, iiiai'CTssihli'J. 

1.  DaufilitiTdl'Si-irand  sistcriif  Lotau.  She 
bcfaiiic  a  coiu-iihiiu-  of  lOliplia/,  Esau's  eldest 
son,  and  the  niotlier  ol'Ainalek  (Gen.  xxxvi. 
12,  22  ;  1  C'luon.  i.  39).  In  interjJretiiiK  these 
statements,  it  must  he  remenihered  that 
terms  of  relatimishiii  are  used  in  describing 
tribes  as  well  as  individuals. 

2.  \  duke  of  Kdoni  ((Jen.  xxxvi.  40;  1 
Cluon.  i.  ,-)l). 

Tiin'nah,  in  A.  V.  eight  times  Tlmnath 
((icn.  xxxviii.  12-14;  Judg.  xiv.  l-ii).  onee 
Thimnathah  (Josh.  xix.  4:j),  and  once  Tham- 
natba  (1  .Mac.  ix.  ."jO)  [an  assigned  jiortion]. 

1.  A  town  on  the  border  line  of  tlie  terri- 
tory a.ssigned  to  .Tudah.  and  not  far  from 
Betii-shemesh  (Josh.  xv.  10).  It  was  subse- 
quently given  ovi'r  to  the  tribe  of  Dan  (xix. 
4;j).  It  was  occuiiied  by  the  P'hilistines  in 
the  days  of  Samson  tJu<lg.  xiv.  2),  and  was 
cai)tured  by  them  in  the  reign  of  Ahaz  (2 
Chron.  xxviii.  16).  Its  .site  is  at  Tibnali, 
about  3  miles  west  by  south  of  Heth-shemesh, 
l.o".  west  by  south  of  Jerusalem,  and  l(i  east 
of  Ashdod." 

2.  A  town  in  the  hill  country  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  .^7),  ])robably  the  ])lace  referred  to 
in  (len.  xxxviii.  12,  M  :  cj).  1.  On  the  survey 
map  it  is  placed  at  Tibna.  !•  miles  west  by 
south  of  15ethl(!icm  :  but  this  site  aii))ears  to 
be  too  remote  from  Maun,  C'armel.  and  Zijih. 

3.  A  town  enumerated  after  Emmaus,  Eeth- 
horon.  and  IJethel,  and  before  I'harathon  (1 
Mac.  i.x.  .")()1.  It  was  fortified  by  I'accliides. 
The  data  point  to  Thamna,  chief  city  of  a 
toparchy  (War  iii.  3,  .'>).  which  bordered  on 
the  toparchies  of  Go])hna,  Lydda,  and  Em- 
maus (ii.  20,  4),  and  lay  between  Antipatris 
and  Lydda  (iv.  H.  1).  Its  site  is  i)robably 
maikcd  by  the  ruins  Tibneh.  7\  miles  west- 
northwest  of  Jufna  ((iuphna),  on  the  old 
road  from  Antijiatris  by  way  of  (Jophna  to 
Jerusalem.     See  Ti.mnath-siok.xh. 

4.  An  improper  spelling,  found  in  both 
versions,  of  tlie  name  of  Timna,  daughter  of 
Seir. 

Tim'nath.     Sic  jireceding  article. 

Tim-nath-he'res.     .*<ee  Tim.nath-skr.\h. 

Tim-natli-se'rah  [suiurfluous  or  extra 
portion!. 

.\  village  in  the  hill  country  of  Ephraim, 
on  the  north  side  of  \]hj  hill  of  (Jaash.  It 
was  given  to  Joshua  as  an  inheritance,  and 
there  he  was  Imrifd  i.Iosh.  xix..">(i;  xxiv.301. 
It  is  once  written  'rimnath-heres,  jiortion  of 
the  sun  (Judg.  ii.  9),  but  heres  is  i>robably 
serah  accidentally  written  backwarcls.  Con- 
der  locates  it  at  Kefr  Haris.  which  might  be 
an  echo  of  liens,  and  where  J^amaritan  tra- 
dition locates  the  graves  of  .Josh  u.i  and  Caleb. 
It  is  rather  s^  miles  south  by  west  of  this 
vill.ige,  at  Tibneh.     See  Timnah  3. 

Tlm'nite. 

.\  native  or  inhabitant  of  Timnah  (Judg. 
XV.  (j). 


Ti'mon  [deeming  worthy]. 

One  of  the  seven  men  chosen  to  relieve 
the  apostles  from  semiseeular  work  in  the 
primitive  churdi  (Acts  vi.  5). 

Ti-mo'the-us  [worshiping  God]. 

1.  i-cadcr  of  a  large  body  of  Ammonites, 
with  whom  Judas  JIaccaba-us  fought  several 
battles  1 1  Mac.  v.  6,  40). 

2.  Pauls  convert  and  fellow- worker.  See 
TiMorrtv. 

Tim'o-thy,  in  A.  V.  usually  Timotheua 
[venerating  or  worshiping  God]. 

The  well-known  companion  and  assistant 
of  Paul.  The  terms  which  the  apostle  ap- 
plies to  him,  "my  beloved  and  faithful  child 
in  the  Lord  "  (1  Cor.  iv.  17,  R.  V.),  "  my  true 
child  in  faith  "  (1  Tim.  i.  2,  R.  V.,  etc.  C  seem 
to  indicate  not  only  the  apostle's  love  for  his 
youthful  friend,  but  also  that  he  had  been 
the  means  of  Timothy's  conversi(m.  At  any 
rate  it  is  clear  (2  Tim.  i.  5  ;  iii.  11)  that  when 
on  his  first  missionary  journey  Paul  visited 
Lystra  in  Lycaonia  Timothy's  mother  Eunice 
and  grandmother  Lois  were  led  to  Christ, 
and  that  Timothy  was  old  enough  to  be  in- 
structed in  the  new  faith  which  his  mother 
had  adopted.  Though  his  mother  was  a 
Jewess,  his  father  was  a  gentile  (Acts  xvi.  1). 
On  the  one  hand,  he  had  from  a  child  been 
instructed  in  the  O.  T.  (2  Tim.  iii.  l,")i  ;  yet, 
on  the  other  he  had  not  been  circumcised 
(Acts  xvi.  3).  But,  whether  converted 
through  Paul,  or  afterwards  throtigh  the  in- 
struction of  his  mother,  Timothy  soon  be- 
came active  in  Christian  work,  so  that  when, 
a  few  years  later,  Paul  on  his  second  journey 
again  visited  Lystra  he  found  the  young 
man  well  reported  of  by  the  brethren  both 
at  Lystra  and  Iconium  (xvi.  2).  .\ heady  the 
voice  of  ])roi)hecy  had  indicated  that  Timo- 
thy was  destined  for  .s])ccial  service  (1  Tim. 
i.  18;  iv.  14).  Paul  therefore  determined  to 
take  him  with  him  ;  and  the  young  man  was 
set  ajiart  to  the  work  of  an  evangelist  by 
the  laying  on  of  the  hands  both  of  Paul  anil 
of  the  i)resbytery  (iv.  14  ;  2  Tim.  i  .(]).  In 
order  also  not  to  oU'end  the  Jews,  Timothy 
was  circumcised  :  the  apostle  thus  indicating 
his  wish,  where  no  ])rinciple  was  involved, 
to  conciliate  tlio>e  among  whom  in  ni'arly 
every  i)lace  he  would  have  to  begin  work. 
Thereafter  Timothy's  fortunes  were  united 
with  Paul's.  He  evidently  accom|)anied  the 
a])ostle  thiough  Galatia.  then  to  Troas  and 
Philili])i.  anil  then  toThessalonica  and  l?ern\a, 
for  it  is  mentioned  (.\cts  xvii.  Mi  that  he 
and  Silas  reuuiined  in  Hero'a  when  Paul 
went  on  to  Athens.  Paul  sent  word  for  them 
to  follow  him  to  .\thens  sjicedily  (1,"))  ;  but 
from  1  Tlies.  iii.  1,  2  it  ajipears  that  he  .sent 
Timothy  back  to  The.ssiilonica,  and  that  Silas 
and  Timothy  did  not  rejoin  liim  until  lie  had 
reacheil  Corinth  (Acts  xviii.  5;  1  Tlies.  iii. 
(il.  Timothy  then  remained  with  Paul  in 
Corinth  (1  Tlies.  i.  1  :  2  Tlies.  i.  1|  and  prob- 
ably, though   his  name  is  not  mentioned,  ac- 


Timothy 

companii'd  the  ajmstlo  on  his  return  voyage. 
\\V  mxt  lu-:ir  of  liini  (liirinfi  raul's  ministry 
in  Ejilii'Mis.  I'aiil  inforins  us  in  1  (,'or.  iv.  17 
that,  before  writing  tliat  ei)istle,  he  had  sent 
Timothy  to  Corinth  to  correct  ai)iises  there. 
Yet  for"  some  reason,  as  1  Cor.  xvi.  10  inti- 
mates, there  wa.s  a  iKissibility  tliat  Timothy 
nii^ht  not  reach  Corintli.  and  in  fact  we  do 
not  know  whether  he  did  so  or  not.  At  any 
rate  lie  seems  to  have  returned  to  Ephesus, 
for  sliortly  before  Paul  left  that  city  Timothy 
and  Erastus  preceded  hiui  into  Macedonia 
(Acts  xix.  22),  wliere  I'aul  soon  joined  his 
younj;  friend  (2  Cor.  i.  1).  Together  they 
went  to  Corinth  (Rom.  xvi.  21),  and  Timotliy 
is  mentioned  as  one  of  the  company  who 
escorted  the  ai)ostle  on  liis  return  from  the 
third  journey  toward  ,Ierusaleni  (Acts  xx.  4). 
Whether  Timothy  went  with  the  apostle  to 
Jerusalem  does  not  api)ear.  No  mention  of 
him  occurs  during  the  imprisonment  at  Cies- 
area  or  the  voyage  to  Rome.  But  in  the 
epistles  written  from  Rome  liis  name  occurs 
(Phil.  i.  1;  ii.  19-22;  Col.  i.  1;  Philem.  1). 
He  had  evidently  followed  the  apostle  to  the 
capital,  and  was  his  devoted  coworker. 
After  the  ajiostle's  release,  he  seems  to  have 
more  than  ever  intrusted  important  duties 
to  Timothy.  In  1  Tim.  we  find  that  he  had 
been  left  in  charge  of  the  church  at  Ephesus. 
It  was  a  post  of  responsibility  and  difficulty, 
especially  for  one  who  was  still  a  young  man 
(1  Tim.  iv.  12).  False  teachers  were  to  be 
combated,  officials  were  to  be  appointed, 
church  customs  were  to  be  organized  or  regu- 
lated. The  position  of  Timothy  appears  to 
have  been  that  of  an  apostolic  deputy,  and 
it  is  not  surprising  that  Paul  wrote  to  him  a 
special  epistle  with  regard  to  his  task.  To 
Timothy  he  also  wrote  his  last  epistle  shortly 
bef(jre  his  death  (2  Tim.).  Almost  alone, 
and  with  death  impending,  Paul  desired 
ardently  the  presence  of  his  "child"  (iv. 
9,  21),  and  to  him  he  laid  bare  his  whole 
heart.  It  is  probable  that  Timothy  reached 
Paul  before  the  hitter's  death,  but  we  do  not 
know.  The  only  further  reference  to  him  is 
Heb.  xiii.  23.  From  it  we  learn  that  Timo- 
thy had  suffered  imprisonment,  but  had  been 
set  at  liberty  again.  If  that  epistle  was 
written  by  Paul,  Timothy's  imprisonment 
must  have  occurred  during  the  ])eriod  be- 
tween Paul's  release  and  his  second  arrest; 
see  P.\UL.  If  tlie  epistle  to  the  Hebrews  was 
not  by  Paul,  then  we  may  believe  that  Timo- 
thy joined  Paul  and  for  a  while  shared  his 
imprisonment.  This,  however,  is  mere  con- 
jecture. We  know  nothing  certainly  of 
Timothy's  last  ycai"s. 

The  First  Ei)istle  of  Paul  the  Apostle  to  Tim- 
othy was  written  after  the  apostle's  release 
from  his  first  Roman  inii)risonment  and  re- 
sumption of  missionary  work  (cp.  above  ;  also 
Paul).  Timothy  had  been  left  in  charge  of 
the  church  of  Eidiesus  while  Paul  went  into 
Macedonia  (I  Tim.  i.  '.i).  Many  su])pose  that 
the  ejiistle  was  written  from  Macedonia,  but 


r44  Timothy 

that  is  by  no  means  clear.  It  should  prob- 
ably be  assigned  to  a.  d.  (>i  or  (J5.  It  deals 
with  the  ecclesiatical  difficulties  which  con- 
fronted 'Hmothy,  and  gives  him  personal  ad- 
vice. It  evinces  the  interest  of  tlie  ai)o.stle 
in  the  practical  working  of  the  church  and 
his  personal  interest  in  Timothy's  own  wel- 
fare and  success.  Its  contents  may  be  ar- 
ranged as  follows:  1.  Instructions  concern- 
ing tlie  church  (i.-iii.)  ;  including  warnings 
again.st  false  teachers  (i.),  instructions  con- 
cerning worship  (ii.),  instructions  concerning 
chui-ch  officers,  closing  with  a  brief  state- 
ment of  the  dignity  of  the  church  and  the 
fundamental  truths  on  which  it  rests  (iii.). 
2.  Advice  for  Timothy's  own  guidance  (iv.- 
vi.),  with  respect  to  the  false  doctrines  and 
practical  ernjrs  which  he  had  to  meet  (iv.), 
and  with  respect  to  his  treatment  of  various 
classes  in  the  church  (v.  1-vi.  2),  followed  by 
concluding  exhortations  partly  of  a  ])ersonal 
character  and  partly  to  reinforce  the  previous 
instructions  (vi.  3-21). 

The  Second  Epistle  of  Paul  the  Apostle  to 
Timothy  was  written  from  Rome  after  the 
apostle  had  been  arrested  the  second  time, 
A.  D.  67.  It  is  the  last  product  of  his 
pen.  He  speaks  of  himself  as  a  prisoner 
(2  Tim.  i.  8,  16 ;  ii.  9),  charged  with  be- 
ing an  evildoer  (ii.  9),  and  he  expected 
soon  to  suffer  martyrdom  (iv.  6).  Many  of 
his  friends  had  left  him  (i.  15;  iv.  10,"l2). 
Luke  only,  of  his  former  friends,  was  with 
him  (iv.  11),  though  other  friends  had  gath- 
ered round  him  (21).  He  had  already  had 
one  trial,  at  which  he  had  not  been  con- 
demned (16,  17),  but  he  was  still  held  on 
some  other  charge.  In  his  loneliness  and 
danger  his  heart  turned  to  Timothy,  and 
this  letter  was  written  partly  to  encourage 
Timothy  in  his  work  as  an  evangelist  and 
partly  to  urge  him  to  hasten  to  Rome  and  to 
perform  some  personal  services  for  the  apostle. 
It  may  be  divided  as  follows:  1.  After  a  brief 
introduction,  expressive  of  his  wish  to  see 
Timothy  and  his  confidence  in  him  (i.  1-5), 
he  urges  him  to  be  courageous  in  sjiite  of  ex- 
isting trials  (6-12),  and  to  be  faithful  to 
the  truth  he  had  received  in  spite  of  all  op- 
ponents (13-18).  2.  He  charges  Timothy 
to  be  strong ;  to  secure  the  preservation  of 
the  truth  ;  to  be  a  good  soldier ;  to  bear  in 
mind  the  imperishable  foundation  of  fact 
and  truth  on  which  the  gospel  rests ;  to 
avoid  false  teaching ;  and  to  take  heed  to  his 
own  spiritual  life  (ii.).  3.  He  warns  him  that 
errors  will  increase,  and  bids  him  remember 
the  example  of  steadfast  endurance  which 
Paul  himself  had  shown  him  and  the  teach- 
ing of  inspired  Scripture  in  which  he  had 
been  trained  (iii.).  4.  As  his  last  direction, 
he  bids  him  preach  the  word  and  make  full 
proof  of  his  ministry  (iv.  1-5),  solemnly 
adding  that  he,  on  the  verge  of  death,  re- 
joiced that  he  had  been  able  to  do  the  same 
(6-8).  The  epistle  then  closes  with  some 
personal  directions  (9-22). 


Tin 


745 


Tishbite 


The  epistles  to  Timothy  and  Titus  are 
called,  froui  their  contents,  the  I'astoral 
Epistles.  Rationalistic  critics  refuse  to  he- 
lieve  that  I'aul  wrote  them,  at  least  in  their 
jiresent  I'orm  ;  but  the  external  evidence 
that  the  church  of  the  jiost-apostolic  ajie  re- 
ceived them  as  I'anline  is  aiiundant,  and  it 
is  most  natural  that  the  dosing  years  of  the 
apostle's  ministry  should  he  occupied  with 
the  i>ractical  all'airs  of  the  churches.  These 
t'])i,stles  teach  the  siime  doctrines  whicli  are 
found  in  I'anl's  other  writings,  with  only 
such  an  addtd  emphiisis  on  the  ]>ractical 
aspects  of  Chrislian  faith  as  the  situation 
called  for;  and  i'aul  would  not  lie  tlu'  largc-> 
minded  man  that  we  know  he  was  if  he  had 
not  dealt,  as  he  docs  in  these  ejiistles,  with 
the  organization  t>f  tlie  cliurches  which  he 
was  so  soon  to  leave.  v,.  x.  v. 

Tin. 

A  metal,  in  Hehrew  h'dil,  separated,  alloy. 
It  was  obtained  from  its  ore  by  smelting  ;  and 
was  .sometimes  refuse  from  silver  ore  (Kzek. 
xxii.  'JO).  It  was  in  use  in  Palestine  and 
neight)oring  countries  before  the  exodus 
(Num.  xxxi.22),  iti  Kgyjit  as  early  as  the  sixth 
ilynasty  at  least.  Itsiuincipal  usewasinmak- 
ijig  bronze,  whicli  is  an  alloy  of  co])])er  aiul  tin. 
The  Tyrians  got  their  sujijily  from  Tarshish 
(Ezek.  xxvii.  1"2).  Tin  was  obtained  in 
Spain,  but  the  nn)st  of  it  came  tVom  islands  in 
tlu'  western  ocean  (Pliny,  Hist.  Nat.  xxxiv. 
47;  Herod,  iii.  115).  There  is  little  doubt 
that  these  islands  were  identical  with  Eng- 
land, thinly  disguised,  and  that  the  mines 
of  Ilritain  wt-re  the  chief  source  of  suiijily 
to  the  ancient  world,  and  that  I'licenician 
mariners  made  direct  voyage.s  from  Gades  in 
.Spain  to  Cornwall  for  the  metal  (Strabo  iii. 
175).  Later  it  was  trans])()rted  across  France 
to  the  mouth  ol"  the  Khone  by  a  thirty  days' 
journey  (l)iodorus  Siculus  v.  21,  22).  The 
ssime  word  signifies  the  base  metal  existing 
in  combination  with  .silver  in  the  ore  (Is.  i. 
25),  and  is  su])y)ose(l  to  denote  the  slag  which 
separates  from  the  lead  when  silver  is  being 
smelted  from  the  ore. 

Tiph'sah  [a  pas,s;ige]. 

1.  \  town  at  the  extreme  limit  of  Solo- 
mon's dominions,  in  the  direction  of  the 
Euphrates  (1  Kin.  iv.  24).  It  is  generally 
identified  with  Thajisacus.  a  large  city  on 
the  Eui>hiat(S.  near  the  modern  Kakka.  by  a 
ford.  The  ford  was  used  by  the  armies  of 
Cyrus  the  Younger  and  Alexander  the  (Jreat. 

2.  A  place  on  the  inhabitants  of  which 
Menahem  inflicted  barbarous  cruelties  (2 
Kin.  XV.  nil.  It  is  mentioned  in  connec- 
tion with  Tirz-ih,  from  which  it  would  seem 
not  to  have  been  tar  distant.  Conder  iilenti- 
fies  it  with  the  ruined  village  Ti'f'^'h,  (JJ 
miles  southwest   of   Shechem. 

Tl'ras. 

A  land  and  its  inhabitants,  who  were  a 
.Jaiili(lic  |)((iplc  lilfii.  X.  2i.  .\iicient  opinion 
identified  it  with  Thiace  i  .•\ii(i(|.  i.  t!,  1),  from 


slight  similarity  of  sound.  The  river  Turas, 
the  modern  Dneister,  and  the  Turitai,  who 
dwelt  on  its  banks  (Herod,  iv.  51  ',  have  also 
been  suggested.  The  conditions  are  best  met 
by  the  Tursenoi,  an  ancient  Pela.'^gic  i)eoi>le 
wlio  occupied  islands  and  coast  lands  of  the 
yEgean  Sea  (Herod,  i.  57,  94).  I'urxcuos  is 
the  Ionic  and  old  Attic  form  of  Tnrrfnoii, 
Tyrrhenian. 

Ti'rath-ites. 

A  family  of  scribes,  Kenites  from  Tirah, 
dwelling  at  Jabez  (1  Chrou.  ii.  55). 

Tire. 

The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  P*V)-,  orna- 
mental. It  means  an  ornamental  headdress 
(Ezek.  xxiv.  17,  2:5).  Aaron  in  his  i)riestly 
capacity  wore  one  i»f  fine  linen  (Ex.  xxxix. 
28;  in  A.  Y.  bonnet).  Women  used  them  (Is. 
iii.  20;  in  A.  V.  bonnet).  The  l)ridigroom 
decked  him.self  with  it  (Is.  Ixi.  10;  in  A.  V. 
ornanieiils.  Iv.  Y.  garland). 

Tir'ha-kali.     !^ee  Pharaoh. 

Tir'La-nali. 

A  Sou  of  Caleb,  the  brother  of  Jerahmeel, 
by  Maacah,  his  concubine  (1  Chron.  ii.  48). 

Tir'i-a. 

A  son  of  .Tehallelel  (1  Chron.  iv.  IG). 

Tir-sha'tha. 

The  Persian  title  of  the  governor  of  .ludah 
under  the  Persians.  It  is  borne  by  Zerub- 
babel  (Ezra  ii.  (;."{;  Neh.  vii.  (J5,  70i,  and  Ne- 
heniiah  (Neh.  viii.  !);  x.  1).  In  xii.  2()  the 
latter  ruler  is  called  pchah  or  governor,  to 
which  Tirshatlia,  therefore,  must  have  been 
Iiractically  equivalent. 

Tlr'zah  [iileasantness,  delightfulness]. 

1.  The  youngest  among  the  five  daughters 
of  Zelo])hehad  (Num.  xxvi.  33 ;  xxvii.  1  ; 
xxxvi.  11  ;  Josh.  xvii.  3). 

2.  A  town  noted  for  beauty  (Song  vi.  4), 
which  belonged  originally  to  the  Canaanites, 
but  was  caiitured  by  .Tosliua  (.Tosh.  xii.  24l. 
.Teroboam  I.  took  ii])  his  residence  in  Tirzah 
(1  Kin.  xiv.  17),  and  it  became  the  capital  of 
the  ten  tribes  (xv.  21,  33 ;  xvi.  (i,  S,  !>,  15.  17) 
till  Oniri  built  Samaria  (2.3.  24),  after  which  it 
sank  into  a  jirovincial  hut  still  im]iortaiit 
town  (2  Kin.  xv.  14,  IG).  Eobin.-oii,  with 
much  doubt,  suggests  as  its  site  Tulluza,  6 
miles  east,  very  slightly  south,  of  Samaria. 
Conder,  with  no  hesitation,  fixes  it  at  "^reiasir, 
with  ancient  ruins,  1,3  miles  I'ast-iiortheast  of 
Samaria,  on  a  table-land  where  the  valleys 
begin  to  diji  suddenly  toward  the  , Jordan. 

Tish'bite. 

A  memlKr  of  the  family,  or  native  of  tlie 
town,  called  Tishbeh  or  something  .similar 
(1  Kin.  xvii.  1).  A  family  of  the  name  is 
unknown.  Towns  onl>-  claim  attention. 
dne  is  metitioned  by  Tobit  (i.2l,  "'I'hisbe  on 
the  right  [south]  of  Kydiosof  Naphtali."  i.<  , 
Kedesh  of  Naplitali  (K.  Y.).  An<ither  is  dis- 
cerned by  the  Sejituagint  and  .Toseidius  in  the 
text  of  1  Kin.  xvii.  1,  lying  east  of  the  .lor- 
daii,  in  Gilead.     The  construct  iilural  before 


Tithe 


746 


Tithe 


C;ili:i(l  in  llic  Ilebrow  text,  which  is  rcn- 
(Icnil  SKJiMiiiicrs  in  the  \l.  V.,  tlio  makers  of 
tin- S(|)tiiay;iiit  regnnled  as  a  local  name,  and 
transferred  it  to  their  i)a};es  as  a  fjenitive 
l)liiral,  Tlicsbon  or  Thessehon.  of  Tliesbeh. 
Jose])hns  jjretixcd  the  word  city  and  added  a 
sin^'ular  termination  to  the  name  (Autiq.  viii. 
i:!.  J.  Niese's  text). 

Tithe. 

A  tenth  ])art  of  one's  ineijine  consecrated  to 
(iod.  Tlie  separation  of  a  certain  proportion 
of  the  product.s  of  one's  industry  or  of  the 
spoils  of  war  as  tribute  totheirgods  was  prac- 
ticed by  various  nations  of  antiquity.  Tlie 
Lydiaus  ollVred  a  tithe  of  their  booty  (Herod. 
i.  b'J).  'IMie  riKcnicians  and  Cartliaginians 
sent  a  tithe  annually  to  the  Tyrian  Hercules. 
The.se  tithes  uiijiht  be  regular  or  occasional, 
voluntary  or  i)rescribcd  by  law.  The  Egyp- 
tians were  required  to  give  a  fifth  part  of 
their  cro])s  to  Pharaoh  ((ten.  xlvii.  21).  Be- 
fore the  days  of  Joseph  and  Pharaoh,  Abra- 
ham, returning  with  sjioil  from  his  victory 
over  the  confederate  kings,  gave  to  Melchiz- 
edek,  i)riest-king  of  Salem,  a  tenth  part  of 
all  (xiv.  20).  Jacob  said  that  if  God  con- 
ferred on  him  certain  specilied  benefits,  he 
would  surely  give  the  tenth  of  it  unto  God 
(xxviii.22).  Under  the  Mosaic  law  the  fruits 
of  the  ground  and  cattle  were  subject  to 
tithing  (Lev.  xxvii.  :',{),  :',■>).  The  tithe  of 
grain  and  fruit  need  not  be  paid  in  kind. 
The  owner  might  redeem  it  by  purchasing  it 
at  one-fifth  more  than  its  market  value  (31). 
But  the  tithe  of  the  herd  and  flock  might 
not  be  redeemed.  This  tithe  was  separated 
by  causing  the  cattle  to  jiass  under  the  rod, 
and  every  tenth  animal  was  taken,  whether 
it  was  defective  or  without  blemish.  The 
choice  had  been  committed  to  God,  and  the 
beast  might  not  be  exchanged  (152,  '.i'.i).  Grain 
was  threshed  before  it  was  titlunl,  and  the  fruit 
of  vineyard  and  oliveyard  was  converted  into 
wineand  oil  before  the  tenth  was  taken  (Num. 
xviii.  27).  All  the  tithe  of  Israel,  which 
they  offered  as  a  heave  offering,  was  given 
unto  the  Levites  (21,  21).  It  was  given  to 
them  as  an  inheritance  in  return  for  the  serv- 
ice which  they  rendered  at  the  sanctuary 
(21),  and  as  compensation  for  their  lack  of 
landed  ])osse&sions.  They  paid  a  tithe  of  it 
to  the  priest  (2G,  27),  and  freely  ate  the  rest 
anywhere  (."51).  On  the  eve  of  entering 
Canaan,  where  many  of  the  Israelites  would 
obtain  homes  far  from  the  sanctuary,  it  was 
necessary  to  insist  that  the  people  should 
bring  all  prescribed  sacrifices  and  freewill 
oflTerings.  and  all  tithes,  to  the  sanctuary 
(Deut.  xii.  r,,  G,  11).  They  might  not  eat  at 
home  the  tithe  of  their  grain,  wine,  or  oil, 
nor  any  offering,  but  before  the  Lord  (17,  18). 
Tliey  must  titlie  all  the  increase  of  the  field, 
and  eat  before  the  I,ov(l  the  tithe  of  grain. 
wine,  and  oil,  and  the  firstlings  of  flock  and 
herd;  but  if  the  distance  to  the  .sanctuary 
was  great,  they  might  C(mvert  the  ofieriug 


into  money,  carry  that  to  the  sanctuary,  and 
there  buy  what  theycho.se  for  the  eucharistic 
meal  (xiv.  2.3-27).  Every  third  year  each 
man's  tithe  should  be  laid  up  in  his  town, 
and  tlie  Levite,  the  stranger,  the  widow,  and 
the  fatherless  should  go  to  tlie  store  and  eat 
(28,29).  After  tithing  the  tithe  in  tbi>  third 
year,  which  was  distinguished  as  the  year  of 
tithing,  and  reminded  the  people  that  the 
tithe  was  to  be  kept  in  the  town,  it  was  i)Ut 
at  the  dis])osal  of  those  for  whom  it  was  in- 
tended (xxvi.  12).  There  were  two  third- 
year  tithings  between  Sabbatic  years,  when 
there  was  no  tithe. 

Inconsistencies  between  these  laws  do  not 
exist,  although  interpreters  often  force  them 
into  contradiction.  The  Israelites  took  the 
tithe  to  the  sanctuary  both  during  the  so- 
journ in  the  wilderness  and  after  the  settle- 
ment in  the  land  (Num.  xviii.  24  ;  Deut.  xii. 
6).  There  a  portion  was  eaten  by  the  offerer 
and  the  Levites  in  a  eiuharisti(;  feast,  and 
the  rest  was  given  to  the  Levites.  The  law 
was  slightly  modified  in  anticipation  of  the 
settlement  of  Canaan,  and  the  residence  of 
Levites  and  producers  in  many  ca.-^es  far  from 
the  sanctuary.  Every  third  year  rhey  should 
store  the  tithe  in  the  town  where  they  dwelt, 
dispense  with  the  eucharistic  meal,  place  all 
the  tithe  at  the  disposal  of  the  Levites  and 
other  dependent  persons,  and  make  solemn 
pr(jtestation  before  the  Lord  to  having  done 
this  (Deut.  xxvi.  12-15).  This  asseveration 
before  the  Lord  may  have  been  made  in  the 
town,  or  at  the  sanctuarj'  on  occasion  of 
attending  one  of  the  annual  festivals.  It  is 
sometimes  asserted  that  Deuteronomy  is  pecu- 
liar in  two  respects :  it  prescribes  vegetable 
tithes  only,  and  enjoins  that  they  shall  be 
eaten  at  the  altar  by  the  ofl'erer  and  the 
Levites  in  company.  If  Deuteronomy  does 
actually  diU'er  from  the  law  of  Leviticus  and 
Numbers  in  these  i)oints.  it  is  a  modification 
of  the  law  forty  years  after  its  first  enact- 
ment and  in  view  of  new  circumstances.  In 
the  later  history,  even  when  the  Ijcvitical 
legislation  was  in  full  force,  the  vegetable 
tithe  alone  is  often  mentioned  ( Neh.  x.  37 ;  xii. 
44;  xiii.  12).  It  was  the  more  prominent,  since 
agriculture  and  horticulture  were  the  chief 
industries  of  the  people.  The  tithe  of  the  cat- 
tle is,  however,  referred  to  (2Chron.  xxxi.  6). 
It  would  be  in  itself  natural,  if  the  euchar- 
istic feast  did  not  already  exist,  for  Moses 
to  introduce  it  in  connection  with  tithes  and 
firstlings,  in  view  of  the  fact  that  the  offerer 
freciuently  came  from  a  distance,  and  natur- 
ally required  at  least  one  meal  at  the  sanctu- 
ary before  returning.  Still  the  omission  of 
all  mention  of  the  feast  in  Leviticus  and 
Numbers  may  be  due  to  the  feast's  being  re- 
garded as  a  matter  of  course,  a  meal  having 
been  customary  from  time  immemorial  in 
connection  Avith  certain  kinds  of  sacrifices 
and  offerings;  and  the  tithe  on  agricultural 
and  horticultural  products  alone  is  mentioned 
in  Deuteronomy,  because  among  tithes  it  was 


Titus 


747 


Tizite 


with  them  only  tliat  a  meal  at  thi'  sanctu- 
ary was  coiiiicctcd,  and  the  h'f;i.slatiou  in 
question  is  treatinf;  of  enciiaristic  meals. 

Anothi  T  interprelation  of  the  tithinj;  hiws 
re(iniies  mention.  Not  a  few  scholars  have 
believed  that  the  settinj;  apart  of  one-tilth 
for  riiaraoli.  towiiich  the  Israelites  had  been 
accustomed  in  lCj;yiit.  was  jierpetuated  hy  the 
Mosaic  law  as  tribute  to  Jehovah.  This  fifth 
was  nia<le  up  of  two  tithes.  The  lirst  went 
to  the  lA'vites,  the  second  was  taken  to  the 
sanctuary  and  consumed  there  (Antiti-  iv. 
h.  f*t.  but  in  the  tiiird  year  was  t;iven  to  tlic 
Levites  in  addition  to  their  own  tithe.  Some 
interpreters  have  «rvi-n  thoUfjht  of  three 
tithes.  They  regard  the  (ithinn  of  the  third 
year  as  additional  to  the  two  others.  This 
inter]iretation  is  as  old  as  Josejihus  at  least 
(t<,  •.>\ii.  but  it  is  unnecessary,  and  was  scarcely 
the  original  intention  of  1  he  law.  The  law 
is  satislietl  by  the  theory  of  one  tithing. 

In  times  of  religious  declension  the  people 
neglected  to  jiay  tithes.  Hezekiah  found  it 
neci'ssiiry  to  call  authoritatively  for  their 
I)ayment  ("2  Chron.  xxxi.  -1  IxJi,  and  the 
proi)het  Malachi  was  obliged  to  rebuke  the 
people  of  his  day  for  robhing  fiod  by  with- 
holdiu-;  tithes  a'nd  otl'erinjis  iMal.  iii".  7-12). 
The  resjionse  of  thi'  iieojile  to  Ilezekiah's 
aiipeal  was  so  hearty  that  he  had  to  prepare 
chambers  in  the  temjvle  precinets  for  storing 
the  tithes  (2  Chron.  xxxi.  11).  Whether  he 
built  additional  (juarters  or  cleared  out  old 
storehouses  is  not  stated.  The  second  temple 
was  likewise  i)rovided  with  storehouses  (Neh. 
xiii.  10-11;  Mai.  iii.  10  .  and  Levites  under 
the  sui)erintemlence  of  a  jiriest  gathered  the 
tithes  into  tlie  towns  and  tithed  them  for  the 
s.anctuary  (Nell.  x. :{?,  3!^).  The  i)ayment  of 
tithes  continued  (Ecdus.  xxxv.  8;  1  JIac.  iii. 
49;  Luke  xi.  42;  xviii.  12)  ;  butby  the  timeof 
Christ  clianges  had  occurred.  The  tithe 
went  to  tin-  priests  (Antiii.  xi.  5.  y :  con. 
Ai)ion.  i.  22;  cp.  Ileb.  vii.  oi,  and  was  col- 
lected by  them  (Life  12,  1.")).  Later  the 
ordinary  priests  suU'ered  from  the  cupidity 
of  the  chief  i)riests,  who  forcil)ly  took  jios- 
sessiou  of  the  tithes  (Antiij.  xx.  H,  8;  !»,  2). 

Ti'tus. 

1.  .\  godly  man  of  Corinth  who  was  sur- 
named  Justus  (,\cts  xviii.  7,  HV.);  see  Ji'STfs. 

2.  .\  trusted  companion  of  Paul.  He  is  not 
mentiiini'<l  in  The  Acts,  but  is  freciueutly  re- 
ferri'd  to  in  Taul's  e]>istles.  He  was  born  of 
gentile  jiarents  (dal.  ii.  .'{),  and  was  one  of 
the  delegation  from  .\ntioch  (.\ctsxv.  2)  who 
accom|ianied  Paul  and  Barnabas  to  Jeriisii- 
lem  at  the  lime  of  the  council  ((Jal.  ii.  3).  It 
is  jiossible  that  he  was  a  native  of  Antioch, 
and.  since  Paul  calls  him  "my  true  child 
after  a  common  faith  "  (Tit.  i.  4.  II.  V.),  he 
may  have  been  converted  through  the  instru- 
mentality of  the  a]>nstle.  He  was  evi<lently 
also  much  younger  than  Paul.  His])resence 
at  thecciuncil  gave  otleiise  to  the  Juilai/.ers. 
but  the  church  refused  to  compel  him  to  be 


circumcised,  thus  siding  with  Paul  in  bis  ad- 
vocacy of  the  freedom  of  gi-ntiles  from  the 
Mosaic  law  ((ial.  ii.  ."5-");.  Titus  next  a])pears 
during  iind  after  Paul's  residence  in  l-^phesus. 
We  learn  from  2  Cor.  ii.  13;  vii.  fJ,  13;  viii. 
<i,  Ki;  xii.  Irt  that  'i'itns  liad  been  .sent  to 
Corinth  to  correct  certain  abuses  there  which 
caused  anxiety  to  the  apostle.  Some  sujijiose 
that  he  was  one  of  the  brethren  wlio  carried 
the  first  ejiistle  to  the  Corinthians  (1  Cor, 
xvi.  12).  It  is  nuire  i>robable,  however,  that 
he  and  another  (2  Cor.  xii.  IH)  were  disj)atched 
after  1  Ct)r.  had  been  sent,  on  account  of 
later  rejiorts  which  the  ajiostle  had  received. 
His  task  was  a  delicate  one,  and  Paul 
awaited  his  return  with  mu<'h  solicitude  (2 
Cor.  ii.  13).  When  the  ai)ostle  left  Eiihesus, 
he  exjH'Cted  to  meet  Titus  at  Troas  il2,  13), 
and.  failing  in  this,  went  to  3Iacedouia. 
There  Titus  rejoined  him  with  good  news 
(vii.  G,  13,  14),  and  was  forthwith  sent  hack 
to  Corinth  with  our  Second  Kiiistle  to  the  Cor- 
inthians (viii.  (j,  18,23),  We  do  not  read  again 
of  Titus  until  after  Paul's  release  from  his 
first  Uoman  im])risonment  ;  see  I'.Mi,.  The 
Epistle  to  Titus  informs  us  that  he  had  been 
left  in  Crete  to  supetintend  the  organization 
of  the  churches  in  that  island.  He  seems  to 
have  been,  like  Timothy  in  Kjihesus,  an 
aiiostolic  deputy.  His  mission,  however,  was 
l)Ut  a  temporary  one.  and  he  was  told  to  re- 
join the  apostle  in  Nicojiolis.  The  only  re- 
maining notice  of  him  is  in  2  Tim.  iv.  10, 
where  he  is  said  to  have  gone  to  Dalmatia. 

The  Kjiistle  of  Paul  to  Titus  was  written 
after  Paul's  release  from  his  first  Roman  im- 
prisonment and  resumption  of  missionary 
work.  It  ma.v  be  assigned  to  .\.  I).  H-j  or  (ifi. 
Titus  had  been  left  as  suiierintendent  of  the 
churches  in  Crete,  and  tlie  ejii.stle.  liki-  the 
First  Epistle  to  Timothy,  was  intended  to  di- 
rect him  in  the  performance  of  his  difficult 
task.  It  may  be  divided  as  follows  :  1.  Saluta- 
tion, ))articularly  describing  the  dignity  of  the 
ajiostolic  message  (i.  1-4).  2.  Instructions 
concerning  the  character  of  these  selected  for 
bishops  or  elders,  especially  in  view  of  the 
many  false  disciples  whom  Titus  would  be 
likely  to  meet  and  by  whom  h<'  might  be  im- 
posed upon  (r)-l(j).  3.  Instructions  which 
Titus  should  give  to  various  classes  in  the 
church,  all  to  the  ell'ect  that  Christians 
should  be  "  zealous  of  good  works"  (ii,i,  4. 
Directions  concerning  tin-  duty  of  Christians 
to  society,  bidding  them  ennilate  the  love  of 
man  which  (iod  has  shown  in  Christ  (iii.  1-S). 
.').  Warnings  against  falsi'  teaching  and  here- 
tics (!t-ll).  ().  Personal  directions  and  clos- 
ing exhortation  and  benediction  (12-1.")). 
The  leading  thought  of  the  eiiistle  is  the  im- 
liortance  of  good  works  in  all  th<ise  repre- 
senting or  professing  Christianity.  On  the 
pastoral  epistles  see  remarks  at  close  of  the 
article  on  TiMOTUY.  G,  T.  P. 

Ti'zite. 

The  designation  of  a  certain  Joha  (1  Chron. 


Toah 


r48 


Tongue 


xi.  45),  probably  derived  from  the  place  of 
w iiicli  lie  \v:is  ii  native. 

To'ah  [pirliaps,  low]. 

A  Koliatliitc  Lcvite  (1  Cbron.  vi.  34) ;  see 

N.\H.\TH. 

Tob  [uood]. 

A  if;,'ioii  east  of  the  Jordan,  to  which 
.Teiilithah  Hed  when  di.sowned  by  bis  breth- 
ren (.hn\ii.  xi.  :$,  r>).  When  Hanun,  kinf:t  of 
Amnion,  j;ave  David  just  offense,  lie  drew 
soldiers  from  Tol>,  among  other  places  {2 
Sam.  X.  (),  R.  \'.),  which  indicates  that  it 
was  beyond  tlie.  borders  of  Israel.  It  was 
probably  the  district  of  (iilead  known  in 
Greek  as  the  land  of  Tubias  (1  Mac.  v.  13; 
cp.  "2  Mac.  xii.  17).  Exact  situation  is  debata- 
ble. 

Tob-ad-o-ni'jali  [good  is  my  Lord  Jeho- 
vah]. 

One  of  the  Levites  sent  by  Jehoshaphat 
to  teach  in  the  cities  of  Judah  (2  Chrou. 
xvii.  8). 

To-bi'ah  [Jehovah  is  good]. 

1.  Founder  of  a  family,  members  of  which, 
coming  to  Jerusalem  after  tlie  captivity, 
failed  to  prove  their  descent  (Ezra  ii.  60 ; 
Neb.  vii.  6-2). 

2.  An  Ammonite  servantwho  ridiculed  the 
eifort  of  the  Jews  to  rebuild  the  wall  of  Je- 
rusah'm  (Neh.  ii.  10 ;  iv.  3,  7). 

To'bie.    See  Tubias. 

To-bi'jali  [.lehovah  is  good]. 

1.  One  of  the  Levites  scnit  by  Jehoshaphat 
to  teach  iu  the  cities  of  Judah  (2  Chron. 
xvii.  8). 

2.  A  Jew,  one  of  those  of  the  captivity 
from  whom  the  iirojihct  Zechariah  obtained 
gold  and  silver  to  make  crowns  to  put  on 
the  bead  of  Joshua,  the  high  priest  (Zech.  vi. 
10.  11). 

To'bit.     See  ApocRYPn.\. 
To'chen  [a  weight,  a  measure]. 
A  city  belonging  to  the  tribe  of  Simeon  (1 
Cliron.  iv.  I!-.').     Site  unknown. 

To-gar'mah. 

A  country  of  the  far  north  (Ezek.  xxxviii. 
6).  inhabited  by  a  people  descended  from 
Jaidieth  througli  (lomer  ((ien.  x.  3).  They 
traded  inhorsesand  mules  {E/,ek.  xxvii.  14). 
It  is  generally  identified  with  Armenia. 
Friedi-ich  Delitzsch,  however,  believes  that 
the  name  ap])cars  in  Til-garimmu,  a  city  in 
the  extreme  east  of  ('a]ii)adocia,  mentioned 
in  the  Assyrian  inscrijitions. 

To'llU  [|ierliaps,  low]. 

A  son  of  Zuiih  (1  Sam.  i.  1)  ;  see  Nahatu. 

To'i  and  To'u  [wandering,  error]. 

A  king  of  Hamath,  probably  a  Hittitc, 
who  was  at  war  with  Hadadezer,  king  of 
Zobah,  a  Syrian.  He  s(Mit  to  congratulate 
David  on  his  victorv  over  their  common  foe 
(2  Sam.  viii.  !)-12;  1  Chron.  xviii.  9-11). 

Tok'hath.     See  Tikvah. 


To'la  [worm,  scarlet]. 

1.  A  son  of  Issachar,  and  founder  of  a  tribal 
family  (Gen.  xlvi.  13;  Num.  xsvi.  23;  1 
Chron.  vii.  1). 

2.  Son  of  I'uab,  of  the  tribe  of  Issachar, 
who  jndge<l  Israel  twenty-three  years.  He 
lived,  died,  and  was  buried  at  Shamir,  on 
mount  Ephraim  (Judg.  x.  1,  2). 

To'lad.     See  Eltolad. 
Tomb.    See  Sepulchee. 

Tongue. 

An  organ  of  the  body  (Ex.  xi.  7;  Jas.  iii. 
6),  situated  in  the  mouth  (Job  xxix.  10),  and 
much  used  in  speaking  (Ps.  xxxi.x.  3;  Ixxi. 
24  ;  Mark  vii.  35).  Figurative]}-,  speech  or 
language  (Gen.  x.  5  ;  Acts  ii.  8  with  11). 

The  descendants  of  Noah  spoke  one  lan- 
guage for  a  long  time  after  the  flood  (Gen. 
xi.  1).  Difl'erences  of  speech  were  produced 
by  divine  judgment  at  IJabel,  which  resulted 
in  scattering  the  jieople  who  had  gathered 
there  abroad,  to  all  parts  of  the  known 
world  (2-9);  see  Babel,  Tower  of.  This 
event,  which  is  known  as  the  confusion  of 
tongues,  may  have  occurred  after  the  rise  of 
the  family  of  Eber  (x.  25).  In  process  of 
time  the  descendants  of  Noah  came  to  speak 
several  distinct  languages  and  many  dif- 
ferent dialects.  The  Japhetic  peoples  largely 
used  the  languages  now  classed  as  ludo-Ger- 
manic  (x.  2-5),  including  the  languages 
spoken  in  Media  and  Ionia  (ver.  2).  The 
Semitic  peoples  generally  spoke  various  dia- 
lects of  the  Semitic  group  (21-31),  embracing 
Assyrian,  Aramaic  (22),  Arabic  (26-29),  and 
Hebrew  ;  but  the  Elamites  (22)  used  an  ag- 
glutinative language,  which  is  supposed  to 
be  akin  to  the  Finnish.  Many  of  the  de- 
scendants of  Ham  also  spoke  Semitic  ;  as,  for 
example,  Cush  in  Assyria  (11),  Arabia  (6,  7), 
and  Africa,  and  Canaan  in  Palestine  and 
Phoenicia  (15)  ;  but  the  old  inhabitants  of 
Mizraim  (6,  13),  better  known  as  Egypt,  used 
an  agglutinative  language,  although  many 
Egyptologists  of  the  first  rank  believe  in  its 
descent  from  the  same  stock  as  the  Semitic. 
It  must  be  remembered  that  tribes  which 
migrate  to  a  new  locality  frequently  adopt 
the  language  of  the  people  among  whom 
they  have  taken  up  their  residence. 

The  gift  of  tongues  was  granted  on  the  day 
of  Pentecost  which  followed  the  feast  of  the 
passover  at  which  Jesus  suffered.  The  disci- 
ples being  assembled  together,  suddenly  there 
came  from  heaven  a  sound  like  that  of  a 
rushing,  mi<;hty  wind,  and  visil)le  tongues, 
having  the  aiiiiearance  of  fire,  were  dis- 
tributed to  eac'li,  and  they  were  all  filled 
with  the  Holy  Spirit  (Acts  ii.  1-4).  The 
church  was  ((iialified  and  syiiibdlically  com- 
missioned by  the  Sjiirit  to  declare'  the  gospel 
to  all  men.  Two  general  theories  exist  as  to 
the  nature  of  this  gift.  1.  The  gift  of  tongues 
was  manifested  in  ecstatic  or  elevated  praise 
of  God  (Acts  X.  46),  but  which  was  unintel- 
ligible to  man.     The  tongue  was  the  organ 


Topaz 


749 


Tower 


of  the  Holy  Sjjirit,  and  not  of  tho  person  to 
whom  tlio  fjift  w;is  given  ;  and  the  words 
spoken  were  devotional  and  not  for  the  in- 
struction of  tlie  cimreh.  In  defense  of  this 
view  it  is  urged  tliat:  (1)  i'aiil  makes  no 
mention  of  fore.ign  languages  having  heen 
introdueed  at  Corinth;  and  if  tongues  wire 
referred  to  in  1  Cor.  xiv.  only,  the  imiires- 
sion  would  never  liave  heen  made  that  they 
denote  foreign  languages.  ("J)  I'anl  teaehes 
that  the  understanding  was  not  engaged  {1 
Cor.  xiv.  2).  (.'5)  The  multitude  eould  not 
understand  them  at  IVnteeost,  and  aeeused 
the  sj)eakers  of  heing  ilrunken.  It  was 
iiece.ssiiry  for  I'eter  to  interjiret  to  the  mul- 
titude what  had  taken  i)laee  (Acts  ii.  13-17). 
Or  if  the  disciples  used  foreign  languages  on 
the  day  of  Pentecost,  this  was  a  tenijjorary 
form  in  which  the  gift  of  tongues  was  mani- 
fested and  did  not  ajijiear  again.  2.  The 
gift  of  tongues  was  manifested  in  intelligihle 
discourse  in  tongues  hefore  unknown.  (1) 
Luke's  language  clearly  implies  this  (Acts  ii. 
6-12).  (2)  Anyhody  could  hahhle  hy.steri- 
cally ;  only  when  the  speakers  used  lan- 
guages which  they  did  not  know  hefore 
could  the  gfft  of  tongues  he  recognized  as 
miraculous,  ('.i)  The  whole  argument  in  1 
Cor.  assumes  that  the  gift  was  speech  in  a 
foreign  language,  I'aul  contrasting  speech 
and  prayer  in  a  foreign  language  iininter- 
preti'd  with  si)eiiking  and  ]>raying  so  as  to 
lu-  understood  (xii.  10,  :J0;  xiv."i:i-l(),  27,  2H). 
Christians  who  had  the  gift  should  use  it  for 
missionary  jjurposes,  and  not  exhihit  their 
skill  hefore  their  hrethren,  who  did  not  un- 
derstand what  they  said  unless  an  inter- 
preter were  present. 

Tongues  were  a  sign  that  followed  them 
that  heli(!ved  (Mark  xvi.  17).  They  were  a 
visihie  gift  of  the  Holy  Spirit  hestowed  in 
connection  with  tiie  preaching  of  the  apo.stles, 
or  hy  the  apostles  through  laying  on  of  their 
hands  (Acts  x.  44-4(i;  xix.  1-7;  cp.  viii.  14- 
24).  They  were  a  pheTiomciion  of  the  apos- 
tolic ag<!,  and  gradually  disai)iic;\red  after- 
wards. In  the  next  century,  jierhaps  fifty 
or  sixty  years  after  the  death  of  the  last 
apostle,  IreiiH'us  can  still  rejiort  tiiat  he  had 
"heard  many  hrethren  who  had  prfiphetic 
gifts  and  spoke  through  the  Spirit  in  all  kinds 
of  tongues"  (adv.  Ilaer.  v.  (i,  1). 

In  Is.lO  .some  peojilc  in  Scotland,  and  in 
18:51  others  in  London,  rhielly  females  of  ex- 
eitahle  temperament,  helieved  that  tliey  had 
received  the  gift  of  loTigiies.  They  jiersnaded 
the  Kev.  iMlward  Irving  to  emhiace  their  ojiin- 
ions,  hut  failed  to  convince  his  hrethren  in 
the  ministry.  The  movement  led  to  the 
cre.'itioM  of  ilie  Catholic  Ai)ostolic  Church. 

To'paz. 

.\  precious  stone,  called  hy  the  fJreeks  to- 
jiit^ion,  and  generally  helieved  to  he  denoted 
hy  the  He>)rew  i>i('<l<ih.  It  was  the  second 
stone  in  the  first  mw  of  the  high  ])riest's 
breastidate  (Kx.  xxviii.  17).     It  was  found  in 


Ethiopia  (Job  xxviii.  1!))  and  on  an  island  in 
the  Ued  Sea  (Diodorus  Siculus  iii.  :{,s;  I'liny, 
Hist.  Is'at.  xxxvii.  it),  and  was  known  at  Tyre 
(Ezek.  xxviii.  13).  It  adorns  the  ninth  foun- 
dation of  the  New  Jerusalem  (Kev.  xxi.  20  . 
The  topaz  of  the  ancients  was  a  yellow  va- 
riety of  corundum.  The  Konians  seem  to 
have  transferred  the  Tiame  chry.solite  to  to- 
j)az,  and  called  hotli  chrysolite  and  precious 
stones  resend)ling  it  tojiaz. 

To'phel  [perhajis,  untempered  mortar]. 

A  jilace,  j)erhaps  once  a  station  of  the  Is- 
raelites in  the  wilderness  (Dent.  i.  1).  Koh- 
inson  and  others  have  identified  it  with 
Tufileh,  ahout  14  miles  southeast  of  the 
southeastern  curve  of  the  Dead  Sea.  The 
consfinants,  however,  are  dillerent,  teth  in- 
stead of  tau,  which  raises  a  dould  as  to  the 
correctness  of  the  identification. 

To'phetli,  i7i  A.  Y.  Tophet  (except  2  Kin. 
xxiii.  10)  [si)itting  out,  ahhorrence]. 

Certain  high  i)laces  built  in  the  valley  of 
the  son  of  Ilinnom,  on  which  the  i)ef)ple  of 
Jerusalem  in  the  times  of  Isiiiah  and  Jere- 
miah were  accustomed  to  burn  their  sons  and 
their  daughters  in  the  fire  (Jer.  vii.  31),  as 
offerings  to  Molech  (2  Kin.  xxiii.  10).  Appar- 
ently on  the  toj)  (if  the  high  jilace  there  was 
a  dee])  and  large  hole,  in  which  much  wood 
was  i)iled,  ignition  heing  produced  by  a 
stream  of  brimstone  (Is.  xxx.  33).  Josiah 
defiled  it  (2  Kin.  xxiii.  10),  and  Jeremiah 
proi)hesied  that  such  a  nnndier  of  jieojile 
should  be  killed  there  that  the  name  To- 
pheth  should  disai>i)ear,  and  the  \  alley  where 
it  stood  be  called  the  valley  of  slaughter 
(Jer.  vii.  32,  33  ;  xix.  (i).  A  Toidieth.  ajipar- 
ently  of  the  same  tyjie,  was  to  be  jirejiared 
for  the   king  of  Assyria  (Is.  xxx.  33).     See 

HiNNOM. 

Tor'mah  [fraud]. 

A  town  in  which  Abimelech  was  once 
found  (Jiulg.  ix.  31,  margin).  More  proba- 
bly the  word  means  craftily,  as  it  is  rendered 
in  the  K.  V.  ;  in  which  ca.se  the  town  of  Tor- 
mah  disaiijiears. 

Tor-ment'ors. 

The  Jaileis  who  were  to  keep  the  debtor 
safe  and  make  his  life  miserable  by  chains, 
stocks,  aiid  doubtless  other  means  of  distress 
and  torture  until  his  debts  were  paid  (Mat. 
xviii.  .34).  Torture  was  often  ai)jilied  to  ex- 
tort confessions  (Acts  xxii.  24  ;  Antiq.  xvi. 
8,  4;   11,  fi). 

Tor'toise.     See  Lizakd. 

To'u.     See  Toi. 

Tow'er. 

A  lofty  building,  much  higher  than  broad. 
A  booth  was  suflicient  to  shelter  the  watch- 
man placi'd  to  guard  a  vineyard  i  Is.  i.  H)  ; 
l>ut  a  tfiwer,  being  more  j)ermanent  and  or- 
namental, indicated  the  owner's  interest  in 
his  vineyanl  and  his  expectation  of  many 
seasons  of  fruitfulne.ss  (v.  2;  Mat.  xxi.  33; 
Mark  xii.  1).     Stronger  towers  were  built  for 


Town  Clerk 


750 


Tribute 


defense.  They  were  erected  in  the  wilder- 
ness fur  the  security  of  the  sliepherds  and 
to  keep  nianuulei-s  away  I'i  Kin.  xvii.  9;  2 
C'hron.  xxvi.  10).  They  formed  part  of  the 
defenses  of  fortified  cities  (xiv.  7;  Xeh.  iii. 
1).  They  were  erected  beside  the  city  gates, 
at  the  corners  of  the  walls,  and  at  intervals 
in  the  intervening  space  (-'  L'hron.  xxvi.  9)  ; 
see  illnstrations,  Laciiish,  Kam.  )Vatc_h- 
men  were  stationed  on  them  (2  Kin.  ix.  17), 
military  engines  fur  shooting  arrows  and 
stunes  were  monnted  on  them  (2  Chron. 
xxvi.  l.">).  and  the  citizens  fonud  refuge  in 
them  when  sore  pressed  by  tlie  t-nemy  Judg. 
ix.  'A.  .V2  ;  I's.  Ixi.  3).  Within  their  massive 
walls  the  inm-.tes  were  secure:  their  height 
allowed  openings  for  light  and  air,  out  of 
reach  of  the  adversary:  and  from  their  top 
niis.siles  could  be  advantageously  discharged 
at  the  foe. 

Town  Clerk. 

An  urticial  with  the  title  of  f/ra;H»irt/eHS  or 
scribe  (Acts  xix.  3.tI.  Probably  the  duties 
of  a  firammateKx  originally  were  to  record  the 
laws  and  read  them  in  public,  but  in  course 
of  time  other  functions  were  added  to  the 
office.  Coins  .show  tliat  in  the  several  cities 
of  Asia  Mincir  the  town  clerk  presided  in 
popular  assemblies,  and  was  the  virtual,  or  in 
some  cases  the  actual,  head  of  the  municipal 
government. 

Trach-o-ni'tis  [rough,  stony]. 

A  region  which  at  the  appearance  of  John 
the  Baptist  as  a  preacher  constituted,  with 
Itnrsea.  a  tetrarchy,  ruled  over  by  Philip,  the 
brother  of  Herod,  the  tetrarch  of  Galilee 
(Luke  iii.  1).  It  lay  behind  Damascus 
(Strabo  xvi.  2,  20),  and  comprehended  the 
stretch  of  volcanic  rocks  now  called  el-Lej- 
jah,  and  extended  westward  to  Ulatha  and 
Paneas,  and  southward  to  the  borders  of  Ba- 
tanea  and  .Teliel  Hanran  (Antiq.  xv.  10,  3  ; 
xvii.  2,  1  and  2;  Ptolemy  v.  1.5,  4). 

Trag'a-canth. 

A  gum  (den.  xxxvii.  25;  xliii.  11,  E.  V. 
margin),  produced  by  several  low,  spiny 
shrubs  of  the  genus  Astragalus,  especially 
from  Astrnfialiixfiinninifrr.  The  plantislegura- 
inous.  Those  from  which  gum  is  obtained 
are  dwarf  shrubs,  protected  by  a  dense  mass 
of  long  thorns.  Tlie  flowers  are  axillary; 
and  in  most  species  are  yellow,  but  in  some 
are  white  or  jturple.  Under  the  lieat  of  the 
sun  tlie  gum  exudes  from  the  trunk,  branches, 
thorns, and  leaves;  and  is  collectc<l  in  Pales- 
tine by  passing  over  tlie  shrub  a  cloth  or 
bunch  of  threads  to  which  the  viscous  ex- 
udation adheres.  It  is  used  to  impart  firm- 
ness to  pills,  to  marble  books,  and  to  stiffen 
crapi's  and  calicoes. 

Trance. 

.\  state  in  which  the  functions  of  the 
senses  are  suspended  and  the  soul  seems  to 
be  liberated  from  the  body  while  it  contem- 
plates some  extraordinary  object ;  ecstasy. 
Peter  on  one  occasion  (Acts  xi.  5),  and  Paul 


on  another,  fell  into  such  a  trance  (xxii.  17). 
Sec  Visions. 

Tres'pass  Of  fer-ing.     See  Offerings. 

Tribe.     See  Egypt  III.  7. 

Trib'ute. 

1.  Money,  goods,  or  service  exacted  by  a 
nation  or  king  from  foreign  subjects  (Dent. 
XX.  11,  K.  V.  margin  taskwork;  Judg.  i.  28; 
Ezra  iv.  13 ;  Xeh.  v.  4 ;  Esth.  x.  1  ;  Mat. 
xvii.  25).  The  Pharisees  endeavored  to  put 
Jesus  in  a  dilemma  by  asking  him  whether 
it  was  lawful  to  pay  tribute  to  the  Roman 
emperor  (Mat.  xxii.  17).  If  he  answered  in 
the  affirmative,  he  would  offend  the  people, 
since  with  them  independence  was  a  matter 
of  religion  and  they  paid  the  foreign  tax 
with  undisguised  reluctance.  The  Pharisees 
expected  him  to  declare  that  tribute  to  the 
Eomans  was  unlawful,  for  they  knew  that 
he  had  publicly  announced  his  claims  to  the 
throne  of  David  ;  and  an  answer  of  this  sort 
would  justify  a  charge  of  rebellion  against 
him.  He  replied  by  calling  for  a  coin.  The 
coinage  of  money  is  the  prerogative  of  the 
ruler.  Pointing  to  the  image  of  the  Roman 
emperor  which  it  bore,  he  saitl :  "Give  to 
the  ruler  whom  you  acknowledge  whatever 
belongs  to  him,  and  to  God  whatever  belongs 
to  God."  Jesus  recognized  the  distinction 
between  the  two  spheres  of  duty. 

2.  The  didrachma  or  half  shekel  paid  for 
the  expenses  of  the  temple  worship  (Mat. 
xvii.  24,  in  R.  Y.  half  shekel).  This  pay- 
ment was  suggested  at  first  by  the  half 
shekel  which  each  male  Israelite  above 
twenty  years  of  age  paid  as  atonement 
money  when  he  was  nnml)ered  in  the  census 
(Ex.  XXX.  11-lfi).  In  the  time  of  Xehemiah 
the  Israelites  voluntarily  assumed  an  annual 
payment  of  the  third  part  of  a  shekel 
toward  defraying  the  cost  of  the  temple 
service  (Xeh.  x.  32,  33).  Later  the  third 
part  of  a  shekel  was  changed  to  half  a 
shekel,  and  was  made  an  annual  tax  col- 
lected from  every  .Tew  of  twenty  years  of  age 
and  upward  throughout  the  world  (Antiq. 
xviii  .  9,  1).  The  collector  at  Capernaum 
asked  Peter  whether  his  Master  paid  this 
half  shekel,  and  Peter  impulsively  answered 
that  he  did  (Mat.  xvii.  24,  25).  .Tesus  did  in- 
deed pay  it :  but  it  was  incongruous  for  him  to 
do  so,  and  he  di-ew  Peter's  attention  to  the 
matter.  He  pointed  out  to  him  that  earthly 
kings  exact  tribute  from  aliens,  not  from 
their  own  children.  Peter  had  recently  con- 
fessed .Tesus  as  the  Son  of  (4od.  It  was  for 
God's  house  and  worshiji  that  this  tax  was 
levied,  and  it  was  scarcely  proper  for  God's 
Son  to  be  required  to  pay  it.  Such  is  the 
common  interpretation  of  Christ's  words  on 
this  occasion.  After  the  fall  of  Jerusalem 
the  Roman  emjieror  Vesjtasian  enjoined  the 
Jews  throughout  the  empire  to  bring  to 
Jupiter  C'apitolinus  in  Rome  the  two  drachmas 
which  thev  had  formerly  paid  to  the  temple 
(War  vii.  6,  6). 


Troas 


751 


Trumpet 


Tro'as  [the  Troad,  region  around  Troy]. 

The  city  whore  I'aul  siiw  in  vision  the 
man  of  Macedonia  invitinji  him  to  Europe 
(Acts  xvi.  8-10;  -J  Cor.  ii.  12).  It  was  a  t^ca- 
Iiort  (Act.s  xvi.  11).  I'aul  tarried  tlicrc  a 
week  while  retuniin;;  from  his  tliird  journej- 
(XX.  G).  On  one  occasion  he  left  his  cloak, 
hooks,  and  jiarchments  tiiere  (2  Tim.  iv.  i;{). 
It  was  founded  l)y  Anti^roiius,  one  of  Alex- 
ander's successors,  who  called  it  Anlifionia; 
hut  after  his  death  his  oiipouent  Lysiuiachus, 
king  of  Tlirace,  altered  its  nanu'  to  Alex- 
andria, and  Troas  was  added  to  distinguish 
it  from  -Mexandria  in  Kiiypt.  It  was  situated 
some  distance  .-.nutii  of  Homer's  Troy,  which 
furnished  the  name  Troas  to  the  district. 
Its  ruins,  which  are  extensive,  are  now 
called  Eski  Staniboul. 

Tro-gyl'li-um. 

A  town  and  a  iirduiontory  on  the  western 
coast  of  A>'\<\  .Miu<u-,  o])iiosite  tlie  ishnul  of 
Sanios.  I'aul  tarried  tliere  on  tile  return  to 
JerusiUem  from  his  tiiird  journey  (Acta  xx. 
I'll.  An  anchorage  at  the  place  is  called  St. 
Paul's  I'ort. 

Troph'i-mus  [nourishing]. 

.\  ^'eiiiile  Ciiristian  of  Ephesus,  who  was 
witii  I'aul  for  a  time  on  his  missionary 
travels,  and  wliuin  lie  was  falsely  accused  of 
having  hrougiit  into  the  temple  in  defiance 
of  the  law  (Acts  xx.  4;  xxi.  29).  The  last 
we  hear  of  him  is  that  he  was  left  by  the 
apostle  at  .Miletus  sick  (2  Tim.  iv.  20,  in  A. 
V.  Miletum). 

Triunp'et. 

1.  A  wind  instrument,  made  of  the  horn 
of  an  animal  or  in  imitation  of  it  (Josh.  vi. 
5:  c)).  Dan.  iii.  o,  where  kereii.  horn,  is  ren- 
dered cornet),  and  called  in  Hehrew  xhophar. 
The  wiJi'd  is  rendered  cornet  in  four  (lassages 


ble  the  army  (Judg.  iii.  27;  vi.  34  ;  1  Sam. 
xiii.  3),  to  sound  the  attack  (Job  xxxix.  24), 
to  signal  the  ces.sation  of  the  pursuit  (2  .*^am. 
ii.  2^  ;  xviii.  Iti),  and  to  announce  the  di.s- 
handing  of  the  army  (xx.  1,  22).  Watchmen 
blew  it  to  sound  the  alarm  (.Jer.  vi.  1 ;  Amos 
iii.  (i).  Its  blast  proclaimed  the  accession  of 
the  king  (2  Sam.  xv.  Id;  1  Kin.  i.  :{4:  2  Kin. 
ix.  l.'J).  and  the  commencement  of  tlie  year 
of  jubile  (Lev.  xxv.  it).  The  tirst  day  of 
the  seventh  month  was  celebrated  by  .solemn 
rest  from  ordinary  labor,  a  holy  convocation, 
and  the  ofl'ering  of  special  burnt  otferings 
(xxiii.  24,  2;");  Xum.  xxix.  l-fi),  becau.se 
the  day  marked  a  recurring  seventh  portion 
of  time.     It  was  a  day  or  memorial  of  blow- 


Ancicnt  Horns  and  Curved  Trumpets. 

ingof  trumpets,  designed  to  bring  the  people 
intt)  remembrance  before  the  Lord  (cp.  Ex. 
xxviii.  12,29;  xxx.  Ki).  The  Jewish  tradi- 
tion is  doul)tless  correct  which  states  that 
the  trumpet  used  was  the  shophar  (cp.  Lev. 
xxv.  9). 

2.  The  invariable  rendering  of  the  Hebrew 
H'so-frnh.      Two  were  made  for  use  at  the 


Assyrian  and  Egj-ptian  Trumpets. 


where  tlie  h'snfrah  is  mentioned  with  it 
and  rendered  trumpet  (1  Chron.  xv,  28;  2 
Chron.  XV.  M  :  I's.  xcviii.  (!;  Hos.  v.  8).  Its 
-oiind  was  loud,  and  audible  at  a  great  dis- 
tance (Ex.  xix.  Ki,  19)  ;  and  was  well  adapted 
to  increase  the  noi>ie  of  shouting  (2  Sam.  vi. 
l.">;  2  Chron.  xv.  11:  I's.  xcviii.  (!).  l<ut  was 
ill  suited  to  be  jdayed  with  hiirjis  and  jii]ies 
in  an  orchestra.    It  was  used  in  wartoassem- 


tahernade  (Num.  x.  2) :  hut  the  number  was 
incr(>ased  as  time  went  on  (2  Kin.  xii.  13). 
One  hundred  and  twenty  were  blown  at  the 
dedication  of  the  temjile  (2  Cliroii.  v.  12). 
Those  used  at  the  sanctuary  were  of  silver 
(Num.  X.  2i.  They  were  a  little  less  than  a 
cubit  in  length.  The  tube  was  narrow,  some- 
what thicker  tlian  a  tlute.  and  ended  in  tlie 
form  of  a  bell,  like  common  trumpets  (An- 


Tryphaena 


r52 


Tychicus 


tiq.  iii.  12,  fi) ;  see  illustration  under  Show- 
ISHEAD.  Tliey  were  ust'd  l)y  tho  jiricsts  to 
announce  iV.stivals,  to  call  the  con!,'rcgation, 
and  on  advancing?  to  l)attlc  (Num.  x.  1-10 ; 
xsxi.  ()).  Rarely  is  mention  made  of  their 
hvixnil  l)lo\vn  hy  laymen  in  war  tllos.  v.  8). 
Priests  may  have  blown  them  at  the  corona- 
tion of  .loiish  (2  Kin.  xi.  14;  2  Chron.  xxiii. 
i:5).  For  their  use  in  the  teniple  orchestra 
see  Misic. 

3.  Trumpet  is  expressed  by  the  Greek 
word  salpinx  iu  N.  T.  It  was  used  in  war  (1 
Cor.  xiv.  8),  and  will  announce  the  second  ad- 
vent of  Christ  (Mat.  xxiv.  :31),  and  the  re.sur- 
rection  of  the  dead  (1  Cor.  xv.  52).  Seven 
trumpets  were  sounded  to  introduce  as  many 
apocalyptic  visions  (Kev.  viii.-xi.  19).  By 
salpinx  tlie  Iffofrah  or  sacred  trumpet  is 
meant  in  Ecclus.  1.  16 ;  1  ]\Iac.  iii.  54;  and 
prohahly  iv.  40;  v.  33;  xvi.  8. 

Try-phse'na,  in  A.  V.  Tryphena  [delicate, 
dainty]. 

A  woman  at  Rome  tt)  whom  Paul  sent  his 
salutation,  commending  her  for  laboring  in 
the  Lord  (Eom.  xvi.  12). 

Try'phon  [luxurious]. 

A  general  of  Ah'xander  Balas  (1  Mac.  xi. 
39).  lie  was  a  native  of  Casiana  near  Apamea 
in  Syria,  and  originally  bore  the  name  of 
Diodotus  (Strabo  xvi.  2,  10).  After  the 
death  of  Balas  and  the  recognition  of 
Demetrius  II.  as  king  of  Syria,  146  B.  c, 
Tryphou  set  up   Autiochus  VI.,  the  infant 


Try]ihon. 

son  of  Alexander  Balas,  as  a  rival  to  De- 
metrius (xi.  39,  40),  and  with  the  help  of  the 
Jews  was  rapidly  conquering  the  country.  His 
treachery  to  .Jonathan  Maccabseus,  however 
(xii.  39-.50;  xiii.  23i.  caused  his  Jewish  allies 
to  go  over  to  the  side  of  l)cni(>trius.  Tryphon 
meantime  had  murdered  young  Antiochus 
and  declared  himself  king  (xii.  31,  39).  The 
capture  of  Demetrius  hy  Arsaces,  the  Par- 
thian king,  left  Tryphon  to  his  own  schemes 
for  a  while,  but  Demetrius'  brother,  Anti- 
ochus VII.,  opjiosed  him  and  succeeded  in 
besieging  him,  first  in  Dor  on  the  PhoMiician 
coast  (xv.  10-14,  .37),  and  afterwards  in 
Apamea,  where  Tryjihon  lost  his  life  in  138 
B.  ('.  (Auliq.  xiii.  7,  2). 

Try-pho'sa  [delicate]. 

A  woman  at  Rome  whose  name  is  coupled 


with  that  of  Tryphsena  in  the  list  of  those 
Romans  to  whom  Paul  sent  his  salutation. 
They  may  have  been  sisters  or  fellow-deacon- 
esses. They  are  mentioned  as  laboring  in  the 
Lord  (Kom.  xvi.  12). 

Tu'bal. 

A  tribe  descended  from  Japheth  (Gen.  x. 
2).  It  is  mentioned  with  Javan  (Is.  Ixvi. 
19)  and  with  jNIeshech  (Ezek.  xxxii.  26)  as 
trading  in  the  Tyrian  markets  with  slaves 
and  vessels  of  brass  (xxvii.  13).  Gog  was 
prince  of  Meshech  and  Tubal  (xxxviii.  2, 
3;  xxxix.  1).  The  descendants  of  Tubal  are 
the  Tubla  of  the  Assyrian  inscriptions  and 
the  Tibareni  or  Tibarenoi  of  the  clas.sical 
writers.  For  their  country  and  history,  see 
Meshioch. 

Tu'bal-cain  [possibly,  production  of  forged 
work]. 

A  son  of  the  Cainite  Lamech,  by  his  wife 
Zillah.  He  was  the  forger  of  cutting  instru- 
ments of  brass  and  iron  (Gen  iv.  22). 

Tu'bi-as,  in  A.  V.  To'hie. 

A  district  east  of  the  Jordan  (1  Mac.  v.  13; 
cp.  2  Mac.  xii.  17),  probably  the  laud  of  Tob; 
see  ToB. 

Tur'ban.     See  Diadem. 

Tur'tle  and  Tur'tle-dove. 

A  s])ecies  of  pigeon.  It  is  gentle  and  harm- 
less, lit  emblem  of  a  defenseless  and  innocent 
people  (Ps.  Ixxiv.  19).  It  is  migratory  (Jer. 
viii.  7),  and  a  herald  of  spring  (Song  ii.  12). 
Abraham  sacrificed  a  turtledove  and  other 
victims  when  the  Lord's  covenant  was  made 
with  him  (Gen.  xv.  9).  Under  the  law  it 
served  as  a  burnt  offering  (Lev.  i.  14)  and  for 
a  sin  offering;  and  two  turtledoves  were 
prescribed  for  these  two  sacrifices  in  case  a 
poor  person  was  obliged  to  make  a  guilt  offer- 
ing, and  for  the  purification  of  a  woman  after 
childbirth  if  she  was  poor,  of  a  man  or  woman 
with  an  issue,  and  of  a  Xazirite  (v.  7 ;  xii.  6, 
8;  XV.  14,  29,  30;  Num.  vi.  10,  11).  It  was 
readily  obtainable  by  the  poor,  for  it  abounds 
in  Palestine  and  is  easily  trapped.  Tliree  spe- 
cies of  turtledove  are  described  by  Tristram 
as  occurring  in  Palestine.  The  mo.st  abun- 
dant is  the  common  turtledove  (Turlur  vul- 
(inrifi).  which  reaches  Palestine  from  the 
south  in  countless  numbers  at  the  beginning 
of  March,  and  departs  a^ain  at  the  ai)iiroach 
of  winter.  The  second  is  the  collared  turtle- 
dove {Tnrtuy  risorius).  It  is  a  summer  mi- 
grant, breeding  in  Palestine  in  trees  and 
bushes.  The  tliird  species,  the  palm  turtle- 
dove {Tiirtur  se)>e(ialensis),  does  not  migrate, 
but  remains  permanently  in  the  Dead  Sea 
valley,  M'hich  has  a  tropical  climate. 

Tu'tor.     See  Schoolmastek. 

Twin  Broth'ers.  See  Castor  and  Polia^x 

Tych'i-cus  [fortuitous]. 

A  Christian  of  the  province  of  Asia  who, 
with  others,  traveled  on  in  advance  of  Paul 
from  Macedonia  to  Troas,  and  awaited  the 
apostle's  arrival  in  that  city  (Acts  xx.  4).  He 


Tyrannus 


753 


Tyre 


was  a  beloved  hrotlur  and  laitliful  minister 
in  the  Li)rd,  and  was  sent  hy  I'aul  to  carry 
tu  tlieir  destination  the  Ki)istk"s  to  the  Ephe- 
sians  and  C'olnssians  (lOjiii.  vi.  L'l  ;  Col.  iv.  7). 
I'aul  iimiioseil  als»  to  si'ud  him  as  a  niessen- 
j^er  to  Titus  in  Crete  (Titus  iii.  12).  After- 
wards he  was  dispatched  tu  Ephesus  (2  Tim. 
iv.  12). 

Ty-ran'nus  [an  al>solutc  sovereign,  a  ty- 
rant]. 

A  man  at  E]ihesus  who  was  either  a  teacher 
of  jihilosopiiy  or  rhetoric,  or  el.se  a  Jewish 
scribe  who  -jave  instruction  in  the  law.  lu 
his  school  I'aul  disputed  with  the  view  of 
makin;^  Christianity  known  after  he  no 
lonj^'cr  had  access  for  the  purpose  to  the  Jew- 
ish .-ynajiogue  (Acts  xix.  it). 

Tyre,  in  A.  V.  often  Ty'rus  [a  rock]. 

An  important  city  of  I'luenicia.  It  was  a 
place  of  great  antiquity  (Is.  xxiii.  7  ;  Autiq. 
viii.  3,  1) ;  but  it  was  founded  or  attained  to 
importance  after  Sidon  (Oen.  x.  1.")  :  Is.  xxiii. 
12).  The  jiriests  of  .Mi -karth  told  Herodotus 
tliat  it  was  founded  2300  years  before  his 
visit,  which  would  make  the  city  come  into 
existence  about  2750  b.  c.  (Herod,  ii.  44). 
Accordinj^  to  ancieiit  testimony,  Tyre  origin- 
ally stood  on  the  mainland  ;  but  in  cour.se 
of  time,  for  safety  against  besiegers,  it  was 
transferred  to  the  neighboring  rocky  island 
which  gave  name  to  the  locality.  The  town 
on  the  mainland  became  known  as  I'alatyrus. 
Tyre  was  nearer  to  the  Israelites  than  Sidon. 
and  this  fact,  with  the  increasing  greatness 
of  Tyro  over  Sidon,  eslMblisbed  tlie  constant 
order  observed  in  sjieaking  of  the  two  cities, 
Tyre  and  Sidon.  As  early  as  the  times  of 
Joshua,  Tyre  was  a  strong  ]>lace.  It  lay  on 
tlie  border  of  Asher.  but  was  not  assigned  to 
that  or  any  other  tribe  (Josh.  xix.  2!t  :  Judg. 
i.  31.  32).  nor  do  the  Israelites  ai)pear  to  have 
posses.sed  it  at  any  period  of  their  history. 
In  the  time  of  David  it  was  regarded  as  a 
stronghold  (2  Sam.  xxiv.  7K  Hiram,  king 
of  Tyre,  was  friendly  with  David  and  Solo- 
mon, and  aifled  them  with  materials  for  the 
erection  by  the  former  of  his  ]>alace  (v.  11  ; 
1  Kin.  v.  1  ;  1  Chron.  xiv.  1)  and  by  the  latter 
of  the  temple  and  the  other  edifices  which 
he  built  (1  Kin.  v.  1  ;  ix.  10  1  1  ;  2  Chron.  ii. 
3,  11;  cp.  I's.  xlv.  12).  Another  Hiram,  a 
brass  founder,  who  cast  pillars  and  other 
work  for  the  temi)le,  was  of  mixed  Tyrian 
and  Hebrew  jiarentage  (1  Kin.  vii.  1.3,  M,  10, 
•I.')).  The  taste  of  the  Tyrians  was  not  for 
war,  but  for  commerce,  money-making,  sea 
voyages,  and  colonization.  They  traded  with 
all  coujitries  (Ezek.  xxvii.)  ;  their  merchants 
were  princes,  the  honorable  of  the  earth  (Is. 
xxiii.  >•).  In  the  ninth  century  n.  c.  a 
colony  from  Tyre  fnunded  Carthage,  which 
Itecame  a  formidable  rival  to  Rome.  Still, 
thougli  by  taste  n  commercial  peojde.  they 
were  often  forced  into  w:ir.  About  724  n.  r. 
Shalniauiser.  king  of  Assyria,  besieged  Tyre, 
from  which  be  bad  pnvinusly  exacted  heavy 
4S 


tribute,  but  he  died  in  722  without  efl'ecting 
its  capture  (Antiq.  ix.  14,  2:  cp.  i>robably  Is. 
xxiii.).  The  friendliness  of  the  Tyrians  to- 
ward Israel  ceased  about  this  time.  The 
proi)hets  denounced  the  Tyrians  for  deliver- 
ing Israelites  to  the  Edomites  ( Amos  i.  9), 
and  plundering  them  of  goods  and  selling 
them  as  slaves  to  the  (ireeks  (Joel  iii.  5,  (>). 
Jeremiah  ])ropheHied  Tyre's  subjection  ( Jer. 
xxvii.  1-11).  The  classic  prophecy  against 
Tyre,  entering  into  more  details,  is  that  of 
Ezekiel  (Ezek.  xxvi.-xxviii.  10  :  xxix.  18-20). 
These  ]>ro]ihecies  of  Jeremiah  and  Ezekiel  re- 
fer largely  to  a  siege  of  Tyre  by  Nebuchad- 
nezzar, lasting  thirteen  years  (con.  A]iion.  i. 
21).  It  is  not  certainly  known  wliether  he 
took  any  jiart  of  the  two  cities  (cp.  Ezek. 
xxix.  18-20);  if  he  did,  it  was  ]irobably  only 
the  one  on  the  shore.  In  332  l'..  C.  Alexan- 
der the  (ireat  took  the  city  on  the  island 
after  a  siege  of  seven  months,  having  made 
his  way  to  it  by  building  a  mole  from  the 
mainland  across  the  narrow  strait.  Hut  it 
soon  again  recovered  its  jirosperity  (cj).  Is. 
xxiii.  15-18).  Our  Lord  once  visited  the 
coasts  of  Tyre  and  Sidon  (Mat.  xv.  21-31; 
Mark  vii.  24-31),  and  jieople  from  the  region 
occasionally  attended  on  liis  ministry  (Mark 
iii.  8  ;  Luke  vi.  17).  He  pointed  out  that  the 
responsibilities  of  those  heathen  cities  were 
much  less  than  those  of  the  places  around 
the  sea  of  Galilee,  which  constantly  heard 
his  ]ireaching  and  saw  his  miracles  (]\Iat.  xi. 
21,22;  Luke  x.  13,  14!.  A  Christian  com- 
munitv  existed  there  in  the  lirst  century 
(Acts  xxi.  3-t)).  On  the  27th  of  June,  1124, 
Tyre  was  taken  by  the  CYusaders,  who  lost 
it  again  in  JIarch,  1291.  Since  then  it 
has  nearly  always  been  in  Mohamnudan 
liands.  It  is  now  called  es-Sur.  The  walls 
are  in  ruinous  condition,  and  have  in 
]>art  disajqieared  or  lieen  covertd  with  sand. 
Formerly  then-  were  two  harbors;  now 
only  the  old  Sidonian  port  is  in  use.  It  is 
on  the  northeast  side  of  the  island  :  the 
other,  or  the  Egyptian  port,  has  been  filled 
with  sand.  Alexander's  mole  still  remaiTis: 
its  breadth  is  nearly  half  a  nnle.  Most  of  the 
ruins,  including  a  cathedral,  are  of  Criisading 
times.  The  fountains  and  reservoirs  called 
Ivasel-'Ain  suiijilieil  tlu'  city  with  water  by 
means  of  an  a(|ueduct  starting  15  or  20  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  ground,  so  as  to  give  a 
sufficient  slojte  for  its  descent.  Tyre  was  for 
a  ('(tn.siderable  luriod  all  but  destitute  of  in- 
habitants. In  the  jiresent  century  it  has 
slightly  revived,  so  that  it  may  have  at  i>res- 
ent  30("m:»  to  1000  inhabitants.  Its  houses  are 
chielly  on  the  eastern  jiart  of  what  was  once 
the  island,  but  the  former  island  has  been 
converted  by  Alexander's  mole  and  accumu- 
lated sand  into  a  ]>romontory  jutting  out 
from  the  shore. 

The  Ladder  of  Tyre  is  a  high  mountain  on 
the  coast  of  Syria."  100  stades  or  about  11 
miles  north  of  i'tnlcmais  (War  ii.  10.2).  This 
statement   of  distance  and  direction   ideuti- 


Tzade 


754 


Unclean  Animals 


ties  it  with  !i  jiart  or  the  whole  of  the  mas- 
sive, imiiiiitaiiiiiiis  pnmiontory,  7  miles  in 
width,  wiiieli  thrusts  itself  into  the  sea  and 
forms  the  natural  Imundary  lietween  Pales- 
tine anil  rhtenieia  1 1  Mae.  xi.  551).  At  its 
southwestern  an^'le  Kas  en-Nakiirah,  a  bold 
lieadland,  imijeets,  leaving;  no  beaeh  between 
its  l>ase  anil  the  water,  and  foreinj;  the  coast 
roail  to  aseend  and  cross  it.  This  part  of  the 
fjreat  ]>roiniintory  is  eoninionly  identified 
with  the  Ladder.  Some  travelers,  however, 
loealize  tlu'  Ladderat  the  northwestern  angle, 
where  Has  el-'Abyad,  the  white  iiromontory, 
stands.  In  its  prei-ii)itous  clitfs  the  road  is 
cut  for  about  a  mile,  overhanjiing  the  sea  and 
risiiig  at  points  to  the  height  of  200  feet  above 
the  water. 

Tza'de,  in  A.  V.  Tzaddi. 

The  eighteenth  letter  of  the  Hebrew  alpha- 
bet. No  letter  in  the  English  alphabet  cor- 
responds to  it.  In  anglicizing  Hebrew  names, 
s.  t,  or  z  is  used  to  rei)resent  it.  It  heads  the 
eighteenth  section  of  I's.  cxix.,  in  which  sec- 
tion each  verse  of  the  original  begins  with 
this  letter. 


U. 


U'cal  [I  am  strong]. 

One  of  two  sons,  jmpils,  or  contemporaries, 
to  whom  Agur  addressed  his  prophecy  or 
proverbs  (Prov.  xxx.  1).  This  interpretation 
represents  the  traditional  Hebrew  punctua- 
tion, and  derives  sui)pi)rt  from  ver.  4,  where 
a  person  is  addressed  and  asked  to  answer, 
if  he  knows.  Another  interpretation,  which, 
however,  neglects  the  punctuation,  is  given 
on  the  margin  of  the  R.  V. 

U'el  [will  of  God]. 

A  son  of  Hain,  induced  by  Ezra  to  put  away 
his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  34). 

Uk'naz. 

Tlie  marginal  reading  at  1  Chrou.  iv.  15, 
A.  V.  ;  but  a  Hebrew  i)roper  name  would  not 
begin  as  this  word  does.  In  the  text  it  is 
properly  regarded  as  two  words,  and  the 
E.  V.  correctly  renders  it  "and  Kenaz." 

U'lai. 

A  river  on  the  banks  of  which  Daniel  was 
in  vision  when  he  saw  the  prophetic  ram, 
the  he  goat,  etc.  (Dan.  viii.  2,  16).  The  Ulai 
is  undoubtedly  the  Eubeus;  identified  both 
with  the  Kerkha,  which  washes  the  walls 
of  Susa.  that  is  Shushan,  and  the  Karuii, 
which  flows  considerably  eastward  of  the 
city.  The  conflicting  views  have  been  recon- 
ciled by  the  ajiiiarently  well-founded  su])po- 
ation  that  the  Kerkha  sent  out  a  branch 
mun  a  spot  20  miles  northwest  of  Susa, 
which  Joined  the  Karun,  so  that  tlie  name 
Ulai  might  be  applied  to  both  rivers. 

U'lam  [front]. 

1.  A  Manas.site  (1  Chron.  vii.  Ifi.  17). 

2.  A  son  of  Eshek,  a  Benjannte  descended   I 


from  Saul  through  Jonathan  (1  Chron.  viii 
3'J,  40). 

Ul'la  [a  yoke]. 

An  Asherite  (1  Chron.  vii.  39),  probably 
descended  from  Helem  (35). 

Um'mah  [conjunction]. 

A  tciwn  of  Asher  ijosh.  xix.  30).  Not 
identified.  Thomson  proposes  'Alma,  about  5 
miles  from  the  shore  at  Kas  en-Xakurah. 
Some  con.sideratious  suggest  that  Akko  may 
be  the  original  text.  Caph  was  not  infre- 
quently mistaken  for  mem,  i.  e.  k  for  m  ;  see 
Beth. 

Un'cle. 

The  brother  of  one's  father  (2  Kin.  xxiv. 
17,  Hebrew).  The  Hebrew  word  is  dod, 
which  is  of  broader  meaning  than  uncle  and 
denotes  any  kinsman  on  the  father's  side 
{Lev.  X.  4;  Amos  vi.  10);  as  a  cousin  (Jer. 
xxxii.  12  with  b,  9),  or  a  member  of  the  same 
tribe  (Num.  xxxvi.  11). 

Un-clean'  An'i-mals. 

A  general  distinction  between  clean  and 
unclean  meats  was  made  by  the  nations  of 
antiquity.  Some  animals  were  recognized  as 
fit  for  food  and  sacrifice,  while  others  were 
not.  The  distinction  was  based  partly  on 
the  discovered  unsuitableness  or  unwliole- 
someness  of  the  flesh  for  food,  partly  on 
habits  and  prey,  and  partly  on  an  inexplica- 
ble natural  abhorrence  to  certain  animals. 
Eegard  was  paid  in  the  Mosaic  legislation  ti> 
this  customary  attitude  of  the  men  of  the 
age,  and  the  distinction  between  clean  and 
unclean  meats  was  incorporated  in  the  law. 
Other  animals  were  added  to  the  list  of  the 
unclean,  out  of  special  considerations  in- 
volved in  the  religion  of  the  Israelites.  Un- 
clean animals  were  classified  as  follows  :  1. 
Beasts  that  do  not  both  part  the  hoof  en- 
tirely and  chew  the  cud  (Lev.  xi.  3,  4), 
including  all  that  go  on  four  paws  (27).  The 
law  accordingly  allows  only  animals  of  the 
ox,  sheep,  and  goat  kind,  and  deer  and 
gazelles  (Dent.  xiv.  4,  5).  It  excludes  among 
other  animals  all  carnivorous  beasts.  They 
eat  blood  or  carrion,  and  were  therefore  in- 
tolerable to  the  Israelite.  2.  Carnivorous 
birds,  of  which  twenty  or  twenty-one  are 
specially  named  (Lev.  xi.  13-19  :  Dent.  xiv. 
12-18).  The  enumeration  included  the  bat, 
which  was  classed  as  a  bird.  They  eat  blood 
or  carrion.  3.  Winged  insects  which  do  not 
have  in  addition  to  the  four  legs  two  hind  legs 
for  leaping  (Lev.  xi.  20-23).  All  insects  are 
excluded  except  the  locust  (grasshopper).  4. 
Whatever  in  the  water  had  not  both  fins  and 
scales  (9,  10).  This  prohibition  left  for  use 
the  most  wholesome  varieties  of  fish  found 
in  the  waters  of  Palestine.  It  excludes  eels, 
and  water  animals  which  are  not  fish,  such 
as  crabs.  Numa  forbade  the  IJomans  to  otfer 
scaleless  fish  in  sacrifice  (Pliny,  Hist.  Nat. 
xxxii.  10);  and  the  modern  Egyptians  are 
said  to  regard  such  fish  as  unwholesome. 
Some  of  these  scaleless  and  finless  creatures 


Uncleanness 


755 


Unicorn 


were  snakelike,  and  ri-callcd  the  first  sin  and 
its  ciirse.  5.  Small  tTi'epiii},'  tliiiifjs  (Lev.  xi. 
'29,  30)  ;  every  creeiiiiiji  thiuf;  that  goeth 
ujion  its  belly  or  upon  all  fours,  or  has  many 
feet  (41,  4'2).  Sonit!  were  unwholesome. 
Others  erept  in  the  dust  or  through  slime. 
Others  still  were  snakelike.  Not  imjirohahly 
there  was  a  reli;;ioiis  rejiu^'iiance  to  cT('f]>iiitr 
thinjis  in  jjencral,  ljt««ausi'  tlieir  mode  (if  lo- 
eomotion  was  a  rcmindtT  of  llir  scrjii  iit  and 
the  curse  on  the  tempter. 

These  animals  were  unelean  under  any 
cireumstaucc.  JJut  the  llesii  of  even  clean 
Sinimals  mij.;ht  hi'come  unelean.  The  law 
forbade  the  eatinjj  of  things  ollered  in  sac- 
rifice to  idols,  things  strangled  or  dead  of 
themselves  or  killed  by  beast  or  bird  of  jirey. 
Blood  and  fat  of  liird  and  l)east  were  sacred 
to  the  Lord.  None  might  cat  of  the  blood, 
not  even  thestrangcr  that  sojourned  in  Israel 
(Lev.  xvii.  10-14).  The  violator  of  the  law 
respecting  blood  was  cut  olf  from  his  people 
(vii.  27;  xvii.  10.  14).  The  ofl'onder  against 
the  laws  regarding  unclean  animals  was  un- 
clean until  the  evening  (xi.  21,  40;  xvii.  15). 
Animals  that  died  of  tlu'mselves  might  be 
sold  to  strangers  and  eaten  by  them  (Deut. 


Un-clean'ness. 

The  law  distinguished  between  clean  and 
lioly  (Lev.  X.  lOi;  for  example,  animals  arc 
clean  or  unclean,  not  holy  or  unholy.  Un- 
cleanness, when  not  iiresnmjjtuously  in- 
curred, was  ceremonial,  not  moral  defile- 
ment. It  excluded  man  fiom  tin-  sanctuary 
(vii.  20.  21)  and  from  fellowshiii  with  mem- 
bers of  the  commonwealth  of  Israel,  but  it 
did  not  interrui)t  spiritual  communion  with 
God  in  prayer.  At  the  .same  time,  the  laws 
th;it  dctined  uncleaniu'ss  were  in  some  eases 
enforcecl  by  the  injunction,  "  \W  ye  holy,  for 
I  am  holy"  (xi.  44,  4.">).  In  keei)ing  himself 
from  the  uncdean,  man  had  regard  to  tlu'  fact 
that  lie  was  set  ajiart  from  a  common  to  a 
sicred  service.  an(l  that  as  a  man  of  (iod  he 
was  holy  unto  the  Lord  and  must  be  sejiaratc 
and  touch  no  unelean  thing.  Furthermore, 
ceremonial  uncleanness  was  typical  of  sin. 
Physical  cleanliness  also  is  dilferent  from 
ceremonial  cleanness.  The  two  were  not 
symmymous,  although  the  two  conditions 
sometimes  coincided.  Comfort  and  the  de- 
mands of  society  re(|Uired  bodily  cleanliness 
on  tlu'  pari  of  the  Hebrews.  There  were 
divers  washings  which  had  nothing  to  do 
with  ceremonial  i>urity.  The  laws  of  clean- 
liness which  governed  men  in  their  int<T- 
course  with  each  other  win-  instinctively 
ob.scrved  by  reverent  persons  in  their  a])- 
projich  to  Cod,  and  tound  expression  in  com- 
mands and  institutions  (  Kx.  xix.  12,  II ;  xxx. 
lH-21  ;  .Tosh.  iii.  ")).  Ceremonial  defilement, 
for  which  ]>iiritication  was  provided,  was 
incurn'd  in  a  special  manner  and  was  re- 
stricted to  certain  acts  and  ]irocesses.  It 
was  acciuired  by — 1.  Contact  with  a  human 


corpse  (Num.  xix.  11  22).  This  defilement 
was  the  gravest,  for  the  effect  of  sin  is  re- 
vealed in  strongest  light  in  the  death  of  man 
and  the  dissolution  of  the  body.  Unclean- 
ness arising  from  this  cause  continued  seven 
days,  and  was  removed  by  the  water  of 
sei>aration.  Even  the  nece.s.sary  hiindling 
of  the  ashes  of  the  red  heifi'r,  which  were 
used  to  cleanse  from  defilement  by  contact 
with  the  dead,  rendered  unclean  (7-Hii  ;  and 
contact  with  the  unclean  jjcrson  rendered 
the  clean  person  unclean  until  evening  (22). 
2.  Leprosy  in  man.  clothing,  or  building 
(Lev.  xiii.,  xiv.).  The  lejier  was  excluded 
from  human  society  (xiii.  4(i),  and  for  liis 
cleansing  he  required  special  ablution  and 
sacrifice.  3.  Natu/al  and  morbid  issues  from 
the  generative  organs  (xv.),  including  puer- 
jieral  uncleanness  (xii.).  (ieneration  and 
parturition  were  ivot  sinful  in  themselves; 
they  were  ordained  by  the  Creator  (Gen.  i. 
27,  28).  The  bodily  issues  connected  with 
them,  however,  in  man  or  woman,  whether 
voluntary  or  involuntary,  defiled;  man's 
affinity  to  the  lower  animals  is  apparent  in 
reproduction,  for  right  though  it  is,  in 
heaven  they  neither  marry  nor  arc  given 
in  marriage;  and  probably  the  divine  .judg- 
ment pronounced  on  Kve  for  sin  was  remem- 
bered in  connection  with  childbirth.  4. 
Eating  the  fiesh  of  an  unclean  animal,  or 
contact  with  its  carcass  or  with  that  of  a 
clean  animal  not  slain  for  food  and  which 
had  thus  become  subject  to  the  corruption 
of  death  (Lev.  xi.).  See  Unclkan  Animals; 
Purification. 

U'ni-com. 

Any  one-homed  animal,  as  the  rhinoceros 
fis.  xxxiv.7,  A.  V.  margin).  The l)iblical  ani- 
mal, however,  was  two-horned  (Di'ut.  xxxiii. 
17,  where  the  word  issingular,  and  not  plural, 
as  in  A.  V.).  It  was  possessed  of  great 
strength  (Num.  xxiii.  22;  xxiv.  8),  but  was 
too  untamable  to  bend  its  neck  to  the  yoke, 
or  assist  man  in  his  agricultural  labors  (,Tob 
xxxix.  9-1-2}.  It  was  frisky  in  youth  (Ps. 
xxix.  6).  It  was  not  the  wild  bufi'alo,  for 
this  beast  is  quite  tamable.  The  K.  V.  margin 
(Num.  xxiii.  22)  renders  it  by  ox-antelope, 
meaning  the  oryx  {Autilnjir  Ifucori/x)  ;  see 
AntkloI'K.  This  interiiretation  is  sui>portcd 
by  the  analogy  of  the  Hebrew  r''fin  to  the 
Arabic  rim.  which  is  now  used  in  Syria  for 
the  white  and  yellow  gazelle  ;  liut  the  oryx 
is  timid  and  in  ancient  Egypt  was  frequently 
tamed  and  used  in  the  jilow.  There  is  every 
reason  to  lielieve  that  the  Hebrew  word  sig- 
nifies tlie  wild  ox  (R.  V.);  for  this  animal  is 
denoted  by  the  corresponding  Assyrian  word 
ihini.  Atimirable  rei>resentalions  of  it^y 
Assyrian  artists  show  it  to  be  the  aiinichs 
(Bon  prim'Kjniiii.i).  Tiglath-jiileser  about  1120 
to  1100  n.  c.  hunted  it  in  tlie  land  of  the 
Hittites,  at  the  foot  of  Lebanon.  It  is  now 
extinct,  and  its  naiin'  has  been  transferred 
in  Syria  to  another  animal  ;  but  its  jirevious 


Unni 


756 


Uriah 


occurri'iicc  on  and  around  Lebanon  is  iiule- 
pemitiitly  iirovcii  liy  tlic  liul  that  Tristram 
disfovt  ivd  its  teotli  in  tin;  l)ono  caves  of 
Lci>autin.  .Julius  Ca-sjir,  wlio  mot  with  it  in 
Gaul,  described  it  as  the  Jios  itrus  (Hello  (ial- 
lico  vi.  -iH).  Independently  of  its  size,  it  is 
distiiiLMiisbed  from  its  descendant,  the  com- 
mon ox.  by  haviufi  a  Hatter  forehead  and 
lar^'e  horns  with  double  curvature. 

Un'ni  [op])ressed,  afflicted]. 

1.  A  Leviteof  the  .second  decree  in  David's 
reign,  who  played  the  ])saltery  (1  Chron.  xv. 
18,  20).  It  i.s  doubtful  whether  the  word 
doorkeepei's  (18)  is  iniendi'd  to  include  him. 

2.  A  Levite  in  the  time  of  Zerubbabel 
(Neh.  xii.  !),  A.  V.) ;  sec  Unno. 

Un'no,  in  A.  V.  Unni,  which  was  substi- 
tuted by  the  Hebrews  in  reading  the  text 
[ojipressed,  alHicted] . 

A  Levite  who  was  a  contemporary  of  the 
high  lu-iest  .Jeshiia  (Neh.  xii.  9). 

U-phar'sin.     See  Mkxk. 

U'phaz. 

A  place  from  which  gold  was  brought  ( Jer. 
X.  9;  l)au.  x.  5).  The  same,  apparently,  as 
Ojjhir,  though  the  dilfereuce  iu  form  has  not 
been  satisfactorily  exjjlained. 

Ur,  I.  [i)erhaps,  settlement]. 

A  city  of  the  Chaldees,  the  birthplace  of 
Abraham  (Gen.  xi.  28,  31;  xv.  7;  Neh.  ix.  7). 
Its  site  is  now  generally  held  to  have  been 
at  Mugbeir  or  Um-mugheir,  Bitumened  or 


called  Kaldu  as  early  as  at  least  the  nintli 
century  B.  c.  ;  and  was  a  seat  of  the  worship 
of  the  moon-god.  Considerable  ruins  are 
still  founil  on  its  site. 

Ur,  II. 

Father  of  one  of  David's  mighty  men  (1 
Chron.  xi.  35).  The  tran.scriber  perhaps  made 
two  heroes,  Ur  and  Hepher,  out  of  one  whose 
name  was  Ahasbai  or  something  similar  (cp. 
2  Sam.  xxiii.  34J. 

Ur-ba'nus,  in  A.  V.  Ur'bane  [urbane,  po- 
lite]. 

A  Christian  to  whom,  the  apostle  Paul  sent 
his  salutation  (Rom.  xvi.  9). 

U'ri  [fiery,  or,  perhaps,  light  of  (Jehovah), 
being  an  abbreviation  of  Urijah]. 

1.  Father  of  Bezalel,  the  craftsman  (Ex. 
xxxi.  2). 

2.  Father  of  Solomon's  taxgatherer  Geber 
(1  Kin.  iv.  19). 

3.  A  porter  whom  Ezra  induced  to  put  away 
his  foreign  wife  (Ezi-a  x.  24j. 

U-ri'ah,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Urias  [light  of 
Jehovah].  The  Hebrew  name  is  often  ren- 
dered Urijah. 

1.  A  Hittite,  one  of  David's  mighty  men 
(2  Sam.  xxiii.  39;  1  Chron.  xi.  41),  whom 
the  king  arranged  to  have  placed  at  an  ex- 
posed point  in  a  battle  with  the  Ammonites 
and  lose  his  life,  to  prevent  his  discovering 
an  intrigue  which  his  sovereign   had  been 


Mugheir,  the  Pito  of  t'r  of  tlio  rbnldees. 


the  Mother  of  Bitumen,  in  Lower  Babylonia, 
im  the  western  bank  of  the  Euphrates".  It  is 
called  on  inscribed  tablets  Urn  ;  was  in  a  dis- 
trict which,  according  to  inscriptions,  was 


carrying  on  with  the  faithful  soldier's  wife 
(2  Sam.  xi.  1-27;  Mat.  i.  6). 

2.  A  priest,  one  of  two  witnesses  to  a  tablet 
written  by  Isaiah  (Is.  viii.  2) ;  see  Urijah  1. 


Uriel 


757 


Urim  and  Thummim 


3.  A  priest,  father  of  a  certain  Meremotii 
(Ezra  viii.  33).  Called  in  Noli.  iii.  4,  21  Uri- 
jah. 

4.  One  of  those,  i)riihal)ly  priests,  who 
stood  bv  Ezra  while  he  addressed  the  people 
(Neh.  viii.  4;  in  A.  V.  Urijah). 

U'ri-el  [li.iiht  of  (iod]. 

1.  A  Leviti',  family  of  Kohath,  house  of 
Izliar,  descended  through  Korah,  Aiiiasapli, 
and  'I'ahath  (1  Chrun.  vi.  LM).  lie  is  jiroba- 
hly  a  dilferent  person  from  Zeidianiah  CUJ), 
and  lielon;;ed  to  the  collateral  line  which 
spranj;  from  Tahath.  The  head  of  the  Ko- 
halhite  family  in  David's  reifjn.  bore  this 
name  (  xv.  5,  111,  and  is  conceivably  the  same 
person. 

t;.  A  man  of  (iibeah  whose  daugliter  Mica- 
iah  was  Abijah's  mother  (2  Chrou.  xiii.  2). 

U-ri'jah  [lij^bt  of  Jehovah]. 

1.  The  hi^'h  i)riest  in  Ahaz'  reign  who  was 
directed  to  make  an  altar  like  that  which 
caught  till'  kings  fancy  at  Damascus  (2  Kin. 
xvi.  lO-l(j).  He  was  probably  one  of  the  two 
witnesses  to  the  enigmatical  inscrijition  writ- 
ten by  I.--aiah  (Is.  viii.  2,  in  H.  V.  Uriah). 

'2.  A  priii)liet.  the  sou  of  Shemaiah  of  Kii'- 
jath-jearim.  He  agreed  with  Jeremiah  in 
])redicting  that  the  liingdom  of  Judah  was 
about  to  i)e  temporarily  destroyed,  which  so 
enraged  king  .bdioiakini  that  he  sought  to 
kill  the  itmiihct  of  evil,  rri.jab  lied  to  Egypt, 
but  was  brought  back  and  slain  (Jer.  x.xvi. 
20-23). 

3.  .A.  priest  (Neh.  iii.  4,  21) ;  see  Ukiaii  3. 

4.  Out!  who  stood  by  Ezra  while  he  ad- 
dressed tlie  iK'ople  (Neh.  viii.  4;  in  E.  V. 
Uriali)  ;  .see  Timah  4. 

U'rim  and  Thum'mim  [liglits  and  perfec- 
tions!. 'I'he  order  is  once  reversed  (Dent, 
xxxiii.  H),  and  twice  Urim  alone  is  used 
(Num.  xxvii.  21  ;  1  Ram.  xxviii.  6). 

One  or  mor(>  olijects  belonging  to  the  ejdiod 
of  the  high  jiriest,  i>nt  in  the  breastplate  of 
.judgment  so  as  to  be  on  the  high  jiriest's 
heart  when  he  went  in  before  the  Lord  (E.x. 
xxviii.  30;  Lev.  viii.  K).  The  receptacle  was 
l.robably  a  f..l<l  of  the  ))reastplate  or  the 
sjiace  underneath  it.  In  conncctinii  with  the 
Trim  and  Thumniim.  the  high  ]priest  learned 
the  will  of  (iod  in  doubtful  cases.  This 
method  was  not  adopted  fur  iu(|uiring  the 
divine  will  concerning  private  iii(lividiials  <pr 
private  matters,  but  w;is  only  enipinyecl  in 
behalf  of  the  nation  ;  hence  the  re(|uired 
lilaee  for  tlu^  Urim  and  Thummim  was  in  the 
breastplate  of  judgment,  which  bore  the 
names  of  the  tw<>lv('  tribes  of  Israel  on 
twelve  precious  stipiies.  With  tlie  I'riin  and 
Thunimim,  the  will  of  Jehovah,  the  judge, 
eoncerning  judicial  matters,  and  the  royal 
desire  of  Jehovah,  the  king,  were  learned 
(Num.  xxvii.  21  :  c|>  Ji>sh.  ix.  M  :  Judg.  i.  1 ; 
x\-.  IH,  23,  27,  2>^:  1  Sam.  x.  22;  xiv.  3(!- 
42;  xxii.  10.  l.'i;  xxiii.it  12;  xxviii.  (!;  xxx. 
7.  H;  2  Sam.  ii.  1  ;  v.  lit,  23,  24).  The  will 
of  Jehovah   was  inquired   with   Urim   and 


Thummim,  not  only  in  the  sanctuary  or 
where  the  ark  was  (Judg.  xx.  27,  28;  1  San;, 
xxii.  Itt),  but  in  any  jilace,  provided  the 
authorized  i)riest  with  theeidiod  wasjire.sent. 
The  answer  was  usually  (juite  sinijile,  often  a 
mere  afhrmation  or  denial,  or  a  choice  of  one 
tribe  or  i)lace  out  of  several  ;  but  it  was  not 
always  .sod  Saiu.  x.  22;  2  Sam.  v.  2:5,24). 
Occasion  a  ll.v,  also,  when  sin  had  interrupted 
communion  with  (iod,  no  answer  was  graiiti-d 
(1  Sam.  xiv.  37  ;  xxviii.  (i).  There  is  no  ref- 
erence to  the  use  of  Urim  and  Thtiiimiim 
after  the  reign  of  David,  and  at  the  time  of 
the  return  from  exile  there  was  no  i)riest 
with  Urim  and  Thummim  (Ezra  ii.  63;  Neh. 
vii.  {);■))  ;  hence  Josei)lius  is  ju-obabl.v  wrong  in 
saying  tliat  the  virtue  or  use  ceased  2<i0  years 
before  his  time  (Antiti-  iii.  8,  9;.  The  use 
of  this  method  was  a  prerogative  of  the  high 
priest  alone;  and,  since  he  belonged  to  the 
tribe  of  Levi,  the  possession  of  the  Urim  and 
Thummim  was  a  glory  of  that  tribe  (Deut. 
xxxiii.  8). 

Dirt'erent  explanations  of  the  Urim  and 
Thunimim  have  been  offered.  For  example, 
an  analogue  has  been  sought  in  the  badge  of 
office  which  the  Eg.vptian  high  priest,  as  su- 
ju-cme  judge,  is  reported  by  cla.ssical  writers 
to  have  worn,  consisting  of  an  endilem  of 
truth  sns])ended  from  his  neck  on  a  golden 
chain;  but  the  Egyjitian  high  juiest  carried 
this  official  token  during  the  judicial  ])ro- 
ceedings  onlv,  and  hanged  it  on  the  ]ierson 
in  whose  favor  judgment  was  pronounced  ; 
and  there  is  no  evidence  that  it  was  ever 
used  as  a  means  for  intiuiring  the  divine 
will.  Other  interiireters  have  su])]ioscd  that 
when  to  the  high  ])riest,  clad  in  the  e]ihod 
with  the  I'rim  and  Thummim  and  offering 
prayer,  an  idea  occurred,  its  divine  origin 
and  truth  were  confirmed  bv  thi'  unwonted 
gleaming  of  the  gems  in  the  breastplate. 
From  this  jdienomenon  was  derived  the  name 
I'rim,  lights.  It  has  been  snggesti'd  that  the 
answer  was  sjielled  out  bv  the  successive 
gleaming  of  the  letters  which  composed  the 
proper  names  on  the  stones;  but  to  say  noth- 
ing of  the  fait  that  the  eomiilete  aliihabet  is 
not  yielibd  by  these  names,  anil  that  in  sev- 
eral of  the  recorded  res]ionses  letters  occur 
which  are  not  found  on  the  stones,  the  whole 
idea  smacks  of  the  feigned  miracles  of  (ireek 
and  Tvonian  jiriests,  and  is  foreign  to  the 
melboils  and  conceptions  of  the  Hebrew 
ritual. 

Only  two  theories  are  important.  1.  The 
Urim  and  Thummim  were  on(<  or  more  ap- 
pendages of  the  e])hod  and  detaibable,  and 
were  used  as  the  lot,  cast  like  dice,  and  by 
their  fall  revealed  the  divine  will.  This  is, 
indeed,  a  jiossible  conce])fion,  but  it  lacks 
l>roof.  Support  is  sought  for  it  in  the  fact 
that  the  easting  of  (lie  lot  is  twice  referred 
to  in  close  association  with  seeking  revelation 
through  Uriin:indThummiin  1 1  Sam.  x.  l!i-22; 
xiv.  .37-42).  In  the  latter  <-ase,  Saul  pniyed  : 
"  Give  a  perfect  lot "  (41,  K.  V.  margin).   The 


Usury 


758 


Uzziah 


word  thiimim  is  used,  which  it  is  proposed  to 
]iriin<iiiii('('  tliiiminiiii,  and  tliiis  iniiki-  the  Urini 
and  Tlimmuiin  to  havu  heeii  u  kind  of  sacred 
lot.  But  in  the  two  cases  mentioned,  the 
easting  of  lots  was  a  distinct  act  from  iiKiuir- 
inj;  (if  the  Lord,  and  was  undertaken  for  a 
ditVercnt  juirpose  from  that  for  which  coun- 
sel was  asked.  2.  The  I'rini  and  Thummim 
gave  no  outward  manifestation,  hut  served 
as  a  symhol.  The  hij;h  priest  arrayed  liim- 
self  in  tlie  ephod  with  Urim  and  Tluininiim, 
wliich  betokened  his  authority  to  obtain 
lijiht  and  trutli,  as  thi'  name  indicates,  iu 
order  tliat  he  migiit  seek  counsel  of  Je- 
hovah in  the  divinely  appointed  manner. 
He  laid  the  matter  humlily  before  (lod  in 
prayer  ;  the  answer  dawned  iu  his  mind  ;  he 
believed  that  the  response  was  correct,  be- 
cause he  had  made  his  request  in  the  manner 
of  (xod's  ap])oiutnient,  and  because  lie  had 
(Tod's  promise  that  he  should  receive  light 
and  trnlli.  Faith  in  (tod  was  the  evidence 
of  things  not  seen.  This  interiiretation  of 
the  use  of  the  Urim  and  Thummim  accords 
with  the  spirituality  of  the  entire  ritualism 
of  tlie  tabernacle.  The  answer  was  inward 
illumination,  without  any  external  sign,  and 
tinils  its  i)arallel  iu  the  revelations  granted  to 
the  projihets. 

U'su-ry. 

Interest  on  loaned  money,  the  word  being 
used  iu  its  primary  sense,  without  any  im- 
])utation  that  the  interest  is  extortionate  in 
amount.     See  Lo.\N. 

U'thai  [probablj',  heliiful]. 

1.  A  man  of  Judah,  family  of  Perez,  and 
son  of  .\nimihud.  He  was  the  head  of  the 
father's  house  to  which  he  belonged,  and 
dwelt  at  Jerusalem   (1  Chron.  ix.  4). 

2.  A  descendant  of  Bigvai.  He  accom- 
panied Ezra  from  Babylon  (Ezra  viii.  14). 

Uz,  iu  A.  V.  once  Huz  (Gen.  xxii.  21). 

A  tribe  of  the  Aramseans  (Gen.  x.  23),  able 
to  trace  their  descent  partly  from  Nahor 
(xxii.  21),  and  connected  by  blood  or  political 
ties  with  Dislian  the  Horite  (xxxvi.28).  Job 
resided  in  tin;  land  of  Uz  (.lob  i.  1),  and  was 
exposed  to  attack  from  the  Salieaus  and  Chal- 
deans (15,  17).  At  the  time  of  Jeremiah, 
Edomites  dwelt  in  the  laud  of  Uz  (Lam.  iv. 
21).  Jose])luis  regarded  Uz  as  the  founder 
of  Trachonitis  and  Damascus  (Autiq.  i.  6,  4). 
rtolemy  locates  the  Ausitai  in  the  desert 
west  of  the  Euphrates.  Uz,  according  to 
these  data,  was  in  the  Syrian  de.sert  between 
the  latitudes  of  Damascus  and  Edom. 

U'zai. 

I'allur  of  one  who  helped  to  rebuild  the 
wall  of  .ferusalem  (Neh.  iii.  25). 

U'zal  [iiossibly,  travel  or  wandering]. 

\  peojile  of  .\rabia  desceiuled  from  Joktan 
((ien.  X.  27;  1  Chron.  i.  21 ;  Ezek.  xxvii.  19, 
R.  V.  margin).  The  kindred  name  Azal  was, 
according  to  Arabian  tradition,  the  ancient 
name  of  Sana,  the  capital  of  Yemen,  in  Arabia. 


Uz'za  [.strength].  The  orthography  is 
Aramaic. 

1.  A  Benjamite,  a  son  or  a  descendant  of 
Ehud  (1  Chron.  viii.  7). 

2.  The  founder  of  a  family  of  Nethinim, 
members  of  which  returned  from  captivity 
(Ezra  ii.  49;  Neh.  vii.  51). 

3.  A  man  known  only  as  the  original  owner 
of  a  garden.  Tliis  garden  ultimately  passed 
into  the  hands  of  Manasseli,  king  cif  Judah, 
and  was  within  the  precincts  of  his  palace. 
Both  Manasseli  and  his  son  Amon  were  buried 
in  it  (2  Kin.  xxi.  18,  2(5;  cp.  2  tlhron.  xxxiii, 
20).  The  garden  was  apparently  at  or  near 
Jerusalem,  but  the  exact  spot  is  undeter- 
mined. 

4  and  5.  Two  men  otherwise  called  Uzzah. 
Uz'zali,   and  Uzza  in  1  Chron.  xiii.  7-11 
and  A.  V.  of  vi.  29  [strength]. 

1.  A  son  of  Abinadab,  of  what  tritie  is  un- 
known. When  the  ark  had  reached  the 
threshing  lloor  of  Nacou,  or  Chidou,  on  its 
way  to  the  city  of  David,  the  oxen  stumbled 
and  Uzzah,  putting  forth  his  hand  to  sup 
port  the  sacred  symbol,  was  struck  dead. 
The  place  was  thei'efore  called  Perez-uzzah. 
breach  of  Uzzah,  or  breaking  out  agaiust 
Uzzah,  and  long  retained  the  name  (2  Sam. 
vi.  3-11;  1  Chron.  xiii.  7-14). 

2.  A  son  of  Merari  (1  Chron.  vi.  29). 
Uz-zen-she'e-rah,  in  A.  V.  Uzzen-sherah. 
A  village  built  by  Sheerah,  daughter  of  an 

Ephraimite  named  Ephraim  (1  Chron.  vii.  24). 
It  is  mentioned  in  connection  with  the  two 
Beth-horons,  and  is  considered  to  have  been 
at  Beit  Sira,  3  miles  west  by  south  of  the 
nether  Beth-horon,  and  13  west  by  north  of 
Jerusalem. 

Uz'zi  [my  strength,  or  might  of  (Jehovah)]. 

1.  A  man  of  Issachar,  family  of  Tola,  and 
head  of  a  father's  house  (1  Chron.  vii.  2,  3). 

2.  A  priest,  son  of  Bukki.  and  father  of 
Zerahiah,  of  the  line  of  Eleazar  (1  Chron.  vi. 
5,  6,  51).  He  was  an  ancestor  of  Ezra  (Ezra 
vii.  4). 

3.  A  Benjamite,  family  of  Bela,  and  head 
of  a  father's  house  (1  Chron.  vii.  7). 

4.  Another  Benjamite,  son  of  Michri,  and 
father  of  Elah  (1  Chron.  ix.  8). 

5.  A  Levite  of  the  sons  of  Asiiph.  He  was 
son  of  Bani,  and  overseer  of  the  Levites  at 
Jerusalem  (Neh.  xi.  22). 

6.  A  priest,  head  of  the  house  of  .Tedaiah 
in  the  days  of  the  high  priest  Joiakim  (Neh. 
xii.  19). 

7.  A  ])riest,  one  of  those  who  assisted  at 
the  dedication  of  the  rebuilt  wall  of  Jerusa- 
lem (Neh.  xii.  42). 

Uz-zi'a  [probably.  Aramaic  spelling  of 
'Uzsh/!/tih,  might  of  .Tehovah]. 

A  man  from  the  town  of  Ashtaroth,  and 
one  of  David's  mighty  men  (1  Chron.  xi.  44). 

Uz-zi'ah,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Ozias  [might 
of  Jehovah]. 

1.  A  Kohathite  Levite,  the  son  of  Shaui 
(1  Chron.  vi.  24). 


Uzziel 


759 


Vau 


2.  The  father  of  :i  certain  Jehonathau  in 
David's  time  (1   Ciiniii.   xxvii.  2'>}. 

3.  A  kin;;  of  Jiidah.  who  is  railed  in  2  Kin. 
XV.  1  Azariah,  and  hy  the  As.syrians  Azri- 
yau  :  Imt  in  2  Chron.  .xxvi.  and  in  Is.  i.  1; 
vi.  1  ;  Hos.  i.  1  ;  Amos  i.  1  ;  and  Zech.  xiv.  5 
Uzziah.  He  succeeded  his  fathiT  .\maziah 
ahout  7"^t)  B.  c,  durin;:  the  hitter's  lifetime, 
a  few  yeai-s  after  the  crushing;  defeat  was  in- 
flicted on  Amaziah  liy  the  kin;;  of  Israel. 
That  lie  rei^nied  dnrin;;  his  father's  lifetime 
is  evident  I'roln  the  statiinent  made  in  con- 
neetion  with  the  record  of  his  rei;;n,  that  he 
built  Elath  after  the  death  of  the  king  (2 
Kin.  xiv.  22).  He  was  sixteen  years  old 
■when  he  ascended  the  throne  (21).  After 
eonductin;;  the  ;.'overnment  for  twenty-four 
years,  it  is  recorded  that  "he  rei;;ned  in 
the  twenty-seventh  year  of  .Terohoam  "  (xv. 
1;  the  word  "he;;an"  is  not  in  the  He- 
brew text).  This  statement  "is  most  easily 
explained."  says  Kleiiu'rt.  "by  the  assump- 
tion that  in  this  year  the  kin^^lom  of  .liidah 
liad  reu;ained  the  full  soverei;;nty  ;  "  freeing 
itself  from  vassalage  to  Jeroboam,  in  which 
it  had  been  held  since  the  overthrow  of 
Amaziah.  the  cajiture  ami  dismantlement  of 
Jerusalem,  and  the  enforcement  of  hostages. 
Uzziah  organizetl  the  army  ;  and  he  imjiroved 
the  fortitications  of  Jerusalem,  and  the 
Wi  aiious  and  military  engines  of  his  tniops. 
He  gained  imimrtant  viclorii's  over  the  I'hi- 
listine.s,  the  .\ralis,  the  .\inmonites,  and  otlier 
foes.  So  strong  did  .ludah  become,  that  the 
kingdom  of  Hamatli  sought  alliance  with  it, 
as  the  Assyrian  records  relate  ((•]>.  2  Chrfm. 
xxvi.  8).  He  i)romoted  agriculture  by  build- 
ing towers  in  the  desert  and  digging  wells. 
I'zziali  himself  worsliijied  Jehovah,  l)Ut  did 
not  take  away  the  high  ])laces  at  which  his 
jieople  sacrificed  to  other  gods.  At  length, 
elated  by  his  jirosperity,  he  entt'red  the  tem- 
jile  against  priestly  ri'monst ranee,  and  at- 
t<'mpted  to  offer  incense,  but  was  struck 
with  leprosy,  from  which  he  never  recovered. 
He  hail  therefore  to  associate  his  son  Jotham 
witli  him  in  the  government.  A  notable 
earthfjuake  occurred  during  his  reign  l.\mos 
i.  1  ;  Zech.  xiv.  5).  which  took  ])lace  near 
enough  to  his  attemiit  to  invade  tlu'  i)riest's 
ortice  to  be  connected  with  it  in  the  pojjular 
memory  (Antiq.  ix.  10,  4).  His  reign  ex- 
ten<led  to  tifty-two  years.  He  died  about  the 
year  7.T>  n.  v.  (2  Kin.  xv.  1-7:  2('hr(in.  xxvi. 
l-2.'{).  Hefore  his  decease  tlH>  i)ro]diets  Isaiah, 
Hosea,  and  Amos  had  })egun  their  public 
career  (Is.  i.  1  ;  vi.  1 ;  Hos.  i.  1  ;  Amos 
i.  1). 

4.  A  priest,  son  of  Harini.  He  was  in- 
duced liy  ICzra  to  imt  away  his  foreign  wife 
(Kzni  X.21). 

r>.  A  man  of  Judau.  familv  of  Perez  (Neli. 
\i.  1). 

Uz'zl-el  [might  of  (iod]. 
1.  A   Levite,  son  of  Kobath,  and  founder 
of  a  tribal  family  (Ex.  vi.  18,  22;  Num.  iii. 


19,  27,  30).  He  was  a  kinsman  of  Aaron  oa 
the  father's  side  (Lev.  x.  4).  Amminadab, 
the  chief  of  the  Uzzielites,  and  112  of  liis 
brethren,  were  organized  by  David  for  ser- 
vice when  he  brought  uj)  the  ark  to  the  city 
of  David  (1  t'hron.  xv.  10). 

2.  A  Bcnjamite,  family  of  Bela  (1  Chron. 
vii.  7). 

3.  A  Levite,  instrumentalist  in  David's 
reign  (1  Chron.  xxv.  4).  (.'ailed  in  verse  18 
Azarel  ;  see  .\zakki.  2. 

4.  A  I^ivite,  son  of  .feduthun.  He  assisted 
king  Hezekiah  in  his  work  of  reformation  (2 
Chron.  xxix.  14). 

5.  A  Simeonite  cajitaiti,  one  of  those  who, 
in  Hi'zekiah's  reign,  led  a  successful  ex])edi- 
tion  against  the  Amalekites  of  mount  Seir  (1 
Chron.  iv.  41-43). 

6.  A  goldsmith,  son  of  Ilarhaiah.  He 
helped  to  rebuild  the  wall  of  Jerusalem 
(Neh.  iii.  8). 


V. 


Va'heb. 

A  i)lace  near  the  Anion  (Num.  xxi.  14.  15, 
K.  V.I.  otherwise  unknown.     See   Di-ZAH.\B. 

Va-iz'a-tha,  in  A.  V.  Va-jeza-tba  [Per- 
sian, perhaps  meaning  strong  as  the  wind]. 

A  son  of  Hainan  (listh.  ix.  9). 

Vale  and  Val'ley. 

The  vale  or  the  valley,  par  crcellence,  is 
in  A.  \.  the  Slie]du'lali  or  lowland  ((i.  v.). 

Va-ni'ah  []ierhaps.  distress]. 

A  son  of  Bani,  induced  by  Ezra  to  jiut 
away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  3(j). 

■Vash'ni. 

According  to  1  Chron.  vi.  28  (A.  Y.  follow- 
ing the  Hebrew  text),  the  eldest  son  of  Sam- 
uel, in  which  case  he  would  be  the  same  as 
Joel  of  verse  33,  and  of  1  Sam.  viii.  2.  Put 
the  text  is  corrupt.  Joel  has  accidentally 
slipi)ed  out,  the  conjunction  ran  before 
Abiah  has  crept  in,  and  vuiihiii  should  be  ren- 
dered "and  the  second"  (K.  V.  following 
Syriac  and  1  Sam.  viii.  2). 

Vash'ti. 

The  f|neen  of  the  Persian  sovereign  Aha.su- 
erus.  For  refusing  to  show  herself  to  the 
king's  guests  at  a  feast,  she  was  divorced  and 
dejiosed  (Esth.  i.  9-ii.  1).  Vashti  may  be  a 
title,  old  Persian  idhishfi.  .sweetest  ;  or  it 
may  be  the  Hebrew  reiiroductioii  of  the  Per- 
sian name  which  the  (ireeks  jironounced 
Amestris.  Amestris  was  the  wife  of  Xerxes 
(Herod,  vii.  til,  114).  If  she  was  Vashti, 
^'ashti  was  ultimately  restored  to  favor. 

Vau. 

The  sixth  letter  of  the  Hebrew  ali)habet. 
The  English  F,  through  the  Creek  dig.-imma 
or  fan,  has  the  sjuiie  origin.  Where  it  is  a 
consonant  in  Hebrew  names,  it  ajipears  as  v 
in  the  anglicized  form. 


VeU 


(60 


Versions 


It  stands  nt  the  head  of  the  sixth  section 
of  I's.  cxix.  in  sevi'ial  versions,  in  which  sec- 
tion each  vei-se  l)e};iiis  with  tliis  letUr. 

At  several  dilltrent  lurioils  in  tlie  develoi)- 
nient  of  the  Ilclirew  aiiiluibet  it  has  had 
similarity  with  other  letters.  On  the  tomb 
of  James,  datinfi  from  the  first  century  be- 
fore Christ,  vail  and  zain  are  scarcely  dis- 
tinf^nishahle  from  one  another,  and  jod  dif- 
fers only  by  a  hook  at  the  top  and  a  slope ; 
thus,  in  the  order  named,  HjH,"^ 
In  the  inscription  on  the  synagogue  at  Kefr 
Hir'im  the  dilference  between  van  and  jod 
has  disappeared. 

Veil,  in  A.  V.  often  Vail.  See  Clothing, 
T.\i!Ki;x.vrLi:,  and  Temi>le,  Hekod's. 

Ver-mil'ion. 

A  red  pigment  ol)tained  by  grinding  the 
mineral  cinnal>ar  (Pliny,  Hist.  Xat.  xxxiii. 
38).  It  was  called  skasliur  in  Hebrew,  miltos 
in  Cireek;  and  was  used  to  paint  walls, 
mural  decorations,  and  idols  (Jer.  xxii.  14 ; 
Ezek.  xxiii.  14  ;  VVisd.  xiii.  14).  Vermiliou 
is  a  satisfactory  translation  of  the  word  in 
these  pas.sagcs;  but  miltos  was  of  broader 
meaning  and  denoted  any  red,  mineral,  color- 
ing matter;  as  red  lead,  or  clay  mingled  with 
the  oxide  of  iron  and  known  as  ocher.  Rude 
Africans  bedauiied  the  body  with  it  (Herod. 
iv.  191,  194),  and  certain  tribes  used  it  as  war 
l)aint  (vii.  ()9). 

Ver'sions. 

Translations  of  the  Bible  or  of  any  por- 
tions of  it  into  vernacular  tongues,  for  the 
benefit  of  those  who  understand  the  original 
imi)erfectly  or  not  at  all.  It  would  not  be 
])ossil)le  within  narrow  limits  to  treat  the 
subject  exhaustively;  all  that  can  be  done 
will  be  to  select  the  versions  which  are  most 
valuable  for  critical  purposes  or  are  of  most 
interest  to  the  English  reader. 

Versions  are  immediate  or  mediate,  accord- 
ing as  they  are  made  directly  from  the  orig- 
inal text  or  through  tlie  medium  of  other 
translations.  Four  ancient  immediate  ver- 
sions of  the  O.  T.  have  come  down  to  modern 
times:  the  Se])tuagiTit,  the  Targnms  of  On- 
kelos  and  .lonatlian  ben  Uzziel,  tlie  Syriac 
Pcsliito  with  a  coiisideral)Ie  ])ortion  ofits  jn'ed- 
ecesisors,  and  the  Latin  Vulgate.  They  de- 
rive special  value  from  the  fact  that  they 
were  nuide  before  the  Hebrew  text  of  the 
Masorctes  was  established. 

The  Samaritan  I'entateucli  isnota  version  ; 
it  is  the  Hebrew  text  written  in  Samaritan 
or  old  Hebrew  characters,  with  various  di- 
vergences from  the  Ilebrcnv  text  of  the  Mas- 
orctes (see  S.\M.vuiT.\N  I'kntateih'h)  ;  and 
the  .Samaritan  version  of  the  Pentateuch  is 
a  translation  of  this  divergent  text  into  the 
Samaritan  dialect. 

I.  Avciriit  IVj-.fWH.f  of  the  0.  T.,  mode  for 
the  iifir  of  Ji'irs. 

1.  The  Seiituiuiiiit.  The  most  celebrated 
f»reek    version    of    the    Hebrew    Scriptures 


and  the  oldest  complete  translation  of  them. 
It  was  called  the  Scptuagint,  commonly 
designated  by  LXX.,  after  the  seventy 
translators  re])Uted  to  have  been  emi)loyed 
on  it  iu  the  time  of  I'tolemy  I'hiladelphus, 
28.^-247  B.  c.  Aristobulus,  a  Jewish  priest 
who  lived  in  Alexandria  during  the  reign 
of  Ptolemy  Pliilometor.  l.'-l-14fi  i:.  c,  and 
who  is  meiitionetl  in  2  Mac.  i.  10,  is  quoted  by 
Clement  of  Alexandria  and  Eusebius  as 
stating  that  wliile  portions  relating  to  He- 
brew history  had  been  translated  into  Greek 
l>reviously,  the  entire  law  was  translated 
from  the  Hebrew  in  the  reign  of  Ptolemy 
Pliiladelphus  under  the  direction  of  Deme- 
trius Phalereus.  The  same  tradition,  but  con- 
siderably embellished,  is  contained  iu  a  letter 
l)urporting  to  have  lieen  written  by  Aristeas 
to  his  brother.  This  letter  is  condemned  by 
modern  scholars  as  spurious.  The  same  story 
as  that  told  by  Aristeas  is  repeated  with 
sliglit  variations  by  Josephus,  who  may  have 
had  the  letter  before  him.  Josephus  relates 
tliat  Demetrius  Phalereus,  librarian  to  Ptol- 
emy Philadelphus,  who  reigned  alone  from 
283-247  B.  c,  wished  to  add  to  the  200,000 
volumes  in  tlie  library  a  copy  of  the  Hebrew 
books  of  the  law,  and  to  have  them  translated 
into  Greek,  as  they  were  unintelligible  in 
the  original.  The  king  consented,  and  made 
application  to  Eleazar  the  high  priest  at 
Jerusalem  for  seventy-two  aged  and  skillful 
interpreters,  six  from  each  tribe,  to  make  tlic 
translation.  They  arrived  in  Alexandria, 
bringing  the  law  written  ip  golden  letters 
on  books  of  parchment.  They  were  hos- 
pitably received,  were  assigned  a  quiet  house 
on  the  island  of  Pharos  in  tin;  harbor  of 
Alexiindria,  and  transcribed  and  interpreted 
the  law  in  seventy-two  days  (Antiq.  xii.  2, 
1-13;  con.  Apion.  ii.  4). 

These  ancient  reports  concerning  the  origin 
of  the  Septuagint  have  great  value,  although 
reliance  cannot  be  placed  on  the  details,  and 
the  statements  regarding  the  scojie  of  the 
work  are  difficult  of  interpretation.  It  Is, 
however,  commonly  agreed  that  the  Sep- 
tuagint originated  in  Egypt,  that  the  Penta- 
teuch was  translated  into  Greek  in  the  time 
of  Ptolemy  Philadeliihus,  that  the  other 
books  followed  gradually,  and  that  the  entire 
work  was  completed  by  150  b.  c.  Reference 
to  a  Greek  version  of  the  law,  the  jirophets, 
and  the  other  books  is  made  by  Jesus,  son  of 
Sirach.  as  early  as  132  b.  c.  { Ecclus.  prologue). 
It  is  possilile  that  the  work  was  revised  in 
the  Maccabjean  period.  The  version  is  the 
work  of  many  translators,  as  differences  in 
style  and  method  show,  and  its  (piality  is 
tmequal  in  different  i)arts ;  it  is  also  much 
corrupted.  The  translation  of  the  Penta- 
teuch, except  poetic  portions  (Gen.  xlix.  ; 
Deut.  xxxii.,  xxxiii.).  is  the  best  jiart  of  tlie 
work,  and  on  the  whole  is  well  executed,  al- 
though not  literal.  The  translators  of  The 
Proverbs  and  .lob  were  masters  of  a  good 
Greek  style,  but  were  imperfectly  acquainted 


Versions 


761 


Versions 


with  Uebrow  and  handled  the  original  arbi- 
trarily. Till'  transliitiipii  of  'I'lif  I'ruvorli.s  is 
bused  on  a  Jlebriw  text  wiiiiii  dillVnd  I'roni 
the  i)resent  Masorelie  one.  The  j;eneral 
sense  of  the  Psalms  is  fairly  well  reproduced. 
The  translation  of  the  iiropliets  is  not  satis- 
faetory,  Imt  dillcrences  arc  disci'rnil)le.  Tiie 
version  of  Jereiiiiah  was  iiossii)ly  made  from 
a  diU'erent  text  than  the  Masoretic.  That 
of  Amos  and  l>.ekiel  is  tolerably  well  done, 
but  that  of  Isaiah  is  (|uite  inferior.  Of  all 
the  (>.  T.  honks.  Daniel  is  tlie  most  jioorly 
translated,  so  much  so  that  the  early  Chris- 
tians, since  the  time  of  Irena'us  and  Hij)- 
polytus,  substituted  for  it  the  version  of 
Theodolion. 

Chrisi  and  liis  ajjostles  used  the  Sejituajjint 
frciiuently.  In  (juotiug  i>a.ssa};es  from  the 
().  T.,  sometimes  they  did  so  veri)atim,  or 
with  uniiniiortant  verbal  changes,  from  the. 
Seiituagint  ;  at  others,  they  set  it  aside,  and 
apiiarently  tlicmselves  translated  from  the 
original  Hebrew.  There  arc  about  '■'>'>()  quo- 
tations from  the  O.  T.  in  the  gosjicls,  The 
Acts,  and  the  ejiistles,  of  which  only  about 
fifty  materially  diflcr  from  thetircck.  When 
riiiiip  met  the  Ethiopian  eunuch,  the  hittt-r 
was  reading  the  8cptuagint  (Acts  viii.  oO-IJIi). 

Three  main  recensions  of  the  Septnagint 
were  made-.  One  was  i.ssiied  about  A.  D.  236, 
and  the  others  jprevious  to  .\.  i).  311.  They 
were  that  ol"  Origen  in  Palestine,  of  I^ncian 
in  Asia  Minor  and  C'onstantinojile,  and  of 
Ilesychins  in  Egypt.  Tlie  Vatican  mann- 
scri]it  of  the  Septnagint  is  acknowledged  to 
exhibit  relatively  the  jinrest  and  most  origi- 
nal text,  and  it  ])robably  descended  from  that 
up(»n  which  Origen  based  the  text  oftheSci)lu- 
agint  given  in  the  fifth  column  of  liis  liex- 
apla :  see  I.  2.  Lncian's  recension  has  been 
recovered,  and  has  been  edited  by  Eagarde. 
Encian  was  a  i)resbyter  of  Antioch,  and  died 
a  m:irtyr's  death  at  Nicomedia  in  a.  i>.  .ill 
or  312.  He  issued  a  revised  text  of  the  Sep- 
tnagint based  on  a  comjiari.son  of  the  com- 
mon (ireek  text  with  the  Hebrew  text, 
which  jiroves  to  have  been  a  good  text,  but 
dillerent  from  that  of  tlic  Masoretes.  Hesy- 
chius  was  l)ishop  of  Egyi)t,  and  sutl'ered 
martyrdom  a.  D.  310  or  .311  ;  his  text  has 
been  lost. 

2.  Minor  (lieck  Vcrxious.  After  the  <1(>- 
struction  of  .leriisalem  in  A.  D.  TO.  the 
Septnagint  Inst  favor  among  the  .lews,  jiartly 
because-  of  the  successful  use  made  of  it 
by  the  Christians  in  establishing  the  claims 
of  Jesus,  and  ]>artly  because  tiiey  discovered 
that  its  style  kicked  elegance,  .\ccordingly 
three  transhitions  of  the  canonical  books  of 
the  O.  T.  were  luade  by  .li'ws  in  the  .second 
century.  1.  'I'he  translation  liy  .\<|uila.  a 
native  of  rontusand  a  jiroselyti- to  .linlaism. 
He  livefl  in  the  time  of  the  emjieror  Hadrian, 
and  he  nudcrlonk  (ci  make  a  literal  version 
of  the  Hebrew  Scriiitiires  in  order  to  coun- 
teract the  use  of  the  Sejituagint  made  by  the 
Christians  in  advancing  their  doctrines.     It 


was  so  slavisldy  literal  as  often  to  be  unin- 
telligible to  readers  wliodid  not  know  IE  brew 
as  well  as  (ireek.  2.  Tlie  revision  of  the 
Si'ptuagint  by  Theodotion,  a  Jewish  jiro.se- 
lyte  of  Ejihesus  according  to  Irinaus,  and 
according  to  Eusebius  an  Ebiunite,  believ- 
ing in  the  Jlessiahship,  but  not  in  the  divinity 
of  Christ.  He  lived  licfore  A.  D.  lliU,  for  he 
is  mentioned  by  Justin  Martyr.  In  liis  re- 
vision of  the  Septuagint  he  made  use  both 
of  Aquila's  translation  and  of  the  Hcbriw 
original.  3.  The  elegant,  but  iieriphiastic, 
translation  by  Symmachus,  a  Samaritan 
Ebionite. 

Origen  arranged  the  Hi  brew  text  and  four 
dillerent  versions  in  six  jiarallel  columns  for 
purposes  of  comiiarison.  In  the  first  column 
he  put  tlie  Hebrew  text,  in  the  second  the 
Hebrew  written  in  Greek  letters,  in  the  third 
the  version  of  Aquila.  in  tlie  fourth  that  of 
Symmachus,  in  the  fifth  the  Sejituagint,  in 
the  sixth  the  revision  by  Theodotion.  From 
these  six  columns  his  work  takes  its  name 
of  Hexajila.  In  the  column  devoted  to  the 
Se]ituagint  he  marked  with  obeli  words 
which  were  not  in  his  Hebrew  text.  He 
emended  the  Greek  text  by  sujiplyiiig  words 
lacking  in  it,  but  found  in  the  Hebrew. 
These  he  indicated  by  asterisks.  He  con- 
formed the  spelling  of  proper  names  to  the 
Hebrew.  Origen's  work  lias  perished  as  a 
whole,  but  fragments  are  preserved  in  (jiio- 
tations  made  by  the  fathers.  The  Septuagint 
column  was  sejiarately  edited  and  widely 
used,  and  it  was  translated  into  Syriac  by 
Paul,  bishop  of  Telia,  in  A.  D.  (il7-lH. 
Origen  pursued  an  unfortunate  method, 
when  he  conformed  the  text  of  the  Sep- 
tuagint to  the  Hebrew  text  of  his  day ; 
since  the  great  desideratum  of  scholars  is 
the  Greek  text  as  it  left  the  translators' 
hands,  for  that  text  would  throw  light  on 
the  Hebrew  text  which  they  iised.  More- 
over, the  obeli  and  asterisks,  which  Origen 
used,  were  often  neglected  or  carelessly  em- 
ployed by  cojiyists,  so  that  the  additions 
which  he  made  to  the  Septuagint  and  the 
portions  of  the  Sejituagint  which  he  did  not 
find  in  his  Hebrew  text  cannot  always  be 
discovered. 

3.  The  Tnnjinnx.  When  the  Jews  returned 
from  the  Eabylonian  exile,  the  Hebrew  of 
their  forefatlurs  ceased  to  be  their  ordinary 
sjieech.  and  Aramaic,  misnamed  Chaldee, 
to<ik  its  jilace.  It  soon  became  nt'cessary  at 
the  jiublic  reading  of  the  Scriptures  for  the 
reader  or  liis  as-^istant  to  translate  the  jias- 
sage  orally  that  the  jieojile  might  iindersland. 
The  custom  of  exjilaiuiiig  obscure  words  and 
jihrases  at  the  jiublic  reading  was  in  vogue 
in  Ezra's  time  (Neh.  viii.  *<).  'I'he  event  re- 
ferred to  has  been  cited  as  evidence  that  the 
words  read  were  translat<'d  :  but  this  is  more 
tlian  the  statement  warniuts.  .ilid  dciieiids 
uiioii  the  answer  to  tin-  (iiiestiou  whether 
tlie  Hebrews  liad  adopted  a  foreign  language 
during  the  exile.     The  oral  targum— that  is. 


Versions 


i'62 


Versions 


interprcUitiou  or  translation — which  became 
nwc'ssiiry,  was  at  first  a  sinii>lc  i)araplir.isc  in 
Arainaif  ;  l)nt  eventually  it  became  elaborate, 
and  in  urder  to  fix  it  as  a  translation  and 
render  it  authoritative  as  an  interiiretation, 
it  was  reduced  to  writiniL;.  These  written 
Tar{;unis  are  a  valuable  aid  in  determining? 
the  text  as  read  in  the  early  synaj^ogues  and 
in  discovering;  the  meanin,;,'  which  the  Jews 
attached  to  dillicult  i)assa<,'es.  The  iirincii)al 
Tarjiums  are  the  Targum  of  Unkelos  on  the 
Pentateuch  and  the  Targum  of  Jonathan 
ben  Uzziel  on  the  prophets.  According  to 
the  Tiilmud.  Onkelos  was  the  friend  of 
(tam;iliel  and  a  fellow-pui>il  of  I'aul,  and 
therefore  lived  aliout  A.  D.  70.  His  Targum 
would  then  antedate  the  beginning  of  the 
second  century  ;  but  it  is  generally  regarded 
as  a  later  ])roduction,  i)erha]>s  as  early  as 
the  second  century.  It  is  quite  literal.  The 
Targum  of  Jonathan  ben  Uzziel,  on  the  other 
hand,  is  periphrastic  :  and  it  is  of  later  date. 
The  Targums  on  the  Hagiographa  date  from 
the  eleventh  century. 

II.  Ancient  Versfions  of  a  part  or  the  whole  of 
the  Bible,  and  intended  chiefly  for  Christians. 

1.  Si/rinc  Version.i. 

(1)  The  Old  Si/riac  Ver.iion  of  the  N.  T. 
This  is  represented  by  the  gospels  discov- 
ered by  -Mrs.  Lewis  in  the  convent  of  St. 
Catherine  on  mount  Sinai  in  1892,  and  by 
the  closely  related  fragments  found  by  Cure- 
ton  in  a  Svrian  convent  in  the  Nitrian  desert 
in  1S41-13. 

(2)  The  Peshito.  Peshito  means  simple  or 
vulgate.  The  O.  T.  was  made  directly  from 
the  Hebrew,  and  in  the  first  instance  was 
probably  prepared  for  the  use  of  Jewish 
proselytes.  It  was  made  as  early  as  the  first 
century.  The  N.  T.  is  a  revision  of  the  old 
Syriac  in  order  to  bring  it  into  closer  agree- 
ment with  the  Greek  text  and  improve  its 
diction  and  style.  The  Peshito  seems  to 
have  been  in  circulation  in  the  second  cen- 
tury. By  reason  of  its  elegance  it  has  often 
been  called  the  queen  of  versions. 

(3)  The  Philo.reninn  Version  of  the  X.  T. 
This  is  so  called  because  it  was  translated 
in  A.  D.  .508  by  Philoxenus,  bishop  of  Hier- 
apolis,  in  Asia  Minor. 

(4)  The  Jerusalem  or  Pale.'itiuian  Si/riac  Ver- 
sion of  the  N.  T.  is  but  little  known  as  yet, 
but  promises  to  lie  of  critical  value. 

2.  Latin  ]'ersio)is. 

(1)  The  Old  Latin,  or  North  African  ]'ersion. 
By  the  end  of  the  .second  century  a  Latin 
version  of  the  Scrii)tures  was  in  circulation 
in  northern  .\frica.  It  was  used  by  Tertul- 
lian.  who  died  about  A.  T>.  220,  and  by 
Cyprian  and  Augustine.  The  O.  T.  was  not 
translated  immediately  from  the  Hebrew, 
but  was  based  on  the  (Jreek  version. 

(2)  The  Itala  or  Italian  ]'crsioii.  Augustine 
testifies  that  a  translation  of  the  N.  T.  was 
made  by  any  one  who  had  snfticient  knowl- 
edge of  Greek.  The  North  African  version 
of  the  O.  and  N.  T.  was  provincial  in  its  lan- 


guage and  oflTensive  to  the  ears  of  the  Latin 
speaking  Romans  of  the  capitiil.  In  the 
fourth  century,  therefore,  a  recension  of  the 
text  took  i)lacc,  which,  from  being  made  in 
Italy,  was  called  the  Itala. 

(3)  The  Vnhjate.  The  issue  of  the  Itala 
was  followed  by  other  recensions,  of  which 
almost  the  only  etlect  was  to  bring  the  text 
into  confusion ;  till  at  length  in  a.  d.  383  a 
Christian  father,  Jerome  or  Hieronymus, 
A.  U.  32!)  or  331  to  420,  the  most  learned 
scholar  of  his  day  and  a  man  of  moral 
earnestness  and  piety,  was  requested  by 
Damasus,  bishop  of  Rome,  to  undertake  a 
revision  of  the  Latin  N.  T.  Tlie  gospels 
were  compared  with  the  original  Greek,  in- 
terpolations were  removed,  and  gross  errors 
were  corrected.  He  also  made  two  revisions 
of  the  old  Latin  version  of  the  Psjilms  by 
comi)aring  it  with  the  Septuagint.  These 
are  known  as  the  Roman  and  Gallican 
psalters,  because  introduced  into  Rome  and 
Gaul  respectively.  Jerome  then  designed  a 
revision  of  the  entire  O.  T.  In  3S7  he  took 
uj)  his  residence  in  a  monastery  at  Bethle- 
hem. He  began  and  completed  a  revision 
based  on  the  hexaplar  text  of  Origen  ;  but 
ultimately  he  made  a  version  immediately 
from  the  Hebrew,  with  constant  reference  to 
the  Greek  versions  and  with  special  respect 
for  Symmachus.  As  a  youth  he  had  jiursued 
the  study  of  Hebrew,  and  after  his  removal 
to  Bethlehem  he  resumed  it  with  the  aid  of 
Jewish  teachers.  Samuel  and  Kings,  prefaced 
by  the  famous  Prologns  (lalleatus  giving  an 
account  of  the  Hebrew  canon,  were  issued 
in  392,  and  the  entire  work  was  completed 
in  405.  His  own  generation  gave  him  abuse 
rather  than  gratitude  for  the  very  imjiortant 
service  he  had  rendered  it ;  and  the  eminent 
fiither,  whose  temper  was  none  of  the  best, 
retorted  by  expressing  the  contenipt  which 
knowledge  feels  for  blatant  and  aggressive 
ignorance.  As  the  ages  rolled  forward,  his 
work,  which  was  done  not  for  one  genera- 
tion, but  for  all  succeeding  time,  was  more 
and  more  aiijireciated.  The  Vulgate  became 
the  Bible  of  the  whole  western  church  in 
the  Middle  Ages,  and  notwithstanding  ver- 
nacular translations,  remains  the  Bible  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  church  still.  A  recen- 
sion of  the  text  was  made  by  Alcuin,  at  the 
instance  of  Charlemagne,  about  802.  The 
Latin  Vulgate  was  the  first  book  ever  i)rinted, 
having  been  issued  from  the  press  about 
14.55.  soon  after  the  invention  of  print- 
ing. On  April  8,  1546.  the  Council  of  Trent 
made  a  decree  which  expressed  the  wish  for 
a  fresh  revision.  Scholars  were  dilatory 
about  undertaking  the  duty,  till  a  i)ontifi" 
of  iron  will,  Sixtus  V.,  urged  on  the  work 
and  even  took  a  i)ersonal  jiart  in  its  accom- 
plishment. The  revision  was  ]»uhlished  in 
1.590.  A  different  one  came  forth  under  the 
auspices  of  pope  Clement  VIII.  in  1592.  It 
was  an  improvement  on  the  Sixtine  edition, 
but  did  not  quite  render  it  obsolete.     Both 


Versions 


763 


Versions 


editions  are  still  in  use.  Tlie  C'leineiitine 
text  of  tlie  Vulgate  (if  the  ().  T.,  with  the 
varii)us  readings  of  the  eudex  Aiiiiatinus, 
has  been  edited  by  Heyse  and  Tiscliendorf, 
and  the  N.  'V.  aecordiu'i;  to  the  eodex  Anii- 
atinus  by  Tiscliendorf.  It  is  from  the  \'ul- 
gate  that  a  largt'  ])art  of  the  technical  lan- 
guage used  in  theology  is  derived.  For 
instance,  sacrament,  justitication,  and  .sanc- 
titieation  are  simjily  the  anglicized  forms  of 
sacraiiicntnm,  jmsiijicatio,  and  mnvtificatio,  oc- 
curring in  the  Vulgate. 

3.  Coptic  W'isiuits  of  till'  X.  T.  They  ai)i>car 
jirincipally  in  two  dialects,  Meni)ihitic  and 
Tliebaic.  The  Memphitic  version  is  su]ii)osed 
to  date  from  tlie  close  of  the  .second  century. 
It  is  for  the  most  part  faithful,  and  preserves 
the  best  text  as  current  among  the  Alexan- 
drian fathers,  free  from  the  corrujitions 
that  prevailed  in  the  second  century.  Tlie 
Thebaic  versiou  is  believed  to  be  slightly 
later  in  date,  aud  it  is  less  faithful  to  the 
original. 

4.  Till'  Etiiiopic  Version  ofthellihle  was  made 
some  time  between  the  fourth  and  sixth  cen- 
turies A.  v>. ;  it  is  the  oldest  monument  as 
well  as  the  foundation  of  the  whole  Kthiojiic 
literature.  Its  translators  were  not  learned 
men,  nor  entirely  familiar  with  (Jreek,  but 
the  rendering  is  faithful  and  has  prest'rvcd 
peculiarities.  The  O.  T.  jiortion  was  not 
translated  immediately  from  the  Hebrew, 
but  was  made  from  the  (Jri-ek  version,  and 
is  therefore  valnablc  as  an  aid  in  determining 
the  text  of  the  Sejituagint. 

5.  The  (iothir  ]'i'isii)ii  was  made  in  the  latter 
half  of  the  fourth  century  by  I'lphilas, 
bishop  of  the  West  Goths.  It  embraced  the 
whole  Hible  e\c(])t  the  books  of  Samuel  and 
Kings,  which  the  bishoj)  omitted,  becau.se  he 
thought  it  would  be  dangerous  to  ])lace  tliem, 
with  their  warlike  s]iirit  and  opposition  to 
idolatry,  in  the  hands  of  the  (ioths.  Most 
of  the'X.  T..  but  little  of  the  ().  T.  in  this 
version  is  extant.  The  translation  is  faith- 
ful and  skillful. 

().  Thr  I'.ilinit  A  nihil'  IVr.s/oK.s  are  late,  and 
of  no  critical  imjiortanci'. 

111.    Kiiijlifh    I'l'isioiis. 

1.  Kuril/  Emilish  Vi-rsionx.  In  .\nglo-Saxon 
times  ]>ortions  of  Scripture,  especially  the 
Psalms,  the  ten  commandments,  and  ]ior- 
tioiis  of  tlH>  gospels,  were  translated  into 
the  vernacular  tongue.  After  the  language 
had  been  nioditled  by  the  Xorman  comiuest. 
various  portions  of  S(Ti))ture,  especially  the 
gospels,  were  rendered  into  the  language  of 
the  nation.  I?iit  no  elVort  was  made  sinii- 
larlv  to  treat  the  Mible  as  a  whole. 

'J."  Win'liffi'  mill  I'lirri'n's  lUhli:  Of  this 
there  are  two  versions:  the  first  ai>]iarently 
between  l.'!s-J  and  i:i"^.'{,and  the  secon<l  about 
lo"^"*.  The  first,  which  was  robust  and  terse, 
but  iiniiolished  in  language,  was  mainly  Wye- 
litVe's:  the  second,  which  was  more  reliiied, 
emanatetl  chielly  from  Purvey,  for  \\'yclitre. 
who   was  born  about    a.   d.   l.'J'JI,   had  died 


on  December  31,  138-1.  The  be.st-kninvn  ver- 
sion is  Purvey 's.  Here  are  s])ecimens  of 
both  versions,  (ieii.  i.  1  :  "  In  the  lirste  made 
(Jod  of  nou^t  heiieneand  erthe."  In  the  later 
versiou  this  reads:  '"In  the  bigynnyng  (iod 
made  of  nou  3t  heuene  and  erthe."  In 
the  older  version  .lolin  iii.  KJ  is:  "  Forsothe 
tiod  so  lolled  the  world,  that  he  gaf  his  oon 
bigetun  sone,  that  ech  man  that  bileueth  in 
to  him  jierische  not,  but  bane  eiiere  lasting 
Ij'f";  but  in  the  later  versicjn  it  is  changed 
to  :  "  For  ( iod  loueile  so  the  world,  that  he  gaf 
his  oon  bigetun  soin',  that  ech  man  that 
bileueth  in  him  jierische  not,  but  haue  euer- 
lastynge  lijf."  Hoth  versions  were  made 
from  the  Latin  ^■^llgate.  \Vyclille"s  version 
was  the  first  rendering  of  the  Scrijitures  into 
any  form  of  modern  English,  and  it  heljied 
to  mold  the  language;  it  also  exerted  great 
influence  on  the  national  life  ;  but  it  was 
eireiilated  in  manuscript  eojiies  only,  and 
was  not  jirinted  until  IS-IH. 

3.  About  liVJCi  there  arrived  from  abroad  a 
translation  of  the  N.  T.  from  the  original 
Greek  by  the  reformer  William  Tyndale, 
who  had  left  his  native  Kngland  to  escajie 
jier.secution.  It  was  jiublished  at  Worms, 
and  was  made  from  the  (ireek  of  Erasmus, 
probalily  from  the  edition  of  l.")19,  although 
tlie  (dition  of  I'yJ'J  was  consulted.  Tyndale 
translated  immediately  from  the  Greek,  using 
the  (ierman  N.  T.  of  Luther  and  the  Vulgate 
as  aids.  His  work  excited  great  oj>]p(isition 
from  the  leading  dignitaries  of  the  then 
dominant  church,  though  many  of  the  com- 
mon iieo])le  received  it  gladly.  The  book 
was  pronounced  full  of  jiestilent  errors,  and 
was  i)urnt  at  Paul's  Cross.  In  ].")3fl.  and 
again  in  1.":j1,  be  imhlished  a  translation  of 
the  Pentateuch,  and  in  ]o."'>l  of  the  book  of 
,Tonah.  They  were  made  immediately  from 
the  original  Hi-brew,  Luther  and  theA'ulgate 
being  used  as  aids.  In  l.")31  a  fresh  edition 
of  his  N.  T.  was  issued  from  Antwerp.  There 
is  evidence  that  he  translated  other  ]iortions 
of  the  <  >.  T.  besides  those  already  mentioned, 
most  ]irobably  to  the  end  of  Chronicles  with 
.several  iiropbetical  books;  but  he  did  not 
live  to  jiublish  tln'm.  He  was  arrested  on 
the  2M  or  :.'lth  of  ]\Iay.  l.")3r),  at  Antwerp, 
where  he  had  ]iermanently  settled,  and  nn 
the  (ith  of  October,  l."):'>(),  was  first  strangled 
and  then  burnt  as  a  heretic.  Rut  bis  ^vork 
remained.  It  fixed  the  English  standard  of 
I'lible  translation,  and  its  diction  and  style 
still  live  in  the  English  vei-sion  and  lend  it 
literary  charm  and  character. 

•1.  Corrriliilr's  Bihli'.  This  work  was  pub- 
lished in  l.")3.">,  with  no  mention  who  the 
])rinter  was  nor  from  what  city  or  town  it 
issui'd.  Probably  Zurich  is  entitled  to  the 
honor,  but  jiossibly  I-'rankfort  or  Cologne.  It 
was  the  first  comiilete  English  Rible  issued 
from  the  press.  The  N.  T.  and  much  of  the 
().  T.  are  i>racti.ally  Tyndale's.  Only  the 
])ortioii  fmni  .lol)  to  Malachi  was  tr.uislated 
inde])endently   by    Miles  Coverdale,  and    he 


Versions 


764 


Versions 


use<l  not  the  orijjiiial  Hebrew,  but  a  Swiss- 
(KTiiiiin  ISible  printed  at  Zurich  iu  1527-2!). 
He  (h'Sfribes  the  book  as  "translated  out  of 
Doudu;  and  Latyii  in  to  Kii^lishe."  ("over- 
dale's  version  of  the  I'salnis,  virtually  tiii- 
ehaiiLCed,  is  slill  used  by  the  church  of  Euj^- 
land  in  its  I'.ook  of  (.'oninion  Prayer. 

.").  Miitthrir's  liilili:  Thomas  Matthew  is 
believed  to  iiave  been  only  a  name  assumed 
by  .John  Uojrers,  successor  to  Tyndale  as 
ciiai)laiii  to  the  Eniilish  nierehunts  of  the 
Steelyard  at  Antwerji,  the  lirst  martyr  in  the 
]i{  Tsecution  iinchT  Mary  Tu(b)r.  In  l"),']?  he 
jirinted  an  edition  of  the  Hible,  i)erhai)s  at 
Antwerp.  It  contains  Tyndale's  translations 
in  their  latest  form.  For  books  not  trans- 
lated by  Tyndale,  the  text  is  taken  from 
Coverdale's  version.  It  had  bold  annota- 
tions, yet  it  was  the  tirst  Bible  licensed  by 
public  autliority. 

6.  Tuverner's  Bible.  This  was  published  in 
the  year  l.')39,  and  was  desij^ned  to  counter- 
act the  influence  of  Matthew's  Bible,  and 
especially  of  his  daring  explanatory  notes. 

7.  The  Great  Bible ;  called  also  Cranmer's 
Bible.  The  tirst  name  was  given  it  on  ac- 
count of  its  size,  the  page  of  type  measuring 
13J  by  7i  inches,  and  the  second  name  came 
into  use  because  Cranmer  wrote  the  introduc- 
tion to  it.  It  was  undertaken  by  Coverdale 
at  Cromwell's  suggestion,  was  produced 
mainly  by  the  revision  of  the  text  of  Mat- 
thew's Bible,  and  appeared  in  1539-41.  It 
was  warmly  welcomed,  and  seven  editions  of 
it  ere  long  appeared. 

S.  The  Geneva  Bible.  This  revision  was  the 
work  of  three  exiles,  who  had  taken  refuge 
in  fieneva  during  tlie  Marian  persecution, 
Whittinghani,  Gilby,  and  Sampson.  It  was 
a  revision  of  Tyndale,  collated  with  the 
Great  Bible.  From  the  c)ccurrence  of  the 
word  breeches  in  Gen.  iii.,  where  the  A.  V. 
was  subsequently  to  have  ajirons,  it  is  some- 
times called  tlie "Breeches  Bible.  The  N.  T. 
appeared  in  l.">.")7,  and  the  whole  Bible  in 
lo'iO.  It  was  the  first  to  introduce  the  di- 
vision into  verses  into  the  N.  T.  Its  trans- 
lators availed  themselves  of  the  aids  fur- 
nished by  the  best  bil)lical  .scholarship  of  the 
ng(>,  and  it  is  itself  the  most  scholarly  of  the 
e:irly  English  versions.  It  was  a  handy  vol- 
ume, being  small  ((uarto  in  size.  It  was  well 
received  among  the  common  peojde,  espe- 
cially those  of  Puritan  tendency,  and  for  sev- 
enty-five years  was  the  Bible  in  current  use. 
It  was  provided  with  notes,  wliicli  form  a 
sound  and  hel])ful  commentary  along  ])racti- 
cal,  expository,  and  doctrinal  lines,  and  was 
the  first  P.ible  (irinted  in  Scotland. 

9.  The  Bixhops'  Bible.  The  popularity  of  the 
Geneva  Bible  was  not  acce]itable  to  the  bish- 
ops, and  in  ]'<<>•<  they  issued  one  of  their  own. 
It  borrowi'd  from  the  Geneva  version  the 
division  of  the  chapters  into  verses.  In  1571 
Convocation  pronounced  in  its  favor,  and 
ordered  copies  to  be  placed  in  all  the  churches. 
It  was  founded  chiefly  on  the  Great  Bible, 


though  borrowing  a  few  variations  from  the 
Geneva  version. 

10.  The  liheims  and  Douai/  Bible.  This  is 
the  Roman  Catholic  version  of  the  Scriptures 
into  Englisli.  It  was  made  from  tlie  Vulgate, 
and  jiublished,  the  N.  T.  at  Kheinis  iu  1582, 
and  the  O.  T.  at  Douay  in  1609-10.  It  con- 
tains a  highly  controversial  commentary.  Its 
language  and  style  smack  more  of  Latin 
than  English  ;  but  it  gave  currency  to  many 
words  borrowed  from  the  Latin,  and  not  a 
few  of  them,  such  as  impenitent,  i)ropitia- 
tion,  remission,  found  a  place  in  the  A.  V. 

11.  The  Authorized  Version.  The  ]iroposal 
to  make  this  version  came,  apparently  on  the 
spur  (^f  the  moment,  from  Dr.  Keinolds,  or 
Keynolds,  president  of  Corpus  Christi  Col- 
lege, Oxford,  during  the  discussion  between 
the  Anglicans  and  the  Puritans  at  the 
Hampton  Court  Conference,  on  the  14tb, 
IGth,  and  18th  of  January,  1604.  King. Tames 
I.,  whose  interest  iu  theology  is  well  known, 
was  pleased  by  the  proposal,  and  on  the  10th 
of  February,  1G04,  he  ordered,  among  other 
things,  "  that  a  translation  be  made  of  the 
whole  Bible,  as  consonant  as  can  be  to  the 
original  Hebrew  and  Greek ;  and  this  to  be 
set  out  and  printed,  without  any  marginal 
notes,  and  only  to  be  used  in  all  churches  of 
England  in  time  of  divine  service."  The 
king  appointed  tifty-fonr  translators,  but 
only  forty -seven  took  part  in  the  work.  They 
were  formed  into  six  comiianies,  two  of 
which  met  at  Westminster,  two  at  Oxford, 
and  two  at  Cambridge.  The  work  was  issued 
in  1611,  with  a  fulsome  dedication  to  king 
.James.  It  was  not  a  new  translation,  but,  as 
those  who  pre])ared  it  desired  it  to  be,  a  schol- 
arlj^  revisionof  a  good  version.  It  is  the  transla- 
tion nowin  common  use, which  hassoendeared 
itself  to  all  English-speaking  Christians. 

12.  The  Bevixed  Version.  A  revision  of  the 
A.  V.  became  necessary  because  in  the  course 
of  more  than  two  centuries  and  a  half 
through  new  manuscripts  and  careful  study 
corruptions  had  been  discovered  in  the  text 
of  the  Greek  Testament  which  had  lieen 
used  for  the  English  version,  and  a  superior 
text  had  been  provided.  Greek  and  Hebrew 
scholarship  had  also  made  great  advances 
during  the  same  period.  In  February,  1870, 
the  Convocation  of  the  Province  of  Canter- 
liury  planned,  not  a  new  translation,  but  a 
fresh  revision  of  the  time-honored  version. 
Two  companies  were  formed  for  the  purpose, 
one  for  each  Testament.  That  for  the  O.  T. 
consisted  of  twenty-seven  members ;  and 
that  for  the  N.  T.  likewise  of  twenty-seven 
members  at  first,  but  for  the  greater  part  of 
the  time  of  twenty-four.  Two-thirds  of 
the.se  lielonged  to  the  church  of  England. 
Two  companies  of  scholars  in  America  co- 
operated, fourteen  for  the  O.  T.  and  thirteen 
for  the  N.  T.,  representing  the  different 
Protestant  churches.  The  work  was  begU7i 
on  the  22d  of  .Tune,  1870.  The  N.  T.  took 
ten  and  a  half  years,  and  was  published  in 


Vine 


765 


Vine  of  Sodom 


May,  liSHl.  The  ro vision  of  tlu"  O.  T.  was 
corunicnc-od  on  the  I'Olli  of  Jinu',  l.STO,  and 
wasconiiik'ti'd  in  foiirti'cn  ycars.on  Jnne^Otli, 
18H-I.  As  a  work  of  art,  llio  Jicvised  is  in- 
ferior to  the  A.  v.,  the  plirases  in  siinie  eases 
beinf^  less  felieit<ius.  and  tlie  seiitiaiees  less 
l)erfeet  in  tlii-ir  rhythm  and  tlieir  eadenee. 
As  a  Work  of  seience,  it  is  a  Ki'<-'at  inij)rove- 
nient  on  the  A.  V.  Ksjieeially  in  tlie  poetie 
l)ortions  of  the  ().  T.  and  in  the  epistles  of 
the  N.  T.  has  the  true  uieaninji  been  made 
clear.  The  orthojjraphy  also  of  the  proper 
names  has  been  vastly  improved. 

Vine. 

Any  i)lant  with  a  lonj;,  slender,  prostrate 
or  elimbiug  stem,  with  tendrils,  as  a  gourd 
('J  Kin.  iv.  3!i).  The  word  usually  denotes 
the  eommon  or  K'rajje  vine  {  \'ilix  riuifera).  It 
is  believed  to  lie  indigenous  in  western  Asia 
south  of  the  Caspian  Sea  (cp.  Gen.  ix.  20,  21). 


Vintage  in  .Vneient  Kgyjit. 

It  was  largely  cultivated  in  Egyjit  (xl.  9  11  ; 
Ps.  Ixxviii.  47)  :  and  Egy])tian  sculptures  of 
the  Old  Emjiire,  before  the  time  of  Josejih, 
rejiresent  vineyards,  vines  laden  withgraix's, 
presses,  and  the  manufacture  of  wine.  The 
soil  and  climate  of  Palestine  were  favorable 
to  the  vine,  wliich  was  cultivated  in  Canaan 
as  early  as  the  time  of  .Mclchizcdek  (Gen.  xiv. 
IH).  It  is  incidentally  referred  to  as  growing 
in  the  lowland  of  I'bilistia.at  .Tezreel,  anil  in 
the  i)lain  of  (iennesaret  (.ludg.  XV. .") ;  1  Kin. 
xxi.l;  War  iii.  10,  S),  and  especially  in  the 
mountiiinous  districts,  as  near  Hebron.  .Shiloh, 
and  Shccliem  (Num.  xiii.  2:5;. ludg.  ix.  27  :  xxi. 
20;  .ler.  xxxi.  ."ii.  Especial  mention  is  made 
of  th(!  vines  of  Eslicol  in  the  hill  country  of 
Jiulah  (Num.  xiii.  2.'{),  of  En-gedi  in  the  valley 
of  the  Dead  Sea  (Song  i.  U).  of  Heslibon, 
Elealeb,  and  Sibmah  beyond  Jordan  (Is.  xvi. 
H-K);  .ler.  xlviii.  :!2).  and  of  Lebanon  iHos. 
xiv.  7).  T'nder  cultivation,  varieties  of  the 
vine  aro.se,  and  there  was  the  greatest  differ- 
ence in  value  between  one  of  tlie  choicest 
vines  (Is.  v.  2),  I'alled  also  a  noble  vine, 
wholly  a  right  seed,  and  tiie  degenerate  jilant 
of  a  strange  vine  (Jer.  ii.  21).     Isniel  is  com- 


pared to  a  vine  (Ps.lxxx.8-1G),  and  our  Lord 
to  the  stem  of  a  vine,  his  true  followers  being 
the  l)ranehes  (John  xv.  1-H). 

The  vineyard  was  freipiently  on  a  hill- 
side or  i>cak  (Is.  v.  1  ;  Joel  iii.  Ihj,  which  was 
terraced  when  neees.sary.  It  was  surrounded 
by  a  hedge  or  a  stone  wall  to  keej)  out  destruc- 
tive animals  (Num.  xxii.  24  ;  Ps.  Ixxx.  H-l.'i; 
Prov.  xxiv.  :51  ;  Song  ii.  1.");  Is.  v.  5).  The 
ground  was  cleared  of  stones,  the  vines  were 
Itlanted,  a  booth  or  tower  was  erected  for  the 
watchman,  a  i)ress  was  constructed,  and  a 
vat  was  hewn  in  tlu'  rock  (Is.  i.  8;  v.  1-7; 
Mat.  xxi.  :5IJ-41).  Laborers  were  sonn*- 
tinies  hired  to  work  in  it  (xx.  l-KJi,  for  it 
was  nece.s.sary  to  prune  the  vines,  dig  about 
them,  and  keep  the  ground  free  from  weeds 
(Lev.  xxv.  3;  Prov.  xxiv.  30,  .'51  ;  Is.  v.  G  ; 
John  XV.  2).  The  vines  were  allowed  to 
spread  on  the  ground,  the  stock  not  being 
supported,  only  the  fruit-bearing  branches 
being  slightly  rai.sed  from  the  earth  (Is.  xvi. 
8;  Ezek.  xvii.  (i;  Pliny,  Hist.  Nat.  xvii.  3."), 
15).  Other  vines  were  doubtless  trained  to 
trees  ;  and  yet  others  were  probably  jjlanted, 
as  at  present  in  Palestine,  in  rows,  8  to  10 
feet  ajiart,  the  stock  being  allowed  to  grow  6 
or  8  feet  high  and  then  fastened  to  stout 
stakes  and  the  branches  trained  from  stock 
to  stock. 

The  grapes  ordinarily  grown  were  red  (Is. 
Ixiii.  2  ;  Rev.  xiv.  19,  20)  ;  but  at  the  jire.sent 
day  a  white  variety  is  almost  exclusively 
raised  at  Rethlelicm  and  Hebron.  The 
grapes  begaji  to  rii)en  about  August,  in  fa- 
vored localities  somewhat  earlier.  They 
were  eaten  both  fresh  and  dried  (Xum.  vi. 
:5 ;  Deut.  xxiii.  24).  The  dried  grapes  or 
raisins  were  preserved  in  clusters  or  pressed 
into  cakes,  and  were  esteemed  as  food  (1  Sam. 
xxv.  IS  :  1  Chron.  xvi.  3).  The  juice  of  grapes 
was  exju-e.ssed,  and  was  drunk  fresh  and  ft'T- 
nu'nted  :  see  WiXK. 

The  vintage  began  in  the  middle  of  Sep- 
tember and  continm-d  into  October.  It  was 
a  season  of  festivity.  In  the  vineyards  there 
were  singing  and  .joyful  noise,  and  the  tread- 
ers  in  the  press  kejit  time  by  shouting  as  they 
trod  the  graju's  ( Judg.  ix.  27  ;  Is.  xvi.  10  ; 
Jer.  xxv.  30;  xlviii.  :53). 

Vine  of  Sod'om. 

A  plant  growing  near  Sodom,  and  bearing 
clustersof  bitter  fruit  (Deut.  xxxii.  .32).  Put 
the  language  may  be  figurative.  Jo>c])bus 
describes  fruits  growing  near  the  site  of 
Sodom,  which  bear  a  color  as  if  they  are  lit 
to  be  eaten;  but  contain  ashes,  and  if 
plucked  with  the  hands,  dissolve  into  snndce 
an<l  ashes  (War  iv.  8,  4;  cp.  Tacitus.  Hist.  v. 
(i).  This  fruit  does  not  correspond  to  the 
grapes  of  g.ill  and  bitter  clusters  which  ap- 
l)arently  characterize  tin-  vine  of  Sodom.  It 
is  often  assumed,  however,  that  the  plants 
are  one,  and  the  ellnrt  is  made  to  identify  it. 
I",xcludiug  i>lauts  whiib  are  common  else- 
where in   Palestine,  the  juincipal  claimants 


Vinegar 


(G6 


Vow 


arc:  1.  What  the  Aral)s  call  the  'itsh'h;  au 
asc-k'i>iatiacei»us  phiut  (Cdlutrupis  yitjaiitca  or 
pniara),  a  iiativu  of  I'liiior  E{;yi)t,  Arabia, 
and  India.  It  ;;rii\vs  at  Hii-j;i;ili  and  othi-r 
I)art.S(it' tlic  tropical  Dead  Sea  valley,  isa  tree 
10  or  15  feet  hi.nh,  and  bears  a  fruit  reseni- 
bling  an  aijjile  or  orange,  three  or  four  of  them 
in  a  c-luster.  Tiiey  are  i)leasant  to  the  eye 
and  to  the  touch';  l)ut  if  pressed  or  struck 
they  explode  like  a  putfball,  leaving  only 
fragments  of  the  rind  and  a  few  fibers  in  the 
liaiid.  A  formidable  objection  to  the  identi- 
fication is  the  dilliculty  of  seeing  how  the 
term  vine  can  beapi)lied  to  a  small,  erect  tree. 
2.  The  colocynth  (CHrnUns  coloci/itthns),  a 
trailing  plant.  Its  fruit  is  "fair  to  look 
upon  ;  i)Ut  wlicn  fully  ripe,  merely  a  <iiiantity 
of  dusty  powder  with  the  seeds  inside  its 
beautiful  orange  rind"  (Tristram);  see 
Gourd,  Wild. 

Vin'e-gar. 

Wine  (»r  other  strong  <lrink  turned  sour  by 
acetous  fermentation  (Num.  vi.  o).  If  vinous 
fermentation  was  pushed  too  far,  or  if  the 
wine  was  kept  too  long,  it  became  vinegar. 
Vinegar  is  acid,  setting  tiie  teeth  on  edge 
(Prov.  X.  20),  and  hardening  soap  or  neutral- 
izing its  alkali  (xxv.  20).  In  itself  it  is  unfit 
to  drink  (Ps.  Ixix.  21)  ;  but  mingled  with  a 
little  oil  it  is  drunk  by  the  common  people 
in  the  East  to  (lueuch  thirst  when  fresh  water 
is  not  obtainable ;  and  it  was  used  at  meals 
in  tlie  heat  of  harvest,  bread  being  dipjied  in 
it,  as  it  brought  grateful  refreshment  to  the 
system  (Ruth  ii.  14).  The  vinegar  used  by 
Hoaz"  reapers  is,  however,  regarded  by  many 
interi>reters  as  sour,  not  soured,  wine.  The 
Roman  soldiers  when  in  camp  drank  a  thin, 
sour  wine  called  (iccttiiii,  vinegar,  both  in  its 
l)iire  state  and  diluted  with  water.  In  the 
latter  condition  it  was  termed  posca  (Pliny, 
Hist.  Nat.  xix.  29).  It  was  probably  a  drink 
of  this  sort  which  the  Roman  soldier  otfered 
to  .Jesus  on  the  cross  to  quench  his  burning 
thirst  (Mark  xv.  :5(i;  John  xix.  29,  30).  This 
draught,  which  Je.sus  accepted,  was  ditferent 
from  the  sour  wine,  previously  otfered  and 
rel'uscd,  wliich  was  mingled  with  a  bitter 
substance  or  nuire  detiiiitely  with  myrrh, 
which  is  astringent  (Mat.  xxvii.  34;  Mark 
XV.  23). 

Vine'yard.     See  Vine. 

Vine'yards,  Plain  of.    See  Abkl-cher.v- 

iMIM. 

Vi'ol.    See  Psaltery. 

Vi'per. 

1.  The  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  '  Eph'eh, 
blowing,  hissing ;  a  venomous  .serpent  re- 
ferred to  as  inhabiting  tlie  south  cotintry 
(Job  XX.  Hi;  Is.  XXX.  C<;  lix.  .5).  The  species 
is  not  proi)erly  determined. 

2.  A  jioisonous  reptile,  in  Greek  echidna, 
incidentally  mentioned  as  found  on  the  island 
of  Melita  (Acts  xxviii.  3)  and  familiar  to  the 
Jews  (Mat.  iii.  7) ;    probably   the  common 


viper  (  Vipern  communu  or  Pelias  herns),  which 
is  common  on  the  Mediterranean  coast. 

Vi'sions. 

No  shar}!  line  of  demarcation  is  discernible 
between  visions  and  dreams  (q.  v.).  The  one 
shades  into  the  other.  The  Bible  recognizes 
— 1.  Vain  visions  (Job  .xx.  S;  Is.  xxix.  7). 
2.  Visions  of  the  prophets.  The.se  were  for 
the  most  part  private ;  they  were  appre- 
hended by  the  individual,  not  by  his  com- 
panions. A  natural  cause  sometimes  co- 
o])erated  in  i)roducing  the  vision  :  the  vision 
of  the  great  sheet  let  down  from  heaven, 
which  Peter  saw,  and  the  voice  heard  saying 
"Rise,  Peter;  kill  and  eat,"  stood  in  some 
relation  to  his  bodily  hunger,  as  the  account 
in  the  book  of  The  Acts  clearly  intimates  (x.  9 
seq.).  Thus  far  the  visions  of  the  jirophets 
have  points  in  common  with  visions  begotten 
of  an  abnormal  mental  condition,  and  to  this 
extent  arc  to  be  classed  as  mental  phe- 
nomena. These  facts  are  only  additional 
proofs  of  what  might  be  expected,  namelj', 
that  God,  in  holding  communication  with 
men,  works  in  accordance  with  the  laws  of 
man's  mind.  The  visions  of  the  prophets, 
however,  form  a  uui(iue  class.  With  per- 
haps one  exception  (Num.  xxiv.  4),  they 
were  granted  to  holy  men  only,  men  who 
w'ere  surrendered  to  God's  service,  men  be- 
tween whom  and  their  divine  sovereign 
there  "had  arisen  an  understanding."  These 
visions,  again,  were  clearly  di-stinguished,  by 
those  wdio  saw  them,  from  ordinary  visions 
and  were  recognized  as  proceeding  from  God. 
They  were  cautiously  accepted  by  the  church ; 
by  law  they  were  not  received  as  genuine 
until  their  teaching  and  their  credentials 
had  been  subjected  to  tests  (Jer.  xxiii.  16,  21, 
22,  27 ;  cp.  Is.  viii.  20 ;  Deut.  xviii.  10  seq.). 
The  visions  recorded  in  the  Bible  stand 
alone,  in  the  history  of  religions,  for  purity 
and  righteousness.  They  were  never  vain  ; 
never  meaningless  vagaries  or  lying  wonders. 
They  always  have  a  clearh' discernible  moral 
and  didactic  content.  They  were  often  pre- 
dictive, upon  which  fulfillment  has  set  the 
seal  of  truth.  They  belong  to  an  age  of 
revelation  and  came  to  men  who  in  mani- 
fold mannt'r  proved  themselves  to  be  vehicles 
of  revelation. 

Because  there  were  genuine  visions,  false 
prophets  feigned  visions.  These  men  are 
denounced  and  their  destruction  is  foretold 
(Jer.  xiv.  14;  xxiii.  IG ;  Ezek.  xiii.  7  seq.). 

Voph'si. 

Father  of  Nahbi,  the  Naplitalite  sjjy  (Num. 
xiii.  14). 

Vow. 

A  voluntary  obligation  to  God,  generally 
assumed  on  comlition  of  his  bestowing  cer- 
tain specified  blessings.  Man  has  shown  a 
tendency  during  sickness  or  any  other  afflic- 
tion, or  in  time  of  anxiety  or  earnest  desire, 
to  make  a  vow  to  God  to  be  fulfilled  when 
the  calamity  is  over  or  the  desired  object 


Vulgate 


767 


War 


cbtaini'd  (Ot'ii.  xxviii.  2()-'22;  Num.  xxi.  2; 
1  Siiiii.  i.  11  ;  '2  Siiiii.  XV.  b).  The  vow  sprang 
jiriinarily  from  tlic  coiisfiousiifss  of  i-iitiru 
(lc|pi-iuli'iice  on  tlie  will  of  (Jod  an<l  of  the 
ohlipition  of  thankfiilniss.  Vows  were  taken 
by  jiersons  of  every  nation  (Jonah  i.  l(i),and 
not  by  till'  Jews  only.  The  earliest  mention 
of  a  vow  in  Scripture,  ami  a  typieal  ease,  is 
that  of  .Jacob  at  15elh<l,  who  iimmised  that 
if  (tod  would  earc  for  him  and  brinji  him 
again  to  his  father'.s  house,  the  place  where 
he  was  should  be  a  .siinctuary  and  the  tenth 
of  his  income  should  l)e  the  Lord's  (Gen. 
xxviii.  lti-2-J). 

The  Mosaic  law  did  not  prescribe  vow.s,  it 
only  reguhited  them.  Three  kinds  were  the 
subject  of  letfislalion.  Vows  of  devotion,  of 
aljstinence,  and  of  devotion  to  destruction. 
1.  r.y  the  vow  of  devotion,  any  jierson  or 
po,s.sc.ssion,  not  already  set  apart  for  sacred 
uses,  or  otherwi.sc  removed  from  the  legal 
control  of  the  devoter,  niiglit  be  devoted  and 
turned  over  to  the  sanctuary  ;  but  anything 
thus  dcvt)ted  to  tlie  servici-  of  (iod  was  re- 
deemable, except  a  sacrificial  animal  (Lev. 
xxvii.  1-27),  usually  at  one-fifth  more  than 
its  assessed  value.  Devoted  land  sold  ))y  the 
owner,  wilhout  having  been  first  redeemed, 
was  retained  by  the  buyer,  but  at  the  year 
of  jubile  did  not  return  to  tlic  seller,  but 
became  the  possession  of  the  sanctuary  (20, 
21).  Persons  devoted  to  (lod  served  at  the 
sanctuary  (1  8ani.  i.  11,  24,  28),  but  were 
usually  redeemed  (2  Kin.  xii.  4),  especially  as 
the  service  of  the  J.,eviles  rendered  such  de- 
votion as  a  rule  useless.  The  price  of  re- 
demption varied  with  age  and  sex.  2.  The 
vow  of  abstinence  involvi'd  a  renunciation 
of  some  enjoyment,  otherwise  allowal)le,  for 
tlie  glory  of  (iod.  It  included  such  acts  as 
fasting,  in  testimony  of  i>eniteiice,  and  such 
obligation  as  was  assumed  by  the  Nazirite. 
'.i.  It  has  been  inferred  from  Ex.  xxii.  20; 
Dout.  xiii.  Hi,  that  only  what  was  under 
judgment  for  idolatry  could  be  devoted  by  a 
vow  of  destruction.  Nothing  devoted  by  such 
a  Vow  was  ndc<-niable  (Lev.  xxvii.  28,  29). 

(reneral  ]irinciples  applying  to  vows  were: 
1.  Vows  were  assumed  voluntarily,  but  once 
made  were  reganU'd  as  comimlsory  (Num. 
XXX.  2;  Deut.  xxiii.  21-2:'>i:  only  in  I'xcei)- 
tional  cases  as  in  those  of  Samson,  Samuel, 
and  .loliii  the  ISajitist,  who  had  a  sjiecial 
mission  to  fiillill,  was  the  Nazirite  vow  ]ire- 
scribed.  2.  A  vow,  esiK-cially  a  vow  of  ab- 
stinence, ma<le  by  an  unmarried  daughter  or 
a  wife,  was  void  if  disallowed  liy  the  fatlier 
or  liusband  (Num.  xxx.  .'5-10).  3.  The 
jirodnce  <if  sinful  tnitlic  could  not  be  devoted 
(I)«'Ut.  xxiii.  l-^)  :  see  I>(>f;.  4.  Vows  must 
not  be  taken  rashly.  This  jjrincijile  was  en- 
forced by  the  exaini)le  of  .lephthah,  and 
inculcated  by  jtroverb  (I'rov.  xx.  2.")). 

Vul'gate.     See  Vkksioxs. 

Vul'ture. 

A  bird  of  l)rey,  which  has  the  head  naked 


or  l)ut  thinly  covered  with  feathers,  and 
feeds  largely  or  wholly  on  carrion.  It  is 
employed  in  the  A.  \'.  to  reiidir  the  Hebrew 
words  'Ayijah  (Job  xxviii.  T,  elsewhere  kite; 
in  K.  V.  always  falcon),  Da'ah  (Lev.  xi.  14  ; 
in  K.  V.  kite),  and  Di'iiyah  (Deut.  xiv.  1."?; 
Is.  xxxiv.  17;  in  K.  V.  kit<).  In  the  IJ.  V.  it  is 
used  to  translate  Kithtm  (l^ev.  xi.  1>;  in  A.  V. 
gier  eagle)  ;  and  fretjiiently  on  the  niargin, 
where  the  text  has  eagle,  to  render  the  He- 
brew Seshrr,  Greek  Ados. 

Tlie  great  vulture  (Lev.  xi.  13,  1{.  V. 
margin)  is  the  fulvous  or  tawny  vulture, 
generally  called  the  griliin  (<!!/})■•<  fiilrns). 
The  neck  and  liead  are  liald,  covered  with 
down.  The  whole  of  the  liody,  the  wings, 
and  the  back  on  to  the  tail  are  yellowisli- 
brown.  It  is  about  4  feet  liigli.  Its  talons 
are  not  forniidalile,  liut  its  bill  is.  "The 
gritl'ou,"  says  Tristram,  "is  the  most  strik- 
ing <irnithological  feature  of  Palestine.  It 
is  impossible  in  any  jiart  of  the  country 
to  look  11)1  without  seeing  some  of  thi'm 
majestically  soaring  at  an  immense  height, 
and  their  eyries  al>oiiiid  in  great  colonies  in 
all  the  ravine:;  of  the  countrj-." 


^^ 


Wa'ges. 

In  early  times  and  no)  inl'ie(iiiently  at  a  com- 
paratively late  date  wages  were  paid  in  kind 
(Gen.  xxix.  1."),  20  ;  xxx.  28-34).  In  Lgypt 
money  or  goods  were  given  as  hire  at  the  time 
of  the  sojourn  of  the  Israelites  there  (Ex.ii. !»). 
By  the  law  of  Moses,  wages  were  to  be  i)aid 
each  evening  (I>ev.  xix.  l.J;  Deut.  xxiv.  14, 
l.o),  and  the  withholding  of  wages  due  was 
severely  denounced  by  religious  teachers 
(.(er.  x.xii.  i:'> :  .Mai.  iii.";");  Jas.  v.  4).  Tobit 
ofl'ered  a  drachma,  or  1(5  cents,  a  day  and  iVxid 
as  wages  (Tob.  v.  14).  When  our  Lord  was 
on  earth  the  rate  for  a  days  labor  was  a 
denarius,  worth  about  17  cents  (Mat.  xx.  2, 
in  E.  V.  penny).  What  tin-  luirchasing 
power  of  that  anioiint  was  is.  however,  un- 
known ;  it  was  evidently  great  (cj).  Luke  x. 
3.T).  In  the  later  days  of  the  Koman  re- 
pul)lic,  the  usual  jiay  of  a  Iloman  soldier  was 
10  asses,  or  about  a  dime,  a  daj-  (Tacitus, 
Aiiiial.  i.  17). 

Wag'on.    See  Cart. 

Wal'let.     See  Scrip. 

War. 

Before  engaging  in  aggressive  war.  the 
Isra<'lites  consulted  (tod's  will  in  the  matter 
(Judg.  XX.  2.3. 27,  28  ;  1  Sam.  xiv.  :!7  ;  xxiii.  2  ; 
1  Kin.  xxii.  (!)  or,  when  contlict  was  unavoid- 
able, invoked  (Jod's  lielji  by  )u-a\er  and 
sometimes  bv  sicrifice  (1  Sam.  vii.  f^,  !• :  xiii. 
12;  2  Chron.  xx.  (>-12;  1  Mac.  iii.  47-.")4i. 
The  heathen  had  recourse  to  divination  for 
the  same  pur|iose  (E/ek.  xxi.  21  >,  and  were 
cari'ful  to  set  forth  on  a  day  ]ironounced  to 
be  propitious.      Eretiuently  before  entering  a 


War 


768 


Wave  Offering 


hostile  country  or  engaging  in  battle  spies 
were  sent  forward  to  <jlitiiin  information  re- 
garding the  country,  and  the  jireparation  for 
resistance  (Xnni.  xiii.  17;  Josh.  ii.  1;  Judg.  vii. 
10;  1  Sam.  .\xvi.  1)  ;  and,  when  captives  were 
taken,  they  were  questioned  with  the  same 
intention  (Judg.  viii.  14;  1  Sam.  xxx.  11). 
Wiien  the  host  drew  nigh  unto  battle,  a 
priest  or  the  coiuniander  encouraged  tlie 
l)eoi>le  by  reminding  them  of  (lod's  i)resence 
and  lielp;  and  the  ollicers  exemi)ted  from 
service  tliose  who  were  faint-hearted  and 
those  who  had  built  a  new  house  but  not 
iniiabited  it,  planted  a  vineyard  but  not 
enjoyed  the  fruit  of  it,  betrothed  a  wife  but 
not  married  her  (Dent.  xx.  2-9;  2  Chrou.  xx. 
11--20;  1  Mac.  iii.  5ti ;  iv.  8-11).  Various 
stratagems  were  practiced,  such  as  surprise, 
ambu.sh.  jn-etended  flight,  circumvention 
(Gen.  xiv.  1.3;  Josh.  viii.  2,  o ;  Judg.  vii.  16; 
2  Sam.  V.  23).  Occasionally  when  the  op- 
posing armies  were  drawn  up  in  battle  array, 
a  champion  was  chosen  by  each  party  (1 
Sam.  xvii.).  Otherwise  the  battle  was  joined. 
A  trumpet  sounded  the  attack,  the  blast 
being  botli  a  signal  to  advance  and  an  appeal 
to  God  (Num.  x.  9;  Josh.  vi.  5;  Judg.  vii. 
20;  2  Chron.  xiii.  12;  1  Mac.  iv.  13;  v.  33). 
The  host  pressed  forward  with  shouting 
(Josh.  vi.  5;  1  Sam.  xvii.  52;  Jer.  1.  42; 
Kzek.  x.kI.  22;  Amos  i.  14),  and  engaged  in 
hand  to  hand  conflict.  The  pursuit  was 
l)h)ody.  Like  other  nations  of  their  time, 
the  Israelites  when  victorious  ])illaged  the 
camp  of  the  enemy,  robbed  the  dead  (Judg. 
viii.  21-26;  1  Sam.  xxxi.  9;  2  Chron.  xx.  25; 
1  Mac.  iv.  17-23),  and  sometimes  killed  or 
nuitilated  the  prisoners  (.Josh.  viii.  23,  29  ;  x. 
22-27;  Judg.  i.  6;  viii.  21;  2  Sam.  viii.  2), 
but  more  frequently  reduced  them  to  slavery. 
When  a  city  was  besieged,  the  besiegers 
fortified  their  own  camp  against  attack  (War 
v.  2,  3) :  if  possible,  they  cut  oft'  the  water 
sujtply  from  the  city  (.Fudith  vii.  7).  In 
order  to  bring  their  engines  into  play  they 
cast  up  mounds  in  the  direction  of  the  city 
(2  Sam.  XX.  15 ;  Ezek.  i v.  2).  The  mound  grad- 
ually increased  in  height  until  it  was  some- 
times half  as  high  as  the  city  wall.  Upon 
this  inclined  plane  the  battering-ram  was 
rolled  into  position  ;  from  its  roof  and  from 
the  mound,  archers  and  slingers  discharged 
their  missiles,  and  from  the  summit  of  the 
mound  scaling-ladders  were  leaned  against 
the  wall;  see  illustrations  L.\chish.  R.\m. 
Sometimes  fuel  was  laid  against  thi'  gates 
and  fired  in  order  to  burn  them  and  aftord 
ingress  (Judg.  ix.  52);  and  often  the  de- 
fenders of  the  wall  were  attacked  by  archers 
])Osted,  not  on  the  mound,  but  at  the  base  of 
the  wall.  Tlie  besieged  were  not  idle:  they 
prepared  fur  the  investment  by  protecting 
their  water  sup])ly,  and  repairing  and 
strengthening  the  fortifications  (2  Chron. 
xxxii.  .3-5);  they  hara.ssed  the  enemy  and 
attempted  to  drive  them  off"  by  sallies  ;  they 
rejielled  attack  and  hindered  the  besiegers 


in  their  aggressive  operations  by  casting 
darts  and  stones  and  shooting  arrows  at 
them  from  the  walls ;  and  they  destroyed, 
or  attenii)ted  to  destroy,  the  military  engines 
by  liurling  l)uriiing  torches  at  them  and  by 
undermining  the  banks  on  which  the  batter- 
ing-rams stood  (2  Sam.  xi.  21,  24  ;  2  Chron. 
xxvi.  15;  1  Mac.  vi.  31;  War  v.  2,  2  and  4; 
6,  4;  11,  4).  Captured  cities  were  often  de- 
stroyed and  their  inhabitants  slaughtered, 
neither  age  nor  sex  being  sjjared  (Josh.  vi. 
21,  24  ;  viii.  24-29 ;  x.  22-27 ;  2  Kin.  xv.  16). 
Victory  was  celebrated  with  song  and  dance 
(Ex.  XV.  1-18 ;  Judg.  v. ;  1  Sam.  xviii.  6  ;  2 
Chron.  xx.  26-28 ;  1  Mac.  iv.  24).   See  Army. 

Wash'ing.     See  Bathing. 

Watch.     See  Night. 

Wa'ter  of  Bit'ter-ness. 

Holy  water  in  an  earthen  vessel,  mingled 
with  dust  from  the  floor  of  the  sanctuary 
(Num.  V.  17),  intended  to  reveal  the  inno- 
cence or  guilt  of  a  woman  accused  of  adulterj' 
by  her  husband,  when  there  were  no  wit- 
nesses. The  charge  was  perluqis  only  brought 
when  suspicion  was  aroused  by  the  woman's 
being  found  with  child.  The  accused  woman, 
with  loosened  hair,  sat  before  the  Lord  in 
the  sanctuary,  and  held  an  otfering  of  dry, 
nnscented,  barley  meal  in  her  hand  (18, 
E.  v.).  The  priest,  taking  the  water  of  bit- 
terness, asked  that  it  have  no  effect  ui)on 
the  woman,  if  she  were  innocent,  but  that 
God  would  cause  her  body  to  swell  and  her 
thigh  to  fall  away,  if  she  were  guilty.  The 
woman  responded.  Amen.  The  yiriest  wrote 
the  imprecation  in  a  book,  and  washed  it  out 
into  the  water  ;  and  having  waved  the  meal 
offering  before  the  Lord  and  thrown  a  hand- 
ful of  it  on  the  altar,  he  gave  the  water  of 
bitterness  to  the  woman  to  drink.  If  guilty, 
it  liecame  bitter  within  her  and  the  curse 
went  into  effect;  if  innocent,  the  potion  re- 
mained inoperative,  and  the  woman  was 
pronounced  clean  and  received  or  retained 
al)ility  to  conceive.  The  essential  part  of 
this  procedure  was  the  oath,  the  ritual  was 
symliolical,  the  efl'ect  was  left  to  God.  It  is 
probal)le  that  this  ordeal  was  an  old  custom, 
which  the  Mosaic  law  took  up  in  order  to 
regulate;  and  elevate  it. 

Wa'ter  of  Sep-a-ra'tion.  See  Purifica- 
tion 1. 

Wa'ter-pot.     See  Pitcher,  Pot. 
Wave  Of 'fer-ing. 

The  rite  of  waving  was  regularly  per- 
formed in  connection  with — 1.  Peace  offer- 
ings :  the  right  thigh  or  shoulder  was  heaved 
and  the  breast  was  waved  before  the  Lord 
and,  having  been  thus  consecrated,  Avere 
eaten  by  the  priest.  2.  Tlie  sheaf  of  first 
ri])e  grain  on  the  second  day  of  the  passover, 
whereby  the  harvest  was  consecrated  to  the 
Lord  (Lev.  xxiii.  10,  11).  3.  The  two  loaves 
made  from  the  new  grain  and  the  two  lambs 
for  a  peace  offering  at  Pentecost,  fifty  days 


Weasel 


769 


Weaving 


The 


from  the  wavinp  of  the  sheaf  at  the 
piissovcr  (1"),  •2(H.  4.  Tlic  fiuilt  nfliT- 
inj;  of  tlu'  U'i)er  (xiv.  1"J,  "Jl ),  \vhiTel)y 
the  oflerer  represented  l)y  it  was  eoii- 
secrateil  a>;ain  to  the  .serviee  of  God. 
5.  The  meal  oflering  of  jealousy 
(Num.  V.  '^'t). 

When  the  peaee  oftering  was  ])ri- 
vate,  the  wave  breast  and  the  heave 
shoulder  or  tliijih  went  to  the  priest, 
and  the  rest  of  the  flesh  was  eaten 
liy  tlif  otlererand  his  friends  before 
the  Lonl  at  tlie  sanctuary  (Lev.  vii. 
30-:i4;  X.  14,  15:  Num.xviii.  18). 
Of  the  peace  otlering  broufiht  l)y  the 
Nazirite,  the  sodden  shoulder  of  the 
ram  went  to  the  ]>riest,  in  addition 
to  his  rejfular  jierquisites  (Num.  vi. 
17-20).  At  Penteco.st,  the  whole  of 
the  two  lambs  of  the  peace  ofl'ering 
and  the  lip:ives  went  to  the  jjriests 
(Lev.  xxiii.  "Jd),  since  they  were  of- 
ered  in  behalf  of  the  nation. 

In  jierforming  the  rite  the  priest 
laid  the  matter  to  he  waved  upon 
the  hands  of  the  offerer,  jirobably 
l)laced  his  own  hands  under  the 
hands  of  the  latter,  and  moved  tliem 
(Ex.  xxix.  24.  25:  Num.  vi.  10,  20) 
motion  was  horizontal  backward  and  for- 
wai'd  (Talmud),  and  toward  the  right  and 
left  (Kabhis).  that  is,  toward  the  four  car- 
dinal jioints:  but  this  fourfold  movement 
may  have  been  a  late  refinement  of  the 
ori;;inal  wavinj^. 

Wea'sel. 

The  reiiderini;  of  the  Hebrew  Holed,  ^Vh\ct 
or  borrower,  aipjilied  to  an  unclean  quad- 
ruped (Lev.  xi.  2!)).  It  is  confessedly  either 
n  weasel  or  a  mole.  The  corresjiondiufi  word 
in  Aiabic  and  Syriac  signifies  a  mole:  but 
probably  the  former  meaninj;  is  intended  by 
the  Hel)rew  word,  as  the  ancient  Aersions, 
followed  by  the  A.  V.  and  R.  V.,  render 
it  by  wea.sel  :  iji  the  Talmud  the  hiil'dnh 
is  often  mi'iitionecl  as  an  animal  that  cap- 
tures l)irds  and  creejiing  things,  like  the 
mouse,  and  tliat  can  lai>  water  out  of  a  dish  ; 
and.  finally,  the  typical  mole  geruis  Tdjxi  is 
not  believed  tooccurin  Palestine  'see  Moi.k2), 
while  the  weasel  ( I'liforinx  viiliia  li.s)  :im\  the 
polecat  iPiiloi-iiis  fd'tidus)  are  found  through- 
out the  country. 

Weav'lng. 

'I'he  ICgyjitians  practiced  the  art  of  weav- 
ing before  the  arrival  of  tlie  Israelites  in 
their  miflst,  lu-oducing  woven  goods,  such  as 
linen  ((Jen.  xli.  12).  The  work  was  usually 
done  by  men  'Herod,  ii.  .'551,  but  not  ex- 
clusiTely.  for  wonu'n  a]>pear  at  the  loom  in 
ancient  Kgyptian  delineations.  At  the  time 
of  the  exodus  the  Uelirews  unrh'rstodd  both 
simple  and  elalmrate  weaving  ( 1".\.  xx.w.  ir>). 
Tiiey  produced  various  textures  on  the 
looms.  Coarse  kinds,  such  as  tent  cloth  and 
rough  gjirments  for  the  poor,  were  made  of 
49 


l5 


Eastern  Waterpots. 

goats'  and  camels'  hair  (xxvi.  7;  Mat.  iii.  4) ; 
finer  goods  were  woven  of  flax  and  wool 
(Lev.  xiii.  47)  ;  chequered  and  figured  ])at- 
terns,  as  well  as  variegated  stuffs,  were  made 
by  the  use  of  difi'erently  colored  threads 
(Ex.  xxvi.  1;  cp.  xxviii.  39,  K.  V.;  cp. 
Herod,  iii.  47),  and  gold  threads  were  even 
woven  in  (Ex.  xxxix.  .3)  ;  cloth  was  also  em- 
broidered with  figures  or  jiatterns  (xxvii.  Ki ; 
xxxviii.  23)  with  the  needle  (ibid.,  Septua- 
gint)  ;  .see  Embroidkky.  Many  interpre- 
ters, however,  believe  that  the  Hebrew  word 
rendered  embroiderer  denotes  one  wlio  in- 
weaves designs,  as  the  m<idern  Arabic  mnykiim, 
from  the  same  root,  signifies  the  curtain  with 
inwoven  flowers  or  other  ]>atterns  which  is 
nsed  to  ]iartition  otf  apartment?'  in  a  tent. 
Among  the  Hebrews,  the  weavi:ig  as  well  as 
the  s|iinningwas  usually  done  by  the  women 
(2  Kin.  xxiii,  7  :  cp  1  Sam.  ii.  l!l:  I'rov.  xxxi. 
22.  24:  Acts  ix.  ;>fl).  Mantles  ajid  I'ven 
tunics  came  from  the  loom  ii'ady  for  use  :  the 
latter,  when  thus  woven  com]ilete,  re(|uired  no 
.seam.  .Such  tunics  were  ]>re,scrilie<l  Htr  the 
priests  (Ex.  xxviii.  (i,  S;  .\nti(|.  iii.  7,  1)  :  ami 
one  was  worn  by  Jesus  lu-evious  to  his  cruci- 
fixion (.lohn  xix.  23),  perhajps  not  without 
symliolical  purjiose. 

The  lofun  in  Egypt  was  ])laced  either  ver- 
tically or  horizontally.  The  accompan\ing 
illustration  is  intended  to  rejtresent  a  loom 
in  the  latter  jiosition.  The  frame  is  but 
slightly  raised  aiiove  the  ground,  the  weaver 
squats  at  his  work  and  api)arently  treads  on 
the  thriads.  The  warji  threads  run  in  ]iaral- 
lel  relatinn  and  extend  between  the  two 
beams  tn  which  they  are  attached:  hedtiles 
of  jirimitive  sort,  which  si'jiarate  the  warj) 
threads  into  two  series  and  form  a  shed  for 


Wedding 


r70 


Week 


the  passjijie  of  the  shuttle  or  other  bearer  of 
thf  woof  threads,  are  m-xt  to  him,  liitwtcn 
him  and  the  wnvuii  cloth.  With  a  reed  he 
strikes  the  last  thread  which  he  shot  through 
against  the  woof,  pressing  it  close. 


Weuviiig  and  Spinniiii;  in  Ancient  Egj'pt. 


The  Hebrew  loom  likewise  had  its  beam 
and  shuttle  (1  Sam.  xvii.  7;  2  Sam.  xxi.  19; 
J(.h  vii.  (i).  The  pin  of  the  beam,  or  rather 
weaving  pin,  for  a  ditfereut  Hebrew  word  is 
u.sed  from  that  elsewhere  rendered  beam, 
may  have  been  the  slay  or  reed  by  which 
the  thread  of  the  woof  was  struck  home 
(Judg.  xvi.  1?.,  14).  The  web  was  cut  olf 
from  the  thrum  (Is.  xxxviii.  12,  R.  V.  mar- 
gin), or  to  speak  more  generally  from  the 
loom  (R.  V.  text). 

Wed'ding.     See  :\Iarriage. 

Week. 

The  division  of  time  into  periods  of  seven 
days  ai)pears  in  Scrii^ture  in  connection  with 
the  institution  of  the  Sabbath  (Gen.  ii.  1-3), 
and  according  to  both  the  Hebrew  and 
Babylonian  account  was  in  vogue  at  the  time 
of  the  Hood  (vii.  4, 10 ;  viii.  10, 12) ;  see  Flood. 
In  the  Babylonian  legend  of  Adapa,  which 
was  current  fifteen  centuries  and  more  be- 
fore Christ,  it  is  mentioned  that  the  wind 
ceased  to  blow  for  .seven  days.  There  is 
reason  to  believe  that  the  reference  to  its 
cessation  for  seven  days  is  more  than  the 
mere  note  of  a  chance  fjict.  Izdubar's  .sleep 
lasted  six  days  and  seven  niijlits;  and  this 
]ieculiar  iihrase  was  the  familiar  designation 
for  a  week.  (Judea,  prince  of  Lagasli,  cele- 
brated the  comi>letion  of  a  temjile  by  a  fes- 
tival of  seven  days'  duration.  Seven  days 
was  the  conventional  ])eriod  for  marriage 
festivities  in  Syria  at  the  time  of  Laban  and 
.Jacob  ((Jen.  xxix.  27,  28)  ;  and  the  same 
custom  i)revailed  among  the  Philistines  in 
the  days  of  Samson  {.Tudg.  xiv.  12,  17). 
Funeral  obse(|uies  also,  like  those  of  .Tacob 
and  others,  were  conducted  for  .seven  days 
(Gen.  1.  10;  1  Sain.  xxxi.  l.'J).  Weeks  con- 
st:vntlj'  entered  into  all  the  arrangements  of 
the  ceremonial  law  (Kx.  xii.  1.");  xiii.  6,7; 
xxii.  30  ;  xxix.  .'JO.  :!.">,  IC ;  Lev.  xii.  2  ;  xiii.  .'j ; 
xiv.  S,  etc.).  \  week  with  a  fixed  beginning, 
which  everybody  reck<med  as  the  first  day, 
is,  of  course,  not  intended  in  all  or  even  in  the 


majority  of  these  cases.  The  week  of  nup- 
tial festivities,  for  examjile,  began  on  the  day 
of  the  wedding  on  wlialeviT  dale  it  occurred. 
Nevertheless  the.se  nunuTous  instances  show 
that  the  seven-day  period  was  a  standard  in 
common  use ;  and  it  is 
worthy  of  notice  that  the 
periods  are  consecutive 
in  tlie   narrative   of  the 

11 1  (see  Flood),  aswell 

as  later,  in  deterniinijig 
the  date  of  Pentecost. 
F(fr  the  origin  of  the 
week,  see  Sabbath. 

The  ancient  Hebrews 
named  none  of  the  days 
of  the  week  except  the 
seventh  dav,  which  they 
called  the  Sabbath.  They 
numbered  the  days  of  the 
festivals,  and  the  15aby- 
lonian  narrator  enumerates  each  of  the  seven 
days  during  which  the  ark  lay  stranded.  In 
the  N.  T.  period  the  Hebrews  numbered  the 
days  of  the  week  (Mat.  xxviii.  1;  Acts  xx. 
7),  and  besides  the  seventh  day  named  also 
the  preceding  day,  which  they  called  the  prep- 
aration (Mark  xv.  42). 

The  week  and  the  names  of  its  days  were 
introduced  at  a  comparatively  late  period 
into  the  Roman  empire.  The  ancient  Romans 
had  a  week  of  eight  days.  The  Greeks  di- 
vided the  month  into  three  periods.  The 
Egyptians,  as  early  as  the  time  when  the 
pyramids  were  built,  had  a  ten-day  jjcriod. 
each  one  of  which  began  with  the  rising  of 
one  of  thirty-six  constellations  in  succession. 
Dio  Cassius.  who  wrote  in  the  second  cen- 
tury A.  D.,  speaks  of  the  hebdomadal  division 
of  time  being  universal  in  bis  day  in  the 
Roman  empire  and  a  recent  introduction. 
He  represents  it  as  borrowed  from  the  Egyp- 
tians, and  as  based  upon  astrology.  Of  the 
two  schemes,  by  one  or  the  other  of  which 
he  considers  that  the  planetary  names  of  the 
different  days  were  fixed,  only  one  has 
plausibility  :  each  day  in  succession  was  as- 
signed to  one  of  the  planets  as  regent,  and 
the  hours  were  also  allotted  to  the  planets. 
If  the  planets  arc  arranged  in  the  order  of 
their  di.stance  from  the  earth,  as  believed  at 
the  time  of  Dio  Cassius,  Saturn,  Jupiter, 
Mars,  Sun,  Venus.  Mercury,  Moon,  and  if, 
further,  the  first  hour  is  allotted  to  Saturn, 
the  second  to  .lupiter,  and  so  on.  the  twenty- 
fifth  hour,  or  the  first  hour  of  the  morrow, 
will  fall  to  the  sun  and  on  the  following 
morning  to  the  moon,  and  so  on  to  Mars, 
Mercury,  .Tu])iter,  and  Venus.  If  the  planet 
to  which  the  first  hour  of  the  day  belongs 
be  reckoned  as  the  regent  of  the  day.  the 
days  of  the  week  will  be.  Saturn's  day.  Sun's 
day.  Moon's  day,  and  so  on.  This  theory  must 
be  held  with  cautious  reserve.  There  maybe 
an  entirely  difiY'rcnt  reason  from  that  given 
for  the  order  of  the  planets,  although  the 
effort  to  explain  satisfactorily  the  names  from 


Weeks,  Feast  of 


Weights 


Hahyhiiiian  astruiKiiny  lias  not  been  siiccpss- 
I'lil  Hs  yet.  The  iiami-s  jiassfd  lioin  Koiiiaii 
lo  European  use,  both  in  their  J^atin  iorni, 
and  also,  when  translated  into  the  (iernianic 
lauKuages,  with  the  names  of  (iernianic 
deities  sulistitnted  lor  the  corresiiondinj; 
Itonian  ones.  'J'iiey  are  tounil  also  in  India, 
which  is  believed  to  have  received  them  with 
astronomy  and  astrolo<{y  from  CJreece  and 
lioiue.  The  names  are  of  heathen  origin, 
and  originati'd  in  sujierstition,  but  no  asso- 
ciations of  any  kind  are  now  connected  with 
them  any  more  than  with  January,  the 
month  of  Janus,  god  of  tlie  sun  and  the 
year,  or  with  March,  month  of  Mars,  god 
of  war,  or  with  June,  which  was  sacred  to 
the  goddiss  Juno. 

Till'  Hebrew  word  for  week,  xhabna',  heb- 
domad, might  of  it.self  refer  to  :i  ])eriod  of 
seven  years  as  well  ii.s  to  one  of  seven  days. 
The  existence  of  the  Sabl)atic  year  would 
tend  to  jiroduce  this  u.sage.  It  is  therefore 
not  suriirising  to  tind  tlii'  Hebrew  word  for 
wei'k  used  by  Daniel  for  a  jieriod  of  seven 
years,  as  interpreters  commonly  understand 
I  Dan.  i.\.  "Jl--'?;  cji.  Lev.  x.w.  b). 

Weeks,  Feast  of. 

The  Mcoiid  of  the  three  annual  fe.stivaksat 
wliiih  every  male  Israelite  was  required  to 
aiijiear  before  the  Lord  at  the  sanctuary,  and 
the  first  of  the  two  agricultural  festivals 
(Ex.  xxxiv.  22,  23;  2  Chron.  viii.  12,  13;  cp. 
1  Kin.  ix.  25).  It  was  .so  called  because  its 
date  was  set  seven  comjilete  week.s  after  the 
Consecration  of  the  harvest  season  bj'  the 
ottering  of  the  sheaf  of  the  first  ripe  bar- 
ley (Lev.  xxiii.  15,  ](!;  cp.  Dent.  xvi.  9, 
HM.  This  sheaf  was  waved  on  the  morrow 
after  the  Sabbath  (Lev.  xxiii.  ID.  The 
Kaithoseans(Sadducees)  interjireted  this  Sab- 
V)alh  as  meaning  the  weekly  Sabbath  which 
occurred  during  the  festival  of  inihavencd 
bread  :  ami  some  modern  schohirs  have 
adopted  this  view.  Tlie  ojiinion  luis  even 
been  lield  that  it  denoted  merely  the  weekly 
Sabltath  which  fell  immediately  before  the 
harvest.  Tlie  older  and  better  ojiinion  is 
that  it  ilenotcs  the  first  day  of  the  fi'stival 
of  unleavened  bread.  The  (Jreek  translators 
understood  it  so  (Lev.  xxiii.  7,  11,  Septua- 
gint),  as  did  also  those  who  directed  the 
.services  of  the  second  temjile  (.\ntiii.  iii.  10, 
5)  ;  tliis  lirst  day  was  kejit  as  a  SaliJiatb.  no 
work  was  done  on  it  and  there  was  a  holy 
convocation;  and  sudi  rest  days,  not  less 
than  the  seventh  day  of  the  week,  were 
called  Sabbath  (  Lev.  xxiii.  .'52  ;  xxv.  2):  on 
tlie  morrow  after  the  jiassover  the  new  grain 
was  used,  which  coiihl  not  be  eaten  until  the 
sheaf  had  been  waved  before  the  Lord  (Lev. 
xxiii.  1  I :  Josh.  v.  10.  n.  \i.  V.  margin).  The 
festival  fell  on  the  liftietb  day  after  the 
waving  of  the  sheaf,  which  gave  rise  to  the 
name  Pentecost  or  fiftieth  day  (.Vets  ii.  1). 
It  was  also  culled  the  feast  of  harvest  or  day 
of   firstfruits,  because  the    firstfruits  of   the 


wheat  harvest,  then  ended  in  most  districts, 
were  iiresented  (Ex.  xxiii.  ](!;  xxxiv.  22; 
Num.  xxviii.  2(i).  It  celebrated  the  close  of 
the  grain  harvest.  It  was  l)ound  up  with  the 
cycle  of  religious  feasts  by  the  number  seven. 
It  was  observed  as  a  Sabbath,  ordinary  labors 
were  siisiieiided  and  there  was  a  holy  convo- 
cation (Lev.  xxiii.  x.'l  ;  Num.  xxviii.  2(i);  two 
loaves  of  leavened  brea<l,  such  as  was  used  in 
the  household,  repri'senting  the  firstfruits  of 
the  grain  harvest,  were  oU'ered  to  the  I>(.rd 
(Lev.  xxiii.  17.  20;  cp.  Ex.  xxxiv.  22  ;  Num. 
xxviii.  2();  Deut.  xvi.  10);  and  with  them 
ten  projier  animals  were  sacrificed  for  a 
burnt  ottering,  a  kid  for  a  sin  ottering,  and 
two  lambs  for  a  peace  ofl'ering  (Lev.  xxiii.  IH, 
19).  The  sacrifices  for  the  entire  day  were 
distributed  into — 1.  The  regular  daily  burnt 
ottering  of  two  lambs  (Num.  xxviii.  3,  31  . 
2.  The  sjiecial  sacrifices  for  the  feast  day 
(27-30),  which  were  the  same  as  on  the  day 
of  the  new  moon  and  each  day  of  unk'av- 
ened  bread  (v<>r.  11,  lit).  3.  The  .sacrifices 
connected  with  the  ofl'ering  of  the  loaves 
and  the  two  lambs  ( Lev.  xxiii.  17-19).  Jo- 
sejihiis  correctly  sums  uji  the  offerings 
additional  to  the  daily  burnt  ott'ering,  cx- 
cejit  that  he  or  his  text  as  transmitted  men- 
tions two  instead  of  three  rams  iAnti(|.  iii. 
10,  6).  As  at  the  culminating  agricultural 
festival,  so  at  this  the  pi'ojile  were  urged  to 
remember  the  needy  (Deut.  xvi.  11.  12). 
Pentecost  came  to  be  regarded  in  latertiii.es, 
esjx'cially  in  the  early  (  hrislian  centuries,  as 
the  coninic^moration  of  the  giving  of  the  law 
on  mount  Sinai ;  but  there  is  no  authority 
for  this  belief  in  the  O.  T.,  and  it  cannot  be 
shown  that  the  law  was  given  exactly  fifty- 
days  after  the  jiassover. 

The  most  notable  Pentecost  was  the  first 
which  occurred  after  tlie  resurrection  and 
ascension  of  Christ  (Acts  ii.).  From  it  dates 
the  founding  of  the  Christian  church.  The 
essential  traits  of  an  iiistiitition  are  seen  in 
the  history  of  its  establishment.  At  the  in- 
stitution of  the  church,  the  Holy  Spirit  de- 
scended into  all  lielievers,  witlH)Ut  distinc- 
tion of  age.  sex.  or  class  (1-4.  14-21);  sec 
ToXfilK.  Life  had  been  imjiarti'd.  The 
Spirit  had  been  givi'U  to  men  before,  but  now 
the  church  entered  upon  what  is  character- 
istically the  dispensation  of  the  Sjjirit.  The 
.Sjiirit  is  now  given  in  full  measure  to  all 
believers  without  the  intervention  of  jire- 
.scribed  riti'S.  He  had  jireserved  a  peo- 
l>le  of  (iod  on  earth ;  in  this  new  era  of 
ills  power  he  devotes  his  divine  energy 
to  enlarging,  perfecting,  and  edifying  the 
church. 

Weights. 

Till-  I  lelirews  used  scales  and  weights  (T,ev. 
xix.  .'idi.  and  they  weighed  money  as  well  as 
other  commodities  (.lei.  xxxii.  10).  The  de- 
nominations were  talent  (circle),  maneh 
(jiart).  shekel  (weight),  gerah  (grain),  and 
beka  (half  [shekel]). 


Weights  772 


Weights 


20  penilis  =  1  shekel 
(>()  shck('ls  --^  1  iiiaiich 
(iO  uiaiR'lis  =  1  talent. 

It  is  important  to  observe  that  the  table  for 
gold  and  silver  is  diflerent  from  the  table  for 
commodities,  and  is — 

20  gerahs  =  1  shekel 
oO  shekels  =  1  maneh 
60  manehs  =  1  talent. 

Pound  is  the  rendering  of  1.  Hebrew  Maneh 
(1  Kin.  X.  17);  2.  Greek  Mna  [I  Mac.  siv. 


Bronze  and  Stone  Weights  in  the  form  of  Lions 
and  Ducks.    They  were  used  by  Trades- 
people in  Nineveh. 

24;  XV.  18),  which  is  generally  believed   to 
be  reckoned  on  the  basis  of  the  Attic  talent, 


Hcrhrcw  maneh  of  gold.  Pound  as  a  sum  of 
money  was  i'<iuivalent  to  100  drachmas  and 
worth  al)out  sixteen  dollars  (Luke  xix.  13, 
K.  V.  margin) ;  see  Money. 

In  weight  a  shekel  equaled  20  gerahs,  and  a 
maneh  was  20  -f  25  +  1.")  =  «J0  shekels  (Ezek. 
xlv.  12).  This  interpretation  is  confirmed  by 
the  Assyrian  and  Babylonian  division  of 
their  maneh  into  sixty  parts.  Weights  of 
the  denomination  of  maneh  have  been  dis- 
covered in  Nineveh  and  Babylonia,  and  show 
that  a  heavy  and  a  light  talent  were  used, 
the  former  weighing  (iO.6  kilogrammes  and 
the  latter  exactly  one-half  or  30.3  kilo- 
grammes. The  heavy  and  light  manehs 
weighed  1010  and  50.5  grammes  respectively, 
and  the  shekels  l(i..s;j  and  rt.41  grammes. 
According  to  Josephus,  the  Hebrew  maneh 
of  gold  equaled  two  and  a  half  Komaa 
pounds  (Antiq.  xiv.  7,  1)  or  818.57,  according 
to  Madden,  819.538  grammes.  It  ap])ears 
from  this  that  the  Jewish  maneh  of  gold  was 
reckoned  at  50  shekels,  that  the  shekel  of 
gold  was  a  trifle  lighter  than  the  Assyrian 
shekel  of  weight,  being  16.37,  according  to 
Madden  16.39,  grammes,  and  that  the  shekel 
of  gold  and  the  shekel  of  weight  were  in- 
tended to  be  identical.  The  diS'erence  be- 
tween this  Hebrew  shekel  and  the  Assyrian 
shekel  was  about  seven  troy  grains.  A  com- 
parison of  1  Kin.  X.  17  (R.  V.  margin  maneh) 
with  2  Chron.  ix.  16,  if  the  text  is  pure, 
probably  indicates  that  a  maneh  of  gold 
was  sometimes  reckoned  at  one  hundred 
light  shekels,  instead  of  at  fifty  normal 
shekels. 

Three  thousand  shekels  of  silver  equaled 
one  talent.  This  appears  from  the  fact  that 
603,550  half  shekels  or  301,775  shekels  of  the 
sanctuary  equaled  100  talents  and  1775  shek- 
els (Ex.  xxxviii.  25,  26).  It  may  justly  be 
concluded  that  the  talent  of  silver  was  reck- 
oned at  sixty  manehs  of  fifty  shekels  each. 
The  shekel  equaled  twenty  gerahs  (Ex.  xxx. 
13).     The  shekel  of   silver,   however,    was 


Weighhig  and  Recording  in  Ancient  Kgypt. 


and  hence  a  little  more  than  half  as  heavy 
as  the  Hebrew  maneh  ;  and  3.  Litra  (John 
xii.  3;  xix.  39),  equivalent  to  the  Roman 
libra,   of   which  two  and  a   half  equaled  a 


lighter  than  the  shekel  of  gold  and  weight, 
the  average  weight  of  the  extant  silver  shek- 
el coins  being  only  14.5565,  according  to 
Madden   14.5668,  grammes. 


Well 


Wheat 


Taleut  =  909.438.48      grains 
MaiR-h  =     1.-).  157.308 
Shekel  =         Syi-ti-^lS       " 


Table  of  Weight. 

Avoirdupois, 
lb.         oz.        grains. 
1J9         14         313.48 
2  2        2W'2.308 

252.621 


Troy, 

lb.         oz.       pwt.  grains. 

1")-         10         13  (j.48 

2          7         11  13.308 

10  12.621 


Tablk 

OF 

Gold. 

Troy. 

lb. 

oz. 

pwt. 

grains. 

grains  =  131 

6 

17 

17.4    =  $29,374.50 

•       =      2 

2 

6 

7.09  =         489.577 

"       = 

10 

12.62  =             9.791 

Talent  =  757,865.4 

Maueh  -     12,631.09 

Shekel  =         252.6218 

The  dollar  containing  25.8  grains. 

Table  of  Silver. 

Troy, 
lb.  oz.  pwt.  grains. 

Taleut  -  673,907.724    grains  -  116  11  19  11.724 

Maneh  =    11.231.7954      ••       =      1  11  7  23.795 

Shekel  =         224.6359      "       =  9  8.6359 

The  value  of  the  silver  shekel  was  one-fifteenth  that  of  the  gold  sliekel,  or 
about  65  cents. 


Well. 

A  i)it  sunk  in  the  eartli  to  reach  a  supply 
of  water.  It  was  called  in  Hebrew  b'er,  a 
word  often  used  in  compound  names  like 
Beer-shoba.  The  water  reached  was  found 
collected  in  a  dejiression,  or  slowly  i)ercolat- 
ing  through  the  sand  on  its  way  to  a  lower 
level,  or  flowing  as  an  underground  stream 
(Gen.  xvi.  7  with  14  ;  xxiv.  1 1  with  13).  Wells 
were  often  scooped  in  the  sandy  soil  by  those 
wild  knew  cif  tiie  presence  of  water.  Tlu\v 
were  dug  in  the  wadiesand  fed  by  an  under- 
flow, even  when  the  bed  of  the  torrent  was 
drv,  as  at  Bi'cr-sheba  and  in  the  valley  of 
Gerar  (xxi.  .30.  31;  xxiv.  19).  They  were 
sunk  far  and  wide  thnnigh  the  surface  soil 
of  the  Pliilistine  jilain  into  the  lower  sand, 
where  an  inexhaustible  stream  makes  its 
way  to  the  sea.  In  hilly  Palestine  they  were 
dug  in  the  limestone  rock.  The  well  did  not 
essentially  differ  in  outward  aii|narauce  from 
a  cistern.  The  mouth  was  i)rotected  by  a 
stone  curb  (.John  iv.  (i),  and  to  prevent  acci- 
dents to  man  or  ))east  was  covered  by  a  stone 
c»r  plank  (Ex.  xxi.  .33:  2  .'-^am.  xvii.'l9;  An- 
tii].  iv.  8,  37).  When  tlu'  well  was  shallow, 
stijis  were  cut  in  the  rock  which  led  down 
to  the  water.  Troughs  of  wood  or  stone 
were  jdaced  near  the  mouth  for  the  benelit 
of  the  cattle  KJeii.  xxiv.  30).  The  water 
was  dipi)etl  with  the  (litcher  (16),  or.  when 
the  well  was  deej),  was  drawn  by  a  ro]ie  with 
bucket,  jar.  or  waterskin  attached  (.John  iv. 
1 1).  Tlie  rope  waseitherclraggi'd  over  theciub 
by  th(!  person  getting  the  water,  or  iierha]is 
an  ox  or  ass  was  sometimes  eui]>loyed,  as  now. 
for  tlu'  j)uri)ost'.  anil  occasionally  a  wheel 
was.  as  now.  li.xed  over  the  well  to  assist  in 
the  W(trk. 

The  nhtidiifin  common  in  Egypt  for  raising 
water  front  tlie  Xih.'.  and  it  was  used  there  in 


antiquity.  It  is  not  employed  in  Palestine, 
but  its  counterpart,  the  well  sweej)  and 
bucket,  is  used.  In  the  Philistine  plain,  the 
Persian  wheel,  called  nu'uya,  is  employed  by 
the  hundred.  It  consists  of  a  tall  upright 
axle,  bearing  a  horizontal  cogwheel,  and 
turned  by  a  mule  attached  to  a  .sweep;  this 
turns  a  vertical  wheel  which  is  directly  over 
the  nu)Uth  of  the  well.  Over  this  pass 
two  thick  ropes,  made  of  twigs  twisted  to- 
gether and  carrying  jars  or  wooden  buckets. 
The  ascending  buckets  come  up  full  of  water, 
which  they  empty  into  a  spout  as  they  i)ass 
over  the  wheel ;  this  spout  conducts  the  water 
to  a  reservoir.    See  Cistekn,  Fountain. 

Whale. 

The  word  rendered  whale  in  the  A.  V.  of 
the  O.  T.  denotes  any  great  animal  of  the 
sea,  except  in  Ezek.  xxxii.  2,  where  the  He- 
brew text  must  be  emended  and  translated 
dragon  (R.  Y.)  ;  see  Draoon. 

The  Greek  word  Irtox,  which  is  used  in 
Mat.  xii.4()  and  rendered  whale  in  the  E.  V.. 
means  any  hutre  lish  or  other  large  animal 
of  the  sea.  such  as  the  doli)hin.  sea  dog.  and 
seal,  and  later  whale,  shark,  tunny.  The 
Septuagint  employs  krtos  uifiialos  in  .Ton.  i. 
17  (in  Seiituagint  ii.  1)  to  render  the  two 
words  "great  fish  "  of  the  Hebrew  text,  and 
thus  the  word  ketos  passed  into  Mat.  xii.  40. 

Wheat. 

Wheat  was  cultivated  in  Babylonia  (Herod, 
i.  19.3).  in  Mesojiotaniia  ((icu.  xxx.  14),  in 
Egypt  (Ex.  ix.  32).  in  Palestine  (xxxiv.  22; 
Deiit.  viii.  8;  .Iiulg.  vi.  11),  and  elsewliere, 
from  a  very  early  jieriod. 

In  Palestine  wheat  was  sown  in  November 
or  December,  after  the  rains  began.  It  was 
thought  that  the  best  numner  of  planting  it 
was  in  rows  (Is.  xxviii.  25,  R.  V.).     The  bar- 


Wheat 


r74       Wilderness  of  the  Wandering 


vest  was  in  April,  May,  or  June  in  Palestine, 
varying  accordiiifi  to  the  Ideality,  the  soil  at 
the  plaie,  and  the  wcatlur  at  the  time;  see 
Ykvk. 

Tlic  ordinary  hriad  of  the  Hebrews  was 
made  of  the  iJoiir  of  wheat  (Kx.  xxix.  2). 
The  ears  were  also  roasted  and  eaten  (Lev. 
ii.  14  ;  Knth  ii.  14) ;  see  Fairhku  Corn.  The 
wlieat,  hruised  and  enishcd,  was  also  used  as 
food  (Lev.  ii.  II,  IH).  New  wheat  tluis  i)re- 
pared,  or  else  the  fresh  ear,  is  mentioned  as 
eaten  (xxiii.  14;  2  Kin.  iv.  ti). 

Kfiypt  was  tlie  fjraiiary  of  the  Mediterra- 
ne.iii  n^ioii.and  vast  (|iiaiitities  were  shii)]»'d 
annually  lo  Koine  from  .Vlcxandria  (.\ets 
xxvii.  <>,  ;!H).  The  best  (luality,  aeeonliiig  to 
riiny.  was  grown  in  Upper  Egypt,  in  the 
Tliehaid  (Hist.  Nat.  xviii.  47).     The  Egyptian 


Egyptian  Wheat. 


wheat  was  a  bearded  variety,  with  many  ears 
on  the  hcail  {Tiiticiim  compositum).  It  is  men- 
tioned in  (n>n.  xli.  22,  is  depicted  on  the  an- 
cient moniiifient.s,  and  is  .still  grown.  The 
wheat  coninjonly  cultivated  in  Palestine  is 
Triticum  vulgnre,  with  a  simple  head. 


Wheel. 
Whore. 


See  Garden,  Well. 
See  Harlot. 


Widow. 

A  widow  from  early  times  wore  an  appro- 
priate garb  ((ien.  xxxviii.  14,  19);  .she  laid 
aside  her  ornaments,  clothed  herself  in  sack- 
cloth, let  her  liair  hang  unbound,  and  did 
not  anoint  her  face  (Judith  x.  ',i,  4;  xvi.  8). 
God  shows  special  compassion  to  the  more 
helple.ss  classes,  among  whom  he  reckons 
widows  (Deut.  x.  IS;  Ps.  Ixviii.  5;  cxlvi.  9; 
Prov.  XV.  2.'>;  Jer.  xlix.  11).  Under  the  Mo- 
saic law,  and  subsequently,  the  Hebrews 
were  enjoined  to  treat  widows  with  justice 
and  consideration,  threatening  judgment  on 
those  who  did  ditfereutly  (Ex.  xxii.22;  Deut. 
xiv.  29;  xvi.  11,  11;  xxiv.  17-21;  xxvi.  12, 
1.3;  Is.  i.  17;  Jer.  vii.  <!;  xxii.  15 ;  Zeeh.  vii. 
10;  Mai.  iii.  5),  as  our  Lord  also  did  in  his 
preaching  (Mark  xii.  40).  The  apostolic 
church  looked  after  poor  widows  (Acts  vi.  1; 
Jas.  i.  27).  In  the  churches  under  Timothy's 
care  certain  widows,  who  were  widows  in- 
deed, and  had  neither  children  nor  grand- 
children to  provide  for  them  (1  Tim.  v.  4), 
were  enrolled  and  cared  for  by  the  church 
(Hi).  To  oljtain  enrollment  it  was  required 
that  they  be  at  least  .sixty  years  of  age,  have 
been  married  but  once,  and  be  well  reported 
of  for  good  works  (9,  10).  Here  are  the  be- 
ginnings of  an  institution.  From  the  end  of 
the  .second  century  to  the  fourth  they  are 
mentioned  by  ecclesiastical  writers  as  elder 
widows  or  the  order  of  widows.  Their  duty 
was  to  .serve  the  church,  and  they  had  ovei"- 
sight  over  the  women  of  the  congregation, 
especially  over  widows  and  orphans.  The 
otfice  was  abolished  by  the  synod  of  Laodicea, 
A.  D.  364. 

For  the  enactment  as  to  marriage  in  cer- 
tain circumstances  to  a  deceased  husband's 
brother,  see  Marriage. 

Wife.     See  Marriage. 

Wild  Ass,  Bull,  Goat,  etc.  See  Ass  and 
the  other  nouns;  but  for  Wild  Ox  see  both 
Ox  and  Uniciirn. 

Wil'der-ness.     Sec  Desert. 

Wil'der-ness  of  the  Wan'der-ing. 

1.  Boil  nihil- 1  ri-'  nii<J  Extent  of  the  Wilderness. 
Nature  has  defined  a  large  inverted  triangle, 
having  for  its  Itase  the  soutlieastern  shore  of 
the  Mediterranean  Sea  and  the  southern 
boundary  of  Palestine,  for  its  western  side 
the  de]>ression  in  which  the  gulf  of  Suez 
and  the  iJitter  Lakes  lie.  and  for  its  eastern 
side  the  depression  occu]iied  by  the  gulf  of 
Akaba  and  the  gorge  of  the  Arabah.  The 
base  of  this  triangle  measures  200  miles,  and 
its  area  about  22.000  s(iuare  miles.  This  dis- 
trict may  be  called  the  wilderness  of  the 
wandering;  t)Ut  this  designation  in  Arabic, 
Badiet  et-Tih,  is  restricted  to  tiie  table-land 
north  of  Sinai.  The  region  is  barren,  little 
desired  by  man ;  and  the  great  nations  of 
antiquitjf    accordingly   left    it  virtually   to 


Wilderness  of  the  Wandering 


Wilderness  of  the  Wandering 


itself.  TIic  Isracliti's  i)ushc(l  their  Sfnithern 
i)(>iiii(l;iry  liiit  a  short  flistaiice  into  its  limits, 
aiitl  the  l'",^'\]>tians  fortilied  a  Iroiitier  for 
themselves  where  its  sands  hejiaii. 

'2.  I'h;/sictil  Ft-aliirr.s  of  lit)'  Wildernesx.  The 
<-hief  lealures  of  tile  territory  are  four:  a 
re;;ion  of  sand,  or  the  northern  and  north- 
westi'rn  coast  ;  a  rejiion  of  limestone,  or  the 
taltle-land  ;  a  region  of  sandstone,  or  the  low 
mountains;  and  a  rejjion  of  fjninite,  or  the 
liij^h  mountains.  (1)  The  re^iion  of  sand 
e.xleiids  in  a  hroad  hand  from  I'hilistia  alonj,' 
the  shore  of  tlu'  Mediterranean  Sea  to  the 
houndary  of  Ejjypt  and  heyond,  hending  to 
the  south  and  eontinnini;  in  a  strij)  ahout  10 
miles  wide  past  Sue/,  to  a  point  one-third  of 
the  way  down  the  eoast.  This  sandy  reirion 
is  more  or  less  eoextensivi'  with  the  wilder- 
iie.ss  of  Shur  (Saadia,  (juoted  hy  Delitzseh, 
Gen.  xvi.  7).  (2)  The  northern  and  central 
])ortion  of  the  triangle  is  a  sterile  tahle-laiid 
<ff  limestone,  from  'JtMM)  to  20(10  feet  hijih  ; 
sloi)iug  down  on  the  north  to  the  sandy 
refjion  on  the  Mediterranean ;  swelling  in 
the  northeast  into  a  mountainous  coun- 
try; and  confined  on  the  other  sides  hy  an 
eneirelin<;  chain  of  mountains,  4()()()  and 
more  feet  hi)ih.  now  called  Jehel  et-Tih. 
The  middle  of  this  desert  is  occuiiied  by  a 
Ion;;  central  hasin,  which  is  drained  into  the 
Mediterranean  hy  the  wady  el-'Arish  and  its 
tiihntaries.  These  water  courses  are  dry 
most  of  the  year,  hut  tilled  by  the  rains  with 
iiifling  torrents.  West  of  this  l)asiTi,  other 
wadies  run  by  themselves  down  to  the  .sea. 
On  the  east  of  the  .same  central  basin,  be- 
tween it  and  the  Arahah.  is  another  similar 
and  jtarallel  one,  extending  from  .Tebel  et- 
Tih  nearly  to  .lebel  'Araif  and  the  moun- 
tiiinous  country  of  the  northeast,  and  drained 
throunliont  by  tlie  wady  el-.Ierafeli.  The 
table-land  projier.  with  its  continuation  in 
the  adjacent  clusters  of  mountains  in  the 
northeast  as  far  as  the  cleft  of  the  wady  el- 
Fikreh,  was  the  wilderness  of  I'aran  (Num. 
X.  11,  12;  xiii.  2(i ;  1  Sam.  xxv.  1,  2),  in 
wliich  the  Israelites  wandered  for  38  years, 
and  of  which  th(>  portion  lyini;  b(>tween 
lloreb  and  Kadcsh  was  rememl)ered  by  them 
as  "the  };reat  and  terrible  wilderness"  (Dent. 
i.  19).  This  plateau  is  mostly  naked  of  vege- 
tation, and  has  a  pnivelly  surface.  The 
wadies,  however,  sehlom  fail  to  show  vegeta- 
tion id'  some  sort,  and  alter  the  rainy  sea.son 
are  covered  with  a  thin  herbage.  The  springs 
are  few,  and  generally  send  forth  imi)ure 
water;  btit  in  tlie  region  about  Kadesh  and 
along  fill'  border  of  the  .\rabah  there  is  a 
considerable  lunnber  of  living  fountains,  and 
near  Kadcsh  and  even  at  other  places  in  the 
very  heart  of  the  desert  water  is  ol)tainable 
by  digging.  (.'!)  The  s;indstone  formation 
crosses  the  peninsula  in  a  broad  belt  imme- 
diately south  of  .lebel  et-Tih  and  extentls 
nearly  from  shore  to  shore,  separating  the 
limestone  table-land  from  the  granite  moun- 
tains.    It  is  rich  iu  mineral  wealth.     It  may 


be  compared  to  a  dumb-bell  in  shape  ;  for  it 
consists  of  two  groups  <»f  mountains  con- 
nected by  a  centnil  plateau.  This  sjindy 
table-land  has  an  altitude  of  about  1500  feet. 
(4)  The  region  of  granite  consists  of  the 
groups  of  mountain  ranges  about  mount 
Sinai.  'J'he  watershed  runs  north  and  south, 
and  lies  just  east  of  wady  esh-Slieikh. 

3.  I'osKibiUty  of  a  Sojourn  of  Forty  Years  in 
the  WiMernexn.  The  Israelites  numbered 
(iOO.OOO  men  from  20  years  (.Id  and  upward, 
according  to  the  repeated  testimony  of  the 
Hebrew  records.  According  to  statistics  of 
]>opulation,  whi<-h  yield  the  jirojiortion  of 
four  to  five  between  those  under  and  those 
above  20  years  of  age  in  a  given  community, 
the  whole  body  of  fugitives  from  I'.g.vjit 
nundiered  2,10(i.0(»0.  The  Hible,  as  well  as 
exj)loration,  teadies  that  this  great  Itost  could 
not  luive  survived  for  any  great  length  of 
lime  in  the  wilderness  save  by  the  provi- 
dence and  miracles  of  (iod.  iMoses  reminded 
the  ]>eoi)le  that  in  the  wilderness  they  liad 
seen  bow  that  the  Lord  their  (iod  did  bear 
them,  as  a  man  doth  bear  his  son,  in  all  the 
way  that  they  went  (I)eut.  i.  31).  The  re- 
ci.rded  miracli's  of  sustenance  are  few.  In 
till'  wilderness  of  Sin,  at  the  beginning  of 
their  journey,  to  the  diildren  of  Israel 
manna  was  given,  of  which  they  continued 
to  eat  for  forty  years,  until  they  came  into  the 
borders  of  Canaan  (Ex.  xvi.  1.  4.  14,  1."..  35). 
This  was  the  jxTuianent  jirovision  for  tlieir 
needs.  The  occasional  sujiplies  were  tlie 
quails,  given  at  the  sjinie  time  as  the  manna, 
but  apparently  only  as  a  sign  and  tempo- 
rarily, for  they  are  not  again  mentioned 
(xvi.  12,  13)  ;  the  water  i)rovided  shortlj' 
afterwards  from  the  rock  near  Kephidim 
(xvii.  3-7)  ;  the  ((Uails  given  in  the  second 
year  for  a  month  (Num.  x.  11 ;  xi.  A-G,  31)  ; 
and  tlie  water  caused  to  gush  fnmi  the  rock 
at  Kadesh  toward  the  end  of  the  forty  years' 
.sojourn  (xx.2-11).  The  P.ible  teaclns  further 
that,  notwithstanding  these  miracles,  certain 
periods  of  the  sojourn  remained  a  horrible 
memory  (l)eut.  i.  1ft;  viii.  15);  that  though 
it  couhl  l)e  sjiid  "Thou  hast  lacked  notliing" 
(ii.  7),  yet  the  life  in  tlu'  wilderness  was  one 
of  re])eated  jirivation  and  hardshi]).  The 
water  was  insutlicient  at  Keidiidim  and 
Kadesh  (Ex.  xvii.  1 ;  Num.  xx.  2) ;  the  ]ieoi)le 
were  mnrniuring  three  days  after  leaving 
Sinai  before  reaching  Ilazcroth  (x.  33;  xi.  1, 
35)  and  as  they  journeyed  from  mount  Hor 
toward  the  Ked  Sea  (xxi.  4,  5)  ;  and  the 
wilderness  was  found  to  be  terrible  (Dent, 
viii.  15). 

It  apjiears  from  the  biblical  narrative 
tliat  the  manna  sutliced  as  staple  fare,  though 
the  ])eoi)le  grew  weary  of  it  ;  and  that  the 
water  supjily,  though  .scanty  often  tt)  distress, 
was  ordinarily  sutlicient.  Food  was  fur- 
nished continuously.  In  regard  to  the  supply 
of  water  in  this  region  of  desolation,  there 
are  twi)  considerations  of  importance:  (1) 
The  ability  of  the   people   to  alleviate   the 


Wilderness  of  the  Wandering 


Wilderness  of  the  Wandering 


distress  nf  the  desert  journey  arising  from 
the  siuriity  of  water.  The  power  of  man 
and  beast  to  endure  thirst  is  {jreat  in  tliese 
dry  countries.  Tlie  eunu-l  drivers  of  Efiypt, 
Imth  men  and  l>oys,  escort  travelers  across 
.sconliin;;  sands  and  under  a  burning  sun 
witlioiit  taslinn  a  drop  of  water  from  early 
moriiin;;  until  after  nightfall,  because  unable 
to  obtain  it.  Hr.  lvol)inson  relates  that  his 
Aral)  i;uide  spent  a  fortni.uht  on  the  Siiiaitic 
l)eniusula  near  mount  Serbal  pasturing  his 
camels,  without  a  dro])  of  water  for  himself 
or  them.  He  drank  the  milk  of  the  camels; 
and  they,  as  well  as  sheep  and  goats,  when 
they  have  fresh  pasture,  need  no  water,  some- 
times going  three  or  four  months  without 
it  (lie.iedrchra  i.  150).  Again,  like  other 
travelers  in  the  desert,  the  Israelites  un- 
doubtedly carried  a  supply  of  water  with 
them,  which  tliey  r('i)leiiislied  at  every  oppor- 
tunity. It  is  evident  from  the  narrative  that 
at  the  beginning  of  their  journey  they  pro- 
vided water  sntiieient  for  a  march  of  at  least 
three  days  into  the  wilderness  (Ex.  xv. '22). 
Again,  the  Israelites  discovered  hidden  natu- 
ral su))]tlies.  Frequently  when  the  bed  of 
the  wady  or  the  surface  of  the  plain  is  dry, 
a  stream  flows  or  water  lies  in  a  basin  under- 
ground. According  to  the  geologist  Fraas, 
the  so-called  wells  of  Moses,  which  bubble 
uj)  in  the  desert  a  short  distance  from  Suez, 
are  fed  by  a  subterranean  stream  which 
flows  from  the  mountains  of  er-Rahah,  10  or 
14  mil(>s  away  (Baedeker,  Lower  Egypt,  421). 
In  the  wady  (Tliuruudi'l,  which  is  commonly 
identified  with  Klim.  there  is  a  subterranean 
stream  which  the  Arabs  open  when  the 
upper  water  course  is  dry.  Tliough  the  rains 
fail  for  two  or  three  years,  water  is  always  to 
be  found  by  digging  a  little  below  the  sur- 
face (Robinson,  Researches  i.  69).  Back  of 
Tur,  at  Mabuk,  at  Kubab,  and  elsewhere, 
water  collects  beneath  the  surfivce  and  may 
be  reached  with  slight  eftbrt  (Ritter,  Erd- 
knnde  xiv.  Kil,  185;  Robinson,  Researches  i. 
1<!7).  The  Hebrews  understood  this  fact  and 
took  advantage  of  it  during  their  sojourn  in 
the  wilderness,  as  the  .song  of  the  well  testi- 
fies (Num.  xxi.  17,  18).  Again,  if  the  man- 
ner of  travel  was  like  the  migrations  of 
other  large  bodies  of  peojile,  the  Israelites 
.scattered  in  order  to  utilize  for  man  and 
beast  all  the  soil  and  herbage  and  water. 
Again,  the  Israelites  husbanded  the  resources 
of  water.  The  rainfall  is  consideral)le ;  the 
wadies  bear  evidence  of  the  torrents  which 
at  times  sweep  down  their  courses.  The 
early  Christian  monks  who  dwelt  in  the 
mountains  of  Sinai  and  the  former  inhab- 
itants and  cultivators  of  the  district  about 
Kade.sh  built  dams  across  the  ravines  and 
dug  cisterns,  and  thus  .securi-d  water  for 
themselves,  their  cattle,  and  their  gardens. 
Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob,  the  forefathers 
of  these  Israelites  of  the  exodus,  had  like- 
wise hu.sbanded  the  rainfall,  and  the  de- 
scendants of  these  Israelites  dug  trenches  in 


the  valleys  and  built  reservoirs  for  a  like 
purpose;  and  doubtless  so  did  the  Israelites 
during  their  .sojourn  of  30  and  8  years  in  the 
wilderness.  (2)  A  second  important  con- 
sideration is  the  evidence  that  the  country 
was  better  wooded  in  former  times.  Char- 
coal has  been  made  in  the  peninsula  from 
the  acacia  tree  for  ages,  but  the  improvident 
Arabs  have  never  been  wont  to  rejjlace  the 
destroyed  timber  by  replanting.  Barllelt  in 
1874  mentions  seeing  stumps  where  the 
Arabs  had  burned  down  the  trees,  and  acacias 
with  the  boughs  lopped  off  for  the  camels  to 
eat  {From  E<iypt  to  Palestine,  pp.  225,  300,  .'JOl). 
Burckhardt,  one  of  the  earliest  travelers  to 
explore  Sinai,  in  his  journey  across  the 
countrj'  in  1812  came  across  charcoal  burners 
(Erdkunde  xiv.  183)  ;  and  Riippell  in  1822 
mentioned  the  burning  of  charcoal  for  ^le 
in  Egypt  as  an  immemorial  industry  of  the 
Bedouin,  and  ascribed  the  nakedness  of  the 
valleys  to  the  neglect  of  the  Arabs  to  replant 
the  ground  which  they  had  denuded  (Erd- 
kunde xiv.  274,  342).  A  tribute  in  charcoal 
has  also  been  imposed  on  the  Arabs  of  Sinai 
by  Egj'pt  since  1823.  But  charcoal  burning 
for  domestic  purposes  and  export  has  not 
been  the  only  means  whereby  the  peninsula, 
has  been  impoverished  of  wood  ;  mining  and 
smelting  have  also  caused  the  destruction  of 
great  quantities  of  timber.  The  ancient 
Egyptians  worked  copper  mines  in  the  sand- 
stone mountains  of  the  west  intermittently 
from  a  very  early  period,  and  were  still 
operating  them  subsequently  to  the  exodus. 
Acacia  wood  was  sometimes  used  as  supports 
for  the  roofs  of  the  mines  (Palmer,  Desert  of 
the  Exodus  i.  205),  and  the  smelting  opera- 
tions, which  were  of  magnitude,  demanded 
large  quantities  of  timber  for  fuel  (ibid.  26, 
43,  231-235  ;  Erdkunde  xiv.  786,  787).  One 
should  recall  the  disappearance  of  the  cedars 
of  Lebanon  and  of  wide  stretches  of  forest  in 
America.  It  is  clear  that,  beginning  long 
before  the  exodus  and  continuing  down  to 
the  present  day,  cau.ses  have  been  at  work 
reducing  the  timber  in  the  region  traversed 
by  the  Israelites.  This  fact  has  a  direct 
bearing  on  the  (lue.stion  of  the  water  sui)ply 
in  earlier  times;  for  the  countiy  being  better 
w-ooded,  there  was  a  natui-al  px-escrvation  of 
the  rainfall.  As  always  where  there  is  vege- 
tation, the  rain  fell  more  regularly ;  the 
water  was  admitted  to  the  wadies  more 
slowly  and  gently ;  soil  and  vegetation  were 
less  ruthlessly  swept  away;  springs  were 
more  numerous  and  flowed  more  copiously  ; 
and  streams  endured  longer  into  the  drv 
season  and  were  more  frequently  perennial. 
Under  an  energetic,  competent,  and  ])rovi- 
dent  leader  who  was  acquainted  with  tlie 
de.sert  and  its  resources,  by  husbanding  tlie 
sui»ply,  by  extending  the  bounds  of  the  en- 
campment, and  by  scattering  from  the  cen- 
tral camp  in  groups  of  various  size,  and  with 
no  failure  of  the  annual  rains,  it  is  not  to  be 
doubted   that  a  large   host  could   have  se- 


Wilderness  of  the  Wandering       777        Wilderness  of  the  Wandering 


eiirfd  :i  sulfic'iont  tlidunh  scant  supply  of 
wator  for  man  and  Iicast. 

4.  The  Itimtv  (if  Ihf  Jsnitlite.i  thniuijh  the. 
l\'iltlt'nit's.s.  (Vrtain  situs  have  hcoii  idenlilii'd  : 
Siict'otli  in  I'-ji.vpt  at  tlio  l)t't;innin{;  of  tlic 
joiirnty.  the  i-ivcr  Arnon  wliii-li  was  rcarlied 
at  till'  cliist'  (if  tlif  fdity  years,  when  the 
wilderness  was  left,  and  the  encampments 
lieyund  the  Arnon  which  are,  mentioned  in 
the  itinerary;  Kadesh,  with  which  there  is 
reason  to  helieve  Kilhmali  was  iirat  tically 
eqnivalent,  where  thecamji  was  twice  jiitcheil, 
and  whence  the  Israelites  expected  to  march 
directly  into  the  promised  land,  and  Eziou- 
gehi'r,  where  the  camp  was  located  just  before 
the  second  march  to  Kadesh,  and  near  which 
they  afterwards  jiassed  on  their  way  to  the 
Arnon.  Mount  Sinai  is  almost  nnixersally 
located  in  the  peninsula,  which  is  acconl- 
ingly  called  the  i)eninsnla  of  Sinai.  The 
camp  at  Moserah  was  hard  by  mount  Ilor, 
on  the  border  of  Edom  ;  anil  the  wells  of 
Bene-jaakan  and  lior-haf;Kidgad  were  also 
near  the  boundary  of  Edom.  Punon  was 
east  of  Edom  and  northeast  of  Pelra.  With 
a  knowledj,'e  of  the  location  of  these  places, 
one  may  readily  trace  the  general  route. 
See  majis,  AisKAiiAM,  E(;vi'T. 

An  itinerary  covering  the  journey  from 
Kami'ses  and  Succoth  to  the  camp  opposite 
Jericho  was  drawn  up  by  Closes  (Num. 
xxxiii.).     The  encampments  recorded  in  it 


after  Sinai  rejiresent  the  movements  of  the 
tai)i'rnacle.  'J'lie  ])e(p]ile  weri',  however, 
doubtless  often  (lis]iersc-d  through  the  wil- 
derness, tending  tlieir  flocks  wherever  herb- 
age and  water  were  found.  When  they  were 
collected  and  i-ncamiiing  in  a  body,  their 
camji  was  very  large  and,  in  a  settled  coun- 
try, covered  the  distance  between  several 
towns;  hence  the  same  encamiunent  may  be 
difl'erently  described  or  designated  (4!t  with 
XXV.  1).  Besides  the  itinerary  there  is  the 
narrative  of  the  journey  (Ex.  xii.-Num. 
XXV.),  and  there  are  also  scattered  allusions 
in  the  address  of  Moses  to  various  incidents 
that  occurred  on  the  way.  It  is  inijiortant 
to  remember  that  each  of  these  three  recitals 
was  jireiiared  for  a  special  ]>ur]iose  of  its 
own.  The  itinerary  records  formal  encamp- 
ments, and  does  not  mention  every  hjiltiiig 
l)lace  and  every  jilace  of  siiending  the  night 
(Ex.  XV.  'J2;  Num.  x.  33).  It  is  doubtful 
■whether  it  omits  a  single  encam]iment  where 
the  tabernacle  was  set  uj).  The  narrative  is 
apt  to  nu'ution  an  enc;imjiment  or  even  a 
stopi)ing  ])lace  where  an  imjiortant  event  oc- 
curred, and  to  i)a.ss  over  the  others.  In  the 
address  events  are  cited  as  illustrations  or  to 
enforce  the  argument;  and  of  course  they 
are  cho.sen  at  random,  without  reference  to 
chronological  secjuence,  and  they  are  fre- 
quently alluded  to  broadly  and  by  compre- 
hensive statement. 


Itinkuarv. 
From   Rameses  to  mount 
Sinai. 

Rnnu'scs,  left  in  Ist  month. 

l.=itli(i;iy  .   .   .  Num.  xxxiii.  3,  5 

Succoth' 5 

Etham,  in  the  edge  of  the 

xvililcrni-88 6 

I'i-hnhiroth 7 

Passage  of  the  Red  Sea  .  8 

Went  tlirei'  iliijs'  journey 
into  the  wilJcrness  of 
ICtham  and  pitdied  at 

Mnrah 8 

Klini     9 

lU-  the  Red  Sea 10 

W'ilderness  of  Sin     ...  11 

Dophkali IJ 

Alush lu 

Re)ihiiliin,  where  was  no 
water  for   tlie    |ieo|ple   to 

iliiiik      14 

\Vil(l.rn.ss  of  Sinai  .    .    .  l.'. 

From  mount  Sinai  to  Ka- 
desh-barnea. 

Wililcnii-ss  cf  Sinai    .   . 
Iviiiriitli-liuttuuvah     .   .  IC 


X.\RRATIVE. 


Nipht  after  14th  day  of  Ist 
mouth  ....  Ex.  xii.  18,  31,  37 

37 

xiii.  20 

xiv.    2 

22 
Went  out  intotlie  wilder- 
ness of  Slnir,  and  went 
three  days  in  tlie   wil- 
derness ami  came  to 
Marah  xv.  23 
27 

2d  nionth,  l.'.tli  (tiv    .    .    .  xvi.    1 

xvii.    1 

before  I  he  mount      .    .    .    xix.    2 
in  ;id  month 1 


Num.  X.  12    Iloreb 
ill  "Jd   viiir.  2i|   iiiniitli, 
2iitli  day     .  11  ;  cj).  i.  1  ;  ix.  5 

Three  days' juuriicy  X.  33 

.  .  the  outermost  part  of 
the  ramii  where  the  tire 
devoured    heiuK    riilled 

Tnberah xi.  1,  3,  34 

A|i|):irentlv      renialneil  .ix.22 

30iluvs    .' 21 


Allusions  in  Moses' 
Address. 


Deut.  xvi.  1 


vi.  10;  XXV.  17 


iv.  in,  11  ;  V.  2 


through  all 
that   Kleat 
and 

terrilde 
wiliierness 
hv  till' way 
to  tlo'  hill 
country 
of   the" 


Wilderness  of  tlie  Wandering 


Wilderness  of  the  Wandering 


Itinerary. 


Ilazorotli 
Kithmah 


Num.  .xxxiii.  17 
18 


From    Kadesh    to    Ezion- 
geber  and  Return,  until 

till-    iiii'ii   ol    thiit    guiieiutioii 

llUMi. 

Rithiuali 

Rimiiiou-perez 19 


Libiiah 

Rissah 

Kt'lulathah 

Miiuiit  .'^liepher     .... 

Harailali 

Makheloth 

Tahath  

Tcrali 

Mitlikali 

Ha.-ilimiiiiali 

Mo.SL-iMth 

Beuo-jaakaii 

Hor-haLfsi'lfiad 

Jotbatliah 

Abronah   

Ezion-neber 

Wilderness  of  Zin,  i.  e. 
Kadesh 


36 


From  Eadesh  to  the  Jor- 
dan. 

Kadesli 


Mount  Ilor,  in  the  ndgcof 

tliH  Iniid  of  Kflom     .    .  37 

In  4(»th  voarj.Mli  iiKHith, 
Ist  .lay  38 

Aiirim      asconiUMl      tlie 
niniititniti  mid  ilii'd     .    .  39 

Tlip  kiiigof  Arad  li..iird  of 
llipniininjf  of  till-  Nrai'l- 


ite< 


Narrative. 

Num.  xi.  ST) 

Ui'inaiiied  at  least  7  days  .  xii.  15 
Kadi'sli,  ill  tlie  wilcleriiess 

(pf  I'liiaii  .   .  .  xii.  16;  xiii.  26 
About    the    time  of    the 
rii.'<t  r  i[H!  pniiies,  7.  p.  ill 
the  latter  part  of  tlie  5th 

liioiitli xiii.  20 

Discoiira;;ed  by  the  spies' 
report,  tlie  Israelites  re- 
fused to  advance.  Aftrr 
beiiif;  eoiideniued  to 
wander  in  the  wilder- 
ness 40  years  and  ni- 
dered  to  turn  back  into 
the  wilderness  by  the 
way  to  the  RedS"  a,  the 
people  attempted  to  en- 
ter Canaan,  and  went 
up  into  the  mountain, 
but  were  smitten,  even 
unto  Horniah.  Moses 
departed  not  from  the 
camp xiv.  25,  33-45 


In  the  wilderness 


20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 

2'.»    In  the  wilderness 

30 

31 

32 

33 

35 


XV.  32 


xvi.  13 


Wilderness  of  Zin  at  Ka- 
desh,  in  1st  month  [of 

40tli  year] xx.   1 

Moses  and  Aaron  sinned 
ajrainst  God  when 
smiting  the  rock  .  .  .  2-13 
Messengers  were  sent 
to  the  king  of  Edom, 
asking  permission  tor 
Israel  to  cross  his  terri 
tory 14-17 


Kadesh 

Journey  toward  Edom  by 
the  way  of  Atharim  or 
tlie  «|)ic>s 

Mount  Hor,  by  the  border 
of  the  lanil  of  Edom   XX. 


Allusions  in  Moses' 
Address. 

Amotites 
Deut.  xxiv.  9      to 
Kadesh-barnea  ...      .      i. 
It  is  11  days' journey  from 
Horeb   by    the   way  of 
mount  Seir  to  Kadesh- 
barnea     


i.  40-45  ;  ix.  23 


At  Kadesh  many  days  .  i.  46 
Turned  and  took  their 
journey  into  the  wilder- 
ness by  the  way  to  the 
Red  Sea,  as  God  had 
commanded ii.  1 


Compassed 


The  king  of  Arad  lieani 
of  their  coming,  fought 
against  them,  and  took 
some  of  them  captive    . 


xxi.  1 

22,  23, 


24-29 


xxi.  1 


.  cp.  xxxii.  51 

many 
.  iii.  26;  iv.  21 

days,  ii.  2 

until 

filially 

toward 

Wells  of  Bene-jaakan.    x.  6 
Moserah,  x.  6 

the 

wliere  Aaron  died.     x.  6 

cl.ise 
of  the 


Willow 


WiUow 


Itinerary. 

Narrative. 

At  muuiit  Iloi  tb»'  I^racl- 
ili'S   pmbably    received 
tbe  aiiHWer  of  the  kinn 

Allusions  in  Moses' 
Address. 

fi<rty 
yejirs 

of  Kdoiii,  and  found  bid 

Deut.  ii 

.7- 

aniiv  drawn    up   to  op- 

x.\ix.  5 

po.se    tbeni,    wberefoie 

they 

iMai-l      turned      away 

(roiu  bini    .    .    Num.  XX.  18-21 

peace- 

From    mount     Ibir    they 

journeyed,  by  the  way 
to  the  lied  !Sea,  lo  com- 

Gudgodah.   x  7      fully 

pass  the  land  of  Kdoui 

xxi.  4 

Jotbathah.    x.  7 

crossed     the     southern 
end     of     Kdoni,     near 
Elath  and  flzion-geber, 
and  turned  northward, 

Zaimfinah    .   .    Num.  xxxiii 

41 

Fiery  serpents  liereabouts  . 

6-9 

Deut.  Viii.  15             journeying 

pillion 

42 

by  the  way 
of  tlie  wil- 
derness of 

Oljotli     

43 

10 

Iye-al)arim,  in  the  border 



.    .    .  in  the  wilderness  east 

of  Moub 

44 

of  Moab 

11 

Moab.  ii.4, 
and 

5,8 

Valley  of  Zered     .... 

12 

Crossed  the  brook  Zered 

'i*  yearsafler  their  con- 
demnation at   Kadesli- 
barnea  

13 
14 

In  the  vildernesB  on  the 

other,  t.  e.   the  south. 

side  of  the  [upper]  Ar- 

non 

13 

Crossed   the   [ujiper]   Ar- 

non,  perhai)S  the  tribu- 

tary known  as  wady  es- 

Saideb,  and  so  were  in 

the  neighborhood  of  the 

Ammonites ii.  18 

19 

and  on   the  bonlers  of 

the  Amorite  kinpdoni   . 

24 

Beer,  in  the  wilderue.ss    . 

16,18 

From      the       wilderness 
which    took     its  name 
from     Kedemoth,    the 
Israelites  sent  niereen- 
gers  to  Sihon 

26 

, 

Sihon  went  against  Israel 

into  tlie  wilderness,  and 

the  battle  was  fought  at 

Jaba/. 

23 

32 

Mattanah,  not  in  the  wil- 

derness   

18 

Dibon-parl,  the  camp  prob- 

Nahalicl 

19 

alilv  exteiuliiif;  to  Na- 

Imli.-l     ........ 

45 

.\liMini     to     Oiblathaim 

Ramoth     

19 

anil  probably  to  IJaiiii.th 

46 

In  tlu-  iiiountaiii.s  of  Ab- 

Valloy  at  the  top  of  Pis- 

nrim,  ln'fore  Nebo     . 

47 

giili 

20 

Plains  of  Monb,  ojiposite 

.k'riclio,    trom    Helli- 

ji-»liiiiiuth  to  Abel-sbit- 

tim 48 

49 

xxii.  1 

In  the  valley  over  apainst 
Beth-pe(jr  .   .    .  iii.  2'.t ;  iv. 

46 

ntShittini 

XXV.    1 

In  the  40th  vear,  before  the 
lltli  mouth 1. 

3 

Wil'low,  Willow  Tree. 

1.  .\ny  tree  of  tlic  ;,'eiuis  f^nUx.  It  was 
calU'd  fiapli.fiiliiili  in  Hebrew  (Iv/.ek.  xvii.  r>), 
V'fl'''f  ''•  A  ruble.  Several  sjiocies  are  com- 
iiinn   in   rnlestine. 

•J.  The  rendering  of  tlte  Hebrew  ''rnhnh. 
riie  Israelites  were  directed  to  take  hranelies 
from  it,  :is  well  as  from  idlier  trees,  to  make 
booths  at  the  feast  of  tabernaeles  (Lev. 
xxiii.  40),  It  >;rew  l)eside  brooks  or  water 
•■oiirses  (ibid.;  Is.  xliv.  4),  and  afforded  cover 


even  to  the  bulky  b.lunioth  (.lob  xl.  22).  It 
was  the  tree  on  whieh  tlie  Hebrews  hiiti;; 
tlieir  harps  when  exiles  at  I'.abyloii  (I's. 
cxxxvii.  2).  The  Septuaj;int  and  \iil;;ate 
render  the  Hebrew  word  by  willow,  and 
tliey  are  followed  b.v  the  Enplislt  version. 
It  may  liave  been  the  weejiiiii;  willow  (Salix 
halii/loiiirii).  which  is  found  nbnnilantly  on 
the  Kiijihrates,  ami  is  cultivated  in  Tales- 
tine.  Hut  leading  interpreters,  followinfi 
Wetzstein,    understand    the    Arabic    (jhmali. 


Willows,  Brook  of  the 


780 


Wine 


and  consequently  its  etymological  equiva- 
lent, the  lli-hrcw  "rnhnh,  to  denote  the  Eu- 
plinitean  impliir  (Popnlns  vuphiadca). 

Wil'lows,  Brook  of  the. 

A  willow-lViiiii.Ml  l.n.(.k  in  Moab  (Is.  xv.  7), 
l)ruli:il>ly  waily  fl-'Al.isy,  the  iii)i)er  course  of 
wady  Kuraili,  tiio  Ixnindary  hetweeii  .Moah 
and  Edoni.  It  maybe  identical  with  tlie 
brook  of  the  Arabah  (Amos  vi.  14,  K.  V.). 

Wlm'ple. 

An  article  of  woman's  attire,  made  of  silk 
or  linen,  and  worn  as  a  covering  for  the 
neck,  chin,  and  sides  of  the  face.  lu  A.  V. 
of  Is.  iii.  22,  it  is  the  rendering  of  the  He- 
brew Mitpahhath,  a  shawl  or  mantle  (ibid.; 
Ruth  iii."  15,  both  K.  V.). 

Wind. 

Tlie  Hebrews,  who  did  not  define  direction 
with  tiie  minuteness  customary  in  modern 
times,  recognized  four  winds:  the  east,  the 
west,  tlie  north,  and  the  south  winds  (Jer. 
xlix.  3t);  Ezek.  xxxvii.  9;  Rev.  vii.  1).  God 
created  the  wind  (Amos  iv.  13) ;  and  it  stands 
at  his  summons,  is  under  his  control,  and 
performs  iiis  pleasure  (.Job  xxviii.  25;  Ps. 
Ixxviii.  2(j :  cvii.  25;  cxxxv.  7:  cxlviii.  8; 
Mat.  viii.  2(!).  The  wind  that  blew  from  the 
west,  southwest,  and  northwest  brought  rain 
to  Palestine,  and  accompanied  the  storm  (1 
Kin  xviii.  43-45;  Ps.  cxlvii.  18;  Prov.  xxv. 
23,  R.  V. ;  Ezek.  xiii.  13).  Wind  was  often 
destructive  to  houses  and  shipping  (Job  i. 
19  ;  Ps.  xlviii.  7  ;  Mat.  vii.  27).  The  scorch- 
ing wind  dried  up  streams,  and  blasted  vege- 
tation (Gen.  xli.  <! ;  Is.  xi.  15;  Ezek.  xix.  12; 
.Ton.  iv.  S) ;  see  E.\ST  Wind.  The  south  and 
.southeast  winds  traversed  the  Arabian  desert, 
and  were  dry  and  hot  (.Job  xxxvii.  17  ;  Luke 
xii.  .55).  The  north  wind  was  cooler  (Ecclus. 
xliii.  20),  and  was  favorable  to  vegetation 
(Song  iv.  1(3).  Wiud  was  t;iken  advantage 
of  by  the  thresher  to  blow  away  the  chaflF 
and  "broken  straw  (Job  xxi.  18;  Ps.  i.  4) ;  see 
TnKKSHiNG.  The  mariner  also  availed  him- 
self of  the  wind  (Acts  xxvii.  40).  The  words 
which  are  rendered  whirlwind  in  the  E.  V. 
do  not  denote  a  rotivry  wind  specificallj^  but 
signify  a  violent  storm  of  any  kind. 

Win'dow. 

.\n  aperture  especially  in  the  wall  of  a 
building  (Gen.  xxvi.  8;  1  Kin.  vi.  4;  Jer. 
xxii.  14),  which  was  opened  and  closed  at 
c<mvcnience  by  mean.s  of  a  mova))le  shutter 
of  some  sort  (Gen.  viii.  (i :  2  Kin.  xiii.  17; 
Dan.  vi.  10),  generally  a  lattice  (Judg.  v.  28; 
2  Kin.  i.  2;  Prov.  vii.  G;  Song  ii.  9);  but  a 
window  on  the  ground  floor,  that  looked  into 
the  street,  was  doubtless  in  ancient  as  in 
modern  times  .small,  high  u]>  in  the  -wall, 
and  strongly  barred.  In  the  better  class  of 
houses  most  of  the  windows  faced  the  court. 
Hon.ses  that  abutted  on  the  town  wall  usually 
had  windows  looking  toward  the  country 
(Josh.   ii.  15;  2  (^or.  xi.  33). 


Wine. 

Wine  was  made  from  grapes.  The  ripe 
clusters  were  gathered  in  baskets  (Jer.  vi.  9), 
carried  to  the  press,  and  thrown  into  it.  The 
press  consisted  of  a  shallow  vat,  built  above 
ground  or  excavated  in  the  rock  (Is.  v.  2)  and, 
through  holes  in  the  bottom,  communicating 
with  a  lower  vat  also  frequently  excavated 
in  the  rock  (Joel  iii.  13).  An  upper  vat  meas- 
uring S  feet  square  and  15  inches  deep  had 
at  times  a  lower  vat  4  feet  square  and  3  feet 
deep.  The  grapes  were  crushed  by  treading 
(Neh.  xiii.  15;  Job  xxiv.  11),  one  or  more 
men  being  employed  according  to  the  size  of 
the  vat.     In  Egypt,  and  probably  in   Pales- 


Treading  the  Wine  Press  in  Ancient  Egj'pt. 

tine,  the  treaders  held  to  ropes  overhead  to 
keep  from  falling ;  they  sang  at  their  work 
and  shouted,  doubtless  to  keep  time  (Is.  xvi. 
10 ;  Jer.  xxv.  30 ;  xlviii.  33)  ;  and  the  red 
blood  of  the  grapes  flowed  around  them  and 
stained  their  skin  and  their  garments  (Is. 
Ixiii.  1-3).  From  the  upper  vat  the  juice 
trickled  into  the  lower.  From  this  receptacle 
the  juice  was  put  in  bottles  of  skin  (Job 
xxxii.  19;  Mat.  ix.  17),  or  in  large  earthen- 
ware jars,  where  it  was  allowed  to  ferment. 
When  fermentation  had  proceeded  far  enough 
the  wine  was  drawn  oif  into  other  vessels 
(Jer.  xlviii.  11,  12). 

The  juice  of  the  grape  when  expressed 
was  used  in  various  conditions :  as  must, 
fresh  from  the  press;  as  wine,  which  was 
produced  by  vinous  fermentation ;  and  as 
vinegar,  which  resulted  when  the  fermenta- 
tion was  continued  too  long.  Probably  in 
ancient  times,  as  at  the  present  day,  some  of 
the  must  was  reduced  to  a  syrup  or  honey 
by  boiling ;  see  Honey.  As  vinegar  it  was 
called  homes,  in  Greek,  nxos ;  see  ViNKGAR. 
Various  names  were  applied  to  it  in  the  other 
states : 

The  Hebrew  tirosh,  that  which  takes  pos- 
session of,  intoxicates  :  or  better,  possession, 
product   of   labor.      The   E.    V.   sometimes 


Wine 


781 


Wine 


reiidiTs  tliis  word  by  viiitafro  (N^um.  xviii. 
rj ;  Nell.  X.  37,  nuirfiiiij  ;  and  llit-  attciiiiit 
has  l)Cfii  iiiadi'  by  simu!  interprfturs  to  limit 
the  meaning  to  this  sense,  and  to  deny  that 
it  ever  sifinifies  new  wine  or  must.  It  means 
juice  of  tlie  grape  or  must  in  .Joel  ii.  24  : 
"Tilt!  floors  shall  be  Cull  of  wheat,  and  the 
fats  shall  o%'erllow  with  wine  and  oil  ;  "  cp. 
iii.  13  :  "  Put  ye  in  the  sickle,  for  the  harvest 
is  ripe :  come,  tread  ye  ;  for  the  wine  i)ress 
in  full  [of  grapes],  the  fat,s  [both  of  them] 
overllow."  It  also  means  juice  of  the  grapt' 
or  new  wine,  as  it  is  rendered  in  the  K.  V., 
in  Hos.  iv.  11:  "Whoredom  and  wine  and 
new  wine  take  away  the  vinderstandiug; " 
for  the  exegesis  is  forced  and  invalid  which 
interjirets  this  verse  as  meaning  that  whore- 
dom ])roceeds  from  the  abu.se  of  wine,  and 
wine  is  connected  with  the  abuse,  that  is,  the 
fermentation,  of  liroxh  or  must  The  pas.s;ige 
atlirms  that  all  three  take  away  the  under- 
standing. There  is  no  need  to  dejiart  from 
this  meaning  of  (irunh  anywhere,  and  render 
it  vintage  ;  for  examide  :  1.  Not  in  Is.  Ixii.  K, 
9:  "Surely  I  will  no  more  give  thy  corn  to 
be  meat  for  thine  enemies;  and  strangers 
shall  not  drink  thy  wine  [on  margin,  vint- 
age], for  the  which  thou  hast  labored:  but 
they  that  have  garnered  it  shall  eat  it,  and 
prai.se  the  Lord  ;  and  they  that  liave  gathered 
it  shall  drink  it  in  the  courts  of  my  sanc- 
tuary "  (R.  v.).  There  is  no  need  to  give 
tinish  the  meaning  of  vintage  here,  as  the 
Ii.  V.  shows  by  jilacing  wine  in  the  text,  as 
the  A.  V.  did.  It  is  said  indeed  to  be  gath- 
ered ;  but  this  is  a  ])rolei)tic  form  of  si)eech, 
and  elsewhere  wine  and  oil  are  .said  to  be 
gatheri'd  (.Jer.  xl.  10;  the  Hebrew  word  for 
wine  being  I/".'/'").  2-  Not  in  Is.  Ixv.  S:  "As 
the  new  wine  is  found  in  the.  cluster,  and  one 
saith.  Destroy  it  not,  for  a  blessing  is  in 
it."  Cheyne  renders  "  As  when  [a  few  good] 
grapes  are  found  in  the  clnsttjr,  and  one  saith 
[to  i1r-  (itiicr  jileaners]  destroy  it  not,  for  a 
blfs.siug  is  in  it."  lUit  the  same  meaning 
exactly  is  yielded  by  rendering:  "  As  when 
the  juice  is  found  in  the  cluster,"  etc.  (Alex- 
ander, Dflitzsch,  Dillmann).  ."i.  Not  in  Mic. 
vi,  l.">:  "Thou  shalt  sow.  l)ut  shalt  not  rea]): 
thou  shalt  tread  the  olives,  but  shalt  not 
anoint  thee  with  oil  ;  and  the  vintage  [in 
A.  V.  sweet  wine],  hut  shalt  not  drink  the 
wine."  The  Hebrews  spoke  of  treading 
grapes  (.\mos  ix.  1!'.)  and  of  treading  wine  (Is. 
X  vi.  10  ;  tfiti/in  being  u.sed,  and  the  word  "  out  " 
not  being  found  in  tlic  original).  4.  Not 
eveti  in  those  numerous  i)assages  wlu-re  the 
fruits  of  the  ground  are  nu-ntioiu'd  com]>re- 
hensivelv  as  corn,  wine,  and  oil  (Num.  xviii. 
V>.  It.  V.  vintage;  Deut.  vii.  13;  xi.  14; 
xii.  17;  Hos.  ii.  8,  22;  Joel  i.  10;  ii.  19,  in 
all  IS  timers).  In  many  of  these  passages 
the  tithe  of  the  corn,  wine,  anil  oil  is  siMikcn 
of.  Siiwe  yisliiir  denotes  the  oil  which  is 
found  in  the  olive  CJ  Kin.  xviii.  ."J'J:  Zech. 
iv.  II),  tiroKh  may  denot<'  the  juici'  which  is 
found  in   the  grape  ;  and  ius  the  grain  was 


tliought  <»f  as  thre.shed,  the  iiroHli  and  the  oil 
may  be  thought  of  as  exiires.si'd.  Indeed  the 
threshed  grain  rather  indicates  that  the  grape 
juice  and  the  oil  were  expres.sed.  The  only 
(question  then  is:  Were  not  fii-stfruits  and 
tithes  brought  from  the  other  ]iroduce  of  the 
vineyard  which  was  not  reduced  to  wine? 
They  were;  but  they  are  n<it  specifically  in- 
cluded in  the  threefold  designation  so  often 
employed.  The  firstfruitsof  all  that  was  in 
the  land  w<-re  i>resented  to  the  Lord,  as  is 
more  exiilicitly  stated  in  Num.  xviii.  13; 
and  mint  and  anise  were  tithed,  although 
the  threefold  designation  does  not  when 
interpreted  literally  embrace  them.  Grain, 
must,  and  oil  were  prominent  enough  to  stand 
for  all. 

The  Hebrew  'a.sjs,  something  trodden  out; 
hence  grajie  juice,  must  (Is.  xlix.  26  ;  Amos 
ix.  13).  It  docs  not  denote  the  expressed 
juice  of  the  gra]>e  only,  but  of  other  fruits 
as  the  pomegranate. 

The  Greek  fileukos  is  used  by  Joseph  us  in 
speaking  of  tlie  grape  juice  sijueezed  into 
Pliaraoh's  cup  (Gen.  xl.  11  ;  Antiij.  ii.  o,  2). 
It  is  exjtlaiued  by  Hesychius  as  the  juice 
that  flowed  si)ontaneously  from  the  grapes 
before  the  treading  commenced.  It  was 
drawn  off  and  ke])t  .sejiarate  from  the  juice 
which  flowed  under  pressure.  It  was  with 
tliis  that  the  apostles  were  accused  of  being 
filled  on  the  day  of  Pentecost  (Acts  ii.  13). 

Must  was  drunk ;  and,  after  fermentation 
had  set  in,  was  intoxicating  (Hos.  iv.  11, 
tirosh:  Acts  ii.  13,  (/leukos :  and  probably  Is. 
xlix.  26,  'asis).  liut  although  must  was 
used  as  a  drink,  the  old  wine  was  preferred 
(Ecclus.  ix.  10;  Luke  v.  39).  Pliny  regarded 
must  as  hurtful  to  the  stomach  (Hist.  Nat. 
xxiii.  18). 

The  Hebrew  yai/in  is  undoubtedly  the 
same  word  etymologicall.v  as  the  (ireek  oinos 
and  the  Latin  riiium.  IJ'mdr  is  the  Aramaic 
name  for  the  .same  thing;  and  liriiier  is  the 
etynH)logical  ecjuivalent  of  the  Aramaic 
word,  and  is  occasionally  used  in  Hebrew 
poetry.  When  the  Hebrew  word  i/ai/itt  first 
occurs  in  Scri])ture,  it  is  the  fermented  juice 
of  the  grape  ((ieu.  ix.  21),  and  there  is  no 
U'ason  to  believe  that  it  has  a  different  mean- 
ing elsewliere.  The  Greek  oinox  also  means 
the  fermented  juice  of  the  grape,  except 
when  it  is  <iiuilified  by  the  word  new,  and 
even  then  there  are  not  two  wines,  one  fer- 
nunted  and  the  other  unferniented.  New 
wine  is  niu.st,  which  only  becomes  wine  by 
fermentation.  An  argument  for  the  u.se  of 
the  term  wine  for  unfernu'Ut<>d  grape  juice 
lujs  been  sought  in  the  fact  that  wine  was 
usi'd  in  later  limes  at  the  jiassover.  and  yet 
leaven  was  strictl.v  forbidden  during  the 
seven  days  of  the  jiaschal  festival  ;  hence  the 
term  wine,  it  has  been  argued,  must  have 
been  aiiplii'd  to  unferniented  juice.  Hut  the 
reason  is  invalid.  \'inous  fermentation  was 
not  regarded  as  leaven.  During  the  pas.sover 
it  was  fermented  drinks  into  which  grain, 


Wine 


782 


Winnowing 


:iii(l  li.iuo  the  lonvcn  of  V^read,  had  entered 
I  hat  I  lie  Jews  would  not  taste  or  touch 
iMislina.  I'rsarltolh  ii.)-  Tliere  were  iiuiiier- 
oiis  varieties  of  wine  whieh  differed  in  body 
and  Ihivnr,  siuli  as  the  wine  of  Lebanon,  the 
wine  of  IIell>i)n.     See  ViNK. 

Fruit  of  tiie  vine,  tlie  desi}j;nation  used  by 
Jesus  at  the  institution  of  the  Lord's  Sujiper 
(Mat.  xxvi.  21t),  is  the  expression  employed 
by  the  Jews  from  time  immemorial  for  the 
wine  i)artaken  of  on  saered  occasions,  as  at 
tlie  passovcr  and  on  the  evening  of  the  Sab- 
bath (Mishna.  Ikmkoth  vi.  1).  The  Greeks 
also  used  the  term  as  a  synonym  of  wine 
which  was  capal)le  of  producing  intoxication 
(Herod,  i.  -211,  212).     The  juice  of  the  grape 


Viutaj,'<j  in  Aucicut  Kgypt. 

which  was  ordinarily  planted  was  red  (Is. 
Ixiii.  2 ;  Kev.  xiv.  19,  20)  and  was  called  the 
blood  of  the  grape  (Gen.  xlix.  11 ;  Dent, 
xxxii.  14 ;  1  Mac.  vi.  :34).  It  was  wine 
(Ecclus.  1.  If)). 

Mixed  wine  was  known  by  the  specific 
names  of  mesek  (Ps.  Ixxv.  8),  mimsak  (Prov. 
xxiii.  30;  Is.  Ixv.  11),  and  mezeq  (Song  vii. 
2),  each  of  which  means -mixture  and  de- 
notes wine  mixed  with  spices  to  give  it  a 
pleasant  flavor  (.Song  viii.  2;  Pliny,  Hist. 
Nat.  xiv.  19.  5),  or  with  water  to  diminish  its 
strength  (Herod,  vi.  84  ;  see  below). 

Wine  differed  from  sheknr,  rendered  strong 
drink  in  E.  V.,  in  that  wine  was  made  from 
the  juice  of  the  grape,  and  shekar  from  the 
juice  of  other  fruits  and  of  grain.  It  was 
fermented,  for  it  was  capable  of  producing 
intoxication  (Is.  xxviii.  7;  xxix.  9).  It  was 
prepared  from  barley  (Herod,  ii.  77),  from 
honey,  or  from  dates  (i.  VXi;  ii.  86;  Jerome, 
Epist.  ad  NepotidHHin),  or  from  the  lotus 
(Herod,  iv.  177).  T!ie  drink  made  from  dates 
is  wholesome  and  refreshing,  ))Ut  in  one  day's 
heat  it  undergoes  rapid  fermentation,  cffer- 
vesces,  and  produces  intoxication  if  taken 
immoderately.  Sheknr  is  once  used  in  a  l)road 
sense  for  strong  drink  generally  in  distinc- 
tion from  water,  and  refers  to  the  drink 
olfering,  which  consisted  of  wine  exclusively 
(Num.  xxviii.  7). 

Other  words  are  Kobe\  a  name  derived  from 
a  root  which  signifies  to  soak  or  drink  to 
excess  I  Is.  i.  22;  Nab.  i.  10);  and  sli'marim, 
which  strictly  denotes  the  lees  of  wine  and 
then  is  used  for  wine  kept  long  on  the  lees, 
and  hence,  old. 

Wine  was  employed  medicinally  (Prov. 
ixxi.  6;  Luke  x.  34;  1  Tim.  v.  23);  was 
used  in  the  service  of  God  (Ex.  xxix.  39-41 ; 


Lev.  xxiii.  13) ;  and  light  wine  was  a  staple 
article  of  diet  in  Palestine,  as  it  has  been  in 
other  Mediterranean  lands  from  time  im- 
memorial (Num.  vi.  20;  Dent.  xiv.  2(j ;  2 
Chroii.  ii.  15 ;  Neh.  v.  18 ;  Mat.  xi.  19  ;  1  Tim. 
iii.  8).  Palestine  was  a  country  where  meat 
was  difficult  to  o))taiu  and  vegetables  were 
rare  ;  and  wine  supi)lied  the  lack.  It  would 
be  a  mistake,  however,  to  suppose  that  wine 
was  the  invariable  accompaniment  of  a  meal ; 
many  a  repast  was  partaken  of  without  it ; 
see  Food.  Still  wine  was  in  common  use. 
Bread  and  wine  signified  the  staples  of  life 
(Ps.  civ.  14,  15;  Prov.  iv.  17).  Wine  was 
offered  as  an  ordinary  hospitality  (Gen.  xiv. 
18)  and  was  .served  at  festivities  (Job  i.  13, 
18;  John  ii.  3).  The  Hebrew*  people 
were,  as  a  rule,  simple  in  their  mcxie 
of  living,  and  temperate ;  but  the  dan- 
ger of  excess  in  the  use  of  even  light 
wine,  especially  at  feasts,  was  clearly 
discerned.  Its  use  was  accordiuglj' 
forbidden  to  priests  when  ministering 
at  the  sanctuary  (Lev.  x.  9),  and  was 
declared  to  be  improper  for  those  about 
to  sit  on  the  judgment  seat  (Prov. 
xxxi.  4,  5;  cp.  Ecc.  x.  17;  Is.  xxviii. 
7) ;  and  precautions  were  taken  to  guard 
all  men  against  exce.ss.  The  means  em- 
ployed to  prevent  the  danger  line  from 
being  crossed  were :  1.  The  weakening  of 
the  wine  with  water  (2  Mac.  xv.  39  :  Herod, 
vi.  84).  That  this  was  done  further  ajipears, 
for  example,  in  connection  with  the  kettle 
of  warm  water  and  the  .servants  to  mix  the 
wine,  w'hich  were  employed  at  the  passover 
(Mishna,  Pesnchim  vii.  13;  x.  2,  4,  7);  hence 
in  the  early  Christian  church  it  was  custom- 
ary to  mix  the  sacramental  wine  with  water 
(Justin  Martyr,  Apol.,  i.  65).  2.  The  gover- 
nor of  the  feast  (Ecclus.  xxxii.  1,  2;  John  ii. 
9,  10),  one  of  whose  duties,  at  least  where 
Greek  customs  were  observed,  was  to  fix  the 
proportion  in  which  the  wine  and  water 
should  be  mixed  and  to  determine  how  much 
wine  each  guest  might  drink  ;  see  Meals?. 
3.  Warnings  against  the  danger  of  lingering 
over  the  wine,  of  tampering  with  the  cup 
when  it  delights  the  eye,  and  of  making  strong 
intoxicants  were  urgently  given,  and  the 
degradation  of  the  drunkard  was  pointed  out 
hv  .sad  example  (Gen.  ix.  21:  Prov.  xxiii. 
29-.35;  Is.  v.  22).  4.  The  folly  of  excess 
even  from  a  worldly  standpoint  was  em- 
jihasized  and  expressed  in  proverbs,  and  put 
on  record  in  the  religious  literature  of  the 
people  (Prov.  xx.  1 ;  xxi.  17  ;  xxiii.  20,  21 ; 
Hab.  ii.  5;  Ecclus.  xxxi.  25-31).  .5.  The 
sinfulness  of  drunkenness  was  earnestly 
taught  and  the  condemnation  of  the  drunk- 
ard bv  God  the  .Judge  was  fully  known  (1 
Sam.  "i.  14-10;  Is.  v.  11-17;  1  Cor.  v.  11  ;  vi. 
10:  Gal.  V.  21;  Eph.  v.  18;  1  Pet.  iv.  3). 

Wine  Press.     See  Wine. 

Win'now-ing.     See  Thkeshing. 


Wisdom 


783 


Wolf 


Wls'dom. 

(Jut-  of  the  tlireo  departments  of  kuowl- 
eilge  amoiij;  the  Hebrews,  the  other  two 
beiiiK  the  hkw  and  inoidiery.  The  hiw  i)re- 
sents  the  eomniaiidiucnls  and  ehiinis  of  Je- 
hovah to  man  ;  iini]ilieey  passes  jiid^imcnt 
on  eondiiet  in  tlie  li^iht  of  God's  revealed 
will  and  explains  the  ohjeet  of  (iod's  dealings 
with  men  ;  wisdom  seeks  hy  ohservalioii, 
experienee,  and  relleetion  to  know  thinj;s  in 
their  essenee  and  reality  as  they  slan<l  re- 
lated to  man  and  ( iod.  The  law  and  propheey 
proceed  direetly  from  tjod,  and  in  the  hijihest 
sense  are  the  word  of  (lod.  Wisdom  jinieeeds 
from  man,  and  is  the  prodiiet  of  his  own 
experiemc  and  observation.  But  while  it  is 
a  iinnian  cllorl,  it  reeojinizes  that  a  good 
understanding  is  the  gift  of  God,  and  it 
]iostnlates  the  fear  of  God  and  obedience  to 
his  commands  as  its  tii-st  i(rincii)le  (Ps.  exi. 
](i ;  I'rov.  ix.  It) ;  Kcc.  xii.  I'.ii.  In  the  earlier 
chapters  of  The  l'roverl)S,  in  the  liook  of 
.Iiib.  and  in  the  Wisdom  of  Solomon,  wisdom 
is  perMinitied.     Si(_-  I'll  ll.o.-ni'ji  v. 

Wisd'om  of  Jesus,  tlie  Son  of  Sirach. 

The  alternative  title  for  Eeelesiasticus.  See 
AriK  itvi'U.v. 

^is'dom  of  Solomon,  sometimes  curtailed 
intu  Wisdom.     See  Ai'ikkvph.\. 

Witch  and  Witch'craft.     See  Sorckrer. 

Wit'nesB. 

Evidence  which  could  he  appealed  to  in 
the  future  in  ease  a  transjiction  should  be 
called  in  ((Uestion  was  secured  by  a  written 
document,  as  a  deed  or  a  letter  of  divorce 
(Dent.  xxiv.  1,  '.i;  Ji".  xxxii.  10),  and  when 
writing  was  not  general  or  was  not  available 
for  the  inirpose,  by  some  tangible  token  or 
memorial,  as  a  heap  of  .stones  (Gen.  xxxi.  46- 
5'2',  or  by  calling  in  men  to  witness  the 
event  Ixxiii.   10-18). 

When  a  person  was  accused  of  a  cajiital 
crime,  the  concurrent  testimony  of  at  least 
two  witnesses  was  required  under  the  Mosaic 
law  to  establish  his  guilt  (Num.  xxxv.  30; 
Dent.  xvii.  (1;  Heb.  x.  -js ;  c]).  1  Kin.  xxi.  10, 
13;  Mat.  xxvi.  (!());  and  this  i)rinciple  was 
extended  and  made  a  general  rule  in  all 
ju<licial  procedure  (l)eut.  xix.  15).  The 
.Mosaic  law  did  not  countenance  coercion, 
did  not  sanction  the  use  of  torture  to  extract 
testimony:  .see  riNisHMKXT.  The  witness, 
before  liis  testimony  was  given,  was  adjured 
to  tell  the  truth  and  to  conceal  nothing  ;  and 
then  it  was  sin  fur  him  to  withhold  evidence 
in  his  ]ios.session  (Lev.  v.  1  ;  Prov.  xxix.  24). 
False  witni'ss  bearing  was  denounced  in  the 
(hcalogue  (Ex.  xx.  Hi),  and  when  detected, 
it  drew  upon  the  false  witness  the  same 
]Kiialty  that  he  had  attemiitcd  to  get  im- 
jiosed  on  the  accused  (Dent.  xix.  1(>,  19). 
The  witnesses  aidecl  in  executing  a  sentence 
of  tleath  ;  see  StoN'INc.  .losepliiis  asserts 
that  women  and  chihlren  were  excluded 
from  giving  testimony  by  the  Mosjiic  law 
(Antiq.  iv.  8, 1.')).   The  law  itself  says  nothing 


on  the  subject ;  but  the  i)articipation  of  the 
witnesses  in  the  execution  of  the  death 
penalty  would  make  the  exclusion  of  women 
and  children  from  witness  bearing  exjiedient. 
Josijihus'  statement  eviilently  rejiresents  the 
current  interpretation  of  the  Mosiiie  law  in 
his  day. 

That  the  testimony  of  at  least  two  wit- 
nes.ses  should  be  nece.s.sary  in  order  to  estab- 
lish the  truth  of  an  accusation  was  .soon  .seen 
to  be  an  excellent  reciuirement,  cai)able  of 
broader  ajiplication,  and  worthy  of  being 
made  a  general  rule  to  govern  the  dealings 
of  man  with  man  (Is.  viii.  '2;  .Mat.  xvii.  1,  2 ; 
xviii.  Hi;  John  viii.  17,  lb;  1  Tim.  v.  19). 

Those  who  in  the  face  of  danger  and  dis- 
tress testify  to  the  truth  of  God  are  witnesses 
in  the  highest  sense  (Heb.  x.,  xi.  1).  MartjT 
is  a  (Jreek  word  meaning  witness,  and  it 
came  to  signify  (>ne  who  sealed  liis  testimony 
with  his  bhjod,  as  Stephen  and  Antipas  (Acts 
xxii.  20 ;  Kev.  ii.  13). 

Wiz'ard. 

A  professed  possesst)r  of  supernatural 
knowledge  derived,  in  tlie  form  of  wizardry 
referred  to  in  the  Bible,  from  the  jirctended 
ability  to  converse  witli  the  spirits  of  the 
dead  (Is.  viii.  19).  The  wizard  chirped  and 
muttered  (ibid.)  in  imitation  of  the  voice  of 
the  spirit  (cp.  xxix.  4).  Tin-  wizard  is  never 
mentioned  alone,  but  always  in  connection 
with  them  that  have  familiar  spirits,  liecause 
he  belonged  to  the  .same  class  of  questionei-s  of 
the  dead.  The  Canaauitt'S  consulted  wizards 
(Deut.  xviii.  9-12),  so  did  the  Egyptians  (Is. 
xix.  3)  ;  but  for  a  Hebrew  to  go  to  such  an 
oracle  defiled  him,  and  was  apostasy  from 
Jehovah  (Lev.  xix.  31;  xx.  (> ;  Is.  viii.  19). 
The  offense  of  wizardry  was  jiunished  with 
death  (Lev.  xx.  27).  Saul,  and  subsequently 
Josiah,  put  the  law  in  force  (1  Sam.  xxviii.3, 
9;  2  Kin.  xxiii.  24);  whilst  Manasseh  vio- 
lated it  shamelessly  (2  Kin.  xxi.  6). 

Wolf. 

1.  A  carnivorous  animal,  wild  and  fierce 
(Is.  xi.  6;  Hab.  i.  8),  that  kills  sheep  and 
other  small  domestic  animals  (Ecclus.  xiii. 
17  ;  John  x.  12),  and  is  accustomed  t(t  remain 
in  hiding  by  day  and  seek  it**  prey  in  the 
evening  (Zejih.  iii.  3).  In  Hebrew  it  was 
called  z''eh,  in  Greek  htkas.  As  Judah  was 
compared  to  the  courageous  lion,  ,so  Ben- 
jamin was  c(mi]»ared  to  tlu-  smaller,  yet  fierce 
and  dreaded,  wolf  ((ien.  xlix.  9,  27;  c]).  the 
warrior  Zeeb).  But  com]iarison  with  tlie 
wolf  was  not  always  intended  as  an  honor. 
Violent  i>rinces  who  prey  ujion  the  heljiless 
are  likened  to  ravening  wolvi-s  (Lzek.  xxii. 
27);  and  so  are  false  teachers  (Mat.  vii.  15; 
Acts  XX.  29),  and  enemies  of  the  llock  of 
God  (Mat.  X.  l(i).  The  wolf  of  Palestine  is  a 
variety  of  the  European  species  (^Vihi'.s'  Ivpim), 
and  is  dilfused  throughout  the  countrj'. 
Owing  to  the  ea.'«'  with  which  food  is  ob- 
tained and  the  mildness  of  the  winter,  they 


Woman 


JS-i 


World 


do  not  hiiut  in  packs,  as  in  the  colder  north, 
hut  i)ri»wl  iiloni'. 

•J.  Till-  rciidiriiig  of  the  Hebrew  'lyyim, 
liuwIiiiK  cmUurts  (Is.  xiii.  22;  xxxiv.  14; 
Jir.  1.  :5!»;  in  A.  V.  everywliere  wild  beasts 
..r  the  islands).  The  \vl)lf  belongs  to  the 
.siinu-  genus  as  the  dog  ;  but  it  cannot  bark, 
it  can  only  howl. 

Worn 'an. 

rile  ccninterpart  of  man,  made  to  be  his 
lielpiiuet  and  social  equal  (Gen.  ii.  21-24; 
see  Evi:)  ;  and  monogamy,  or  the  marriage 
of  one  man  and  one  woman,  was  the  Crea- 
tor's intention  ;  see  M.VKUIAGE. 

Tlie  younger  women  of  tlie  family,  espe- 
cially in  the  earlier  times  and  among  the  no- 
mads, tended  the  sheep  (Gen.  xxix.  6;  Ex. 
ii.  Itj).  and  they  went  to  the  harvest  field  and 
gleaned  (Ruth'ii.  3.  (<)  ;  but  the  main  duties 
of  women  were  about  the  household.  They 
brought  water  from  the  well  ((4en.  xxiv.  13 ; 
Jolin  iv.  7).  ground  the  grain  for  dailj'  use 
(Mat.  xxiv.  41),  prepared  the  meals  (Gen. 
xviii.  Ii:  2  8am.  xiii.  8;  Luke  x.  40),  spun 
wool  and  made  clothing  (1  Sam.  ii.  19  ;  Prov. 
xxxi.  13,  15) ;  Acts  ix.  36-39),  taught  the 
children  religious  truth  (Prov.  i.  8 ;  xxxi.  1  ; 
cp.  2  Tim.  iii.  1.")).  and  directed  the  house- 
hold (Prov.  xxxi.  27  ;  1  Tim.    v.  14). 

The  Mosaic  law  and  apparently  public 
opinion  among  the  Hebrews  did  not  suifer 
woman  to  be  degraded  in  Israel  to  the  posi- 
tion which  she  had  come  to  occupy  among 
some  of  the  contemporarj'  nations.  The  law 
mitigated  evils,  and  it  secured  to  women  the 
enjoyment  of  many  rights;  see  Concubine, 
Divorcp:,  M.\rriage.  Marriage  was  re- 
garded by  the  Hebrews  as  a  sacred  relation 
(Mai.  ii.  14-16).  The  wife  was  spoken  of 
with  respect  and  accorded  honor  (Prov.  v. 
18;  xviii.  22;  xxxi.  10-12;  Ecc.  ix.  9).  To 
the  mother  honor  was  due,  and  her  law  had 
authority  (Ex.  xx.  12;  Prov.  i.  8).  The  capa- 
ble woman  was  hii^hly  ju'aised  (xxxi.  10-31), 
and  exam|)lcs  of  nol)le  womanhood  were 
freely  and  purposely  admitted  to  the  sacred 
writings.  The  spirit  of  the  N.  T.  was  equally 
hostile  to  woman's  degradation.  It  insisted 
that  man  and  woman  shall  occupy  their  re- 
s])ective  splieres  as  indicated  by  the  Creator 
in  mutual  res])ect  and  dependence  (Mark  x. 
6-9 :  Eph.  V.  31 ;  1  Tim.  ii.  12-lo).  The  sanc- 
tity and  permanence  of  the  marriage  relation 
were  taught,  and  divorce  ])ermitted  only  for 
extreme  cau.ses  (Mat.  xix.  8.  9;  1  Cor.  vii. 
1.");  Eph.  V.  22-33).  Woman  was  made  the 
recipient  of  the  .same  grace  as  man,  and  heir 
of  the  same  promises  (Gal.  iii.  28) ;  she  was 
accorded  honorable  position  in  the  church, 
and  her  services  in  the  cause  of  Christ  were 
fully  ajipreciated  and  acknowledged  (Rom. 
xvi.  1-4,  G.  12).  The  practical  i)recepts  in 
the  epistles  were  calculated,  whether  ad- 
dres-sed  to  saints  generally  or  to  woman  in 
particular,  to  refine  and  ennoble  her,  and  to 
bring  her  best  qualities  into  exercise  (1  Tim. 
ii.  9,  10;  iii.  11). 


Wool.    See  Sheep,  Spinning,  Weaving. 
World. 

The  world  as  known  in  the  Mosaic  age  was 
small  (Gen.  x.).  On  the  south  it  extended 
from  the  mountains  east  of  the  Persian  Gulf 
to  the  Nile  ;  and  on  the  north,  from  the  Cas- 
pian Sea  to  the  Grecian  islands :  in  other 
words,  it  measured  about  l.'MHj  miles  from 
east  to  west,  and  900,  or  including  southern 
Arabia  about  1.500,  miles  from  north  to  south. 
The  area  was  about  2,2.50,0(JO  square  miles  ; 
but  a  large  part  of  the  surface  was  occupied 
by  sea,  so  that  the  land  was  scarcely  two- 
thirds  of  the  extent  of  the  United  States,  ex- 
cluding Alaska.  The  history  which  is  re- 
corded in  the  Bible,  and  the  great  events  of 
the  world's  history,  were  enacted  in  the 
northern  portion  of  this  regiim,  in  an  area 
about  one-third  that  of  the  United  States. 

During  O.  T.  times  these  limits  remained 
essentially  unchanged,  although  the  geo- 
graphical horizon  widened  a  little.  Media 
and  Persia  rose  to  importance  before  the 
close  of  this  period,  making  themselves 
known  as  never  l)efore  and  taking  the  first 
place  among  the  nations.  India  became  a 
boundary  (Esth.  i.  1).  The  existence  of  the 
Sinim  was  known  (Is.  xlix.  12).  In  the  west 
Africa  was  circumnavigated  during  the  reign 
of  Pharaoh-necho,  but  without  increasing 
geographical  knowledge.  The  navigators  did 
not  realize  the  meaning  of  their  achievement. 
They  had  spent  more  than  two  j*ears  on  the 
voyage,  and  what  appeared  most  noteworthy 
to  them  was  that  the  sun,  which  rose  upon 
their  left  hand  when  they  sailed  south  from 
Egypt,  rose  on  their  right  before  they  re- 
turned (Herod,  iv.  42.  43).  In  Italy  and  on 
the  opposite  coast  of  Africa  population  was 
increasing  and  civilization  was  slowly  devel- 
oping ;  but  these  facts  .seldom  reached  the 
ears  of  men  in  the  east,  and  then  only 
through  the  reports  of  traders.  Almost  at 
the  close  of  the  O.  T.  period  Greece  emerged 
from  obscurity  by  the  vigorous  resistance 
which  it  oifered  to  the  Persians. 

Alexander  the  Great  conquered  the  world. 
He  extended  its  eastern  limits,  and  added 
immensely  to  geographical  knowledge,  by 
carrying  his  arms  across  the  Oxus  into  mod- 
ern Turkestan,  eastward  beyond  the  bounds 
of  modern  Afghanistan,  and  southward  into 
nortliern  India.  The  Romans  followed  him. 
In  the  time  of  Christ  the  world,  as  currently 
thought  of  by  men,  extended  from  Spain  and 
Britain  to  the  ]>lateau  of  Iran  and  India,  and 
from  the  desert  of  Sahara  on  the  south  to  the 
forests  of  Germany  and  the  steppes  of  Russia 
and  .Siberia  on  tlie  north.  Knowledge  of  in- 
habited regions  beyond  these  limits  existed  ; 
but  there  was  little  contact  with  this  outside 
world,  it  seldom  engaged  men's  attention, 
and  the  ideas  of  its  geography  were  confused. 

World  is  frequently  put  for  the  inhabitants 
of  the  world  ( Ps.  ix.  8;  Is.  xiii.  11;  John 
iii.  16  ;  vii.  7 ;  Rom.  iii.  19).  and  in  the  N.  T. 
for  that  which  pertains  to  the  earth  and  this 


Worm 


(85 


Writing 


present  state  of  existence  merely  (1  Cor.  vii. 
31 ,  (ial.  vi.  14  ;  Epli.  ii.  2;  Jas.  i.  27  ;  iv.  4; 
1  John  ii.  1.')). 

Worm. 

Aii\'  siiiiiU.  rrec'))in<i  iuiinial,  wliosi-  body  is 
boiick'ss  and  consists  ul"  a  nuniluT  of  nioval)lc 
joints  or  rings,  and  wliicli  has  no  linihs  or 
only  very  short  ones.  It  was  t,'enerically 
called  tola'ath  or  tule'ah  in  Hcljrew,  skolcx  in 
(ireek  ;  and  it  is  mentioned  as  destroying 
{irapes  and  the  gourd  vine  (Dent,  xxviii.  39  ; 
Joiuiii  iv.  7),  being  bred  over  night  in  manna 
(Ex.  xvi.  20),  consuming  the  corp.se  (Is.  xiv. 
11 ;  cp.  Ixvi.  24  witb  Mark  ix.  4b),  and  caus- 
ing death  to  the  living  (Acts  xii.  23).  Man 
as  feeble  and  despised  is  likened  to  a  worm 
(Job  XXV.  (J ;  Is.  xli.  14). 

Siiecilic  worms  referred  to  are  : 

1.  .Maggots,  in  Hebrew  a  collective  term 
rimni'ih,  imtridity  and  the  worm  bred  in  it. 
They  feed  on  corpses  (Job  xxi.  2(i  ;  xxiv.  20; 
Is.  xiv.  11),  and  might  l)e  expected  in  ]>ntrid 
manna  (Kx.  xvi.  241.  Man  as  very  small  and 
despical>k'  is  likened  to  the  maggot  (Job  xxv. 
6).  In  all  these  passages  the  E.  V.  uses  the 
general  term  worm. 

2.  The  larva  of  the  moth,  in  Hebrew  nas 
(Is.  Ii.  8)  ;  sec  Moth. 

3.  The  coccus  worm,  toht'dth  .shani,  wliich, 
liowever,  is  not  a  worm,  but  an  insect,  ac- 
cording to  modern  classification ;  see  Scar- 
let. 

The  Hebrew  word  zahal.  creeper,  denotes 
snnicthing  that  crawls  on  the  ground,  and  is 
niulcrcd  by  worm  in  A.  V.  (Mic.  vii.  17  ;  in 
i;.  V.  crawling  tilings). 

Worm'wood. 

A  plant,  ranked  with  gall,  having  very 
bitter.juice  (Deut.  xxix.  18;  Prov.  v.  4),  un- 
palatable and,  when  exclusively  drunk,  nox- 
ious (Rev.  viii.  11):  called  in  Hebrew  l<i'"- 
nah,  in  (Irei'k  of  X.  T.  (ij)siiilh(iii.  It  is  used 
figuratively  for  injustice  (.\mos  v.  7;  vi.  12  ; 
in  latter  i)assagc  rendered  hemlock  in  A.  V.), 
for  sore  i>unishment  (Jer.  ix.  1.")),  for  bitter 
sntlering  (Eani.  iii.  10)  with  which  one  is 
Siitcfl,  not  intoxicated  (1.")).  It  seems  to  be 
.some  .species  of  the  great  composite  genus 
Arti-misiti.  About  IKO  species  are  known. 
Post  enumerates  five  species  and  several 
varieties  as  occurring  in  Palestine  or  the 
adjacent  regions.  The  type  is  the  common 
wormwood  {Artemisia  absinthium),  cultivated 
in  gardens. 

Wor'ship. 

Rts|Hit  aTid  Imiior  shown  to  a  purson 
(Luke  xiv.  10.  in  R.  \'.  glory).  This  sense 
of  tin-  W(ird  worship  has  Ix'come  ob-ulcte. 
Respect  which  iin]ilies  that  the  oliject  there- 
of possesses  <livine  attributes  (Mat.  xiv.  .33; 
\v.  U.") ;  Rev  xiv.  7).  Man  is  forbidilen  to 
uive  this  wmsbip  to  any  but  (Jod  alone  (Ex. 
xx.xiv.  14:  Mat.  iv.  li):  Acts  x.  2.");  Rev. 
xix.  10).  The  s;imi-  outward  act  may  i)e 
civility  shown  to  man,  as  when  people  bowed 
down    to    Esau,   to  Joseph,  or  to   the  king 

r>o 


Wormwood  (Arleinitia  absi7ithium). 

(Gen.  xxxiii.  3  ;  xlii.  6  ;  2  Sam.  xxiv.  20  ,  or 
worship  rendered  to  God  (tien.  xxiv.  52,  R. 
V.  ;  Ps.  xcv.  (i),  the  same  Hel)rew  word  be- 
ing used  in  all  these  passages.  The  perform- 
ance of  this  outward  act  to  idols  was  strictly 
forbidden  (Ex.  xx.  ">). 

For  public  woi-ship  in  apostolic  times  see 

CUVVAU. 

Writ'ing. 

The    Hebrews,    or   rather   some   of  them, 
were  able  to  write  (Ex.  xvii.  14;  xxiv.  4; 


Writing  Materials. 

Num.  xxxiii.  2).  The  art  had  been  practiced 
in  Hatiylonia  centuries  before  .Vbraliam  left 
Ur  of  the  t'haldees,  and  in  Egypt  centuries 


Yarn 


786 


Year 


before  the  Israelites  sojourned  on  the  Nile. 
It  was  in  use  in  the  towns  of  Canaan  before 
the  fon(iiHst  of  the  country  by  the  Hebrews. 
It  is  reionlid  tli;it  the  Hebrews  at  the  time 
of  the  exodus  wrote  doeunients  (il)i(l.  ;  Dent. 
sxxi.  -,'1).  inseribeil  the  law  on  the  jdastorof 
an  altar  (xxvii.  4.  8  ;  Jo.sh.  viii.  :i2),  and  en- 
graved wortlson  {;eni.sand  metallic  plates  (Ex. 
xxxix.  1-1,  ■iW.  The  ancient  inscriptions  of 
Hal)ylonia  were  iinpre.s,sod  on  .soft  clay,  after- 
wards baked  ;  and  were  engraven  ou  stone 
tablets,  on  the  surface  of  stone  statues,  on 
metal,  and  on  the  gem  of  which  the  seal  was 
made.  The  letters  sent  from  Canaan  to  Pha- 
raoh prcviiius  to  the  exodus  were  written  on 
clay  Uiblets.  The  Egyptians,  long  before  the 
sojourn  of  the  Israelites  among  them,  cut 
records  in  stone  and  wrote  on  papyrus.  See 
Book,  Ink-iiohx,  P.vpyku.s,  Parchment, 
Tile. 


Y. 


Yarn.     See  Linen  6. 
Year. 

The  year  of  the  Hebrews  consisted  of  twelve 
months  (1  Kin.  iv.  7:  1  Chrou.  xxvii.  1-15). 
These  appear  to  have  been  lunar  (see  Month), 
and  the  year  would  accordingly  contain 
354  days,  8  hours,  48  minutes,  32.4  seconds. 


The  annual  festivals  were  inseparably  con- 
nected with  the  agricultural  seasons.  A 
strictly  lunar  year  would  cause  these  festi- 
vals, as  fixed  by  the  calendar,  to  constjintly 
recede  from  their  api)ropriate  season.  It  was 
necessary  to  bring  the  luni:r  year  into  corre- 
spondence with  the  solar  year  of  3(j.5  days. 
This  was  doubtless  accomplished  by  the  in- 
tercalation of  an  additional  month  every 
three  or  four  years,  although  the  custom  is 
not  mentioned  in  the  Bible.  The  year  began 
with  the  month  Abib  or  Nisan  (Ex.  xii.  2; 
xxiii.  1.5 ;  Estli.  iii.  7),  with  the  new  moon 
next  before  or  next  after  the  vernal  equinox, 
when  the  sun  is  in  Aries  (Autiq.  iii.  8,  4 ;  10, 
5) ;  but  there  was  from  the  earliest  tiuies  a 
civil,  or  rather  agricultural,  year  which  be- 
gan in  the  autumn  (cp.  Ex.  xxiii.  l(j ;  xxxiv. 
22  ;  Lev.  xxv.  4,  9.  seq.).  It  was  convenient 
for  a  people  devoted  to  horticulture  and  agri- 
culture to  begin  the  year  with  the  season  of 
plowing  and  sowing,  and  to  close  it  with 
harvest.  In  practice  they  frequently  pre- 
ferred to  indicate  the  time  of  year  by  the 
particular  harvest  or  agricultural  occupation 
than  by  the  number  or  name  of  the  mouth 
(e.  g.  >fum.  xiii.  20  ;  Ruth  i.  22).  Sometime 
after  the  exile  the  new  moon  of  the  seventh 
month  came  to  be  kept  as  new  year's  day. 
The  custom  was  probably  not  started  by  the 
events  recorded  in  Ezra  iii.  6  and  Neh.  viii. 
2,  but  was  yet  favored  by  them. 


Month. 

Approxi- 
mation. 

Festival. 

Season. 

1.  Abib  or  Nisan. 

.\pril. 

Latter  or  spring  rains. 

Ex.  xxiii.  1.5; 

Flax  harvest  at  Jericho  (Josh. 

Neh.    ii.    1; 

ii.  6). 

Antiq.  iii.  10, 

14.  Passover  (Ex.  xii.  18,  19;  xiii. 

Jordan  at  flood  (Josh.  iii.  !■">). 

5. 

3-10),  introducing 

15-21.  Feast  of  Unleavened  Bread 

Barley  harvest  in  the  maritime 

(Lev.  xxiii.  6). 

plain. 

16.  Sheaf  of  firstfruits  of  the  har- 

vest presented  (Lev.  xxiii. 

10-14  :  cp.  Josh.  v.  11 ;  Antiq. 

iii.  10,  .5). 

Wheat  ripe  in  hot  Jordan  val- 
ley. 

Pods  on  the  carob  tree. 
Dry  season  begins,  ((intiiniing  to 
early  October,  with    r"'evail- 

J.  Ziv  or  lyar. 

May. 

ing  wind  from  the  northwest. 

IKin.  vi.1,37; 

14.  Passover  for  those  who  could 

Barley  harvest  in  uplands. 

Antiq.  viii.  3, 

not  keep  regular  one  (Num. 
ix.  10.  11). 

Wheat  harvest  in  lowlands. 

3.  Slvan. 

June. 

6.  Pentecost,  or  Feast  of  Weeks 

Apples  on  sea  coast. 

Hsth.  viii.  9. 

or    of  Harvest,  or    Day  of 

Early  figs  general. 

Firstfruits.    Loaves  as  first- 

Oleander  in  bloom. 

fruits  of  gathered  harvest 

Almonds  ripe. 

presented    (Ex.    xxiii.    16  ; 

Intense  heat  (War  iii.  7,  32). 

xxxiv.  2J;  Lev.  xxiii.  17,20; 

Num  xxviii.26;  Deut.  xvi. 

9,  10). 

1.  Tammuz. 

July. 

Wheat  harvest  in  high   moun- 
tains. 
First  grapes  ripe. 

Yoke 


787 


Zabbai 


Month. 


Approxi- 
mation. 


5.  Ab. 

Aiitiij.  iv.  4,7. 

6.  Elul. 

Nch.  vi.  ir.. 

7.  Etbanim  or 

Tisbrl. 
1  Kin.  viii.  2; 
Antiq.  viii.  4, 
1. 


8.  Bul      r    Mar- 
cbesbvan. 

I  Kill.  vi.  :!S; 
.\ntiq.i.  .",  3. 

y.  Cbislev. 

Zcch.  vii.  1; 
ip.  Antiq. 
.xii.  r>,4;  7,  6. 

10.  Tebetb. 

K.sth.  ii.  16; 
.Vntiq.  xi.  5, 
I. 

11.  Sbebat. 

Z.cli.  i.  7;  1 
Miic.  xvi.  14. 


Adar. 

E.vth.  iii.  7; 
Antiij.  iv.  8, 
41). 


August. 

September, 

October. 


November. 


December. 


January. 


February. 


March. 


Festival. 


Season. 


1.  Memorial  of  Trumpetblowing 
(Num.  xxix.  1). 

10.  Day  of  Atonement  (Lev.  xvi. 
•«J). 

15-21.  Feast  of  Injtuthcring  or  Tab- 
ernacles. FirHtfniits  of  wine 
and  oil  (Ex.  xxiii.  10;  Lev. 
xxiii.  M;  Deut.  xvi.  13). 

22.  Solemn  Assembly  (Lev.  xxiii. 
SO;  Num.  xxix.  35;  Neh. 
viii.  18;  cp.  John  vii.  37). 


25.  Feast  of  Dedication  (1  Mac. 
iv.  52;  John  x.  22). 


14, 15.  Feast  of  I'urim  (Esth.  ix. 
21-28). 


Olives  in  lowlands. 
Dates  and  summer  figs. 
Vintage  general. 


Pomegranates  ripe. 
Season  changing  to   the   winter 
(Aiiti(|.  iii.  10,  4)  or  rainy  sea- 
son,   with    prevailing    wind 
from  west  and  southwest. 
Former  or  early  rains. 
Pistachio  nuts  ripe. 
Plowing. 

Barley  and  wheat  sown. 

Olives   gathered    in    northern 

Galilee. 
Winter  figs  on  trees. 
Rainfall  increases  (cp.  Ezra  x.  9, 

13). 

Hail;  snow  on  higher  hills  and 
occasionally  at  Jerusalem. 
In  lowlands  grain    fields   and 
pastures  green,  wild  flowers 
abundant. 

Almond  trees  in  l)lfissom. 
Appi'araiice  of  young  fruit,  or 

rather  blossorti,  of  the  fig. 
Canib  tree  in  blossom. 
Orangi'S  and  lemons  ripe  in  the 

lowlands.    .Storax  blossoming 

and    i>omegranatcs    showing 

their  first  flowers. 
Barley  harvest  at  Jericho. 


Yoke. 

A  small  traJisverse  bar  of  timber,  generally 
with  two  iiortions  of  the  lower  surface  hol- 
lowed .so  as  to  rest  on  the  necks  of  two  oxen, 
u.sed  to  draw  a  cart  or  a  plow  (N'uni.  xix.  2)  ; 
see  illustration.  Flow.  Two  oxen  thus  held 
together  were  also  called  a  yoke  (1  Kin.  xix. 
1.0),  and  so,  figuratively,  was  any  burden  im- 
posed on  one  as  a  token  and  means  of  sub- 
jection (xii.  4;  Mat.  xi.  30;  Acts  xv.  10). 


Z. 


Za-a-na'im.     See  Z.\an.\nnim. 

Za'a-nan  [jilace  of  flocks]. 

A  town  iMi<'.  i.  11),  jierhaps  the  same  as 
Zenan. 

Za-a-nan'nlm,  in  .\.  V.  once  Zaanaim 
(.ludg.  iv.  11).  the  Hebrew  text  being  pre- 
ferreil  to  the  traditional  reading  [deiiartures]. 

.\  frontier  town  of  Najilitali  (Josh.  xix.  33), 
near  Kedesh  (.Iiidg.  iv.  11).  Conder  follows 
Se))tuagint  which  has  nesemiin.  having  made 
one  word  of  "in  Zaaiiainiiin '"  (so  .Io>li.  xix. 
.3.3,  R.  y.  margin  I,  and  he  believes  it  to  have 
probably  been  near  I'lcssi'im.on  the  table-land 
west  of  the  sea  of  (ialilee. 


Za'a-van,  in  A.  V.  once  Zavan  [unquiet]. 
A  son  of  Ezer  the  Horite  (Gen.  xxxvi.  27 ; 

1  Chron.  i.  42). 

Za'bad  [he  hath  given  or  endowed]. 

1.  A  descendant  of  Ei)hraini,  family  of 
Shuthelah  (1  Chron.  vii.  21). 

2.  A  man  of  Judah,  family  of  Hezron, 
house  of  .Terahnieel,  descended  tlirough  She- 
shan.  and  a  great-grandson  of  Ahlai  (1  ("hron. 
ii.  31,  34-:?7).  Possibly  he  was  David's  mighty 
man  of  this  name  (xi.  41 ). 

3.  Corrupt  form  of  Jozacar  (2  Chron.  xxiv. 
26) ;  see  Joz.\rAR. 

4.  o,  (».  Three  Hebrews,  each  of  whom  was 
induced  bv  Ezra  to  ])Ut  away  his  foreign  wife 
(Ezra  X.  27.  33,  43). 

Zab-a-dse'ans,  in  A.  V.  Zabadeans. 

An  Arabian  tribe  which  dwelt  between  the 
river  Eleutlienis.  Ilaniath,  and  Damascus 
(1  Mae.  xii.  3(t  .32;  cji.  2.")),  and  hence  prob- 
ably occupied  tliat  part  of  the  Anti-I>>banon 
mountains  where  the  villages  of  Zebcdani 
and  Zeliad  are  sitnated,  on  the  route  from 
Ra'al-l)ek  to  Damascus. 

Zab'bal  fhumming]. 

\  son  of  Hehai.  He  was  induced  by  Ezra 
to  jiiit  away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  2f^). 
He  was  the  father  of  a  certain  Baruch  (Nch. 
iii.  20). 


Zabbud 


Zadok 


Zab'bud  [endowed]. 

Mcail  of  a  family  aiiitnij,'  the  sons  of  Bigvai, 
will)  a(coiiii)anie(l  lO/.ra  from  Babylon  (Ezra 
viii.  1  I  . 

Zab'dl  [fiift  of  i.Ichovali)]. 

1.  A  man  of  Judah,  family  of  Zt'rali,  and 
founder  of  a  house  (Josh.  vii.  1).  Called  in 
1  Chroii.  ii.  (>  Zimri.  For  the  eonfusion  of  b 
and  ni,  d  and  r.  sec  Beth,  D.vleth. 

•J.  A  Ben.janiite  (I  Chron.  viii.  19). 

;{.  \  Shiidunite,  Davids  otKcer  over  the 
inerease  of  the  vineyards  for  the  wiue  cellars 
(1  ("hroii.  .\.\vii.  27). 

4.  A  Levite,  son  of  .Vsaph  (Xeh.  .\i.  17) ; 
see  Zuuiu  ."). 

Zab'di-el  [nift  of  (Jod]. 

1.  Father  of  Jashobeam  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  2). 

2.  Son  of  Ha.u'gedolim  (Xeh.  xi.  11),  or  one 
of  the  jxreat  men  (A.  V.  and  marj^iu  of  K.  V.). 

3.  An  .\ral)ian  prince  who  treacherously 
decapitated  .\lexander  ]}alas  and  sent  the 
head  to  Ptolemy  I'liiloinetor  (1  Mac.  xi.  17; 
Antif).  xiii.  4,  8).  He  is  probably  the  iierson 
referred  to  by  Diodoriis  Sicniiis  as  Diodes, 
ruler  (rf  .Vba",  to  whose  care  Alexander  com- 
mitted his  infant  son.  and  while  sojourn- 
injj  with  whom  Alexander  was  murdered  by 
two  of  his  own  officers. 

Za'bud  [iiiven,  endowed]. 

Son  of  Xatlian  and  chief  minister  in  Solo- 
mon's reijjn  (1  Kin.  iv.  ."j,  R.  V.  margin). 

Zab'u-lon.     See  Zehulux. 

Zac'cai  [i>ure,  innocent]. 

Founder  of  a  family,  members  of  which 
returned  with  Zerubbabel  from  the  captivity 
(Fzra  ii. !);  Neh.  vii.  14). 

Zac-chse'us  [(xreek  from  Hebrew  Zakkny, 
pure]. 

A  wealthy  man  of  .Tericlio  who  farmed  the 
revenue  for  the  Roman  government.  Hebe- 
came  a  disciple  of  Christ  (Luke  xix.  1-10). 

Zac'cur,  in  A.  V.  once  Zacchur  (1  Chron. 
iv.  26)  [mindfull. 

1.  A  Reubenite  (Num.  xiii.  4). 

2.  A  Simeonite,  descended  through  Mishma 
(1  Chron.  iv.  2f)). 

:{.  .\.  -Meraritc  Levite,  a  son  of  Jaaziah  (1 
CHiron.  xxiv.  27). 

4.  A  (Tcrshonite  Levite,  a  son  of  .\saph, 
and  head  of  a  course  of  musicians  in  David's 
reign  (1  Chron.  xxv.  2,  10;  Neh.  xii.  35). 
See  ZicHUi  r>. 

5.  A  son  of  Imri,  who  helped  to  rebuild 
the  walls  of  .Terusalem  (X'^eh.  iii.  2). 

fi.  A  Levite,  who  sealed  the  covenant  (Neh. 
X.  12). 

7.  Son  of  l\Iattaniah  and  father  of  Hauan 
(Xeh.  xiii.  i:{). 

iiacli-a-ri'as,  in  R.  V.  twice  Zachariah 
(Mat.  xxiii.  :r. :  Luke  xi.  51)  [Greek  form 
of  the  Helnew  Z'karyah,  Jehovah  hath  re- 
membered] 

1.  Father  (jf  the  captain  Joseph  (1  Mac. 
V.  18). 


2.  Father  of  John  the  Baptist.  He  was 
a  priest  of  the  course  of  Abijah  (Luke  i. 
5) ;  see  Abi.jah.  He  and  his  wife  were  godly 
peojjle,  and  she  was  related  to  Mary  of 
Nazaretli  ((i,  36).  Their  liome  was  in  the 
hill  country  of  Judsea  (39,  40.  i  It  was 
customary  to  allot  to  the  members  of  the 
course  on  duty  at  the  .sanctuary  the  several 
parts  to  be  p(!rformed  in  the  daily  min- 
istrations. When  Zacharias'  course  assem- 
bled at  Jerusalem  the  lot  fell  to  him  to  burn 
iijcense;  and  while  he  was  discharging  this 
service  at  the  hour  of  prayer,  an  angel  ap- 
peared to  him  and  announced  that  his  sup- 
plication was  heard.  His  old  prayer  for 
a  son,  although  long  abandoned  as  denied 
by  God  (IS),  and  the  prayer  which  he  con- 
tinually ottered  for  the  advent  of  the  Mes- 
siah (68-75),  were  heard ;  and  he  was  told 
that  his  wife  should  bear  a  son  who  should 
go  before  the  face  of  the  Lord  to  make  ready 
for  tlie  Lord  a  people  prepared  for  him  (13- 
17).  Zacharias  questioned  the  promise  on 
account  of  the  advanced  age  of  himself  and 
his  wife,  and  asked  for  a  sign.  The  sign  was 
granted  in  the  form  of  a  punishment.  Zacl> 
arias  was  smitten  with  dumbness  until  the 
promise  was  fulfilled  (18-22;  62-64).  When 
the  child  was  born,  not  only  was  the  tongue 
of  Zacharias  released  from  its  sjjeechlessness, 
but  he  himself  was  filled  with  the  Spirit  and 
prophesied  in  words  of  thanksgiving  and 
praise  (67-79). 

3.  A  righteous  man  who  was  murdered  in 
the  court  of  the  temple,  between  the  sanctu- 
ary and  the  house  (Mat.  xxiii.  35;  Luke  xi. 
51)  ;  see  Zechariah  11. 

Za'cher.     See  Zechariah  1. 

Za'dok  [just,  righteous]. 

1.  A  descendant  of  Eleazar,  the  son  of 
Aaron  (1  Chron.  xxiv.  3).  He  was  the  son 
of  Ahitub  (2  Sam.  viii.  17).  He  was  doubt- 
less the  young  man,  mighty  of  valor,  who 
went  with  the  chief  men  of  the  tribes  of  Is- 
rael to  David  at  Hebron  to  turn  the  kingdom 
of  Saul  unto  him  (1  Chron.  xii.  27.  28). 
Early  in  David's  reign  he  was  joint  high 
priest  with  Abiathar  (2  Sam.  viii.  17).  Dur- 
ing the  rebellion  of  Absalom  the  two  col- 
leagues joined  in  David's  fiight  from  Jerusa- 
lem, carrying  with  them  the  ark,  but  the 
king  desired  them  to  return  to  the  capital, 
and  there  await  the  issue  of  the  contest  (xv. 
24-29).  After  the  death  of  Absalom,  a  mes- 
sage, on  which  they  acted,  was  .sent  by  David 
to  Zadok  and  Abiatliar,  requesting  them  to 
suggest  to  the  people  that  the  king  .should  be 
called  back  (xix.  11).  When,  in  David's  old 
age,  Adonijah  plotted  to  usurp  the  throne, 
Zadok  remained  faithful,  while  his  colleague 
Abiathar  went  with  the  usurjier  (1  Kin.  i.  7.  8). 
When  the  jilot  was  discovered  to  David, 
Zadok,  with  X'athan  the  i)ro])liet,  received 
instructions  immediately  to  anoint  Solomon 
king  (.32-45).  Abiathar  was  deposed  from 
the  priesthood,  and  Zadok  was  the  sole  occu- 


Zaham 


r89 


Zareth-shahar 


pant  of  the  high  office  till  liis  death,  during 
tlie  roign  of  the  nvw  monarch  (ii.  26,  27  ;  cj). 
iv.  4).  Tlio  office  of  tlie  high  priest  was  thus 
restored  to  the  line  of  Eleazar;  see  High 

I'lilKST. 

2.  A  i)riest  in  the  line  of  high  priests, 
fatlier  of  Shalhnn  (1  Chron.  vi.  12).  He  was 
descended  from  the  second  Ahitub  (ibid.  ; 
Kzra  vii.  2)  tlnonf^h  the  second  Meraioth  (1 
Cliroii.  ix.  11  ;   Nch.  xi.  11). 

;!.  Fatlier  of  Jerusha,  king  Uzziah's mother 
(2  Kin.  XV.  33). 

I.  A  son  of  Baana.  He  repaired  part  of 
the  wall  of  Jerusjilem  ( Neh.  iii.  4),  and  was 
jierhaps  the  jierson  of  the  name  who  sealed 
the  covenant  (x.  21). 

5.  A  priest,  son  of  Imnier.  He  repaired 
the  city  wall  oi»i)osite  to  his  house  (Neh.  iii. 
2!*).  and  waspi'rhai>s  the  scribe  who  was  made 
a  treasurer  (xiii.  l.'i). 

Za'bam  [loathing]. 

.\  son  of  Kehoi)oani  i2  Chron.  xi.  lil). 

Za'in. 

The  seventh  letter  of  the  Hebrew  alphabet. 
English  Z,  wiiicli  had  the  .same  origin.  re])re- 
scuts  it  in  Hebrew  names  in  the  English 
version.  ltstan<ls  at  the  head  of  tlie  seventh 
.section  of  I's.  cxix.  in  several  versions,  in 
which  .section  each  vcr.se  begins  with  this 
letter. 

For  possibility  of  confusing  it  with  other 
letters,  see  Vait. 

Za'ir  [little]. 

A  i)la(e  in  or  near  Edoni,  where  king 
.Torani,  of  .ludali.  en<"iinped  before  making 
a  nigiit  attack  on  the  I'.doniitcs  (2  Kin.  viii. 
21  ;  cp.  the  dilliTent  text  in  2  t'hron.  xxi.  9). 
Conder  proposes  Zuwera,  a  double  town 
near  the  Dead  Sea,  on  the  road  from  the 
southern  end  of  the  sea  to  Hebron. 

Za'laph  [fracture]. 

I';illur  of  a  certain  Hanun  (Neh.  iii.  .'50). 

Zal'mon,  in  A.  V.  once  Salmon  (I's.  Ixviii. 
Ill  [siiady]. 

1.  An  Ahohite,  one  of  David's  mighty  men 
(2  Siim.  xxiii.  2K).  Also  called  llai  (1  Chron. 
xi.  2!t). 

2.  A  wooded  mountain  near  Shechem 
(.Ind«.  ix.    l> ;  <]i.   I's.    Ixviii.   111. 

Zal-mo'nah  [shady]. 

.\  station  of  the  Israelites  in  the  wilderness 
(Num.  xxxiii.  41,  42).  Not  identilied.  It 
may  have  been  west  or  cast  of  Edom. 

Zal-mun'na  [inrhaiis,  shelter  is  denied], 
<  )ne   of   the    two   kin^s  of   Midian   whom 

<;ideon   slew    (.ludg.   viii.   4-2H ;    I's.   Ixxxiii. 

11). 
Zam'bri.     Sec  Zimui  2.  • 

Zam-zum'mlm,   in    A.    V.   Zamzummlms 

[niMriiiiin  rs,   makers  of  noi.sc]. 

A  iribeof  Keiihaini.  who  in  aiuient  times 

inhabited    the    region    east    of    the    .Ionian, 

afterwards  occupied  by  the  .\nimoniies  (Dent. 

ii.  20 1 ;  jirobably  the  same  as  the  Zu/.im. 


Za-no'ah  [foul  water]. 

1.  A  town  in  the  lowland  of  .Tudah  (Josh. 
XV.  34).  It  was  inhabited  after  the  captivity 
(Neh.  xi.  30),  and  seems  to  have  been  the 
Zanoah  whose  inhabitants  restored  the  val- 
lej'  gate  of  .Jerusalem  (iii.  l.'J).  Kobinson 
plausibly  identilied  it  with  Zanua.  nearly  3 
miles  southeast  by  south  of  I'>eth-sliemesh. 

2.  A  town  in  the  hill  country  of  Judah 
(.losh.  XV.  ."i(i  ;  and  ](robably  1  Ciiron.  iv.  18). 
Zaniitaabout  12i  miles  .southwest  by  south  of 
Hebron,  2^  south  of  Shuweikeli,  and  5  south- 
west by  west  of  es-Semua,  is  scarcely  the 
site  ;  for  it  belongs  to  the  group  of  Josh.  xv. 
4H-51  rather  than  to  that  of  .')5-57. 

Zaph'e-natL-pa-ne'ah,  in  A.  V.  Zaph- 
nath-paaneah  [(iod  s|>eaks,  he  livis  (Stein- 
dortli].  From  the  sound  of  the  name,  the 
Jews  guessed  that  the  name  meant  revealer 
of  secrets  (Targnm  Onkelos,  Anticj.  ii.  6,  1). 

The  name  given  by  Pharaoh  to  Joseph 
after  he  had  interpreted  the  king's  dreams 
(Gen.  xli.  45). 

Za'phon  [concealment,  north]. 

A  town  of  the  (.iadites  in  the  .Jordan  val- 
ley (Josh.  xiii.  27;  cp.  Judg.  xii.  1,  K.  V. 
margin).  The  Talmud  calls  it  'Aniatho.  If 
this  is  correct,  it  is  Amatluis  (Antiii.  xiii.  13, 
5;  xiv.  5,  4),  and  its  site  is  Tell  Amniete,  in 
the  Jordan  valley,  east  of  the  riverand  Smiles 
north  by  east  of  the  mouth  of  the  Jabbok. 

Za'ra  aiul  Zarah.     See  Zkr.\u. 

Za're-ah.     See  Zokah. 

Za're-ath-ite.     Sec  Zoratiiite. 

Za'red.    See  Zered. 

Zar'e-phath,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Sarepta 
(Luke  iv.  2())  [perhaps,  smelting  furnace]. 

A  town  belonging  to  Sidon  (1  Kin.  xvii.  f); 
Luke  iv.  2(i;  Aiitici.  viii.  i::.  2).  Thither 
Elijah  njiaired  when  the  brook  Chcritli  dried 
up,  and  there  he  miraculously  multi]ilied 
the  widow's  oil  and  meal,  aiul  rai.sed  her 
child  fnmi  the  dead  (1  Kin.  xvii.  H-24).  It 
is  the  predicted  limit  in  one  direction  rtf  the 
Isra.'liles  (Obad.  20).  The  name  still  lingers 
in  the  form  of  Snrafend,  a  large  village  on  a 
hill  near  the  sea,  14  miles  north  of  Tyre, 
and  S  south  of  Sidon.  The  ancient  city 
was,  however,  (Ui  the  shore,  where  ct)nsider- 
able  ruins.  I'xteiuling  for  a  mile  or  more, 
point   out   the  old  site. 

Zar'e-than,  in  A.  V.Zaretan  iJosh.  iii.  Iti), 
and  Zartanah  d  Kin.  iv.  12),  and  Zartban 
(1   Kin.  vii.  Kii. 

.\  villaire  beneath  Je/reil  and  ueiir  the 
towns  of  Hetb-shean  and  .\dani  iJo>h.  iii.  Ki; 
1  Kin.  iv.  12).  In  the  marly  soil  between  it 
and  Succoth  the  bron/.e  work  for  Soionum's 
temple  was  cast  (1  Kin.  vii.  If>).  The  name 
is  )>rob;iiily  another  I'onn  <if  Zerediih  (q.  v.). 
The  site  has  not  been  identilied,  the  name 
not  corresponding  with  Kurn  .'^arlabch,  a 
peak  southwest  of  the  ford   Damieh. 

Za-retb-sba'har.    See  Zereth-pmaiiar. 


Zarhite 


(90 


Zebulun 


Zar'hlte,  in  R.  V.  ZeraMte. 

A  pi  r.sDii  heloiifiin;?  to  the  family  of 
Zcrali.  TlicTc  was  a  family  of  this  name  iu 
the  trihi-  of  Simi-on  aiul  another  in  Judah 
(Num.  xxvi.  i:!,  20;  Josh.  vii.  17 ;  cp.  1;  1 
('hri)ii.   xxvii.   11,   13). 

Zar'ta-nah.    See  Zakkthan. 

Zar'than.     See  Zakkthan. 

Zat'tu,  in  .\.  V.  once  Zattbu  (Neh.  x.  14). 

Founder  of  a  family,  njemhers  of  which 
returned  from  the  captivity  (Kzra  ii.  8  ;  Neh. 
vii.  13).  Some  of  them  were  Induced  by 
Ezra  to  put  away  their  foreign  wives  (Ezra 
X.  27).  Tlie  reiirescntative  of  the  family 
settled  the  covenant  (Neh.  x.  14). 

Za'van.     Hee  Zaavan. 

Za'za  [movement,  abundance]. 

A  man  of  Judah,  family  of  Hezron,  house 
of  Jerahmcel  (1  Chron.  ii.  33). 

Zeal'ot,  in  A.  V.  Zelotes  [zealous  one] ; 
Greek  eiiuivalent  of  C'^manrpan  (q.  v.). 

A  member  of  a  Jewish  i)atriotic  party 
(War  iv.  3,  !) ;  vii.  S,  1).  Simon  the  apostle 
w:is  distinguished  from  Simon  Peter  and 
others  by  this  epithet  (J.iuke  vi.  15  ;  Acts  i. 
13).  The  ])arty  was  started  into  being  by 
Judas  the  Galihean  in  the  time  of  Cyrenius 
to  resist  Roman  aggn^ssion.  Its  increasing 
fanaticism  contributed  to  jjrovoke  the  Koraan 
war.  Ultimately  it  degenerated  into  a  body 
of  mere  assassins,  called  Sicarii  (Antiq.  xviii. 
1,  1  and  6  ;  War  ii.  8,  1  ;  17,  8 ;  iv.  3,  9  seq.). 

Zeb-a-di'ah  [Jehovah  hath  given  or  en- 
dowed]. 

1.  A  Benjaniite,  of  the  house  of  Beriah  (1 
t'hron.  viii.  15,  KJ). 

2.  A  lienjamite,  descended  from  Elpaal  (1 
Chron.  viii.  17,  IS). 

3.  A  son  of  Jeroham  of  Gedor.  He  joined 
I);ivid  at  Ziklag  (1  Chron.  xii.  7). 

4.  Son  of  Asahel,  Joa))'s  brother  (1  Chron. 
xxvii.  7). 

5.  A  Korhite  Levite,  a  son  of  Meshelemiah, 
in  David's  reign  (1  Chron.  xxvi.  1,  2). 

().  .\  Levite,  one  of  those  emploj'ed  by 
Jehoshaphat  to  teach  in  thi;  cities  of  Judala 
(2  Chron.  xvii.  8i. 

7.  A  prince  of  Judah.  who  was  the  chief 
judicial  functionary  for  civil  cases  in  the 
court  wliich  Jehoshajjliat  established  at  Jeru- 
sahiin  (2  Chron.  xix.  11). 

a.  A  descendant  of  Shephatiah.  He  was 
one  of  those  who  accompanied  Ezra  from 
liabylon  (Ezra  viii.  S). 

!).  A  priest  of  the  house  of  Immer.  He 
was  induced  by  Ezra  to  putawav  his  foreign 
wife  (Ezra  x.  20). 

Ze'bah  [slaughter,  sacrifice]. 

<  )ne  of  the  two  kings  of  Midian  pursued 
and  .slain  by  Gideon  (.hidg.  viii.  4-28;  Ps. 
Ixxxiii.  11). 

Ze-ba'im.    See  Pochereth-hazzebaim. 
Zeb'e-dee  [(Jreek  form  of  Hebrew  Z'bad- 
ynh.  J.  hovah  hath  endowed]. 


The  husband  of  Salome  (q.  v.),  and  father 
of  James  and  John.  Like  his  sons,  he  was  a 
fisherman  on  the  sea  of  Galilee  (Mat.  iv.  21, 
22),  and  was  a  man  of  some  sul)stance.  for  he 
had  hired  servants  (Mark  i.  19,  20).  He 
raised  no  obstacle  to  his  sons  following  Jesus. 

Ze-bi'dah,  in  A.  V.  Zebudab,  the  tradi- 
tional pronunciation  [given,  bestowed]. 

A  daughter  of  Pedaiah  of  Kumah,  and 
mother  of  king  Jehoiakim  (2  Kin.  xxiii.  3()). 

Ze-bi'na  [acquired]. 

A  descendant  of  Nebo.  He  was  induced 
by  Ezra  to  put  awav  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra 
X.  43). 

Ze-boi'im  and  Zeboim,  I.  [gazelles].  In 
Hebrew  text  and  R.  V.  the  first  form  is  used 
in  the  Pentateuch,  the  second  iu  Hosea. 

One  of  the  five  cities  of  the  iilain  iGen.  x. 
19).  Its  king  was  defeated  by  Cliedorla(jmer 
(xiv.  2,8,  10 1.  It  was  destroyed  with  the 
other  cities  of  the  plain  by  lire  from  heaven 
(xix.  17-29  ;  Deut.  xxix.  23  ;  Ho.sea  xi.  St. 

Ze-bo'im,  II.  [hyenas]. 

1.  A  valley  iu  the  territory  of  Benjamin, 
between  Michmash  and  the  wilderness  on 
the  east  (1  Sam.  xiii.  16-18).  A  clitf  just 
above  the  Jordan  ])lain,  near  Jericho,  is 
called  Shukh  ed-Duba,  lair  of  the  hyena, 
and  ])erhai)s  indicates  the  localitj'. 

2.  A  town  occupied  by  Benjamites  after 
the  captivity  (Neh.  xi.  34).  It  is  evidently 
to  be  sought  in  the  hills  bordering  the  i)laiu 
of  Sharon,  near  Lydda. 

Ze-bu'dab.     See  Zebidah. 

Ze'bul  [lial)itation]. 

Tlie  governor  of  the  city  of  Sheehem  in 
the  time  of  Abimelech,  to  whom  he  showed 
unswerving  fidelity  (Judg.  ix.  28,  36-39). 

Zeb'u-lon-ite.     See  Zebulunite. 

Zeb'u-lun,   in   A.   Y.  of   N.  T.  Zabulon 

[habitation,  dwelling]. 

1.  The  tenth  son  of  Jacob,  and  the  sixth 
by  Leah  (Gen.  xxx.  19,  20).  He  went  down 
with  his  fath(>r  into  Egypt  (Ex.  i.  3).  He 
had  three  sons:  Sered,  Elon,  and  Jahleel 
(Gen.  xlvi.  14).  .Tacob,  in  his  farewell  ad- 
dress, ))lessing  his  sons,  pictured  Zebulun  as 
dwelling  at  the  haven  of  the  sea,  being  a 
liaven  of  ships,  and  having  his  border  on 
Zidon  (xlix.  13).  This  picture  was  real- 
ized iu  its  essentials,  but  not  in  its  details. 
Zebulun  was  allotted  territory  iu  the  vicinity 
of  the  sea,  and  enjoyed  the  markets  of  the 
towns  on  (he  coast;  but  it  was  itself  sejia- 
rated  from  the  sea  of  Galilee  by  Naiihtali 
and  Issachar,  and  from  the  Mediterranean 
Sea  and  the  city  of  Zidou  by  the  tribe  of 
Asher.  Tliis  lack  of  agreement  between  the 
I)icture  drawn  in  Jacob's  address  and  the 
actual  state  of  the  tribe  in  Palestine  is  a 
strong  argument  that  the  address  w-as  not 
composed  after  the  settlement  of  the  tribes, 
but  is  genuine. 

2.  The  tribe   of  which    Zebulun   was  the 


Zebulun 


r91 


Zechariah 


proRcnitor.  From  his  three  sons  sprang  the 
grciit  families  into  which  the  tribe  was  di- 
vided (Num.  xxvi.  2(),  21}.  The  prince  of 
the  trihe  early  in  the  wiUU-rness  wanderings 
was  Kliali.  son  of  Hclun  (i.  !» ;  x.  Kii,  and  at 
a.  hiter  period  ]']lizai)han,  son  cd'  I'arnaeh, 
was  a  jiriuce  (xxxiv.  25).  Tiie  spy  from 
the  tribe  was  (Jaddiel,  son  of  Sodi  (xiii.  10). 
At  the  lirst  census  it  contained  57, 100  figlit- 
ing  men  (i.  :50,  31);  at  the  second  ()0,.")00 
(xxvi.  27).  It  was  one  of  tlie  six  tribes  tlie 
representatives  of  which  stood  on  mount 
Kl)al  to  ])ron()Uiu'e  curses  on  transgressors 
(Dent,  xxvii.  1.'};  c]).  Jo.sh.  viii.  :i2-[i'i). 
Moses  Ijcfore  his  (lejiarture,  associating  the 
two  brotlu-rs.  later  sons  of  Leah,  and  with 
the  i)ropliecy  of  Jacob  in  mind,  thus  in- 
dicated their  future  history  :  '"  Ive.joice,  Zebu- 
lun, in  thy  going  out ;  and,  Issachar,  in  thy 
tents.  They  shall  call  tlie  jjeojiles  unto  the 
mountain  ;  there  they  shall  olfer  sacrifices 
of  righieousness :  for  they  shall  suck  the 
abundance  of  the  seas,  and  the  hidden  treas- 
nres  of  the  sand  "  (l)eut.  xxxiii.  IS,  19,  K.  V.). 
In  the  mountain  of  .Jehovah's  inlieritance 
(Ex.  XV.  17l,  where  he  will  establisli  liischo.seii 
people,  Zebulun  and  Issacliar  will  bring 
rich  olferings  to  their  bountiful  lU'ucfactor. 
After  the  conquest  of  Canaan,  Zebulun  was 
allotted  territory  iii  the  northern  part  of  tlie 
ciiuiilry.  It  lay  north  of  Issachar.  east  of 
Asher,  and  south  and  west  of  Najihtali 
(.losh.  xix.  27,  31).  Its  southern  boundary 
ran  by  Daberath  on  the  western  foot  of 
mount  Tabor,  ])as.sed  C'hisloth-tabor,  and 
after  skirting  the  jilain  of  ICsdraelon  and 
then  crossing  it  reached  the  brook  that  is 
before  Jokneam  (11.  12l,  i)robably  the  wady 
el-Milh,  a  southern  tributary  of  the  Kishon. 
Its  eastern  lioundary  went  to  (Tath-hei)her, 
which  was  jirobably  '.',  miles  north  by  east  of 
Na/.arelh.  and  on  to  lliiiinion.  (i  miles  almost 
due  north  of  Xa/areth  (13,  11.  V.).  At  the 
northwestern  corner  (d"  the  territorv  was  the 
valley  of  Iplitah-el  (14),  i>robably  ahout  9 
miles  north  l>y  west  of  Na/.aretb,  and  leaving 
tile  fertile  Jilain  of  el-l5uttauf  within  the 
bounds  of  Zebulun.  Since  Bethlehem,  7 
miles  west-northwest  of  \a/aretli,  belonged 
to  Zelnilun  (15),  the  western  boundary  was 
doubtless  in  jiart  the  wady  el-Klialladiyi'h. 
Tile  region  ]iosse.>ised  by  Zebulun  was  fer- 
tile. It  embniced  a  jiart  of  the  mountainous 
country  of  lower  (ialilee  and  the  north- 
wi-stern  corner  of  the  jilain  of  ICsdraebin. 
Till'  Zebuliinites  <-onstituted  an  imjiorlant 
Jiart  of  I'.arak's  force  in  the  light  with  Sisera 
(.Fiidg.  iv.fi  10;  V.  11,  IfS,,  and  of  (iideoii's 
army  in  the  war  with  Midian  (vi.  .35).  Deb- 
orah .sjing  tliat  there  weri'  in  the  tribi-  they 
that  handle  the  marsbal's  stall',  or  the  stall' 
of  tlie  scribe  IV.  1  I.  Iv.  V.  text  and  margin), 
meaning  the  scribes  who  gathered  and  mus- 
tered the  army  (2  Kin.  xxv.  lil).  The  Judge 
Klon  was  a  member  id'  the  tribe,  exercised  his 
oHice,  died,  and  was  buried  at  .\iiaIon,  within 
it«  territory  (.ludg.  xii.  12).     Fifty  thousand 


warriors  of  the  tribe,  with  skillful  and  faith- 
fiil  commanders,  went  witli  the  other  tribes 
to  Hebron  to  make  David  king  (1  Chron.  xii. 
33,  10).  Ishmaiab  was  the  ruler  of  the 
Zebuliinites  in  David's  reign  (xxvii.  19). 
The  tribe  with  tbe  rest  of  (talilee  sufl'ered 
severely  during  the  Assyrian  wars,  but 
Isaiah  jirojihesied  that  it  would  obtain  com- 
jieiisatory  blessings  in  Messianic  times  (Is. 
ix.  1,  2;  Mat.  iv.  12-l(i).  Some  men  of  the 
tribe  accejited  llezekiah's  invitation  to  come 
to  .Jerusalem  for  his  great  i)as.sover  (2  Chron. 
^xx.  10,  11,  IS).  Ezekiel,  of  course,  assigns 
a  gate  for  tlie  Zebuliinites  in  the  .lerusaleni 
which  he  describes  (F.zek.  xlviii.  33),  and  of 
the  tribe  there  were  sealed  in  the  ajiocalyptic 
vision  the  normal  number  12,000  (Kev.  vii.  H). 

Zeb'u-lun-ite,  in  A.  Y.  in  Judges  Zebu- 
lonite. 

(  Mu'  belonging  to  the  tribe  of  Zebulun,  or 
resident  within  its  territorv  (Num.  xxvi.  27; 
Judg.  xii.  11,  12). 

Zech-a-rfah,  in  A.  Y.  four  times  Zacha- 
riali  (2  Kin.  xiv.  29;  xv.  H,  11;  xviii.  2) 
[Jehovah  hath   remembered]. 

1.  A  Ueiijamite  of  the  family  of  Jeiel  of 
Gibeon  (1  Chron.  ix.  .■>7j  ;  called  in  1  Chron. 
viii.  31  Zecher  (in  A.  Y.  Zacher).  If  the 
traditional  vocalization  is  correct,  Zecher  is 
a  synonymous  name  meaning  memory.  Per- 
liajis.  however,  it  was  an  abbreviation  of 
Zechariah,  as  Ahaz  is  of  Ahaziah,  and  was 
pronounced  Zachar,  meaning  he  hath  re- 
membered. 

2.  A  Levite,  family  of  Kohath,  hon.se  of 
Izhar.  di'sceiided  tlirougb  I^'Jiiasajih.  He  was 
the  eldest  son  of  iMeshelemiali.  lie  was 
porter  of  the  door  of  the  tent  of  meeting  in 
David's  reign  (1  Chron.  ix.  21,  22;  xxvi.  2). 
He  was  a  discreet  counselor  (14). 

3.  A  Levite  of  the  second  degree  who  jilayed 
a  jisaltery  in  the  jirocession  that  escorted  the 
ark  to  .lerusilem,  and  afterwards  was  per- 
manently emjiloyed  in  the  tabernacle  which 
David  jiitched  for  the  ark  (  1  Chron.  xv.  IS. 
20;  xvi.  5).  It  isdoiibtfiil  whether  the  word 
doorkeejiers  (xv.  IS)  is  intended  to  include 
him. 

4.  A  jiriest  wlio  blew  a  triimjiet  when  the 
ark  was  brought  uji  from  the  house  of  Obed- 
I'dom  ( 1  Chron.  xv.  21). 

5.  A  Levite,  family  of  Kohath,  liou.se  of 
Uzziel.  He  was  a  son  of  Lsshiah  and  lived  in 
the  reign  of  David  (1  Chron.  xxiv.  25). 

().  A  Levite,  family  of  Merari,  and  fourth 
son  of  Ho.sih.  He  was  one  of  the  doorkeeji- 
ers in  David's  reign  (I  Chron.  xxvi.  111. 

7.  A  Mana.ssite  of  CJilead  and  father  of 
Iddo,  who  lived  in  David's  reign  (1  Chnm. 
xxvii.  21 ). 

8.  A  Levite.  of  the  sons  of  Asajdi.  and 
hence  of  the  faniilv  of  (iershom  (2  Chron. 
XX.  14). 

9.  One  of  the  princes  whom  .lelioshajiliat 
sent  to  teach  the  jieojde  of  .ludah  (2  Chron. 
xvii.  7). 


Zechariah 


Jd-1 


Zechariah 


10.  Fourth  son  of  king  Jehoshaphat  (2 
Chrnii.  xxi.  -J). 

11.  Son  olMilioiiulii.  the  high  priest,  and  a 
righU'oiis  man  like  his  fatlicr.  He  lived  in 
the  reign  of  king  Joash  of  Judali.  The  Spirit 
of  (t<»d  caiiie  upon  him  and  he  remonstrated 
with  the  i)e(»ple  «n  their  apostasy  from 
Jehovah  wliieh  ensued  on  the  deatli  ()f  Je- 
hoia«la.  At  the  inst^iuce  of  the  king  he 
was  stoned  to  death  in  the  court  of  the 
temple  r2  Chron.  xxiv.  '20  22).  It  is  com- 
monly l)elieved  tliat  he  is  referred  to  by 
our  i^ird  when  speaking  of  the  rigliteous 
blood  shed  on  earth,  from  the  blood  of 
Abel  unto  the  blood  of  Zechariah,  who  per- 
i.shed  between  the  altar  and  the  sanctuary 
(Luke  xi.  51).  Zechariah,  son  of  .Jehoiada,  is 
the  only  person  mentioned  in  Scrijjture  as 
being  thus  slain  ;  his  violent  death  was  mem- 
orable and  was  familiar  to  succeeding  genera- 
tions ;  and  he  is  the  last  of  the  righteous 
men  wickeiUy  slain,  as  Abel  was  the  first, 
who  are  mentioned  in  the  Hebrew  Scriptures, 
Chriuiicles  being  the  last  book  in  the  Hebrew 
Bible.  He  is  called  the  son  of  Barachiah  in 
the  jiarallel  jiassage  (.Mat.  xxiii.  35,  in  A.  V. 
Barachiasi.  which  naturally  identifies  him 
with  the  well-known  i)rophet  who  lived  after 
the  exile.  But  this  explanatory  clause  in 
Matthew  is  not  imi)robal)ly  a  gloss  which  was 
written  on  the  margin  by  a  reader  and  after- 
wards crept  into  the  text. 

12.  A  man  who  had  understanding  in  the 
vision  of  (tod,  and  gave  wise  counsel  to  king 
Uzziah,  which  for  a  time  be  followed  (2 
Chron.  xxvi.  5). 

1:5.  .\  king  of  Israel  and  last  ruler  of  the 
dynasty  of  .tehu.  He  came  to  the  throne  of 
Samaria  in  the  thirty-eighth  year  of  .\zariah, 
kingof  .ludali.  and  reigned  six  months,  about 
71!*  B.  c.  He  was  the  son  of  .Jeroboam  II., 
and  was  murdered  by  Shallum,  who  suc- 
ceeded him  as  king  (2  Kin.  xiv.  29;  xv. 
8-12).  By  his  occiqiancy  of  the  throne  the 
prediction  was  fulfilled  that  the  fourth  gen- 
eration of  .lehu's  sons  should  sit  on  the  throne 
(X.  .30). 

14.  A  Eeubenite  chief  (1  Chron.  v.  7). 

15.  Son  of  .Teberechiah.  He  was  a  witness 
that  Isaiah  wrote  certain  enigmatical  words 
about  a  year  before  their  meaning  was  ex- 
plained by  a  jirophecy  (Is.  viii.  2). 

1().  JIaternal  grandfather  of  Hezekiah  (2 
Kin.  xviii.  2). 

17.  .V  Levite  descended  from  A.saph.  He 
took  part  in  the  cleansing  of  the  temple  dur- 
ing the  reign  of  Hezekiah  (2  Chron.  xxix.  13). 

18.  A  Kohathite  Levite,  overseer  of  the 
workmen  emi)loved  to  repair  the  temple  in 
Josiah's  reijin  (2  Chron.  xxxiv.  12). 

lit.  A  ruler  of  the  houst;  of  (4od  in  .Tosiah's 
reigu  and  doubtless  a  priest  (2  Chrou.  xxxv. 
H). 

20.  A  man  of  Judab,  family  of  Shelah  (Neh. 
xi.  5). 

21.  A  man  of  Judah,  family  of  Perez  (Neh. 
xi.  4). 


22.  A  priest  descended  from  Pashhur  of  the 
house  of  Malchijah  (Neh.  xi.  12). 

23.  A  descendant  of  Parosh.  He  returned 
from  Babylon  with  a  party  along  with  Ezra 
(Ezra  viii.  3). 

24.  A  sou  of  Bebai  who  did  likewise  (Ezra 
viii.  11.) 

25.  One  of  the  chief  men  whom  Ezra  scut 
to  secure  Levites  and  Nethinim  to  accompany 
the  returning  exiles  (Ezra  viii.  10). 

26.  One  of  the  men,  probably  priests,  who 
stood  beside  Ezra  at  the  public  reading  of  the 
law  (Neh.  viii.  4). 

27.  A  son  of  Elam,  induced  by  Ezra  to  put 
away  his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x.  26). 

28.  A  Levite,  son  of  Jonathan,  and  a  de- 
scendant of  Asaph.  He  led  a  division  of 
Levitical  musicians  at  tlie  dedication  of  the 
rebuilt  wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  xii.  35,  36). 

29.  A  priest  who  blew  a  trumpet  at  the 
dedication  of  the  rebuilt  wall  of  Jerusalem 
(Neh.  xii.  41). 

30.  A  priest,  head  of  the  father's  house  of 
Iddo  in  the  days  of  the  high  priest  Joiakim 
(Neh.  xii.  16).     See  the  following. 

31.  A  prophet,  son  of  Berechiah,  and  grand- 
sou  of  Iddo  (Zech.  i.  1).  His  tirst  recorded 
prophecy  was  delivered  in  the  second  year  of 
Darius  Hystaspis,  520  B.  C.  (ibid.,  Ezra  iv.  24 
with  v.  i.).  He  was  a  contemporary  of 
Zerubbabel  the  governor,  Jeshua  the  high 
priest,  and  Haggai  the  prophet  (Zech.  iii.  1  ; 
iv.  6;  vi.  11;  Ezra  v.  1,  2),  and  united  with 
Haggai  in  exhorting  the  leaders  of  the  Jew- 
ish colony  to  resume  work  on  the  house  of 
God.  It  scarcely  admits  of  ([uestion  that  he 
was  born  in  Babylonia,  for  the  exiles  had 
been  back  in  Palestine  eighteen  years  only 
and  Zechariah  hardly  began  to  prophesy  be- 
fore he  was  eighteen.  Not  im]irobably 
Zechariah  belonged  to  the  tribe  of  Levi,  and, 
like  Jeremiah  and  Ezekiel,  was  a  priest  as 
w^ell  as  a  prophet;  for,  according  to  Nehe- 
miah  (Neh.  xii.  1,  4,  7)  Iddo  was  head  of  a 
jiriestly  family  and  one  who  returned  from 
Babylonia  with  Zerubbabel  ;  aud  a  descend- 
ant of  his,  Zechariah  by  name,  was  head  of  the 
priestly  house  of  Iddo  during  the  high-prie.st- 
hood  of  Joiakim,  son  of  Jeshua  (10,  12.  16). 
Itis  true  that  the  lineage,  which  is  involved 
in  Nebemiah's  statements,  may  be  quite  dis- 
tinct fnmi  the  genealogy  of  the  prophet, 
although  it  contains  the  same  names  in  the 
same  order,  but  the  theory  which  identi- 
fies the  two  has  not  a  little  confirmation. 
1.  Since  Iddo  had  attained  to  the  head- 
ship of  a  priestly  family,  he  is  rightly  judged 
to  have  been  an  elderly  man  in  the  year  of 
the  return,  538  n.  c.  His  descendaTit.  Zech- 
ariah, attained  to  the  same  ])osition  in  the 
ne.xt  generation,  which  would  naturally  in- 
involve  his  being  of  such  an  age  in  520  b.  c, 
that  he  could  he  called  a  young  man.  The 
l)rophet  Zechariah  is  called  a  young  man 
(though  by  an  angel  it  is  true),  in  the  year 
520  b.  c.  (Zech.  ii.  4).  2.  Assuming  that  the 
prophet's  father  Berechiah  was  the  son  of  the 


Zechariah 


793 


Zediariah 


j)riost  Iddo  aiul  (lied  i)ri()r  to  520,  witliout  at- 
taining' to  tlic  luadsliip  of  tlic  family,  then 
tlie  projilu't  Zcciiariaii  was  left  next  in  the 
line  of  succession,  and  this  would  lead  Iv/.v.i 
to  call  him  the  son  of  Iddo,  naming  him  lioth 
as  descendant  and  successor  of  Iddo.  But 
even  if  Herechiah  were  alive,  his  name 
might  he  omitted  ;  for  it  was  oidy  neces- 
sary to  name  the  father's  house  to  which 
a  mau  helonfjed.  in  order  to  locate  him 
anioufj  the  trihes  and  families  of  Israel. 
The  assumiition  of  Herecliiali's  death  would 
also  account  for  the  fact  that  in  the  genera- 
tion after  the  return,  Zechariah  was  head  of 
the  father's  house.  3.  The  theory  tliat  the 
jirophet  Zechariah  was  a  priest  accounts  for 
ills  familiarity  with  priestly  fuuctious  and 
ideas  (iii. ;  iv.). 

Another  view  is  that  favored  by  Kimchi. 
According  to  him,  the  term  j)rophet  in  i.  1 
and  7  refers  to  Iddo  (for  position  of  tlie  title, 
cp.  K/.ra  vii.  .'>),  and  the  latter  is  the  seer  who 
prophesied  in  the  reign  of  Kehoboam  (2 
C'hron.  xii.  15;  xiii.  22).  Tlie  theory  is  im- 
j)rol>ahle,  but  it  is  not  to  be  rejected  because 
four  centuries  intervened  between  tlie  seer 
Idilo  and  the  jiniiihet  Zechariah. 

The  book  of  Zechariah  is  the  eleventh  of 
the  minor  prophets.  It  may  be  divided  as 
follows : 

I.  Introduction  to  the  book  and  a  scries 
of  eight  visions.  The  introduction  (i.  1-G) 
strikes  the  ke.ynote,  not  to  the>e  visions 
only,  but  to  the  whole  book.  Learn  the  les- 
son of  the  past :  "  Keturn  unto  mc  and  I 
will  return  unto  y<)U."'  Vision  1 ;  the  drove 
of  horses  (7-171,  fleet,  tireless  messengers. 
By  this  picture  it  is  shown  that  God  is  watch- 
ing the  events  of  earth  ;  there  is  no  sign  of 
relief  for  God's  jieople  or  of  the  punishment 
of  their  oppressors;  the  nations  are  at  rest. 
Yet  God  is  jealous  for  Zion  and  sore  dis- 
pleased with  its  opjiressors  ;  therefore,  he  is 
returned  to  Jerusalem  with  mercies;  his 
house  and  his  city  shall  be  built,  the  land 
shall  greatly  jtrosper.  The  tirst  vision  is  in- 
troductory to  the  .seven  that  follow.  Vision 
2:  the  four  liorns  and  the  four  smiths  (18- 
21).  The  vision  means  that  for  each  of  the 
horns,  i.  e.  nations  that  scattered  .Tudah,  de- 
struction is  apjxiinted.  Vision  .'? :  the  man 
with  a  measuring  line  (ii.).  Tlie  comfort- 
able message  of  the  tirst  vision  is  unfolded, 
namely,  the  rebuilding  of  the  city.  The 
idea  is  exjiaiuled,  hfiwever.  .Jerusalem  shall 
not  be  measured,  as  cities  usually  are,  by  the 
extent  of  its  walls;  for,  etijoying  unbounded 
prosi)erity,  it  shall  s]>rea(l  abroad  without 
walls.  It  will  not  bi-  iiisccure,  however  ;  .Te- 
hovah  will  be  a  wall  nf  tire  about  it.  Vision 
4  :  Joshua,  the  high  priest  (iii.).  The  ]iriest- 
liood,  although 'human  and  (lelile<1.  a  brand 
coiisiiniiiig  ill  the  (ire  of  God's  \\rath,  is  by 
grace  |)iiick('(l  forth,  cleansed,  and.  on  condi- 
tion of  obedience.  ]iromi-.cd  eontiniiance. 
Then  the  fact  is  emiiliasized  that  tlie  jtriests 
are  types  of  the  Messiah,  and  by  a  symbolical 


action  it  is  declared  that  God  has  a  purpose 
which  he  will  accomjilish  ;  the  oni-  ty])itied 
will  be  raised  uji.  ^'isioll  5  :  the  golden  can- 
dlestick and  the  two  olive  trees  (iv.).  It 
seems  as  though  the  light  of  the  church 
burning  feebly  after  the  exile  must  needs  go 
out  ;  not  so,  <iod  has  provided  an  abundant, 
unfailing,  self-furnishing  sujijily  f>f  oil.  Vi- 
sion (i :  the  flying  roll  (v.  1-4).  God  has  pro- 
nounced a  curse  for  the  destruction  of  wick- 
edness. Vision  7  :  the  departing  eidiah  (5- 
11).  This  is  the  .sequel  of  the  sixth  vision. 
Wickedness,  personilied  as  a  woman  and  im- 
prisoned, is  removed  from  the  land.  Vision 
8:  the  four  chariots  is.suing  from  the  pres- 
ence of  the  Lord  of  all  the  earth  (vi.  1-8). 
The  four  chariots  are  declared  to  represent 
the  four  winds,  which  commonly  di'uote  the 
unseen  jiower  of  (iod  ;  and  the  vision  is  a 
promise  that  the  entire  plan  outlined  in  the 
jirecediiig  series  will  be  executed  by  the  Lord 
of  all  the  earth. 

II.  Symbolic  action  :  crowning  of  the  high 
priest  (vi.  i>-15).  This  ])rocedure  is  exjiressly 
declared  to  belong  to  the  future  and  to  relate 
to  the  well-known  Branch  who  was  the  ex- 
pected king  of  David's  line. 

III.  Deputation  from  Bethel  to  inf|uire 
whether  the  fasts  shall  still  lieke)it,iiow  that 
the  disasters  which  they  commemorated  have 
been  in  jiart  retrieved,  and  the  iirojihet's  four 
answers  (vii.;  viii.).  1.  Fasts  terminate  on 
the  faster  ;  they  do  not  ailect  (iod  ;  obedience 
is  the  one  thing  tiod  re(iuires  (vii.  4-7;.  2. 
Justice  and  truth  are  the  will  of  (4od,  which  is 
to  be  obeyed.  The  desolation  of  the  land  and 
dispersion  of  the  people  were  not  a  calamity  to 
be  bewailed  ;  they  were  a  imnishment  for 
disobedience  and  intended  to  work  reform 
(8-14).  '.i.  God  returns  to  Zion  in  jealonsj', 
and  will  .secure  truth  and  holiness  (viii.  1-17). 
4.  The  fasts  will  become  festivals  (18-23). 

IV.  Burdens  naturally  follow  the  visions 
which  revealed  (iod's  jitirpose  to  distroy  the 
oppressors  of  Jiidah  anil  bring  many  nations 
into  the  kingdom.  Burden  1  :  Jehovah's 
overthrow  of  the  enemies  of  God's  kingdom. 
Punishments  are  ini]iending  which  shall 
bring  the  surrounding  nations  low.  A  rem- 
nant of  I'liiiistia,  however,  shall  be  incor- 
porated in  (iod's  kingdom  ;  and  Jerusjilem 
.shall  be  safe  amid  the  wides]iread  desolation, 
for  (iod  shall  encamii  about  Jndah  and  Ju- 
dah's  king  shall  come  (ix.).  Episode  :  ex- 
hortation to  look  to  the  Lord  for  jiromised 
blessings;  and  not  to  iilols  and  soothssiyers, 
who  only  cause  the  flock  to  err  (x.  1,  2).  Ee- 
sum|ition  of  the  jirophecy.  The  Lord,  how- 
ever, as  already  said,  lialli  visited  his  flock, 
and  because  of  his  wrath  will  make  it  as  his 
goodlj'  horse  in  battle,  free  Judali  from  all 
oppres.sors,  gather  both  Jiidah  and  Eidiraim, 
and  make  Lplir.iini  joyful  in  his  former  hab- 
itation (3  l'^'  .  These  jiromised  ble.'isings, 
however,  will  not  be  enjoyed  for  some  lime 
to  come.  Desolation  to  the  land !  is  the 
prophet's  cry  (xi.  1-3).    The  reason  for  this 


Zechariah 


r94 


Zechariah 


desolation  is  explained  by  the  parable  of  the 
n-jffted  slR-i»licrd  (4-17)  :  because  of  the  cou- 
tiuut'd  rejeciiitn  of  (iod's  right^-ous  goverii- 
ment,  thf  lovenaiit  with  the  luUioiis  is 
broken,  and  Israel  is  open  to  desolation  ;  he- 
eaiise  of  the  s;inie  sin,  the  unity  of  Judah 
and  Kphraiin  remains  unacconii)lished,  and 
weakness,  discord,  and  desolation  result. 
Ihinlcn  -J:  the  c-onllict  and  final  triumidi  of 
the  kin;;doin  of  (lod.  The  nations  of  the 
earth  are  arrayed  a.s;ainst  Jerusalem  and  Ju- 
dah. which  at  the  time  of  the  proi>het  Zech- 
ariah were  coextensive  with  the  visible 
cliunli  of  Jehovah  ;  but  Jehovah  makes  it  a 
cup  of  reelini;  and  a  l)Urdcnsonic  stone  to  llie 
nation.s,  smitin;;  the  enemy  with  madness, 
and  revealing  the  fact  that  the  citizens  of 
Zion  are  strong  in  the  Lord  (xii.  1-8).  The 
preparation  of  Jerusalem  (9-xiv.  5)  :  God 
v.-ill  prepare  Jerusalem,  first,  by  gracious 
spiritual  change  wrought  by  God  'xii.  10- 
xiii.  <i) ;  second,  bv  ])ui-ifving  chastisement 
(7-xiv.  .")*).  The  final  triuinph  (.5"-21).  The 
Lord  shall  come;  it  shall  lie  a  time  of  dark- 
ness and  Judgment,  both  for  the  church  and 
the  nations;  but  at  a  time  appointed  of 
(Ji)d,  at  eventide  there  shall  be  light.  The 
church  shall  flourish,  and  a  remnant  of  the 
nations  shall  go  up  from  year  to  year  to  wor- 
ship Jehovah,  the  king.  Then  shall  the  idea 
of  the  kingdo)u  of  God  be  realized,  the 
church  shall  be  holy. 

The  first  to  hint  that  the  book  of  Zechariah 
did  not  proceed  in  its  entirety  from  the  pen 
of  the  iirophet  whose  name  it  bears  was 
Joseph  Mede,  of  f'hvist  Church  college,  Cam- 
bridge, in  K).").'}.  lie  argued  that  chapters  i.x. 
to  xi.  were  written  by  Jeremiah,  because 
Matthew  in  (luoting  Zechariah  xi.  13  re- 
fers it  to  Jeremiah  (Mat.  xxvii.  9).  This 
argument  has  no  longer  weight  in  the  esti- 
mation of  critics.  .Some  would  .say  that  the 
mention  of  Jeremiah  is  an  error  by  Matthew, 
while  others  believe  that  it  is  probably  an 
early  corruption  of  Matthew's  text.  It  has 
even  been  suggested  that  since  the  Hebrews 
in  their  arrangement  of  the  Scriptures  at 
one  time  began  the  latter  prophets  with 
Jeremiah,  observing  the  .sequence  Jeremiah, 
Ezekiel,  Isaiah,  instead  of  the  present  order, 
Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  Ezekiel  (see  Canon),  this 
l)roplielic  section  was  sometimes  referred  to 
as  Jeremiah,  just  as  The  Psalms  and  The 
Proverbs  are  referred  to  as  the  P.salms  of 
David  and  the  Proverbs  of  S(domon,  al- 
though David  was  not  the  sole  author  of  The 
Psalms  nor  Solomon  of  The  Pn)verl)s.  Since 
Mede'sday  many  critics  have  held  that  in  the 
present  book  of  Zechariah  there  are  the  writ- 
ings of  two,  three,  or  more  prophets.  The 
principal  views  are:  1.  Chapters  ix.  to  xi.  were 
written  sbi.rtly  before  the  fall  of  Samaria  in 
722  H.  c,  and  chaiiters  xii.  to  xiv.  shortly  be- 
fore the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  in  .>S7  B.  c. 
2.  <'l)ai)ters  ix.  to  xiv.  were  written  in  the 
late  Persian  period  more  than  a  century  and 
a  half  after  the  death  of  Zechariah,  or  in  the 


Maccabaean  period.  3.  Chapters  ix.  to  xiv.,  as 
well  as  chapters  i.  to  viii,  proceeded  from 
Zechariah.  The  debate,  it  will  be  seen,  con- 
cerns chapters  ix.  to  xiv.  only.  All  critics 
confess  that  Zechariah  wrote  the  first  eight 
chapters.  The  debated  section  contains  the 
two  burdens.  What  then  is  the  date  of  these 
burdens?  In  regard  to  the  first  burden, 
when  it  was  written  the  house  of  the  Lord 
was  standing  (ix.  1.");  xi.  13)  :  but  from  this 
fact  no  argument  as  to  the  date  of  the  Vmrden 
can  be  drawn  ;  for  Solomon's  temple  was 
standing  down  to  the  exile,  and  the  new  tem- 
ple, built  after  the  return,  was  in  use  after  the 
year  515  B.  c.  The  reference  in  x.  10,  11  has 
been  cited  to  prove  that  Egypt  and  Assyria 
were  great  powers  at  the  time  that  this 
prophecy  was  delivered,  and  it  was  deliv- 
ered after  Israel  had  been  carried  captive 
(6),  hence  after  the  cajiture  of  Samaria  but 
before  the  fall  of  Nineveh,  about  606  B.  c. 
But  a  prophet  after  the  exile,  as  well  as  a 
prophet  of  au  earlier  date,  could  foretell  that 
the  Israelites  would  be  restored  to  the  lands 
from  which  they  had  been  carried,  namely, 
from  Egypt  and  Assyria  ;  and  although  As- 
syria had  succumbed  to  a  later  world  empire, 
he  could  still  say  that  the  pride  of  Assyria, 
the  power  by  which  the  Israelites  were  still 
kept  in  captivity,  should  be  brought  down  : 
or  Assyria  may  be  used  of  a  geographical 
region,  including  Babylonia,  just  as  the  term 
is  employed  by  Ezra  (Ezra  vi.  22),  although 
the  region  was  then  under  the  government 
of  Persia.  Accordingly,  the  first  burden 
may  have  been  delivered  either  before  the 
fall  of  Nineveh,  while  Assyria  was  still  a 
power,  or  else  after  the  exile  when  the  As- 
syrian empire  had  given  place  to  other  em- 
pires, and  since  the  temple  is  standing,  after 
the  sixth  year  of  Darius  king  of  Persia. 
Another  datum  which  contributes  to  the 
solution  of  this  question  is  obtained  from 
the  statement  that  God  will  break  the 
brotherhood  between  Judah  and  Israel 
(Zech.  xi.  14).  The  brotherhood  existed 
until  the  reign  of  Rehoboam.  when  it  was 
broken  by  the  refusal  of  the  northern  tribes 
to  render  further  allegiance  to  the  throne 
of  David.  It  niigbt  also  be  said  to  have  been 
broken  when  Samaria  fell,  and  the  northern 
tribes  were  scattered.  The  brotherhood  existed 
once  more  after  the  Babylonian  exile.  Now 
this  burden  was  pronounced  after  the  fall  of 
Samaria  and  the  captivity  of  Ephraim  (x.  6) ; 
and  therefore  it  projierly  dates  froiii  the  time 
after  the  exile,  when  the  current  conception 
was  that  Ephraim  and  Judah  were  reunited 
in  the  brotherhood.  In  point  of  fact  they 
were  reunited  :  many  members  of  the  ten 
tribes  had  joined  themselves  to  .Tudah  ;  and 
the  existing  nation  was  universally  regarded 
as  the  representative  of  the  twelve  tribes, 
and  in  Ezra's  day  accordingly  twelve  goat« 
were  offered  as  a  sin  offering  at  the  dedica- 
tion of  the  temple,  and  a  second  sin  offering 
of  twelve  bullocks  was  made  for  all  Israel 


Zechariah 


795 


Zedekiah 


(Ezra  vi.  17  ;  viii.  So  ;  cii.  Mat.  xix.  "28  ;  Luke 
ii.  3ij;  AcUs  iv.  30 ;  xxvi.  7  ;  IMiil.  iii.  .">).  It 
is  truL-  that  tlie  i)roi)hot  rrciiueiitly  uses  the 
old  ti'i'ins  .Itidah  and  Hphraiin,  and  tliis  fact 
lias  l)oi'n  nrjrc'd  to  jirovc  tlial  the  jirophecy 
was  nttert-d  lonjj;  before  tlic  lime  of  Zi'eha- 
riah,  Imt  many  i)eoi)le  livinj;  after  the  exile 
U!-ed  tlie  old  terms.  Zeehariah  himself  in 
the  first  eight  ehaptei-s  employs  them.  He 
addre.sses  the  "house  of  Jndah  and  liouse 
of  Israel  "  (Zech.  viii.  V.i).  It  is  to  this  i)ost- 
cxilie  period  aceordingly  that  the  references 
to  the  hrotherhood  of  K|diraim  and  Judah 
])oint.  There  is  a  further  mark.  It  is  de- 
clared that  tJod  will  raise  u))  Judah  ai^ainst 
the  distant  sons  of  Javan,  or  the  Greeks  (ix. 
l."5).  It  will  he  observed  that  the  Greeks  are 
chosen  for  two  reasons  :  (1)  Because  the 
prophet  descries  the  conlliet  of  the  church 
willi  the  most  distant  nations  of  the  world. 
Javan  and  the  isles  were  at  this  time  within 
the  t;eot;rai>hical  horizon  of  the  Hebrews,  and 
they  wi-re  used  as  types  of  the  remotest 
heathen  nations  ((ien.  x.  -1,  ."> ;  Is.  xli.  5;  lix. 
1>-  :  Ixvi.  1!»;  E/.ek.  xxvii.  1.')).  i-2)  The  novel 
feature  here  is  that  Javan  looms  uj)  as  tlie 
world  jxiwer  of  heathenism.  The  earliest  date 
when  th(;  eomiiiK  ])ower  of  (irecce  became 
evident  to  observers  in  the  I'ersian  emjjire 
was  diirinji  the  years  from  ")(»()  to  470  B.  C, 
and  the  coming  greatness  <if  Greece  as  the 
successful  antagonist  of  Persia  was  clearly 
evident,  (treecc  had  successfully  checked 
the  advance  of  Persian  amis,  and  tlie  (Grecian 
<'ilies  of  Asia  Minor  were  in  ojien  revolt 
against  their  Persian  lords  during  tlie  years 
fiOO  to  -lf).%  B.  r. ;  the  Persians  were  defeated 
at  Marathon  in  490  and,  after  their  victory 
at  Tlieriiio])yhe.  were  crusliingly  defeated  by 
the  (ireeks  at  Salaniis,  4>(),  Plata-a  and 
Mycale,  47!).  Zechariah,  there  is  reason  to 
believe  on  considerable  and  varied  evidence, 
was  a  young  man,  .say  twenty  or  twenty-five, 
wlien  in  .")20  H.  c  he  exhorted  Zerut)babel  to 
the  work  of  rebuilding  the  temjile,  and  con- 
se(iuently  these  stirring  events  which  re- 
vealed the  unsus))ected  greatness  of  Greece 
and  ojiened  the  ]iros]iect  that  it  would  suc- 
cessfully intermeddle  in  oriental  atfairs  oc- 
curred during  the  yi-ars  which  were  Zech- 
ariah's  ]trime  of   life. 

The  seettnd  burden,  chapters  xii.  to  xiv.,  is 
also  shown  by  its  contents  to  belong  to  the 
jtost-exilic  ]ieriod.  The  writer  refers  to  the 
terror  of  the  (leojile  when  the  earth<iuake  in 
the  days  of  Tzziah  occurred.  He  refers  to  it 
as  an  event  living  vividly  in  the  conscious- 
ness of  the  i)eoi)lc.  It  was  vivid  to  them 
either  because  of  recent  occurrence  or  be- 
cause it  had  niarle  a  lasting  impression  on 
tlieir  minds.  It  certainly  had  made  this 
listing  ini|)ressi<iii  ;  it  is  treati'<l  as  an  epoch 
by  the  jii-ople  of  the  generation  in  which  it 
occurred  (.\inos  i.  1).  and  in  the  lirst  century 
of  the  Christian  era  it  was  still  reiiienibered 
as  a  solemn  and  striking  event  (.\nti<|.  i\. 
10,  4).     Tliere  is  another  historical  mark  in 


this  second  burden,  the  reference  to  the 
mourning  of  Hadadrimnion  in  tlie  valley  of 
Megiddon  (Zech.  xii.  111.  The  only  iiatunil 
reference  here  is  to  the  killing  of  Josiah  who 
opjio.sed  Pharaoh-necho  at  Megiddo,  was  mor- 
tally wounded  there  and  soon  died,  and  his 
death  was  mourned  by  the  singing  men  and 
singing  women,  and  a  lamentation  was  ci^ni- 
posed  by  the  jirojihet  Jeremiah.  Accordingly 
the  second  burden  was  delivered  not  earlier 
than  the  eve  of  the  exile. 

Not  only  do  tiie  historical  references  in 
the  two  burdens  juiint  to  late  times,  but  the 
literary  characteristics  of  these  burdens  iiro- 
claim  them  to  have  jn-oceedi'd  from  the  same 
source  as  the  lirst  eight  chaptei-s.  This  is 
strenuously  denied  by  certain  critics.  It  is 
urged  that  a  ditlerence  of  style  is  discernible 
between  the  burdens  and  the  visions.  This 
is  true,  but  it  is  a  cardinal  doctrine  of  lit- 
erary criticism  that  the  style  of  an  author 
differs  at  various  periods  of  his  literary 
career,  and  when  he  essays  different  forms 
of  literatiiie.  Zechariah's  style  naturally  un- 
derwent change  during  a  jieriod  of  thirty  or 
forty  years  and  differed  when  he  dejiicted 
visions  and  symbolical  actions  from  the  style 
in  which  he  set  forth  solemn  warnings. 
Still,  ill  the  parable  or  the  symbolic  rejire- 
sentation  of  the  good  shepherd,  there  are 
traces  of  the  same  literary  hand  as  that 
which  jiortrayed  the  visions  and  the  crown- 
ing of  the  high  jiriest.  And  the  more  subtle 
marks  of  the  same  hand  are  seen  in  the 
viiii(|ue  usage  of  certain  words  and  exjires- 
sions  which  characterize  the  first  eight  chap- 
ters in  common  with  the  last  six.  A  few  of 
these  are  the  Qal  of  yaxhnh  in  a  jiassive  sense 
(ii.  8;  ix.  s^■.  xii.  (i),  mc'oher  iiDiishahiih  (vii. 
14  ;  ix.  8),  'chad  for  the  indefiiiite  article  (v. 
7;  xii.  7),  'al-yamin  v''al-s'mol  (iv.  11  ;  xii.  6), 
"•damah  (ii.  Ki ;  ix.  If!:  xiii.  5).  The  employ- 
ment of  the  same  word  in  different  senses  is 
also  a  characteristic  both  of  the  section  which 
is  acknowledged  to  be  genuine  and  of  the  sec- 
tion which  is  disputed.  The.se  reasons  afford 
proof  that  Zechariah  was  the  author  of  the 
entire  book,  and  that  his  mature  life  was 
passed  between  the  years  520  and  479  B.  C. 

Ze'cher.     See  Zech.\ki.\h  1. 

Ze'dad. 

A  i>lace,  jirobablya  tower,  on  the  northern 
boundary  line  of  Palestine  (Num.  xxxiv.  8  ; 
l'>.ek.  xlvii.  !'<).  Sudnd  or  Sadad.  in  the 
desert  east  of  the  road  from  Damascus  to 
Hums,   is  believed  by  many  to  be  the  site. 

Zed-e-ki'ah,  in  A.  V.  once  Zidkijah  (Neh. 
X.  1)  [ligbteousness  of  Ji'liovab]. 

1.  A  son  of  Clienaanah.  Having  joined 
with  other  false  proi>hets  in  encouraging 
Ahab  to  atfemiit  the  caiiture  of  IvJiinoth- 
gilead,  and  having  ])reilict<'d  that  Aliali 
would  defeat  the  Syrians,  he  was  so  excited 
wlien  Micaiah.  a  proj>het  of  .lehovah.  made  a 
contrary  iiredidiiui.  that  he  struck  the  man 
of  (Jod   upon  the  cheek,  accomiianying  the 


Zedekiah 


FOG 


Zemarite 


hlow  with  words  of  insult.  Micaiah  told  him 
tluit  lu- would  have  cause  to  acknowledge  bis 
error  (1  Kin.  .\xii.  11-25). 

•J.  A  lying  and  immoral  iirojihct,  the  son 
of  Maasiiah.  .Icrcmiali  jiriilii-led  that  Neb- 
ni'hadni'zair  would  roast  him  in  the  lire 
(.ler.   xxix.  -Jl-^.!). 

A.  A  son  of  llananiah.  He  was  a  ijrince 
of  Judah  in  the  reigu  of  Jehoiakim  (Jer. 
xxxvi.   r,'). 

1.  Tim  name  given  by  Nebuchadnezzar  to 
Mattaniah,  one  of  .Tosiah's  sons,  on  a])point- 
ing  him  vas.sil-king  of  .Judah  in  the  room  of 
his  nei)hew,  Jehoiachin  {2  Kin.  xxiv.  17;  1 
Chron.  iii.  l.">).  In  2  C'hroii.  xxxvi.  10  he  is 
called  Jehoiachin's  brother,  i.  e.,  kinsman 
of  the  same  ancestry;  .see  Brother.  He 
was  the  younger  of  .tosiah's  two  sons  by 
Hamutal  (2  Kin.  xxiii.  31  with  xxiv.  18). 
He  was  twenty-one  years  old  when  he  as- 
cended the  throne,  and  reigned  eleven  years, 
from  about  5SW  to  587  R.  C.  Neither  he  nor 
his  peo])le  gave  heed  to  the  word  of  the 
Lord  which  was  spoken  by  Jeremiah  (2 
Chron.  xxxvi.  12;  Jer.  xxxvii.  2).  The 
temple  was  polluted  with  idolatry  (2  Chron. 
xxxvi.  14),  and  justice  was  not  executed 
(Jer.  xxi.  11,  12).  A  strong  party  in  the 
state,  assisted  by  false  ]>rophcts,  urged  the 
king  to  throw  oft"  the  foreign  yoke  (xxvii. 
12-22).  At  the  beginning  of  Zedekiah's 
reign  (1,  K.  V.  margin)  messengers  from 
Edom,  Moab,  Annuon,  Tyre,  and  Zidon  came 
to  him  at  Jerusalem  to  plan  a  united  revolt 
from  the  king  of  Babylon  ;  but  Jeremiah 
was  divinely  instructed  to  condemn  the  pur- 
pose (2-11).  Zedckiah  sent  an  embassy  to 
Nebuchadnezzar,  probably  to  assure  the  great 
king  of  his  fidelity  (xxix.  3),  and  in  his 
fourth  year  he  himself  visited  Babylon  (li. 
.5!t).  Ultimately  he  was  rash  enough  to  rebel. 
On  the  tenth  day  of  the  tenth  month,  in  the 
ninth  year  of  Zedekiah's  reign,  the  Baby- 
lonian monarch  took  post  against  Jerusalem, 
and  began  to  erect  forts  around  the  city.  It 
was  too  strong  to  be  taken  by  assault ;  and 
the  Babylonians  held  it  in  siege.  The  ad- 
vance of  the  Egyptians  compelled  the  Baby- 
lonians to  withdraw  for  a  time  (Jer.  xxxvii. 
5),  but  they  soon  returned.  By  the  ninth 
day  of  the  fourth  month,  in  the  eleventh 
year  of  Zedekiah's  reign,  the  food  in  the  be- 
leagured  capital  was  exhausted.  That  night 
Zedekiah,  with  all  the  men  of  war,  secretly 
(piitted  the  stronghold,  and,  pa.=.sing  as  noise- 
lessly as  i)ossil)le  between  the  Babylonian 
forts,  fled  in  an  easterly  direction  toward 
the  Jordan.  On  learning  that  the  king  was 
gone,  the  Babylonian  army  i)ursued  and 
overtook  him  in  the  plain  of  Jericho,  his 
soldiers  having  fled  in  all  directions,  leaving 
him  nearly  alone.  He  was  brought  a  prisoner 
to  Nebuchadnezzar,  who  had  retired  to  Kib- 
lah,  a  little  north  of  Palestine.  There,  after 
he  had  been  tried  and  condemned,  his  sons 
were  put  to  death  in  his  presence,  and  his 
own  eyes  put  out :  after  which  he  was  bound 


in  fetters,  carried  to  Babylon  (2  Kin.  xxiv. 
17-20;  XXV.  1-7;  2  Chron.  xxxvi.  11-21; 
Jer.  xxxix.  1-14),  and  put  in  prison  till  the 
day  of  his  death  (Jer.  Iii.  11).  Jeremiah 
prophesied  during  the  whole  of  Zedekiah's 
reign. 

5.  A  high  official  who  set  his  .seal  to  the 
covenant  immediately  after  Nehemiah  the 
governor  (Nch.  x.  1). 

Zeeb  [wolf]. 

A  Midianite  prince  captured  and  put  to 
death  by  Gideon.  He  was  slain  at  a  wine 
press,  wliich  was  afterwards  called  that  of 
Zeeb  (Judg.  vii.  25).  Its  exact  situation  is 
unknown,  but  it  was  doubtless  west  of  the 
Jordan,  near  the  river. 

Ze'la,  in  A.  V.  Zelali  and  so  once  in  R.  V. 
erroneously  (Jo.sh.  xviii.  28)  [rib,  side]. 

A  town  allotted  to  Benjamin  (.Tosh,  xviii. 
28).  There  the  bodies  of  Saul  and  Jonathan 
were  buried  after  the  men  of  Jabesh-gilead 
had  taken  them  down  from  the  wall  of 
Beth-shean  (2  Sam.  xxi.  14).  Site  uniden- 
tified. 

Ze'lek  [a  cleft]. 

An  Ammonite,  one  of  David's  mighty  men 
(2  Sam.  xxiii.  37 ;  1  Chron.  xi.  39). 

Ze-lo'phe-liad. 

A  Manassite,  family  of  Machir,  .subfamily 
of  Gilead,  house  of  Hepher.  He  had  no 
sons,  but  five  daughters  (Num.  xxvi.  3:5). 
This  condition  of  afl'airs  gave  occasion  for 
enacting  the  law  that  if  a  man  die  and  have 
no  son  the  inheritance  pass  to  his  daugliter 
(xxvii.  1-8).  The  law  was  soon  afterwards 
developed  by  the  addition  of  the  provision 
that  the  daughter  must  marry  within  her 
father's  tribe  in  order  that  no  part  of  the 
tribal  possession  be  transferred  to  another 
tribe  (xxxvi.  1-12).  The  inheritance  of  the 
family  was  east  of  the  Jordan  (Josh.  xvii. 
1-6). 

Ze-lo'tes.    See  Zealot. 

Zel'zah  [perhaps,  shadow  in  the  heat  of 
the  sun], 

A  frontier  town  of  Benjamin,  near  Rachel's 
sepulcher  (1  Sam.  x.  2).  Exact  situation  un- 
known. 

Zem-a-ra'im  [two  cuttings]. 

1.  A  town  of  Benjamin  (Josh,  xviii.  22). 
Es-Sumrah,  a  large  ruined  village  about  3 
miles  west  of  the  river  Jordan,  and  4  north- 
northeast  of  Jericho,  and  le.ss  appropriately 
the  ravine  es-Sumra,  about  5^  miles  west  of 
.Tericho  on  the  road  to  Jerusalem,  have  been 
suggested. 

2.  A  mountain  in  the  hill  country  of 
Ephraim,  on  which  Abijah,  king  of  Judah, 
stood  to  address  the  ten  tribes  before  en- 
countering them  in  battle  (2  ChroTi.  xiii.  I). 
Perhaps  it  was  south  of  Bethel  (19).  Prob- 
ably it  lay  not  far  from  the  city  of  Zema- 
raim. 

Zem'a-rite. 

A  Canaanite  tribe  (Gen.  x.  18 ;  1  Chron.  i. 


Zemirah 


r97 


Zeraliiali 


IG).  They  are  enumerated  between  the  Ar- 
vadite  and  Ilanialliito ;  and  were  the  in- 
lial)itants  of  Sinuira,  Suniiira,  nnw  Sunira, 
on  llie  coast  between  Arvad  and  Trijiolis. 

Ze-mi'rah,  in  A.  V.  Zemira  [melody,  a 
song]. 

A  lienjaniite,  latnily  of  IJeclier  (1  Chron. 
vii.  ,S). 

Ze'nan    [i)oint    or,    iicrlia])s,    a    place    of 

llncks]. 

A  town  in  or  west  of  the  hnvhmd  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  37).  IVrhajis  the  same  as  Zaanan 
(Mic.  i.  11).     Site  unknown. 

Ze'nas  [contraction  of  Greek  Zrnodorus, 
gift  of  Zeus]. 

A  lawyer,  journeying  in  Crete  witli  Apol- 
los,  whom  Titus  was  enjoined  by  Paul  to  set 
forward  on  their  journey  (Titus  iii.  13). 

Zeph-a-ni'all  [.leliovah  has  liidden]. 

1.  A  Lcvite  of  the  family  of  Kohath  and 
house  of  I/har  (1  Chron.  vi.  3()-3S). 

2.  A  jiriest,  the  son  of  Maa.seiah.  He  was 
one  of  those  who  carried  nie.ssjiges  between 
Zedekiah  and  Jtreniiah  (.ler.  xxi.  1  ;  xxxvii. 
3).  A  certain  false  iiniphel  wlio  dwelt  in 
I'ahylon,  Shemaiah  by  name,  having  sent 
him  letters  directing  him  to]iunish  Jeremiah 
for  his  discouraging  ])redictions,  he  showed 
the  missive  to  the  i)r(iphet  (xxix.  24-32). 
He  had  the  oversight  of  the  temple,  and  was 
second  |iricst  uniler  the  chii'f  ])riest  Seraiah. 
After  the  capture  of  Jeru.salem  by  the  liahy- 
lonians,  Zei>haniah  was  put  to  death  at  Eib- 
lah  (2  Kin.  xxv.  liS-21  ;  Jer.  Iii.  24-27). 

3.  A  man  whose  son  Josiah  lived  in  the 
davs  of  Zcrnbliabel  and  the  prophet  Zecha- 
riah  (Zech.  vi.  H),  14). 

4.  A  jirophet.  whose  descent  is  traced 
through  four  degrees  to  Hezekiah  (Zeph.  1. 
1).  This  ancestor  is  i)robably  the  king,  from 
the  fact  that  so  remote  a  descent  is  traced 
and  because  the  time  suits.  The  prophet 
himself  lived  and  labored  in  the  reign  of 
Josiah   (ibid.). 

The  book  of  Zejihaniah  is  the  ninth  among 
the  minor  ])ro]ihets.  Tlie  date  given  in  its 
title  (i.  1)  is  confirmed  by  the  omission  of 
Gath  in  the  enumeration  of  I'liilisline  cities 
(ii.  4),  by  Nineveh  being  still  in  existence 
(13),  and  by  the  absence  of  allusion  to  the 
Chaldeans.  Tlie  subject  of  the  projdiecy  is 
(iod's  universal  judgment  and  its  result. 
1.  A  universal  judgment  (i.  2.  3i.  (1)  It  per- 
tains jiarticularly  to  the  wicked  of  Judah 
and  .lerii.siilem  ;  and  will  be  a  day  of  .sjicrifice 
and  wrath  (4-18).  (2)  A  call  to  repentance  as 
the  only  possible  means  of  escajje  (ii.  1  .3)  ; 
enforced  by  the  certainly  that  God  will 
jiunish  other  nations  for  their  wickedness 
(4-liji,  and  Jerusalem  shall  not  esca]ie.  for  it 
dors  not  repent  and  the  Lord  in  the  midst  of 
her  is  righteous  (iii.  1-S).  2.  The  blessed  re- 
sult of  !lie  judgment.  Tlie  natiou  shall  turn 
to  the  l.oni  (!>-l()),  the  remnant  of  Isniel  shall 
trust  in  the  Lord  and  be  holy  (ll-i:!).  and 
the   Lord   shall  reigu  gloriously  and  benefi- 


cently as  king  in  the  midst  of  liis  people 
(14-lH).  who  .shall  he  gathered  from  cap- 
tivity and  be  a  praise  in  the  earth  (19-2(1). 
rerlia]isthe  prophecy  was  delivered  before 
Josiali  commenced  the  great  religious  refor- 
mation in  tlie  twelfth  and  eighteenth  years 
of  his  reign  (2  Kin.  xxii.  3;  2  Chron.  xxxiv. 
3,  8). 

Ze'phath  [watchtower]. 

A  Caiiaaiiite  town  in  the  south  country 
toward  the  border  of  ICdom,  assigned  to  the 
tribe  of  Simeon.  Tlie  Siiiieonites,  assisted 
by  their  brethren  of  Judah,  cajitured  the 
place  and  changed  its  name  to  Ilormah  ( Judg. 
i.  17)  ;  see  lloKM.Mi.  Robinson  suggested 
that  tlu^  name  is  jierhaps  ritaiued  in  e.s- 
Sufali.  the  name  of  a  jiassh'ading  uji  from  the 
Arahah  to  the  .south  of  Judah  ;  hut  the  gener- 
al oiiinion  is  in  favor  of  8'baita,  discovered 
bj'  Kowlands  and  rediscovered  by  Palmer, 
24  miles  north  by  east  of  Kadesh-barnea, 
and  2(j|  south  by  west  of  Beer-sheba.  The 
ruins  cover  an  area  of  loOO  yards.  The 
identilicatioii  is  i)liilologically  doubtful. 

Zeph'a-thali  [watchtower]. 

A  valley  near  Mareshah,  in  the  tribe  of 
.ludah  (2  Chron.  xiv.  10).  Conder  iirojjoses 
the  wady  Salieh,  which,  commencing  about 
a  mile  northeast  of  ^Mareshah,  near  Beit 
Jibrin,  runs  for  a  short  distance  in  that  di- 
rection. 

Ze'phi  and  Zepbo  [watch]. 

A  son  of  Elii)haz,  and  grandson  of  Esau. 
He  founded  a  tribe  (Gen.  xxxvi.  11,  15;  1 
Chron.  i.  3()).  For  the  difference  in  spelling 
see  Vait. 

Ze'phon  [watching,  expectation.] 

A  son  of  (!ad,  and  founder  of  a  tribal  family 
(Num.  XX vi.  1.")).  Called  in  (ien.  xlvi.  16 
Ziidiion,  a  synonym  having  the  form  usually 
assumed  by  similar  derivatives. 

Zer  [Hint.] 

A  fortilied  city  of  Naphtali  (Josh.  xix.  35). 
Site  nnidentilied. 

Ze'rah,  in  A.  V.  twice  Zarah  (Gen.  xxxviii. 
30;  xlvi.  12);  once  Zara  (Mat.  i.  3)  [spring- 
ing up  of  light,  dawn]. 

1.  \  duke  of  Edom  descended  from  Esau 
and  also  from  Ishmael  ((Jen.  xxxvi.  '.'>.  I.  13. 
17;  1  Chron.  i.  .37.) 

2.  Gne  of  twins  borne  to  Judah  byTamar, 
and  the  founder  of  a  tribal  family  tNum. 
xxvi.  20;  Josh.  vii.  1,  17). 

3.  A  son  of  Simeon,  and  founder  of  ji  tribal 
family  (Num.  xxvi.  1.3).  He  is  called  in 
(Jen.  xlvi.  10  and  Ex.  vi.  !.">  Z<diar,  which 
means  dazzling  whiteness  or  brightness. 

4.  .\  I>evite,  of  the  family  of  (Jershom  (1 
Chron.  vi.  21,  41). 

.">.  .\n  l'",thio]iian  who  led  a  vast  army  to 
attack  king  ,\sa.  but  was  defeated  with  great 
slaughter  in  a  battle  at  Mareshah  (2  Cliron. 
xiv.  SI,".).     See  PllAHOAIl  4. 

Zer-a-hl'ali  [the  Lord  is  risen  (cp.  Is.  Ix. 
1,  'J)]. 


Zered 


Zeruiah 


1.  A  priest,  son  of  Uzzi,  and  a  descendant 
of  riiiiichas  (1  Chion.  vi.  6,  ol ;  Kzni  vii.  4). 

■J.  One  of  the  children  of  Pahatli-moab 
(K/.r.i  viii.  J). 

Ze'red,  in  A.  V.  once  Zared  (Num.  xxi.  l'~') 
[exiihcT.int  firowtii]- 

A  l)rin)i<  ;iii(l  viilley,  which  the  Israelites 
crossiMj  ;{rt  years  after  i)eing  turned  back  into 
the  wilderness  at  Kadesh-barnea,  and  wliich 
constituted  tlie  farthest  limit  of  the  wander- 
infjs  in  the  wilderness  (Num.  xxi.  12  ;  Deut.  ii. 
1:5,  14).  It  was  siiutii  of  the  .\rii(ni  ;  not,  how- 
ever, on  the  southern  Ijoundary  of  Moab,  but 
somewhere  alony  its  eastern  border  (Num. 
xxi.  11,  13).  Hence  not  the  wady  cl-'Ahsy, 
which  was  the  boundary  between  Moab  and 
Kdom.  It  may  i)e  either  the  Sail  Sa'idch,  a 
southeastern  branch  of  the  .Vrnon,  or  the 
upper  course  of  the  wady  Kerek. 

Zer'e-dah,  in  ,\.  V.  Zereda,  and  with  the 
unarccutcd  vowel  of  the  old  case-ending 
Ze-red'a-thah  [cooling,  coolness]. 

-V  villa^i!  whence  came  Nebat,  an  Ephraim- 
ite,  the  father  of  .Teroboam,  aud  apparently 
also  .Jeroboam  himself  (1  Kin.  xi.  26).  It  was 
not  far  from  Snccoth.  In  the  clay  ground 
between  Snccoth.  cast  of  the  Jordan,  and  Zere- 
dah.  west  of  the  river,  Solomon  cast  vessels 
for  the  temple  (2  Chron.  iv.  17).  The  cast- 
ing place  must  Iiave  been  west  of  the  Jordan 
as  the  opposite  eastern  bank  is  reported  to 
have  scarcely  any  level  ground  at  all.  Zere- 
dah  is  jirohably  the  ])lacc  elsewhere  called 
Zarethan  1 1  Kin.  vii.  40.  Conder  doubtfully 
suggests  for  its  site  .Surdah,  2\  miles  north- 
west of  Bethel ;  and  the  Septuagint  actually 
IcH'Htes  it  in  the  hill  country  of  Ephraim  (1 
Kin.  xii.  24).  But  the  Septuagint  probably 
confu.ses  it  with  Tirzali,  and  Zeredah  was  al- 
most certainly  in  the  Jordan  valley. 

Zer'e-rah,  in  A.  V.  Zererath,  as  in  the 
pre^sent  Hebrew  text. 

.\pparently  the  same  jjlace  as  Zeredah  and 
Zarethan.  whether  the  second  r  should  be 
read  d,  as  in  the  Arabic  and  Syriac  versions, 
t)r  whether  the  two  r's  are  blended  in  Zare- 
than (Jndg.  vii.  22  with  1  Kin.  iv.  12). 

Ze'resh  [probably,  gold]. 

The  wife  of  Hanian  (Esth.  v.  10;  vi.  1.3). 

Ze'reth  [jierhaps,  fissure  or  brightness]. 

.\  siMi  (if  Ashliur,  of  the  tribe  of  Judah, 
by  Ills  wife  Helah  (1  Chron.  iv.  .^)-7). 

Ze-reth-slia'har,  in  A.  V.  Zaretli-slialiar 
[brightm-ss  of  the  dawn]. 

A  town  of  Reuben,  on  a  mountain  which 
overlooks  a  valley,  doubtless  that  of  the 
Dead  .Sea  (Josh.  xiii.  19).  Seetzen  suggested 
Sara,  or  Zara,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Zerka 
Ma'in.  The  names,  however,  arc  not  iden- 
tical. 

Ze'rl. 

A  son  of  Jeduthun  (1  Chron.  xxv.  3).  In 
ver.  11  he  is  <'atled  I/.ri,  which  is  doubtless 
the  corn-ct  form,  the  initial  jod  having  been 
last  in  course  of  transcription. 


Ze'ror  [a  bundle]. 

A   Benjamite,   an   ancestor  of  king  Saul 
(1  Sara.  ix.  1). 
Ze-ru'ah  [smitten,  leprous]. 
The  mother  of  Jeroboam  I.  (1  Kin.  xi.  26). 

Ze-rub'ba-bel,  in  A.  V.  of  N.  T.  Zorobabel 

[probalily,  begotten  in  Biibylon]. 

A  son  of  I'cdaiah,  and  heir  to  the  throne 
of  judah  (1  Chron.  iii.  17-19).  Bnt  he  is 
constantly  called  the  son  of  Shealtiel,  who 
Wiis  the  brother  of  Pedaiah,  quite  improbably 
his  son  (Ezra  iii.  2,  H  ;  Neb.  xii.  1 ;  Hag.  i.  1, 
12,  14  ;  ii.  2,  23  ;  Mat.  i.  12,  13  ;  Luke  iii.  27). 
Shealtiel  doubtless  died  childless  ;  and  either 
his  nephew  was  his  legal  heir,  and  hence 
called  his  son  (  Ex.  ii.  10),  or  else  Pedaiah  mar- 
ried his  widow,  in  which  case  the  first  child 
would  be  considered  that  of  the  deceased 
brother  (Deut.  xxv.  5-10,  etc.).  When  Cyrus, 
after  the  conquest  of  Babylon,  adopted  the 
wise  politic-al  i)olicy  of  allowing  the  Jews  to 
return  to  their  own  land,  he  api)oiiited  Ze- 
rubbabel,  as  the  legal  successor  to  the  throne, 
Persian  governor  of  Judah  (Ezra  i.  8:  Hag. 
ii.  21).  In  the  royal  decree  he  is  called  by 
his  Babylonian  name  Sheshbazzar  (Ezra  i.  H, 
cp.  11 ;  V.  14-l(i).  Supported  by  the  high 
priest  Jeshua,  aud  other  dignitaries,  Zerub- 
babel  led  the  returning  captives  from  Baby- 
lon to  their  own  country'  in  538  B.  c.  ( Ezra 
ii.  ;  Neh.  vii. ;  xii.  1-9).  They  reared  an 
altar,  restored  the  feasts,  and  set  the  Levites 
again  to  their  appropriate  work  (Ezra  iii. 
1-9).  They  next  laid  the  foundations  of  the 
temj)le,  but  adversaries,  after  failing  to  make 
Zernbbabcl  stop  proceedings,  acted  on  suc- 
cessive Persian  kings,  so  that  building  opera- 
tions ceased  till  the  second  year  of  Darius 
Hystas]iis  (iv.  1-24).  In  this  year  the 
prophet  Ilaggai,  speaking  in  the  name  of  the 
Lord,  strongly  counseled  the  resumption  of 
the  work  (Hag.  i.  2-11).  Zerubbabel  and 
his  advocates  gave  heed  to  the  exhortation 
and  recommenced  the  erection  of  the  holy 
house,  the  prophets  Haggai  and  Zechariah 
giving  them  great  spiritual  encouragement 
in  the  enterprise  (Ezra  v.  1,  2;  Hag.  i.  12-ii. 
23;  Zech.  iv.  1-14;  cp.  also  iii.).  The  build- 
ing was  completed  515  B.  c.  From  the  office 
Zerubbabel  held  when  the  second  temple 
was  built,  and  the  personal  interest  he  took 
in  its  erection,  it  is  often  called  Zerubbabel's 
temple.  His  governorshi]i  continued  at  least 
till  515  B.  C.  How  much  longer  it  lasted  is 
unknown.  Zerubbabel  was  in  his  day  the 
representative  of  the  Davidic  monarchy  (Hag. 
ii.  20-23).  He  was  also  in  the  direct  line  of 
ancestrv  of  our  Lord  (Mat.  i.  12.  13 :  Luke 
iii.  27)." 

Ze-ru'iah  [cleft,  divided]. 

A  sister  of  David  (1  Chron.  ii.  16),  but 
probably,  like  her  sister  Abigail,  not  a 
daughter  of  Jesse,  but  a  daughter  of  David's 
mother  by  an  earlier  marriage  with  Nahash  (2 
Sam.  xvii.  25).  She  was  the  mother  of  Abishai, 
Joab,  aud  Asahel  (ii.  18 ;  1  Chron.  ii.  16). 


Zetham 


799 


Ziklag 


Ze'tbam. 

A  ( iiTslioiiite  Levitt,  house  of  J^indHn  and 
son  of  .liliiel  (1  Chron.  xxiii.  H  and  xxvi.  22). 

Ze'than  [olive  tree  or  jilace  of  olives]. 

A  Hiiijaniite,  family  of  Jediael  (1  Chron. 
vii.  10).  ' 

Ze'tbar. 

A  chanilifrlain  al  the  court  of  Ahasucrus 
(Esth.  i.  10). 

Zi'a  [motion,  terror]. 

.\  (Jadite.  i)rot)al)ly  head  of  a  father's 
house  (1  Chron.  v.  115). 

Zi'ba. 

A  servant  or  slave  of  kinj;  Saul's.  He  had 
been  svt  free  (Antii|.  vii.  .">,')),  jterliaps  at  the 
time  of  Saul's  overthrow  by  the  Philistines, 
and  he  was  father  of  a  large  family  and  had 
ae((uired  slaves  (2  Sam.  ix.  10).  David  made 
him  and  his  .sons  and  slaves  servants  to 
.Mephihosheth,  Sjiiil's  son.  and  ordered  them 
to  till  Mfjjhih.isheth's  lands  i!i-12i.  When 
David  was  eompelled  to  tlee  from  .Krusalem 
heeause  of  Absjilom's  rebellion.  Ziha  appeared 
with  a  couple  of  asses  laden  witli  ])rovisi(ins 
for  the  kiuf,'.  and  stated  that  Mephihosheth 
was  exjiectinu:  that  Israel  would  restore  Saul's 
kingdom  to  him.  Thereujxm  David  trans- 
ferred Mephibosheth's  estates  to  Ziba  (xvi. 
1—1).  After  the  death  of  Absalom,  when  the 
kinj;  was  returuiu*;  to  Jerusjilem.  among 
lliose  who  went  to  the  Jordan  to  welcome 
him  back  was  Ziba  with  his  sons  and  slaves 
(xix.  17).  Mephihosheth  also  went  to  meet 
the  king.  He  had  neglected  his  ])erson.  as  a 
sign  of  sorrow,  during  the  king's  absence. 
and  now  he  declare<l  that  he  had  ordered 
his  ass  to  be  saddled  in  order  to  accompany 
David  on  his  (light:  but  Ziba  had  disobeyed 
his  orders  and  had  also  slandered  him  to  the 
king,  and  he  asked  David  to  do  what  seemed 
right.  David  rejilied  somewhat  crustily,  and 
ordered  half  of  the  estates  to  be  restored  to 
Mel>liiboslieth.  and  the  re.st  left  in  the  pos- 
session of  Ziba  (24-30). 

Zib'e-on  [dyed  or,  perhajis,  seizing  prey]. 

A  Hivite  ((Jen.  xxxvi.  2  ;  if  the  text  should 
not  be  amended  to  Ilorite),  who  ]ierha]is 
migrated  with  his  family  to  mount  Seir  and 
becaiTie  a  llorite  tribe  (20,  24),  organized 
under  a  chief  (2Ji).  He  was  ancestor  of  a 
wife  of  E.sau  (2.  2.")). 

Zib'i-a  [a  female  gazelle]. 

.\  Henjamite,  son  of  Shahaniim  and  head 
of  a  fathi  r's  house  (1  Chron.  viii.  !M. 

Zib'i-ab  [a  female  gazelle]. 

.V  woman  of  Heer-sheba.  wife  of  .\haziah, 
and  mother  of  .lehoash,  king  of  .ludah  (2 
Kin.   xii.   1). 

Zlcb'ii  [mindful,  famous]. 

1.  .\  I.evite,  family  of  Kohatli.  house  of 
Izhar  I  Kx.  vi.  21).  Zithri  in  this  verse  in 
many  editions  of  the  A.  V.  is  a  modern  mis- 
[(rint. 

2.  .\  Henjamite,  son  of  Shimei  1  Chron. 
viii.  19). 


3.  A  Benjamite,  son  of  ShasLak  (1  Chron, 
viii.  23). 

4.  A  Benjamite,  son  of  Jeroham  (1  Chron. 
viii.  27). 

5.  A  Levite,  son  of  Asajdi  (1  Chron.  ix.  1,")). 
In  all  probability  he  is  the  person  called 
Zaccur,  a  synonymous  name,  in  xxv.  2,  10  ; 
Neh.  xii.  3.");  and  also  the  jterson  called 
Zabdi  in  xi.  17,  in  the  latter  instance  the 
letters  k,  anglicized  eh,  and  r  having  been 
misread  as  b  and  d  ;  see  Hktu,   Daleth. 

U.  A  Levite,  descended  from  Mo.se.s'  son, 
Eliezer  il  Chron.  xxvi.  2.")). 

7.  A  lieubenite  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  Itj'. 

8.  A  man  of  Judah.and  father  of  Amasiah, 
a  captain  in  the  army  of  Jehoshajdiat  (2 
Chron.  xvii.  l(i),  and  (lUite  po.ssil)l_T  of 
Elishaphat  who  aided  .Fehoiada  in  overthrow- 
ing Athaliah  (2  Chron.  xxiii.  1). 

9.  A  valiant  E])hraimite  in  I'ekah's  army, 
who  slew  Maaseiab,  a  royal  prince,  and  two 
of  .\liaz'  chief  otiicers  i2  Chron.  xxviii.  7). 

10.  A  Benjamite  (Neh.  xi.  9). 

11.  A  jiriest,  head  of  the  father's  house  of 
Abijah.  He  lived  in  the  days  of  the  high 
priest  Joiakim  (Neh.  xii.  17). 

Zid'dlm  [sides]. 

A  fenced  cit.v  of  Najditali  i.Io.sh.  xix.  3.^). 
The  Talmud  calls  the  iplace  Kefar  Chittai, 
which  has  led  to  locating  it  at  Hattin,  about 
oi  miles  west  by  north  of  Tiberias,  and  less 
than  a  mile  north  of  the  celebrated  Horns 
of  Hattin. 

Zid-ki'jab.     See  Zki)EKI.\h. 

Zi'don.    Sec  Siuon. 

Zif.     See  Ziv. 

Zi'ba  [sunniness.  drought]. 

Founder  or  possibly  only  the  head  of  a 
family  of  Nethinim.  members  of  which  re- 
turned from  the  caiitivily  (Ezra  ii.  43  :  Neh. 
vii.  4(i).  If  he  was  idi'utical  with  Ziha,  an 
overseer  of  the  Nethinim,  who  is  named  in 
Neh.  xi.  21.  the  family  was  of  recent  origin 
among  the  Nethinim,  and  small,  or  else  it 
was  an  older  familv  named  from  its  ])resent 
chief. 

Zik'lag. 

A  city  in  the  extreme  south  of  .ludah 
(Josh.  XV.  31),  a.ssigned  to  the  .Simeonites 
(xix.  5;  1  Chron.  iv.  .'{Oi.  In  the  time  of 
Saul  it  -was  in  the  hands  of  the  I'hilistines, 
and  at  one  time  David  held  it  as  the  va.ssal 
of  their  king,  .\chish  (1  Sam.  xxvii.  (> :  1 
Chron.  xii.  1-22).  It  was  captureil.  plun- 
dered, and  burnt  by  the  .Amalekites.  but 
David  jiursued  them,  recovered  the  sjioil, 
and  sent  portions  of  it  to  many  otlier  towns 
(1  Sam.  XXX.  1  .".I  :  2  .Sam.  i.  1  ;"  iv.  10).  The 
connection  of  David  with  Ziklag  detache<l 
it  j)ermanently  from  the  I'hilistines.  and 
jdaceil  it  under  the  kings  of  Judah  (I  .S;im. 
xxvii.  (i).  It  was  inhabited  after  the  captivity 
(Neh.  xi.  2.'').  Not  identified  ;  unless  its  site 
is  Znheilikah.  a  ruin  discovered  by  fonder 
11  miles  east-southeast  of  Gaza.     Ideutifica- 


ZUlah 


800 


Zipii 


tion  with  'Ashij,  32  miles  south  of  Gaza,  has 
n()thiii<;  in  its  favor. 

ZU'lah  [:i  shadow]. 

Oik-  of  Laiiii'ch's  wives,  and  the  mother  of 
TulKll-taiil  ((Jen.  iv.  li),  -'-J,  ~'3). 

ZU'le-thai,  in  A.  V.  Zilthai. 

1.  .\  Hcnjainite,  son  of  Shinici  (1  Cliron. 
viii.  •-'()). 

2.  A  Mauassite,  captJiin  of  a  thousand 
men,  who  joined  David  at  Zikhig  (1  Chrou. 
\ii.  -JO). 

Zil'pali  [<1  Topping,  a  drop]. 

A  inaiilservant,  given  by  Laban  to  Leah 
on  her  marriage  with  Jacob  ((ion.  xxix.  24). 
At  I-eah's  retiuest,  she  became  his  secondary- 
wife,  and  l)ore  to  liim  (lad  and  Asher  (xxx. 
St-l.J). 

Zll'thai.     See  Zii.lktiiai. 

Zim'mah  [coiinscl,  device]. 

A  (ierslionite  Lcvite.  son  of  Shimei,  and 
grandson  of  .laiiath  (1  t'iiron.  vi.  20,  42,  43; 
and  ]ierliai)s  2  Chron.  xxi.K.  12). 

Zim'ran  [probalily  connected  with  the 
name  for  antelope]. 

A  son  or  rather  trilie  descended  from 
Abraham  and  Keturali  (({en.  xxv.  2;  1 
C'liron.  i.  .'52).  An  eclio  of  the  name  has  been 
surmised  either  in  Zabram,  a  town  west  of 
Mecca,  on  the  Red  Sea  (Ptol.  vi.  7,  5),  or  in 
Zamareni,  an  Arabian  tribe  (Plinj',  Hist. 
Nat.  vi.  32,  5). 

Zlm'ri  [pertaining  to  an  antelope]. 

1.  Son  of  Zerali,  and  grandson  of  Judah  (1 
Chron.  ii.  (5) ;  called  in  Josh.  vii.  1,  17,  18 
Zabdi  (q.  v.). 

2.  A  prince  of  the  tribe  of  Simeon.  He  was 
slain  at  Shittim  for  participating  with  the 
Midianites  in  licentious  idolatry  (N^um.  xxv. 
14  ;  1  Mac.  ii.  2(5,  in  A.  V.  Zambri). 

3.  A  Benjamite,  a  descendant  of  Jonathan, 
Saul's  son  (1  Chron.  viii.  .3(J;  ix.  42). 

4.  A  military  officer  who  commanded  half 
the  chariots  of  Elah,  king  of  Israel,  whom 
he  assassinated,  fulfilling  the  denuuciatiou 
against  Baasha's  house  by  extirpating  it. 
Then  he  setup  for  himself  iis  king  in  Tirzah. 
Israel  at  once  proclaimed  Omri,  the  comman- 
der-in-chief, king.  He  marched  against  the 
usurper,  and  captured  hi.s  capital,  Tirzah. 
When  Zimri  saw  that  the  city  was  taken  he 
set  the  place  <m  fire  and  perished  in  the 
flames.  His  reign,  which  lasted  only  a  week, 
fell  within  the  year  885  B.  c.  (1  Kin.  xvi. 
8-20).  It  has  been  suggested  that  he  may 
have  been  Saul's  descendant  (1  Chron.  viii. 
36),  seeking  to  regain  the  throne. 

5.  A  peo|)le  (Jer.  xxv.  25),  not  otherwise 
known.  They  may  have  been  descended 
from  Zimran,  but  there  is  no  certainty  in 
the  case. 

Zin  [dwarf  palm]. 

.\  wilderness  traversed  by  the  Israelites  on 
their  way  to  Canaan.  It  was  close  to  the  south- 
ern l)oMndary  of  that  land  (Num.  xiii.  21). 
Kadesh-barnea  was  within  its  limits  (xx.  1 ; 


xxvii.  14 ;  xxxiii.  36 ;  Deut.  xxxii.  51).  It  con- 
stituted the  limit  of  Edom  on  the  west  and 
of  Judah  on  the  southeast  (Josh.  xv.  1-3). 
It  was  either  a  part  of  the  wilderness  of 
Paran  or  marched  on  that  wilderness  at 
Kadesh.  It  is  not  the  same  place  as  the 
wilderness  of  Sin,  the  Hebrew  words  for  the 
two  being  quite  different. 

Zi'na.     See  Zizah. 

Zl'ou ;  in  Maccabees  Sion,  and  so  in  A.  V. 
of  N.  T.  always,  and  in  O.  T.  once  (Ps.  Ixv.  1) 
[a  dry,  sunny  place  or  a  mound  or  even  a 
defense]. 

1.  One  of  the  hills  on  which  Jerusalem 
stood.  It  is  first  mentioned  in  the  O.  T.  as 
the  seat  of  a  Jebusite  fortress.  David  cap- 
tui-ed  this  stronghold  and  changed  its  name 
to  the  city  of  David  (2  Sam.  v.  7 ;  1  Chron. 
xi.  5).  Hither  he  brought  the  ark,  and  the 
hill  from  that  time  forth  became  sacred  (2 
Sam,  vi.  10-12).  The  ark  was  afterwards  re- 
moved by  Solomon  to  the  temple  which  he 
erected  on  mount  Moriah  (1  Kin.  viii.  1:  2 
Chrou.  iii.  1 ;  v.  2).  From  the  last  two  of 
these  passages  it  is  plain  that  Zion  and 
Moriah  were  distinct  eminences.  For  the 
question  which  hill  was  known  as  Zion  see 
Jerusalem,  paragraph  on  tojiography. 

2.  After  the  building  of  the  temple  on 
mount  Moriah  and  the  transfer  of  the  ark  to 
it,  the  name  Zion  was  extended  to  compre- 
hend the  temple  (Is.  viii.  18;  xviii.  7  ;  xxiv. 
23;  Joel  iii.  17;  Mic.  iv.  7).  This  accounts 
for  the  fact  that  while  Zion  is  mentioned 
between  one  hundred  and  two  hundred  times 
in  the  O.  T.,  mount  Moriah  is  named  only 
once  (2  Chron.  iii.  1),  or  at  most  twice  (Geii. 
xxii.  2). 

3.  Zion  is  often  used  for  the  whole  of  Jeru- 
salem (2  Kin.  xix.  21 ;  Ps.  xlviii. ;  Ixix.  35; 
cxxxiii.  3  ;  Is.  i.  8  ;  iii.  16  ;  iv.  3  ;  x.  24 ;  Iii.  1 ; 
Ix.  14). 

4.  In  the  Maccabjean  period  the  hill  on 
which  the  temple  stood,  as  distinct  from  the 
city  of  David  (1  Mac.  vii.  32,  33). 

.5.  The  Jewish  church  and  polity  (Ps. 
cxxvi.  1  :  cxxix.  5 ;  Is.  xxxiii.  14  ;  xxxiv.  8  : 
xlix.  14;  Hi.  8). 

6.  Heaven  (Heh.  xii.  22 ;  cp.  Eev.  xiv.  1). 

Zi'or  [smallness]. 

A  town  in  the  hill  country  of  Judah,  near 
Hebron  (Josh.  xv.  54).  Robinson  suggested 
Sia'ir,  4^  miles  north-northeast  of  Hebron. 

Ziph. 

1.  A  town  in  the  extreme  south  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  24).     Site  unknown. 

2.  A  town  in  the  hill  country  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  55),  near  .a  wilderness  (1  Sam. 
xxiii.  14).  It  was  fortified  by  Kehoboam  (2 
Chron.  xi.  8).  Robinson  identified  it  with 
Zif,  a  ruin  on  a  low  ridge  between  two  small 
valleys,  4  miles  south  by  east  of  Hebron. 
The  wilderness  is  east  of  the  town,  and 
Tristram  says  that  it  is  very  hilly,  with 
narrow  valleys  of  rich  loam.     The  wood  ex- 


Ziphah 


8U1 


Zoar 


istcd  as  late  as  the  time  of  the  Crusaders, 
but  only  a  few  straggling  trees  now  remain. 

;5.  A  man  of  Judali,  house  of  Jehallclel  (1 
C'liron.  iv.  Ifi). 

Zi'phah. 

A  man  of  Judah,  house  of  Jahallelel  (1 
Chron.  iv.   1(»). 

Ziph'ims.     See  Zii'HITK. 

Zipb'i-on.     See  Zki'Hon. 

Ziph'ites,  in  A.  \'.  unee  ZipMms  (I's.  liv. 
title). 

Natives  or  inhahitant.s  of  Ziph  2  (1  Sam. 
xxiii.  19;  xxvi.  1;  I's.  liv.  title). 

Ziph'ron  [fragrance]. 

A  jilaee  on  tiie  uortliern  boundary  Hue  of 
the  jirouiised  laud  (Num.  xx.xiv.  9j.  Not 
idi'Ulilied. 

Zip'por  [a  small  hird,  a  sparrowj. 

Father  of  Balak,  king  of  Moab  (Num. 
xxii.  4,  10). 

Zip'po-rah  [a  small  bird,  a  sparrow]. 

A  (hiiigliter  of  .letiiro.  jjriest  of  Midian. 
She  ijecame  the  wife  of  Mo.si'S  (Kxt)d.  ii.  21, 
22).  She  evidently  opiiosed  the  eircumeision 
of  their  second  son  ;  ))Ut  when  the  family 
was  journeying  to  Egyi)t  and  her  husband's 
life  was  in  danger  on  account  of  that  breach 
of  the  covenant,  she  acquiesced  {Ex.  iv.  18- 
2(i)  ;  see  Mosjcs.  She  may  have  returned 
with  her  .sons  to  lur  fatlier  at  this  time  ;  but 
rpiite  prol)al)ly  they  accomjianied  Moses  to 
Egyi>t,  and  after  the  exodus,  when  the  host 
of  Israel  was  slowly  a|ii>r(iacliing  mount  Sinai, 
were  sent  forward  to  visit  .Iitliro  and  in- 
form him  of  all  that  (iod  liad  done  for  l\Ioses 
and  for  tlie  Israelites,  iiow  that  the  Lord  had 
bronglit  Israel  out  of  l^gyjit  (Ex.  xviii.  1). 
Jetbro  returned  witii  tbini  to  the  cani]i  at 
Kephidim  (2-(J). 

Zith'ri.     See  Sniini  and  Zicuki  1. 

Ziv,  in   A.  V.  Zif  [s])]endor  (of  flowers  in 

bl Ml]. 

Tiie  second  month  of  the  .Jewish  year  (1 
Kin.  vi.  1,  37),  aiiproximately  May.  Later  it 
was  commonly  eallcd  lyar.     See  Ye.\r. 

Zlz  [brightness.  l)Urnished  plate,  flower]. 

A  elirt'  or  ascent  by  wiii<-h  the  Moal)ites 
and  Ammonites  ascended  from  Kn-gedi 
toward  the  wilderness  of  Jeruel  and  Tekoa 
(2  Ciiron.  XX.  IC;  c]).  2,  2<>).  Kobinson  !»■- 
lieves  it  lo  be  the  j^ass  up  from  I'ji-gcdi  ; 
Tristram  and  Conder  the  table-lan<l  west  of 
l^n-gcdi.  to  wiiicli  the  i)ass  leails  up,  and  by 
which  it  is  commanded. 

Zl'za  fipjenty.  fertility]. 

1.  A  Sinu'onite,  descended  from  Shemaiah 
(1  Chron.  iv.  .'!?). 

2.  A  son  of  K'chohoam,  by  his  queen  ^laaeah 
(2  Chn>n.  xi.  20). 

Zl'iah  [i>l<nfy.  fertility]. 

A    Lf\ite,    family    of   (Jcrshom,    Inmse   of 
.Shimci    il   Clndn.    xxiii,  lli.     In  ver.  10  the 
uuuie  is  mistran.scribed  Zina. 
51 


Zo'an   [Egyptian    T'a,   early  changed   to 

T'ln,]. 

An  Egyptian  city  of  the  eastern  part  of 
the  delta'  on  the  Tanitic  branch  of  the  Nile, 
near  the  iJlst  degree  of  north  latitude.  It 
was  built  seven  years  later  than  Hebron, 
which  was  in  existence  in  Abraham's  life- 
time (Num.  xiii.  22).  Zoan  existed  at  least 
as  early  as  Kanieri  Tejii  of  the  sixth  dynasty, 
whose  ])yramid  remains.  The  earliest  kings 
of  the  twelfth  dynasty  made  it  their  capital 
in  order  to  check  invasions  from  the  east. 
The  shepherd  kings  f<irti(icd  it  and  I'etained 
it  as  the  cai)ital.  After  their  exjiulsion  the 
city  was  neglected  for  several  centuries;  but 
it  was  again  raised  to  importance  by  Iviimses 
II.  ami  other  kings  of  the  nineteenth 
dynasty,  who  erected  buildings  and  fre- 
(juently  held  court  there.  The  new  town 
which  thus  grew  up  adjacent  to  the  ancient 
fortress  was  called  Pa-Kamses,  that  is  the  city 
of  Kamses.  Zoan  was  the  place  of  meeting 
between  Moses  and  Pharaoh  iPs.  Ixxviii.  12, 
43).  It  was  still  an  imjiortant  city  in  the 
time  of  Lsaiah  and  also  of  Ezekiel  (Is.  xix. 
11,  13;  cji.  XXX.  4  ;  E/.ek.  xxx.  14).  Uetween 
the  days  of  Isaiah  and  Ezekiel,  it  was  cap- 
tured by  the  Assyrians.  The  city  was  known 
to  the  Greeks  as  Tanis.  It  has  lingered  on 
to  modern  times,  and  is  now  called  San. 
The  site  has  been  explored  under  the  aus- 
pices of  the  Egyjitian  Exi>loration  Fund. 
The  remains  consist  (d'  a  temi)le  surrounded 
by  a  great  ring  of  mounds.  A  colossal  statue 
of  Kamses  II.  was  exhumed. 

Zo'ar  [littleness,  smallness  ((ien.  xix.  20, 
22)]. 

One  of  the  cities  of  the  plain,  and  apjiar- 
ently  the  smallest  of  the  five  ((ien.  xix.  20, 
22).  The  jilain  was  visible  from  mount  Nebo 
as  far  as  Zoar  (Dent,  xxxiv.  3).  Its  original 
name  was  Bela.  and  it  had  a  king,  one  of 
those  defeated  by  Chedorlaomer  ((ten.  xiii. 
10:  xiv.  2,  S).  When  thieatetU'd  judgment 
was  about  to  descend  on  the  guilty  cities.  Lot 
successfully  interceded  for  Zoar,  and  fled 
thither  from  the  catastroi)he  (xix.  20-23).  A 
mountain  (or  at  least  high  land)  rose  imme- 
diately behind  it.  with  a  cavern,  in  which 
Lot  and  his  two  daughters  dwelt  fur  a  time 
(.30).  Zoar  still  existed  in  the  days  of  Isaiah 
and  in  those  of  Jeremiah,  and,  fmui  their 
mentioning  it  in  connection  with  Moab,  it 
may  be  i>resumed  that  it  was  on  the  Mnabile 
or  eastern  side  of  the  Head  Sea  lis.  xv.  .'i; 
Jer.  xlviii.  31 :  eii.  also  (Jen,  xix.  3Ti.  In  the 
Maccabn-an  jieriod  it  belonged  to  an  Anibian 
kingdom  of  which  Petra  was  the  ca]iital 
(Antiq.  xiii.  1."..  4  :  xiv.  1.  4).  It  st..od  at 
the  southern  end  <if  the  Dead  Sea  (War  iv, 
8.  4).  In  the  Miildle  .\ges  it  was  an  iuijior- 
tant  jioint  on  the  road  fmm  Elath  to  Jerusa- 
lem, three  days'  journey  fmni  the  latter  city 
via  Hebron.  These  data  inilicate  that  the 
site  was  not  on  a  si>ur  of  mount  Nebo 
(Tri-.tr:mii  nur  evi-ii  on  the  Li-^an.  the  iieriin- 


Zobah 


802 


Zuzim 


siilii  whiili  iinijects  into  the  sotithem  waters 
of  the  Ikiul  S(';i  (  Kiil)iiis(iii ).  Tlicy  :ire  satis- 
lifil  I'.v  Hssuiiiin;,'  tliiit  Z(iar  was  situated  near 
where  the  wady  el-'Ahsy  opens  through  tlie 
Moahite  mountains  into  the  ]ihxin,  ahout  2 
niih-s  from  the  southern  end  of  the  sea 
(WVtzstein). 

Zo'bah.  in  A.  V.  and  Hebrew  text  twice 
Zoba   -J  Sam.  x.  (>,  8) ;  see  Aram  2  (3). 

Zo-be'bah  [gentle  movement]. 

Son  of  Hakkos,  a  man  of  Judah  (1  Chrou. 
iv.  8). 

Zo'har  [hrightnes.s,  whiteness]. 

1.  I'atiier  of  Ephron  the  Hittitc  (Gen. 
xxiii.  SI. 

2.  Son  of  Simeon  (Gen.  xlvi.  10).  Called 
also  Zerah  (Num.  xxvi.  13)  ;  see  Zerah. 

3.  A  man  of  Judah  (1  Chron.  iv.  7,  E.  V. 
margin) ;  see  Izhar. 

Zo'be-letli  [a  serpent  or  other  creeper]. 

A  stduc  luside  Kn-rogel  (1  Kin.  i.  9).  Xot 
identified.  Clermont-Ganueau  pointed  out 
that  the  ledge  of  rock.s,  on  which  the  village 
of  Silwan  stands,  is  called  by  the  Arabs  Zeh- 
wele  or  Zahweileh,  which  is  like  an  altered 
form  of  Zoheleth.  But  the  Arabic  and  He- 
brew words  have  no  real  affinity,  it  is  ques- 
tionable whether  the  term  stone  would  have 
been  applied  to  a  cliff,  and  the  distance  of 
the  ledge  from  En-rogel  seems  too  great. 

Zo'hetb. 

A  son  of  Ishi,  registered  with  the  tribe  of 
Judah  (1  Chron.  iv.  20). 

Zo'pbah  [expanse,  a  flask]. 

An  Asherite,  son  of  Helem  (1  Chron.  vii. 
35,  36). 

Zo'phai.     See  Zuph. 

Zo'phar  [chirper]. 

A  Xaamathite,  one  of  Job's  friends  (Job  ii. 
11;  xi.  1  ;  XX.  1;  xlii.  9). 

Zo'phim  [watchers]. 

A  tiild  on  the  top  of  Pisgah,  from  which 
Balaam  could  see  a  part  of  the  encampment 
of  the  Israelites  at  Shittim  (Num.  xxiii.  14). 
Conder  i)laces  it  at  Tal'at  es-Safa,  in  the 
valley  separating  the  southeastern  point  of 
Pisgah  from  Luhith. 

Zo'rah,  in  .\.  V.  once  Zoreah  (Josh.  xv. 
.33),  once  Zareah  (Neb.  xi.  29)  [perhaps, 
Stroke  or  scourge]. 

A  town  in  the  lowland  of  Judah  (Josh.  xv. 
33),  inhabited  by  the  Danites  (xix.  41). 
Manf>ah,  Samson's  father,  belonged  to  the 
jilace  (Judg.  xiii.  2),  and  Samson  was  buried 
near  the  town  (xvi.  31).     Some  of  the  five 


Danite  spies  and  of  the  warriors  who  subse- 
quently took  Laish  were  from  Zorah  (xviii. 
2,  8,  11).  The  town  was  fortified  by  Keho- 
boam  (2  Chron.  xi.  10).  It  was  inhabited 
after  the  captivity  (Neh.  xi,  29).  Its  site  is 
doubtless  Sur'ah,  on  the  north  side  of  the 
valley  of  Sorek,  2  miles  west-southwest  of 
Eshtaol. 

Zo'ratb-ite,  in  A.  V.  once  Zareatbite  (1 
Chron.  ii.  53). 

A  native  or  inhabitant  of  Zorah  (1  Chron. 
ii.  53  ;  iv.  2). 

Zo're-ah.     See  Zorah. 

Zo'rite. 

Kitlier  the  same  as  Zoratliite,  or  a  citizen 
of  .some  unknown  place  (1  Chron.  ii.  54). 

Zo-rob'a-bel.     See  Zerubbabel. 

Zu'ar  [smalluess]. 

Father  of  that  Nethaneel  who  was  prince 
of  the  tribe  of  Issachar  in  the  wilderness 
(Num.  1.  8 ;  ii.  5 ;  vii.  18,  23  ;  x.  15). 

Zupll  [honeycomb]. 

1.  A  Levite,  descended  from  Kohath,  and 
an  ancestor  of  the  prophet  Samuel  (1  Chron. 
vi.  35).  A  variant  form,  of  similar  meaning, 
is  Zophai  (26). 

2.  A  district  beyond  the  borders  of  Benja- 
min and  apparently  lying  to  the  south  of 
the  territory  of  that  tribe  (1  Sam.  ix.  4-6  ; 
X.  2).  It  may  have  received  its  name  from 
the  settlement  of  the  family  of  Zuph  there. 
See  further  in  connection  with  Ramah  2. 

Zur  [a  rock]. 

1.  A  king  of  Midian,  ally  or  vassal  of 
Sihon,  and  the  father  of  the  woman  Cozbi 
(Num.  XXV.  15).  He  was  killed  in  the  war 
of  extermination  waged  by  Moses  against 
the  M-idianites  for  their  seduction  of  the  Is- 
raelites to  licentious  idolatry  (Num.  xxv.  15, 
18;  xxxi.  8;  Josh.  xiii.  21). 

2.  A  Benjamite,  sonof  Jeiel  (1  Chron.  viii. 
30). 

Zu'ri-el  [God  is  a  rock]. 
A   Levite,  chief  of  the  Merarites  in   the 
wilderness  (Num.  iii.  .35,  E.  V.). 

Zu-ri-shad'dai  [the  Almighty  is  a  rock]. 

Father  of  the  prince  of  the  Simeonites  in 
the  wilderness  (Num.  i.  6 ;  ii.  12  ;  vii.  36,  41 ; 
X.  19). 

Zu'zim.  in  A.  V.  Zuzims. 

A  tribe  occupying  a  district  called  Ham, 
east  of  the  Jordan,  conquered  by  Chedorla- 
omer  iGen.  xiv.  5).  Apparently  the  same  as 
Zamzummim. 


LIST    OF    MAPS. 

The  Assyrian  and  Babylonian  Powers Map  I 

Lands  of  tbe  Sojourn  and  Waiidi'iinir "  II 

Palestine  as  divided  among  the  Twelve  Tribes "  III 

The  Donuriioiis  of  David  and  Solomon, "  IV 

The  Kingdoms  of  Jiidaii  and  Israel "  V 

Palestine  in  tiie  Time  of  Christ "  VI 

Hill  Country  of  Eastern  Jiidua  and  Benjannn "  VII 

Lower  Galilee  and  Esdraelon "  VIII 

The  Sheplielali  or  Low  Country "  IX 

Palestine  and  Adjacent  Countries, "  X 

The  World  as  Known  in  tiie  Apostolic  Age,        "  XI 

St.  Paul's  First  and  Second  Journeys "  XII 

St.  Paul's  Third  Journey  and  Journey  to  Rome, "  XIII 


Map  I 


Map  II 


LANDS 

Ol"  t  li  e 

SOJOURN 

U  11  cl 

h      WANDERIXG. 


>CALE  OF   HILeS 


-Map   III 


84'ao° 

PALESTINE 

as  divided  anion);  the 

Twelve  Tribes. 

SOALe  OF  Milts. 

l  10  n  30  36 

•  Bouiiilarr  Towns. 
'•  Iiit.Ticir  'I'l.wiis. 

•  Cltli'M  uf  Kcfuicc. 
Itc-rLTcncc  to  Coluriiiic, 

Showing  Gluvatiuoa  aud  Dcprcasiuii'^. 
Below  Sen  Level 

3ca  Level  lo  500  n.  alMVC 

I  ft.  10  1.000  ft.  aborc 

1,000  ft.  to  2 OTOK.  •• 

^,000  ft.  to  3,000  n.  " 

^,000  ft.  to  5,000  ft.   •• 

Mwvc  5,000  ft. 


..PO«TE»,  EWOR.,  H.Y. 


=    HOLYI.AXD 

^  Eieklel  47 

.?'^'*  ENGLISH  STftT.  MILES 
0     m  20  30  4(1  »0  00 


Map  V 


31°30' 


THE  KIXGDOMS 

JLDAH  AND  ISRAEL 

ENOLIBH  MILES 


,  •'    KtdfJhV 
„  ., ,  ,  Chtli-hipher'-  t*     ' 


JoplMl, 


ahur  f 
a  a  c  a-1 


Ashtftrotb 
SOLAN, 


yahr  hkanUerunth 


yahr  el  falUii^     ~ 


Ikilifjli 
^nj!*;""  MI.>GillJfraV,"'   '^'rf 


5|Mii|>cb'f     sS"""-- 


Jabesb-gllead 


N)-.M.il.j>njln 


iH  a\u  ran 


N"^- ."ttMI.  Ebil*VT 


RAMOTH-aiLEADr 
Lo-dobir),|    ( 


*""l'??,y#" 


TiT;ii.wi,.i..Tt»?  "\tt!^ 


\ltclh-baraMjJj''P^  **  ^ 


!«i.lOl\  Il^ar-abual?   llilcaV  Slnih.^1  -*  I  **"  l 

^Zlkl«ci'''  noniiah?/       .ju„.h 


/ 


i 


.  %|B 


U. 


r 


,ar-A>bu(       '  A'.i.u'n.oa    >laun«   ^  k]  el"    /      ^^     € 

~  .    /Z         Oib.marcahdtb         J  ^  ^\  I3  «:  (  -f^i 


Brlh-dlblalbalm?        j 
Kltlalhaiin  j 

^-— .^i/Bctb^mul      y 


Rrlerrnrp  (o  Trihek. 


1  ASHER 

2  BENJAMIN 

3  DAN 

4  EPHRAIM 

5  QAO 

6  IS8ACHAR 


7  JUOAH 

8  MANASSEH 

9  NAPHTALI 

10  REUBEN 

11  SIMEON 

12  ZEBULUN 


L?^S^ 


L.L.PO*Tf »,  CNOn., 


34°  30  ■ 


iMa].   VI 

.14  y ^^^ 

^r      PALESTINE 

ill    llie 

Time  of  Christ. 

SC«LC  or  MILES. 


Jlefert'iii'i-  t«  Coloring, 

Showing  Elcvnti(in«  and  Dcprcssiuus 

^.rJ Below  Sea  Level  Aclizil 

i        tsea  Level  lo  .500  ft.  abovt 

y        [.•>00  ft.  lo  1,000  ft.  above 

1(         t  1,000  fl.lo'J.OlK)  II.     ■ 

,^__.  Carmel^rf' 

f      1:^00  fi.  to  a.ooo  n.  pt 


F    lls.ooo  ft.  to  .^.ooo  t 

yi.^ Above  .1.000  ft. 


Map  vn 


Hill  Country  of 

Eastern  Judali 

aiKl  Eeiijaiiiiii. 


Map  VIU 


Map  IX 


Map  X 


l^opyriyht,  iSiK,by  Trustees  of  the  Preabuterian  Hoard  of  Publication  and  Sabbath  School  H'ork 


Map  XI 


Mi.l.  XII 


Map  XIII 


K 


